Welcome to

Wave optics
Does Light always exhibit
Rectilinear Propagation?
 Huygens’ Principle

Explanation for bending of light

Wave theory of light

Christiaan Huygens
Huygens

Wave theory of light

Wavefront
 Wavefront

 All points on a particular circle will oscillate with

the same phase.

 Wavefront is the locus of all points at which the

wave disturbance is in the same phase.

 Point source creates wave traveling in all

directions according to equation.
𝑦 = 𝐴sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑘𝑥)
 Points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 have same phase 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑘𝑥1 .

 In 3𝐷, for a point source, the wavefronts are

spherically symmetric.
 Direction of Propagation of Light

Spherical Wavefront

The direction of propagation of light wave is perpendicular to the

wavefront at any given point.
 Properties of Wavefront

 Time taken by each ray to propagate from

one wavefront to the next wavefront in any
medium remains same.
𝑐
 Refractive index, 𝑛 =
𝑣
𝑛1 𝑣2
When medium changes, =
𝑛2 𝑣1
⟹ Speed of light changes.
𝜆
 Hence, distance covered by the light in
each time interval also changes.

 Distance between two consecutive

wavefronts = 𝜆.
Spherical Wavefront

 Spherical wavefront is observed for a point

source.
• Direction of propagation of light: Radially
outward and perpendicular to the wavefront
at any given point.
Planar Wavefront

• Planar wavefronts are observed when the

source is at infinity.
• Direction of propagation of light:
Perpendicular to the plane.
Cylindrical Wavefront

• Cylindrical wavefront is observed for a line

source.
• Direction of propagation of light: Radially
outward and perpendicular to the
wavefront at any given point.
 If the distance between the wavefronts in the medium with refractive
S index 𝑛2 is 𝑑2 , then what will be the distance 𝑑1 between the wavefronts
in the medium with refractive index 𝑛1 ?

We known that,
𝑐 𝑛2 𝑣
𝑛= ⇒ ൗ𝑛1 = 1ൗ𝑣2
𝑣

𝜆 = 𝑣ൗ𝑓 𝜆1 𝑣 𝑛
⇒ ൗ𝜆 = 1ൗ𝑣2 = 2ൗ𝑛1
2

Here, 𝜆1 = 𝑑1 , and 𝜆2 = 𝑑2
Hence,
𝑑1 𝑛2
=
𝑑2 𝑛1

𝑛2
⇒ 𝑑1 = 𝑑2
𝑛1
 Huygens’ Principle

Primary  Every point on the wavefront acts as a

Wavefront point source called secondary wave
source and generates secondary
wavelets.
 The common tangent to the secondary
wavelets in the forward direction gives
Primary the secondary wavefront.
Source
 Intensity is maximum in forward direction
and zero in backward direction.

Secondary Secondary
Wavelets Wavefront
 Shape of Wavefront

Object at infinity for a convex lens Object at infinity for a concave lens
 Shape of Wavefront

Object at infinity for a concave mirror Object at infinity for a prism

 Huygens’ Principle - Law of Reflection

Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface

Secondary Reflected Incident

Wavelet Wavefront 𝐶𝐷 Wavefront 𝐴𝐵
From 𝐴 at time = 𝑡 at 𝑡 = 0

𝐷 𝐵

𝐵𝐶 = 𝑣𝑡
𝑖 𝐷𝐴 = 𝑣𝑡

𝐴 𝐶
𝑡
𝑡=0 Reflecting plane surface
 Huygens’ Principle - Law of Reflection
Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface

𝐷 𝐵

𝑟 𝑖
𝐴 𝐶 𝐴 𝐶

From ∆𝐴𝐷𝐶 and ∆𝐶𝐵𝐴:

∠𝐴𝐷𝐶 = ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 90° 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑣𝑡 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶

 Angle of incidence is the angle between the
incident wavefront and the reflecting surface. ∴ ∆𝐴𝐷𝐶 ≅ ∆𝐶𝐵𝐴 [𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 Congruency]

∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 𝑖 → Angle of incidence ⟹ ∠𝑖 = ∠𝑟

 Angle of reflection is the angle between the

reflected wavefront and the reflecting surface.

∠𝐷𝐶𝐴 = 𝑟 → Angle of reflection

 Huygens’ Principle - Law of Refraction

Incident 𝑛1 < 𝑛2
Medium 𝑛1 Wavefront 𝐴𝐵
at 𝑡 = 0 𝐵
From ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶: From ∆𝐴𝐷𝐶:
𝑖 𝑣1𝑡 𝐵𝐶 𝑣1 𝑡 𝐴𝐷 𝑣2 𝑡
sin 𝑖 = = sin 𝑟 = =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝑡=0 𝐴 𝑖 𝐶
𝑟
𝑣2𝑡
sin 𝑖 𝑣1 𝑛2
𝑟 𝑟 = = = Constant
sin 𝑟 𝑣2 𝑛1
𝐷
Medium 𝑛2 Secondary Refracted
Wavelet Wavefront 𝐶𝐷
From A at 𝑡 = 𝑡
 Light waves travel in vacuum, along the 𝑥 − axis. Which of the following may
represent the wavefronts?

Solution:
A 𝑥=𝑐
The direction of propagation → 𝑖Ƹ

⟹ The direction of wavefront → ⊥ 𝑡𝑜 𝑖Ƹ

B 𝑦=𝑐

In the given options, the plane ⊥ to 𝑖Ƹ

is represented by 𝑥 = 𝑐.
C 𝑧=𝑐

D 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =𝑐
 Does Light always exhibit
Rectilinear Propagation?
Hole Screen

Light behaves like a ray

(i.e., exhibits rectilinear
propagation) for:

Obstacle dimensions ≫𝜆𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Hole Screen

Light behaves like a wave for:

Obstacle dimensions ≈ 𝜆𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
 OPTICS
Study of the behavior and
properties of light

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS WAVE OPTICS

Explains refraction and reflection, Explains reflection and refraction,
but not interference, diffraction as well as interference, diffraction
and polarization and polarization
 Interference

Interference is the phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form the

resultant wave of lower, higher or same amplitude.
 Superposition Principle

“When two or more waves cross at a point, the displacement at that point is equal to the
vector sum of the displacements of individual waves”

𝑦
𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑦2
𝑦1
𝑥 𝑦Ԧ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑦Ԧ1 + 𝑦Ԧ2 + 𝑦Ԧ3 … … + 𝑦Ԧ𝑛
𝑂
 Resultant of Waves

Case 1: When two

crest meet

Case 2: When crest

and trough meet
 Phase Difference and Path Difference

● Path difference (∆𝑥): Difference in the

𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 path traversed by the two waves.
Source 𝑆1
● Phase difference (𝛿 ): Difference in
the phase angle of the two waves.

We know that,
𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
For a path difference 𝜆, phase difference = 2𝜋
𝑃
So, for path difference ∆𝑥, phase difference
2𝜋
= 𝜆 ∆𝑥.

Source 𝑆2
2𝜋
𝑦2 = 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝛿 𝛿= ∆𝑥
𝜆
Combination of Waves

𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝛿

𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝛼

𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝛿

𝐴2 sin 𝛿
tan 𝛼 =
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 cos 𝛿

If 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 𝐴

𝛿
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2𝐴 cos
2
 Constructive Interference

Interference that produces maximum possible amplitude (or maximum intensity) is

called constructive interference.

𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝛿

For maximum amplitude:

cos 𝛿 = 1 ⇒ 𝛿 = 2𝑛𝜋

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
2𝜆 3𝜆
2𝜋 𝑃
𝛿= ∆𝑥
𝜆
2𝜋
2𝑛𝜋 = × (∆𝑥)
𝜆
● Path Difference = 3𝜆 − 2𝜆 = 𝜆
Path difference = ∆𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆
Constructive Interference
 Constructive Interference

Constructive interference occurs when the crest and trough of one wave
overlaps with the crest and trough of another wave.

