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5100.6-2017
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AS(/NZS) 5100:2017 Series Bridge design
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construction
Bridge design
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
This Joint Australian/New Zealand Standard was prepared by Joint Technical
Committee BD-090, Bridge Design. It was approved on behalf of the Council of
Standards Australia on 13 March 2017 and by the New Zealand Standards Approval
Board on 7 March 2017.
This Standard was published on 31 March 2017.
This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR2 AS/NZS 5100.6:2016.
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
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Bridge design
Originated as HB 77.6—1996.
Revised and redesignated as AS 5100.6—2004.
Jointly revised and redesignated as AS/NZS 5100.6:2017.
COPYRIGHT
© Standards Australia Limited
© The Crown in right of New Zealand, administered by the New Zealand Standards Executive
All rights are reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or copied in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without the written
permission of the publisher, unless otherwise permitted under the Copyright Act 1968
(Australia) or the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand).
Jointly published by SAI Global Limited under licence from Standards Australia Limited,
GPO Box 476, Sydney, NSW 2001 and by Standards New Zealand, PO Box 1473,
Wellington 6140.
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PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Standards Australia Committee BD-090, Bridge Design,
Sub-Committee 6, Steel and Composite Construction, to supersede AS 5100.6—2004.
This Standard is also designated as AUSTROADS publication AP-G51.6-17.
The objectives of the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series are to provide nationally acceptable
requirements for—
(a) the design of road, rail, pedestrian and cyclist path bridges;
(b) the specific application of concrete, steel, composite construction and timber
construction methods, which embody principles that may be applied to other materials
in association with relevant Standards;
(c) the assessment of the load capacity of existing bridges; and
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CONTENTS
Page
SECTION 2 MATERIALS
2.1 YIELD STRESS AND TENSILE STRENGTH USED IN DESIGN.......................... 27
2.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL ............................................................................................. 27
2.3 CONCRETE, REINFORCEMENT AND PRESTRESSING STEELS ....................... 28
2.4 FASTENERS ............................................................................................................. 28
2.5 WELDS ..................................................................................................................... 28
2.6 WELDED STUD SHEAR CONNECTORS ............................................................... 29
2.7 STEEL CASTINGS ................................................................................................... 29
2.8 WROUGHT IRON .................................................................................................... 29
2.9 RIVETS ..................................................................................................................... 29
2.10 CAST IRON .............................................................................................................. 29
2.11 DUCTILITY REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................... 29
SECTION 12 CONNECTIONS
12.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 208
12.2 DEFINITIONS......................................................................................................... 208
12.3 PARTICULAR REQUIREMENTS FOR CONNECTIONS ..................................... 209
12.4 DEDUCTIONS FOR FASTENER HOLES ............................................................. 210
12.5 DESIGN OF BOLTS, RIVETS AND PINS ............................................................. 212
12.6 DESIGN OF WELDS .............................................................................................. 218
SECTION 13 FATIGUE
13.1 SCOPE ..................................................................................................................... 230
13.2 EXCLUSIONS......................................................................................................... 230
13.3 DEFINITIONS......................................................................................................... 230
13.4 NOTATION ............................................................................................................. 233
13.5 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................ 234
13.6 ASSESSMENT METHODS .................................................................................... 234
13.7 STRESSES FROM FATIGUE ACTIONS ............................................................... 236
13.8 CALCULATION OF STRESSES ............................................................................ 237
13.9 CALCULATION OF STRESS RANGES ................................................................ 238
13.10 FATIGUE STRENGTH ........................................................................................... 242
13.11 FATIGUE VERIFICATION .................................................................................... 247
APPENDICES
A ELASTIC RESISTANCE TO LATERAL BUCKLING .......................................... 278
B STRENGTH OF STIFFENED WEB PANELS UNDER COMBINED ACTIONS .. 283
C SECOND ORDER ELASTIC ANALYSIS .............................................................. 285
D ECCENTRICALLY LOADED DOUBLE-BOLTED OR WELDED SINGLE
ANGLES IN TRUSSES ........................................................................................... 286
E INTERACTION CURVES FOR COMPOSITE COLUMNS ................................... 288
F MODIFICATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES .................................................. 290
G CORROSION RATE MAPS .................................................................................... 291
H REQUIREMENTS—STEEL OTHER THAN SPECIFIED IN SECTION 2 ............ 302
I FATIGUE ................................................................................................................ 313
J GUIDANCE ON USING STEELS OTHER THAN STEELS SPECIFIED IN
SECTION 2 ............................................................................................................. 317
K STATISTICAL DATA ............................................................................................ 320
L GUIDANCE ON DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION
CATEGORY ............................................................................................................ 322
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1.1 SCOPE
This Standard sets out minimum requirements for the design, fabrication and erection of the
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structural steelwork in bridges. Wrought and cast iron structures may be checked in
accordance with this Standard, using the appropriate material properties and capacity
reduction factors.
The Standard also includes requirements for the design of other steel components of bridges
including steel piers, steel railings, sign structures, and structural interaction between steel
and concrete composite members.
1.2 EXCLUSIONS
This Standard does not cover the steelwork of the following structures, members and
materials:
(a) Bridges with orthotropic plate decks.
(b) Cold-formed members other than those complying with AS/NZS 1163.
(c) Steel members for which the value of yield stress (f y) used in design exceeds
690 MPa.
(d) Steel elements, other than packers, less than 3 mm thick.
1.3 APPLICATION
The requirements for bridges, members and materials specified in Items (a) to (d) of
Clause 1.2, and for new and unusual bridge types shall be designated by the relevant
authority.
In the design of steel-concrete composite members, the general requirements of AS 5100.5
pertaining to the design of concrete shall apply, where relevant, in addition to the
requirements of this Standard.
NOTE: In New Zealand, the concrete structures design may be designated by the relevant
authority.
The design of structural elements using non-ferrous metals such as aluminium alloys is not
covered in this Standard. Where such components are to carry calculated stress, the
applicable specification to be used in their design shall be designated by the relevant
authority.
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AS/NZS
3679 Structural steel
3679.1 Part 1: Hot-rolled bars and sections
3679.2 Part 2: Welded I sections
5131 Structural steelwork—Fabrication and erection
AS/NZS ISO
3834 Quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic materials
3834.2 Part 2: Comprehensive quality requirements
3834.3 Part 3: Standard quality requirements
4671 