𝑦
𝑂
𝑥

𝑦1 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥)
+ ≡ 𝑥
𝑦

𝑂 𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥)

𝑥

𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥)
 Destructive Interference

Interference that produces minimum possible amplitude (or minimum intensity) is

called destructive interference.

𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝛿

For minimum amplitude:

cos 𝛿 = −1 ⇒ 𝛿 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴1 − 𝐴2
7.25𝜆
9.75𝜆
2𝜋
𝛿= ∆𝑥
𝜆
𝑃
2𝜋
(2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 = (∆𝑥)
𝜆
● Path Difference = 9.75𝜆 − 7.25𝜆 = 2.5𝜆
2𝑛 + 1 𝜆
Path difference = ∆𝑥 =
2 Destructive Interference
 Destructive Interference

Destructive interference is resulted when the crest of one wave overlaps

with the trough of another wave.

𝑦
𝑂
𝑥

𝑦1 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥)
+ ≡ 𝑂 𝑥
𝑦 𝑦=0

𝑂
𝑥

𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜋)
 Two-point light sources 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are separated by a distance of 4.2𝜆. If an
observer standing at the centre 𝐶 of the two sources starts moving towards
T 𝑆2 , then find the minimum distance travelled by the observer to meet the first
maxima.

Solution:

For maxima at 𝑃:

∆𝑥 = 𝜆

⇒ 𝑆1 𝑃 − 𝑆2 𝑃 = 𝜆 2.1𝜆
2.1𝜆 𝑥
⇒ (2.1𝜆 + 𝑥) − (2.1𝜆 − 𝑥) = 𝜆

⇒ 2𝑥 = 𝜆 𝑆1 𝐶 𝑃 𝑆2
∆𝑥 = 0 ∆𝑥 = 𝜆
𝑥 = 0.5𝜆
 Coherent and Incoherent Sources

Coherent Sources Incoherent Sources

● Same wavelength ● Different wavelength

● Same frequency ● Different frequency
● Constant phase difference ● Varying phase difference

Coherent Waves Incoherent Waves

Note: We will always consider coherent sources in our discussion.

 Young’s Double Slit Experiment

Particle nature of light Wave nature of light

 Young’s Double Slit Experiment

According to Huygens’ principle, the sources 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 will behave as independent sources.

● Light source must be monochromatic.

● Sources 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 must be coherent.
● Width of the slit is comparable to the
wavelength of light.
● Waves coming from sources 𝑆1 and 𝑆2
will interference and obtain different
𝐷 interference pattern on the screen.
 Young’s Double Slit Experiment

• 𝑆𝑆1 = 𝑆𝑆2 (∴ No path difference till slits.)

• ′𝑑′ is distance between slits.

𝑃
• ′𝐷′ is distance between screen and slits
𝑦 plane.

𝑑 𝑂 𝜃
𝐵
• 𝑂𝐵 is the central line.

• Consider point 𝑃 at a distance 𝑦 from

central line 𝑂𝐵.
𝐷 • ∠𝑃𝑂𝐵 = 𝜃.

• 𝑆2 𝑃 > 𝑆1 𝑃 → 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = ∆𝑥

• ∆𝑥 is the path difference.

 Young’s Double Slit Experiment

● Path difference at any general point 𝑃,

∆𝑥 = 𝑆2𝑃 − 𝑆1𝑃
𝑃
2 2
𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
∆𝑥 = 𝑦+ + 𝐷2 − 𝑦− + 𝐷2
2 2
𝜃 𝑑/2
𝑑
𝑂 𝐵
𝑑/2
Approximation 1: 𝐷 ≫ 𝑑

Approximation 2: 𝜃 is very small

𝐷 𝑦𝑑
∆𝑥 ≈
𝐷
Young’s Double Slit Experiment

∆𝑥 = 𝑆2 𝐴 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝑦𝑑
𝜃 is very small → sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 ∆𝑥 ≈
𝐷
𝑑𝑦
∆𝑥 ≈ 𝑑 tan 𝜃 =
𝐷
 Condition for Constructive Interference

● For Maxima (Constructive interference):

𝑑𝑦
∆𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆 ⇒ = 𝑛𝜆
𝐷
𝑃
Where, 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …
𝑆1 𝑦
𝑛𝜆𝐷
𝑦= 𝑑 𝑂
𝑑 𝐵
∆𝑥
𝑆2
𝑛 = 0 corresponds to the central maxima. → 𝑦 = 0
𝐷
𝜆𝐷
𝑛 = ± 1 correspond to the 1𝑠𝑡 maxima. → 𝑦 = ±
𝑑
2𝜆𝐷
𝑛 = ± 2 correspond to the 2𝑛𝑑 maxima. → 𝑦 = ±
𝑑
 Condition for Destructive Interference

● For Minima (Destructive interference):

1 𝑑𝑦 1
∆𝑥 = 𝑛 + 𝜆 ⇒ = 𝑛+ 𝜆
2 𝐷 2
𝑆1 𝑃
Where, 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … 𝑦
𝑑 𝑂
𝐵
1 𝜆𝐷 ∆𝑥
𝑦= 𝑛+ 𝑆2
2 𝑑
𝐷
𝜆𝐷
𝑛 = 0, −1 correspond to the 1𝑠𝑡 minima. → 𝑦 = ±
2𝑑

3𝜆𝐷
𝑛 = 1, −2 correspond to the 2𝑛𝑑 minima. → 𝑦=±
2𝑑
 In YDSE, white light is passed through the double slit and interference pattern
is observed on a screen 2.5 𝑚 away. The separation between the slits is 0.5 𝑚𝑚.
The first violet and red maxima are formed at distances of 2 𝑚𝑚 and 3.5 𝑚𝑚
away from the central white maxima, respectively. The wavelengths of red
and violet light, respectively, are:

Given: 𝐷 = 2.5 𝑚, 𝑑 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚, 𝑦𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 2 𝑚𝑚, 𝑦𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 3.5 𝑚𝑚

To find: 𝜆𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡 , 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑑

Solution:

Distance of first maxima from the central maxima is given by:

𝐷𝜆
𝑦=
𝑑

For violet light, 𝑦 = 2 𝑚𝑚 For red light, 𝑦 = 3.5 𝑚𝑚

2.5 × 𝜆𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡 2.5 × 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑑
⇒ 2 × 10−3 = ⇒ 3.5 × 10−3 =
0.5 × 10−3 0.5 × 10−3
2
⇒ 𝜆𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡 = × 10−6 𝑚 ⇒ 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 0.7 × 10−6 𝑚
5

𝜆𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 400 𝑛𝑚 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 700 𝑛𝑚

 Resultant Amplitude of the Wave

Electric field of the wave from 𝑆1:

𝐸1 = 𝐸01 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡

Electric field of the wave from 𝑆2:

𝐸2 = 𝐸02 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿

𝐸01 , 𝐸02 𝑜𝑟 𝐴01 , 𝐴02 → Electric Field Amplitude.

Net electric field after the interference:

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 𝐸0 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿

𝐸02 = 𝐸01
2 2
+ 𝐸02 + 2𝐸01 𝐸02 cos 𝛿

𝐸02 sin 𝛿
tan 𝜀 =
𝐸01 + 𝐸02 cos 𝛿
 Intensity of Waves

𝐼 = 2𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝜌𝑣𝐸02

𝑃
𝐸1 𝑆1
𝑦
𝐼 ∝ 𝐸02 𝐸02 = 𝐸01
2 2
+ 𝐸02 + 2𝐸01 𝐸02 cos 𝛿 𝑑 𝑂
𝐵
𝐸2 𝑆2

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝛿 𝐷
 Intensity for Identical Waves

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝛿

● For identical slits: 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼

𝑃
𝐼1 𝑆1
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 + 2 𝐼 𝐼 cos 𝛿
𝑦
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2𝐼 + 2𝐼 cos 𝛿 = 2𝐼(1 + cos 𝛿) 𝑑 𝑂
𝐵
𝛿 𝐼2 𝑆2
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2𝐼 × 2 cos 2
2

𝛿 𝐷
2
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 4𝐼 cos
2
 Intensity of Waves

● For constructive interference: (𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎)

𝐸0𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸01 + 𝐸02
● For destructive interference: (𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎)
𝐸0𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸01 − 𝐸02
2 2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐸0𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐸01 + 𝐸02
𝐼 ∝ 𝐸02 ⇒ = =
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐸0𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐸01 − 𝐸02

● When cos 𝛿 = 1, 𝛿 = 2𝑛𝜋 (𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎)

2
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 ⇒ 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

● When cos 𝛿 = −1, 𝛿 = 2𝑛 + 1 𝜋 (𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎)

2
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 ⇒ 𝐼1 − 𝐼2

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 2
, constructive interference
𝐼=
𝐼1 − 𝐼2 2
, destructive interference
 Two coherent sources produce waves of different intensities which interfere.
After interference, the ratio of the maximum intensity to the minimum
intensity is 16. The intensity of the waves are in the ratio:

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
Given: = 16
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝐼1
To find:
𝐼2
2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 16
Solution: = 16 ⇒ =
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 1

⇒ 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 4 𝐼1 − 4 𝐼2 ⇒ 3 𝐼1 = 5 𝐼2

𝐼1 5
⇒ =
𝐼2 3
2
𝐼1 5
Ratio of intensities: =
𝐼2 3

𝐼1 25
=
𝐼2 9
 Intensity Variation

𝑦
● Constructive Interference:
2nd order
𝑛𝜆𝐷
𝑦= maxima
𝑑 2𝑠𝑡 order
1𝑠𝑡 order minima
𝜆𝐷 2𝜆𝐷 3𝜆𝐷 𝐼0 maxima
𝑆1
𝑦=± ,± ,± ....... 1𝑠𝑡 order
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
Central minima
𝑑 𝑂
maxima
● Destructive Interference:
𝐼0
𝑆2
1 𝜆𝐷
𝑦= 𝑛+
2 𝑑

𝜆𝐷 3𝜆𝐷 5𝜆𝐷
𝑦=± ,± ,± .......
2𝑑 2𝑑 2𝑑
𝐷
 Intensity Variation

4𝐼0
● Intensity at any point: 𝐼=0
𝐼0 4𝐼0
𝛿 𝑆1
𝐼 = 4𝐼0 cos 2 𝐼=0
2
𝑑 𝑂 4𝐼0
𝛿 = Phase difference between 𝐼=0
𝐼0
the two waves from 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 . 𝑆2 4𝐼0

● 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝐼0 , 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0 𝐼=0

4𝐼0

𝐷
 Shape of Fringes on Screen

If we replace slits by pin holes in YDSE, then we will see a Hyperbolic Fringe pattern.

Point sources placed on the perpendicular axis to the screen create concentric circular fringes.
 Fringe Width

Fringe width is the distance between 𝝀𝑫

two consecutive maxima/minima. 𝑆1 𝒅
3𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
𝛽= − 𝑑 𝑂
2𝑑 2𝑑

𝜆𝐷 𝑆2
𝛽=
𝑑

𝐷
 Fringe Width when the setup is
inside a Medium

𝜆𝐷 If experimental setup is dipped in liquid

Fringe Width 𝛽 =
𝑑
Refractive index
𝑐
𝜇=
𝑣
𝑐 is speed of light in vacuum
𝑣 is speed of light in liquid

𝑓𝜆𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝜆𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
𝜇= ⇒ 𝜆𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 =
𝑓𝜆𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝜇

𝜆𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐷 𝜆𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝐷
Fringe Width inside liquid, 𝛽 = ⇒𝛽=
𝑑 𝜇𝑑
 Angular Fringe Width

𝛽
tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 =
𝐷 𝑃 First Maxima
𝜆𝐷
We know 𝛽 = 𝑆1 𝑦=𝛽
𝑑
𝛽 𝜃 Central Maxima
After putting 𝛽 value in 𝜃 = 𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
𝐷
𝑆2
𝜆 𝐷
𝜃=
𝑑
 Position of Maxima/Minima

● Constructive Interference:

𝑛𝜆𝐷
𝑦=
𝜇𝑑

𝜆𝐷 2𝜆𝐷 3𝜆𝐷
𝑦=± ,± ,± ....... 2𝜆𝐷
𝜇𝑑 𝜇𝑑 𝜇𝑑
𝜇𝑑

● Destructive Interference: 3𝜆𝐷

2𝜇𝑑
1 𝜆𝐷
𝑦= 𝑛+
2 𝜇𝑑

𝜆𝐷 3𝜆𝐷 5𝜆𝐷
𝑦=± ,± ,± .......
2𝜇𝑑 2𝜇𝑑 2𝜇𝑑
 Incoherent Light Sources

● In ultra slow motion, the fringes

on the screen flicker.
● However, the human eye cannot
the capture the rapidly changing
bright and dark fringes.
● So, the eyes see a continuous
band of light.
● Net Intensity on the screen is the
sum of intensity from two sources.

Incoherent Light Sources

 In a Young's double slit interference experiment, the fringe pattern is observed
on a screen placed at a distance 𝐷 from the slits. The slits are separated by a
distance 𝑑 and are illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength 𝜆. Find
the distance from the central point 𝐵 where the intensity falls to half the
maximum.

Solution:
𝛿 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
cos2
𝐼 = 4𝐼0 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 2
𝛿 1
Intensity is half the maximum, 4𝐼0 cos 2 = 4𝐼0
2 2
𝛿 1 𝜋
⇒ cos = ⇒𝛿= 𝑆1
2 2 2
𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
2𝜋
Phase difference 𝛿 = ∆𝑥 𝑑 4𝑑 2𝑑
𝜆 𝑂 𝐵
2𝜋 𝜋 𝜆
∆𝑥 = ⇒ ∆𝑥 =
𝜆 2 4 𝑆2
𝑦𝑑
Path difference ∆𝑥 =
𝐷
𝜆 𝑦𝑑 𝜆𝐷
= ⇒ 𝑦=
4 𝐷 4𝑑
𝐷
 Two coherent point sources 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 vibrating in phase emit light of
wavelength 𝜆 . The separation between the sources is 2𝜆 . Consider a line
T passing through 𝑆2 and perpendicular to the line 𝑆1 𝑆2 . What is the smallest
distance from 𝑆2 where the intensity is minimum?

Given: 𝑑𝑆1 𝑆2 = 2𝜆
To find: 𝑥
2
1
Solution: 2𝜆 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥 = 𝑛 + 𝜆
2

16𝜆 − 2𝑛 + 1 2 𝜆
𝑥=
4 2𝑛 + 1

When 𝑥 > 0, 16𝜆 − 2𝑛 + 1 2 𝜆 > 0

So, 2𝑛 + 1 < 4

3
𝑛<
2
∴𝑛=1

16𝜆 − 2𝑛 + 1 2 𝜆 16𝜆 − 9𝜆 7𝜆
𝑥= ⇒ 𝑥=
4 2𝑛 + 1 12 12
 Figure shows three equidistant slits being illuminated by a monochromatic
parallel beam of light. Let 𝐵𝑃0 − 𝐴𝑃0 = 𝜆/3 and 𝐷 ≫ 𝜆. Show that in this case
T 𝑑 = 2𝜆𝐷/3.

Solution: Optical path difference between 𝐵𝑃0 and

𝐴𝑃0 :

∆𝑥 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝑑 tan 𝜃

𝑑 𝑑2
∆𝑥 = 𝑑 =
2𝐷 2𝐷

𝜆 𝑑2
∆𝑥 = =
3 2𝐷

2𝜆𝐷
𝑑=
3
Path Difference between the Two Waves
 Optical Path length

Original wave equation:

𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin 𝑘𝑥0 − 𝜔𝑡
𝐸
𝑥0 𝑥0 + 𝐿 Equation of a wave when it is ahead by a length 𝐿:
𝐿
𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin 𝑘 𝑥0 + 𝐿 − 𝜔𝑡

𝑥 𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin 𝑘𝑥0 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝐿

Phase difference ∆𝜙
2𝜋
𝑘=
𝜆
2𝜋
So, ∆𝜙 = 𝐿
𝜆
∴ Two points on a wave separated by a path
2𝜋
length of 𝐿 will have a phase difference of 𝐿.
𝜆
 Optical Path length

Optical Path Length in a medium is the corresponding path that light travels in vacuum to undergo the same phase
difference.

Phase Difference between points 𝐴 and 𝐵 on the wave, travelling in air:

2𝜋
∆𝜙𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝐿
𝜆𝑎 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Phase Difference between points 𝐴 and 𝐵0 on the wave,
travelling in medium: 𝐴 𝐵
𝑎𝑖𝑟
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜆𝑎
∆𝜙𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝐿 = 𝐿 𝜆𝑚𝑒𝑑 =
𝜆𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝜆𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝜇 𝐿𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜇
2𝜋
∆𝜙𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝜇𝐿
𝜆𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑚𝑒𝑑
𝐴 𝐵0
If, ∆𝜙𝑎𝑖𝑟 = ∆𝜙𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝜇

2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐿𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝜇𝐿 ⇒ 𝐿𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝜇𝐿𝑚𝑒𝑑
𝜆𝑎 𝜆𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑑
 Optical Path Difference

Optical Path Difference:

𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 𝑂𝑃𝐿𝐼𝐼 − 𝑂𝑃𝐿𝐼 = 𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑 − 1 𝐿

Phase Difference:
2𝜋
𝛿 = ∆𝜙𝐼𝐼 − ∆𝜙𝐼 = 𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑 − 1 𝐿
𝜆𝑎

2𝜋
𝛿= 𝑂𝑃𝐷
𝜆𝑎 Optical Path Difference:

𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 𝑂𝑃𝐿𝐼𝐼 − 𝑂𝑃𝐿𝐼 = 𝜇2 − 𝜇1 𝐿

Phase Difference in medium 1 and 2:
Optical Path Length in air:
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑂𝑃𝐿𝐼 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐿 + 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐿 + 𝐶𝐷 ∆𝜙𝐼 = 𝜇1 𝐿 and ∆𝜙𝐼𝐼 = 𝜇 𝐿
𝜆𝑎 𝜆𝑎 2
Phase Difference:
Optical Path Length in medium:
2𝜋
𝛿 = ∆𝜙𝐼𝐼 − ∆𝜙𝐼 𝛿= 𝜇2 − 𝜇1 𝐿
𝑂𝑃𝐿𝐼𝐼 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝐿 + 𝐶𝐷 𝜆𝑎
Thin Transparent Film in YDSE

Optical Path Travelled by wave 𝐼: 𝜇𝑡 + 𝑆1 𝐵 − 𝑡

Optical Path Travelled by wave 𝐼𝐼: 𝑆2 𝐵

Optical Path Difference:

𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼 = 𝜇𝑡 + 𝑆1 𝐵 − 𝑡 − 𝑆2 𝐵

𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 𝜇𝑡 − 𝑡 = 𝜇−1 𝑡 𝑆1 𝐵 = 𝑆2 𝐵

• Introduction of slab causes change in 𝑂𝑃𝐷 by

𝜇 − 1 𝑡.

• Path length of the ray 𝑆1 𝐵 increases when it

encounters the thin film.

• Now the central maxima does not lie at 𝐵.

 Thin Transparent Film in YDSE

• After inserting thin film, light ray 𝑆1 𝑃 • After inserting thin film,
Optical Path Difference: has travelled an extra path of 𝜇 − 1 𝑡. light ray 𝑆2 𝑃 has travelled an
extra path of 𝜇 − 1 𝑡.
∆𝑥 = 𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼 Total Optical Path Difference at point P:
Total Optical Path Difference at
∆𝑥 = 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 ∆𝑥 = 𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼 point P: ∆𝑥 = 𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼
∆𝑥 = 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 + 𝑡 𝜇 − 1
𝑦𝑑 ∆𝑥 = 𝑆2 𝑃 + 𝑡 𝜇 − 1 − 𝑆1 𝑃
∆𝑥 =
𝐷 𝑦𝑑 𝑦𝑑
∆𝑥 = −𝑡 𝜇−1 ∆𝑥 = +𝑡 𝜇−1
𝐷 𝐷
 Shift in Central Maxima

𝑥 𝑃 At central maxima,
𝑡, 𝜇 𝐼 𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 0
𝑆1 𝑦
𝑥 + Δ𝑥 𝑦𝑑
− 𝜇−1 𝑡 =0
𝜃 𝐼𝐼 𝐷
𝑑 𝑂
𝐵 𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑦=
𝑆2 𝑑
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
Shift in central maxima =
𝑑
𝐷
Screen
 Number of Fringes Shifted

Shift in central maxima:

Shift in central maxima:
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑑 𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑆=
𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑑
Number of Fringes shifted =
𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝑦 𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷 𝑑 Number of fringes shifted:
𝑛= = ×
𝛽 𝑑 𝜆𝐷 𝜇−1 𝑡 𝜇−1 𝑡
𝑛= 𝑛=
𝜆 𝜆
 The Young’s double slit experiment is done in a medium of refractive index
4/3. A light of 600 𝑛𝑚 wavelength is falling on the slits having 0.45 𝑚𝑚
separation. The lower slit 𝑆2 is covered by a thin glass sheet of thickness
T 10.2 𝜇𝑚 and refractive index 1.5. The interference pattern is observed on a
screen placed 1.5 𝑚 from the slits. Find the location of the central maximum
on the 𝑦 −axis.

A 7.5 𝑚𝑚 𝜇 = 4/3

B 10.2𝑚𝑚 𝑆1
𝐼
𝑂
C 4.25 𝑚𝑚
𝑆2 𝐼𝐼 𝑃0

D 1.25 𝑚𝑚
Screen
 4
Given: 𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑 = , 𝑑 = 0.45 𝑚𝑚, 𝐷 = 1.5 𝑚, 𝜆 = 600 𝑛𝑚, 𝑡 = 10.2 𝜇𝑚, 𝜇𝑡 = 1.5
3

To find: Position of central maxima

Solution: 𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼 𝜇 = 4/3

𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 𝑆1 𝑃0 𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑 − 𝜇𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑆2 𝑃0 𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑 − 𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑡

𝑆1
𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 𝑆1 𝑃0 − 𝑆2 𝑃0 𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑 − 𝑡 𝜇𝑔 − 𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑
𝐼
𝑦𝑑 𝑂
𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑 − 𝑡 𝜇𝑔 − 𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑦
𝐷
𝑆2 𝐼𝐼
At central maxima 𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 0 𝑃0
𝑦𝑑
𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑 − 𝑡 𝜇𝑔 − 𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 0 Screen
𝐷

𝑡𝐷
𝑦= 𝜇 − 𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑
𝑑𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑔
Substituting all the values we get, 𝑦 = 4.25 𝑚𝑚
 In YDSE, find the thickness of a glass slab (𝜇 = 1.5) which should be kept in
front of upper slit 𝑆1 so that the central maxima is formed at a place where
T 5𝑡ℎ bright fringe was lying earlier (before inserting slab). 𝜆 = 5000 𝐴ሶ

Given: 𝜆 = 5000 𝐴,ሶ 𝜇 = 1.5,

To find: 𝑡

5𝐷𝜆 𝑛𝐷𝜆
Solution: 𝑦5𝐵 = 𝑦𝑛𝐵 =
𝑑 𝑑
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
Shift in central maxima: 𝑦=
𝑑

𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷 5𝐷𝜆
=
𝑑 𝑑

5𝜆 5000 × 10−10
𝑡= =5×
𝜇−1 1.5 − 1

𝑡 = 5 𝜇𝑚
 Two transparent slabs, having equal thickness but different refractive indices 𝜇1
and 𝜇2 𝜇1 > 𝜇2 , are pasted side by side to form a composite slab. This slab is
placed just after the double slits in a Young’s experiment so that the light from
T one slit goes through one material and light through other slit goes through
other material. What should be the minimum thickness of the slab so that
there is a minimum at point 𝑃0 which is equidistant from the slits?

Given: Wavelength = 𝜆, Refractive index = 𝜇1 & 𝜇2

To find: 𝑡1 = 𝑡2 = 𝑡 =?
Solution: Path difference due to both the slabs at 𝑃0 :
𝑡
𝜇1 − 1 𝑡 − 𝜇2 − 1 𝑡 = 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 𝑡
𝑆1
𝜇1
For minima at 𝑃0 , we know,
𝑑 𝑂
1 𝜇2 𝑃0
Δ𝑥 = 𝑛 + 𝜆
2 𝑆2
1
⇒ 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 𝑡 = 𝑛 + 𝜆
2 𝐷
For 𝑡 to be minimum, put 𝑛 = 0,
Screen
𝜆
𝑡=
2 𝜇1 − 𝜇2
 Phase change in Reflection & Refraction

Air
𝜋
𝑖

Reflected from Phase change

No phase
Denser Medium Yes change
𝜇 𝑟
Rarer Medium No No phase
change

Air
 A narrow slit 𝑆 transmitting light of wavelength 𝜆 is placed at a distance 𝑑
above a large plane mirror. The light coming directly from the slit and that
coming after reflection interfere at a screen placed at a distance 𝐷 from the
T slit.
(𝑎) What will be the intensity at a point just above 𝑂.

Given: Wavelength = 𝜆, Distance of screen = 𝐷, Distance of source from the mirror = 𝑑

To find: Intensity just above 𝑂

Solution: 𝑆𝑃 ≈ 𝑆𝑄𝑃 → path difference = 0 (when 𝑃 is just above 𝑂)

δ=𝜋 (due to reflection of light from a denser medium)

If phase difference is odd integral
multiple of 𝜋, destructive
interference will take place.
𝑆

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 𝑑 𝑃
𝑄
𝑂
𝐷 Screen
 A narrow slit 𝑆 transmitting light of wavelength 𝜆 is placed at a distance 𝑑
above a large plane mirror. The light coming directly from the slit and that
coming after reflection interfere at a screen placed at a distance 𝐷 from the
T slit.
(𝑏) At what distance from 𝑂 does the first maximum occur?

Given: Wavelength = 𝜆, Distance of screen = 𝐷, Distance of source from the mirror = 𝑑

To find: 𝑦1𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎

2𝑑𝑦
Solution: ∆𝑥 = 2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 2𝑑 tan 𝜃 =
𝐷 𝑃
𝑆1
2𝑑𝑦 𝜆
∆𝑥𝑛𝑒𝑡 = + = 𝑛𝜆 = 1 𝜆 𝑦
𝐷 2 𝑑
𝜃 𝑄
2𝑑𝑦 𝜆
⇒ = 𝑂
𝐷 2
𝐷
𝜆𝐷 𝑑 Screen
𝑦= 𝑆2
4𝑑
 A narrow slit 𝑆 transmitting light of wavelength 𝜆 is placed at a distance 𝑑
above a large plane mirror. The light coming directly from the slit and that
coming after reflection interfere at a screen placed at a distance 𝐷 from the
T slit.
(𝑐) If 𝑑 = 1 𝑚𝑚, 𝐷 = 1 𝑚 and 𝜆 = 700 𝑛𝑚, then find the fringe width.

Given: 𝜆 = 700 𝑛𝑚, 𝐷 = 1 𝑚, 𝑑 = 1 𝑚𝑚

To find: Fringe width = 𝛽

𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 𝑃
𝑆1
Solution: 𝛽 =2× =
4𝑑 2𝑑
𝜆𝐷
𝑑
700 × 10−9 × 1 −4 𝑚 𝑄
4𝑑
𝛽= = 3.5 × 10 𝜃
2 × 10−3
𝑂
𝐷
𝛽 = 0.35 𝑚𝑚 𝑑 𝜆𝐷
𝑆2
4𝑑
 A narrow slit 𝑆 transmitting light of wavelength 𝜆 is placed at a distance 𝑑 above
a large plane mirror. The light coming directly from the slit and that coming after
reflection interfere at a screen placed at a distance 𝐷 from the slit.
T (𝑑) If the mirror reflects only 64 % of the light energy falling on it, what will be the
ratio of the maximum to the minimum intensity in the interference pattern
observed on the screen?

Given: Wavelength = 𝜆, Distance of screen = 𝐷, Distance of source from the mirror = 𝑑

𝐼2 = 0.64 𝐼0
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
To find:
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼1 = 𝐼0 𝑃
2 2
𝑆1
Solution: 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 , 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2
2 2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 𝐼0 + 0.64 𝐼0 𝑄 𝐼2 = 0.64 𝐼0
= 2 ⇒ 2 𝜃
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 𝐼0 − 0.64 𝐼0 𝑂
2 2
𝐷
1 + 0.8 1.8
= =
1 − 0.8 2 0.2 2 𝑆2

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 81
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Condition for Thin Film Interference

𝜋
• The film thickness should be comparable to 𝑖
air
the wavelength of light 𝑑 ≈ 𝜆 .

• The angle of incidence should be small 𝑖 ≈ 0. 𝑟

𝑑 𝜇
• The incident light should be white (non -
monochromatic).
air
 Thin Film Interference

• Interference of light wave being reflected off

Air
two surfaces that are at a distance 𝜋
comparable to its wavelength is known as thin 𝑖
film ”Thin film interference”.

• Inside the film, when a particular colour’s path No phase

difference is even integral multiple of the change
wavelength, it undergoes constructive 𝜇 𝑟
interference, so these colours appear bright. No phase
change
• When a particular colour’s wavelength is odd
integral multiple of the path difference inside
the film, it undergoes destructive interference,
so these colours don’t appear at all. Air
 Interference due to Thin Film from Transmitted Light

angles are very small

𝑟 𝑑 air 𝑖
𝑑
cos 𝑟

𝑑 𝜇 𝑟 𝑟

Path difference of 1𝑠𝑡 and 𝑑 air

=2 𝜇 2𝑛𝑑
2𝑛𝑑 transmitted light wave cos 𝑟 1𝑠𝑡

When angle is very small, 𝑟 ≈ 0

cos 𝑟 ≈ 1

Path difference ∆𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑑

 Interference due to Thin Film from Transmitted Light

angles are very small

For constructive interference:

air 𝑖
𝛿 = 2𝑛𝜋 Or 2𝜇𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑑 𝜇 𝑟

For destructive interference:

air
1
𝛿 = 2𝑛 + 1 𝜋 Or 2𝜇𝑑 = 𝑛 + 𝜆
2
 Interference due to Thin Film from Reflected Light

angles are very small

𝑑
𝑑 𝑟 cos 𝑟
1𝑠𝑡 2𝑛𝑑

air 𝑖

Path difference of 1𝑠𝑡 and 𝑑 𝑑 𝜇 𝑟

=2 𝜇 ≈ 2𝜇𝑑
2𝑛𝑑 reflected light wave cos 𝑟
Because phase change of 𝜋 after 𝜆
reflection of 1 , path difference = −
𝑠𝑡 air
2
𝜆
Total path difference ∆𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑑 −
2
 Interference due to Thin Film from Reflected Light

angles are very small

For constructive interference:

𝜆
2𝜇𝑑 − = 𝑛𝜆
2

1 𝜋
2𝜇𝑑 = 𝑛 + 𝜆
2 air 𝑖

For destructive interference: 𝑟

𝑑 𝜇
𝜆 1
2𝜇𝑑 − = 𝑛+ 𝜆 ⇒ 2𝜇𝑑 = 𝑛 + 1 𝜆
2 2
air
2𝜇𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆 𝑛 is an integer.
 Interference due to Thin Film

For constructive interference:

• Colours will be strongly reflected/transmitted.

Destructive interference:
• Colours will be poorly reflected/transmitted.

This gives coloured appearance of the film.

 A soap film of refractive index 1.33 is illuminated by the light of wavelength
400 𝑛𝑚 at an angle of 45°. If there is complete destructive interference then,
T find the thickness of the film.

Given: 𝜇 = 1.33, 𝑖 = 45°, 𝜆 = 400 𝑛𝑚

To find: 𝑡
sin 𝑖 sin 45
Solution: 𝜇= ⇒ 1.33 =
sin 𝑟 sin 𝑟 45° soap film
3
sin 𝑟 = ⇒ cos 𝑟 = 0.85 cos 𝑟 = 1 − sin2 𝑟
4 2
For Destructive interference:
2𝜇𝑡
= 𝑛𝜆
cos 𝑟
2 1.33 𝑡
⇒ = 1 400 × 10−9
0.85

⇒ 𝑡 = 1.27 × 10−7 𝑚
 Diffraction

• Bending of a wave or its deviation from its original

direction of propagation while passing through a
small obstruction is known as diffraction.
Original
direction • Every point on the wavefront makes a secondary
wave according to Huygens Principle.
• Condition for bending: size of obstacle ≈ 𝜆

• Diffraction is explained by wave nature of light.​

 Diffraction of Light Waves

Fraunhofer Diffraction Fresnel Diffraction

• Source and screen are at infinite • Source and screen are at finite
distance from diffraction element. distance from diffraction element.

• High intense interference pattern • Diffraction was first demonstrated by

is observed on screen. this experiment.

𝑆𝑂 𝑆𝑂
 Fraunhofer Diffraction – Path Difference

𝑏
𝑃 2
𝜃
𝑏 𝑃𝑂 𝑏
sin 𝜃
2

• Path difference between the waves,

𝑏
Screen ∆x = sin 𝜃
2
 Fraunhofer Diffraction – first Dark Fringe

• The condition for 1𝑠𝑡 dark fringe

formed at point 𝑃:
𝑏 𝜆
sin 𝜃 =
𝑃 2 2
𝜃
𝑏 𝑃𝑂 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝜆

• The condition for 𝑛𝑡ℎ dark fringe:

𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
Screen
• Central Maxima is at 𝑃0 , where 𝜃 = 0
 Fraunhofer Diffraction – Intensity at general point

• Electric Field Amplitude at 𝑃:

𝐸0 sin 𝛽
𝐸′ = 𝛽 = phase difference
𝑃 𝛽
𝜃
2𝜋 𝑏
𝑏 𝑃𝑂 Where 𝛽 = 𝜆 2
sin 𝜃

• When 𝜃 = 0, 𝛽 = 0, 𝐸 ′ = 𝐸0
• Intensity ∝ 𝐸 2
• Intensity at a general point:
Screen
𝐼𝑂 sin2 𝛽
𝐼=
𝛽2

Where 𝐼0 is the intensity at

Central Maxima
 Fraunhofer Diffraction – Graph of Intensity

𝐼 𝐼𝑂 sin2 𝛽 𝜋𝑏 sin 𝜃
𝐼= 𝛽=
𝛽2 𝜆

𝐼𝑜
• sin 𝜃 = 0 ; Central Maxima
𝑛𝜆
• sin 𝜃 = ; Minima
𝐼𝑂 𝑏
𝜆 2𝜆 3𝜆
22 𝐼𝑂 • sin 𝜃 = ± , ± , ± … … … …
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
62.5
• Maximum intensity is distributed
𝜆 𝜆
between − 𝑏 and 𝑏 .
2𝜆 𝜆 0 𝜆 2𝜆 sin 𝜃
− − 𝜆
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 • If 𝑏 is large, 𝑏 → 0, then

Single fringe is observed and no

diffraction is seen.
 Fraunhofer Diffraction – Graph of Intensity

• Fraunhofer Diffraction ⟶ Intensity • YDSE ⟶ Intensity is same for all

decreases away from the centre. fringes.
• 𝐼0 → Intensity at the central bright fringe • 𝐼0 → Intensity from a single slit.

𝐼𝑂 sin2 𝛽 𝜙
𝐼= 𝐼 = 4𝐼𝑂 cos 2
𝛽2 2
 Difference between Interference and Diffraction

Interference Diffraction

It is the phenomenon of superposition of It is the phenomenon of superposition of two

two waves coming from two different waves coming from two different parts of the
coherent sources. same wavefront.

All bright fringes are not equally bright and

In interference pattern, all bright fringes are equally wide. Brightness and width
equally bright and equally spaced. decreases with the angle of diffraction.

All dark fringes are perfectly dark, but their

All dark fringes are perfectly dark. contrast with bright fringes and width
decreases with angle of diffraction.

In interference, bright and dark fringes are In diffraction, bright and dark fringes are
large in number for a given field of view. fewer for a given field of view.
 A beam of light of wavelength 600 𝑛𝑚 from a distant source falls on a single slit 1 𝑚𝑚
wide and a resulting diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 2 𝑚 away. The distance
between the first dark fringes on either side of central bright fringe is

𝜆
Solution: First maxima is formed at distance
𝑏
away on both side of central maxima.

sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 (𝜃 is small)
𝜆
𝜃=
𝑏 𝛼 𝜃 𝑦
1𝑚𝑚 𝜃
2𝜆
𝛼 = 2𝜃 =
𝑏
𝑦 2𝜆 2𝜆𝐷
𝛼= = ⟹ 𝑦=
𝐷 𝑏 𝑏
𝐷 =2𝑚
2 × 600 × 10−9 ×2
𝑦= = 24 × 10−4 𝑚
10−3

𝑦 = 2.4 𝑚𝑚
 Single Slit Diffraction – 𝟏𝒔𝒕 Secondary Maxima

• Condition for 1𝑠𝑡 secondary maxima (bright):

𝐴 3𝜆
𝑏 sin 𝜃 =
2

• The angle of diffraction (𝜃1B ) for 1st maximum

(bright) is:
𝑏
3𝜆
𝜃1𝐵 =
2𝑏

𝑁 • The position of 1st maximum (bright) from the

centre of the screen is:
𝐵 3𝜆
2 3𝐷𝜆
𝑦1𝐵 =
2𝑏
 Single Slit Diffraction – 𝒏𝒕𝒉 Secondary Maxima

• The angle of diffraction 𝜃𝑛 for 𝑛𝑡ℎ maxima

(bright) is:
Second secondary maxima
2𝑛 + 1 𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝐵 =
First secondary maxima 2𝑏

Central maxima • The position of 𝑛𝑡ℎ maxima (bright) from the

centre of the screen is:

First secondary maxima 2𝑛 + 1 𝐷𝜆

𝑦𝑛𝐵 =
2𝑏
Second secondary maxima

Screen Where, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4 … … …
 Single Slit Diffraction

• Angular position for minima • Angular position for maxima

5𝜆
2𝜆 +
+ 2𝑏
𝑏
3𝜆
𝜆 +
2𝑏
+
𝑏

0
𝜆
−
𝑏 3𝜆
2𝜆 −
2𝑏
−
𝑏 5𝜆
−
2𝑏

𝜆 2𝜆 𝑛𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆 (2𝑛 + 1)𝜆
sin 𝜃 = ± , ± , … … , ± sin 𝜃 = ± ,± ,……,±
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 2𝑏 2𝑏 2𝑏
 In a diffraction pattern due to a single slit of width 𝑎, the first minima is
observed at an angle 30° when the light of wavelength 5000 𝐴ሶ is incident
T on the slit. The first secondary maxima is observed at an angle of:

Given: 𝜃1𝐷 = 30°; 𝜆 = 5000 𝐴ሶ

To find: Angular position of first secondary maximum (𝜃1𝐵 )

Solution: Angular position of first minima is given by,

𝜆 1 𝜆
sin 𝜃1𝐷 = ⟹ =
𝑎 2 𝑎

Angular position of first secondary maxima is given by,

3𝜆 3
sin 𝜃1𝐵 = ⟹ sin 𝜃1𝐵 =
2𝑎 4

3
𝜃1𝐵 = sin−1
4
 Fraunhofer Diffraction for Hole

• When a monochromatic light is

incident on the hole we see
concentric circular bright and dark
spots on the screen.
• The size of hole should be
comparable to the wavelength of
incident light.
𝜃 𝑅
𝑏
• Central bright spot contains the
most energy.
• Brightness of the rings decreases
as we move away from the centre.
• For the first dark ring, 𝐷

1.22𝜆 1.22𝜆𝐷
sin 𝜃 = 𝑅=
𝑏 𝑏
 A convex lens of diameter 8.0 𝑐𝑚 is used to focus a parallel beam of light
of wavelength 6200 Å. If the light be focused at a distance of 20 𝑐𝑚 from
the lens, what would be the radius of the central bright spot?

Given: 𝐷 = 20 𝑐𝑚, 𝑏 = 8 𝑐𝑚 and 𝜆 = 6200 Å

To Find: 𝑅

Solution: Radius of central bright spot, 𝜃

𝑅
1.22𝜆𝐷
𝑅=
𝑏 6200 Å

1.22 × 6200 × 10−10 × 20 × 10−2 𝑏 = 8 𝑐𝑚

⇒𝑅=
8 × 10−2 20 𝑐𝑚

𝑅 = 1.89 × 10−6 𝑚
Binary Star
 Limit of Resolution

Unresolved: Diffraction discs from both

sources overlap.
𝑆1
𝑆2

Just resolved: The periphery of the diffraction

𝑆1 disc of one object touches the
centre of the diffraction disc of
the other object.
𝑆2

Well resolved: The diffraction discs formed by

𝑆1 two objects are well separated
from each other.

𝑆2
 Rayleigh criterion

The Rayleigh criterion specifies the minimum separation between two

light sources that may be resolved into distinct objects.

Unresolved Just resolved Well resolved

(Rayleigh criterion)
 Limit of Resolution of a Telescope

Telescope lens

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟1

∆𝜃 𝑅

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟2
Just resolved

• Clear image is formed when the diffraction discs from two

sources is just resolved.

• Distance between diffraction disc > 𝑅 ⇒ Well resolved

• Distance between diffraction disc < 𝑅 ⇒ Unresolved

 Resolving Power of Telescope

• Angular limit of
resolution of telescope:
∆𝜃 𝑅
𝑏
1.22𝜆
∆𝜃 =
𝑏

∆𝜃 = Limit of resolution

• Angle subtended by the first dark fringe > ∆𝜃 ⇒ Well resolved

• Angle subtended by the first dark fringe < ∆𝜃 ⇒ Unresolved

 Radius of the Central Bright Spot

• Radius of central bright region is:

𝑅 = 𝑓∆𝜃

∆𝜃 𝑅 1.22𝜆𝑓
𝑏 𝑅=
𝑏

• Resolving power of a telescope:

1
𝑅. 𝑃. =
∆𝜃
𝑓
𝑏
𝑅. 𝑃. =
1.22𝜆

• Bigger lens ⇒ larger 𝑏 ⇒ smaller Limit of Resolution ∆𝜃 ⇒ higher Resolving Power 𝑅. 𝑃.

 Disadvantages of using Lens

Chromatic aberration
1. Difficult and expensive to build large lenses.
2.Providing mechanical support to
large lenses require large and
complex machinery.
3. Chromatic aberration ( light rays
passing through a lens focus at
different points, depending
on their wavelength).

Fact: The largest lens objective in use has

diameter of 40 inch (~1.02 𝑚). It is at the
Yerkes Observatory in Wisconsin, USA.
 Advantages of using Mirror as the
Objective in Telescope

1. No chromatic aberration

2. Parabolic mirror used

to counter spherical aberration.

3. Large mirrors can be Eyepiece

supported from the back. Objective
mirror

Fact: The viewer sits near the focal point

of the mirror, in a small cage.
 Calculate the limit of resolution of a telescope objective having a
diameter of 200 𝑐𝑚, if it has to detect light of wavelength
T 500 𝑛𝑚 coming from a star.

Given: 𝑏 = 200 𝑐𝑚, 𝜆 = 500 𝑛𝑚 JEE Main 2019

To find: Limit of resolution of telescope

Solution: Limit of resolution of telescope is given by:

1.22𝜆
∆𝜃 =
𝑏

1.22 × 500 × 10−9

∆𝜃 =
200 × 10−2

305 × 10–9 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛

 Limit of Resolution of a Microscope

Lens Formula: 1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
1− = ⇒ 1−𝑚 = 𝑚=
𝑢 𝑓 𝑓 𝑢
𝑣
𝑚 =1−
𝑓
𝑣 𝑣
𝑚≈− 𝑣≫𝑓 ⇒ ≫1
𝑓 𝑓
• Clear images can be seen in the microscope if the
diffraction discs are just resolved. 1.22𝜆
We know that: 𝑑=𝑣×
𝑏𝑚
Angular limit of resolution of microscope:
1.22𝜆 1.22𝜆𝑓
𝑑= × −𝑚𝑓 =
𝑏𝑚 𝑏
1.22𝜆
sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 = 𝑏
𝑏 tan 𝛽 = ⇒ 𝑏 = 2𝑓 tan 𝛽
2𝑓
1.22𝜆
𝑅 = 𝑣𝜃 = 𝑣 × 𝛽 is small, 𝑏 = 2𝑓 sin 𝛽
𝑏
𝑅 𝑅 1.22𝜆 1.22𝜆𝑓 1.22𝜆
Magnification of convex lens: 𝑚= ⇒𝑑= 𝑑=𝑣× 1.22𝜆𝑓 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑏𝑚 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 2 sin 𝛽
𝑑 𝑚 𝑏 2𝑓 sin 𝛽
 Microscope immersed in Oil

Resolving power of a microscope:

1 2𝜇 sin 𝛽
𝑅. 𝑃. = ⇒ 𝑅. 𝑃. =
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 1.22𝜆

• Resolving power of the

microscope increases when it is
Note: The product 𝜇sin𝛽 is called the numerical aperture and immersed in a medium.
is sometimesmarked on the objective.

𝜆
When the setup is immersed in oil, 𝜆𝑚𝑒𝑑 changes to
𝜇

1.22𝜆𝑚𝑒𝑑 1.22𝜆
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ⟶ 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2 sin 𝛽 2𝜇 sin 𝛽
 Validity of Ray Optics

• Consider a single slit of width ‘𝑎’.Diffraction pattern will be observed.

• There will be central maxima due to diffraction.

• Angular size of central maximum, 𝜆

𝜃=
𝑎

𝜆𝑧
• The width of diffracted beam after it has travelled by 𝑧, 𝑦 =𝑧×𝜃 =
𝑎

𝑎2
If 𝑦 ≈ 𝑎 𝑧≈ = 𝑧𝐹 𝑧𝐹 is Fresnel distance.
𝜆

• If 𝑧 < 𝑧𝐹 , the ray optics is valid.

• If 𝑧 > 𝑧𝐹 , spreading due to diffraction dominates.

 For what distance is ray optics a good approximation when a
plane light wave is incident on a circular aperture of width 2 𝑚𝑚
T having wavelength 600 𝑛𝑚?

Given: 𝑎 = 2 𝑚𝑚; 𝜆 = 600 𝑛𝑚

Solution: Ray optics is a good approximation up to Fresnel distance only.

𝑎2
𝑧≈ = 𝑧𝐹
𝜆

2 × 10−3 2
𝑧𝐹 = = 6.7 𝑚
600 × 10−9

• If 𝑑 < 6.7 𝑚 ⟶ Ray optics holds.

• If 𝑑 > 6.7 𝑚 ⟶ Spreading due to diffraction dominates.

 Scattering

When a parallel beam of light passes through a medium, a part of it appears in directions
other than the incident direction. This phenomenon is called scattering of light.

• Light is an EM wave, it oscillates the charged

particles in a medium because of its
oscillating electric field.
Incident light
• Oscillating charged particles emit EM waves.

• If the oscillating electric field of incident light

has frequency 𝑓, the frequency of scattered A particle
wave will also have frequency 𝑓.
 Rayleigh’s Law of Scattering

• Intensity of scattering depends on 𝜆 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

𝑉 Scatters most

1. Wavelength of light
2. Size of particles causing scattering
𝐼
𝜆 increases 𝐵
• When size of particles < 𝜆 and Intensity
𝐺
of scattering
Intensity of scattered wave ∝
1
𝜆4 decreases 𝑌
𝑂
𝜆 − 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑅 Scatters least
Unpolarized Light

● The light having electric field oscillations in

all directions in the plane perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.

● Examples of source of unpolarized light: Candle,

Bulb, Sun etc.

Note: Light wave is coming out of the screen,

and arrows show direction of oscillation of
electric field.
 Plane Polarized Light

Plane Polarized light – When electric field at a point always remains parallel to a fixed direction as time passes.

Plane of polarization – Plane containing electric field and direction of propagation.

𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 → Direction of propagation.

𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 → Oscillation of electric field.

𝑥𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 → Plane of polarization.

When the polarizer is placed in the path of unpolarized

light, the direction of oscillation of the electric field
becomes parallel to the transmission axis.

Note: If any unpolarized light of intensity 𝐼0 is incident on a

𝐼
polarizer, we get a polarized light of intensity 0 .
2
 Law of Malus

Electric field amplitude of the

wave after crossing the polarizer:
𝜃
𝐸 = 𝐸0 cos 𝜃
𝐸0 𝐸0 cos 𝜃

Intensity of the wave after crossing the

polarizer:

2𝐼0 𝐼0 𝐼 𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos 2 𝜃 𝐼 ∝ 𝐸2

Unpolarized Polarized ● 𝐼 = Intensity of transmitted light

light light
● 𝐼0 = Intensity of incident light
 Law of Malus

● Case 1 → when 𝜃 = 0° : ● Case 2 → when 𝜃 = 90° :

𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos 2 0° = 𝐼0 𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos2 90° = 0

𝐼0 𝐼0 𝐼0
 Two ‘crossed’ polaroids 𝐴 and 𝐵 are placed in the path of a light beam. In
between these, a third polaroid 𝐶 is placed whose polarization axis
makes an angle 𝜃 with the polarization axis of the polaroid 𝐴. If the
T intensity of light emerging from the polaroid 𝐴 is 𝐼𝑜 , then the intensity of
light emerging from polaroid 𝐵 will be

Solution: Intensity of light emerging from polaroid 𝐶: 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼0 cos2 𝜃 {Applying the law of Malus.}

Intensity of light emerging from polaroid 𝐵: 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐶 cos2 90° − 𝜃

𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼0 cos2 𝜃 . cos2 90° − 𝜃

𝐼0
𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼0 cos2 𝜃 . sin2 𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 2
4
𝐼0 2
𝐼𝐵 = sin (2𝜃)
4
 Unpolarized light with amplitude 𝐴0 passes through two polarizers. The first
one has an angle of 30° clockwise to vertical and second one has an angle of
T 15° counter-clockwise to the vertical. What is the amplitude of the light
emitted from the second polarizer?

Given: 𝐴 = 𝐴0

To find: 𝐴2

Solution:
𝐴0
We know that: 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2 . 𝐴1 =
2
∴𝐴∝ 𝐼 𝐴1 𝐼1
Again, =
𝐴1 𝐼1 𝐴2 𝐼2
⇒ =
𝐴2 𝐼2
𝐼2 = 𝐼1 cos2 𝜃 𝜃 = 30° − −15° = 45°
𝐼0
𝐼1 =
2 𝐼0 𝐼0 1
2
𝐼0
𝐼2 = cos2 45° = =
𝐴1 𝐼1 𝐼0 1 2 2 2 4
= = =
𝐴0 𝐼0 2𝐼0 2
𝐴2 𝐼2 𝐼0 1 𝐴0
= = = 𝐴2 =
𝐴0 𝐴0 𝐼0 4𝐼0 4 2
𝐴1 =
2
 Polarization by Reflection

Oscillations in the incidence plane

𝑖

Oscillations ⊥ to the incidence plane

Medium(𝜇)

● The reflected light has more vibrations perpendicular to plane of incidence.

● The refracted light has more vibration parallel to the plane of incidence.

● The percentage of polarization in reflected light changes as we change the

angle of incidence 𝑖.
 Brewster’s Law

● For a particular angle of incidence 𝑖𝐵 , the

reflected light becomes completely plane
polarized.
𝑖𝐵 ● The required condition for this purpose is:
𝑖𝐵 + 𝑟 = 90°
Medium(𝜇)
𝑟 ● Brewster’s Law tan 𝑖𝐵 = 𝜇

𝑖𝐵 = Brewster angle/polarising angle

● If the light ray travels from one medium to

another with refractive 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 respectively,
then Brewster’s law becomes,

𝜇2
tan 𝑖𝐵 =
𝜇1
 Relation between Critical Angle and
Brewster Angle

● Brewster’s Law tan 𝑖𝐵 = 𝜇

𝑖𝐵 = Brewster angle/polarising angle

𝑖𝐵
● Critical Angle:
Medium(𝜇) 1
𝑟 sin 𝜃𝐶 =
𝜇
1
∴ tan 𝑖𝐵 =
sin 𝜃𝐶

1 1
𝑖𝐵 = tan−1 And 𝜃𝐶 = sin−1
sin 𝜃𝐶 tan 𝑖𝐵
 The polarizing angle of diamond is 67°. The critical angle of diamond is
T nearest to: [Given tan 67° = 2.36 ]

Given: 𝑖𝐵 = 67°

To find: Critical angle

1
Solution: Critical angle is given by: 𝜃𝐶 = sin−1
tan 𝑖𝐵
1
𝜃𝐶 = sin−1
tan 67°
1
𝜃𝐶 = sin−1
2.36

1 1 1 1
< ⇒ sin−1 < sin−1 ⇒ 𝜃𝐶 < 30°
2.36 2 2.36 2

∴ Out of the four option only 22° is less than 30°

 Scattering by Polarization

Observer

● If an unpolarized light gets scattered from

air molecule, light perpendicular to
original ray is plane polarized.

Air molecule ● If we draw a plane perpendicular to the

incident light, then from every viewpoint
Incident Light on the plane we can see the plane
polarized light.

Observer
 A ray of light, travelling in air, is incident on a glass slab with angle of
incidence 60°. It is found that the reflected ray is plane polarized. The velocity
T of light in the glass is:

Given: 𝑖𝑝 = 60°

To find: Velocity of light in glass (𝑣𝑔 )

Plane polarized
Solution:
As reflected light is plane
60°
polarized,
Air
𝑖𝑝 = 60∘ 90°

According to Brewster’s law, Glass (𝜇)

𝜇 = tan 𝑖𝑝 = tan 60∘ = 3
𝑣𝑎 𝑣𝑎
As, 𝜇 = ⇒ 𝑣𝑔 =
𝑣𝑔 𝜇

3 × 108
𝑣𝑔 = = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
3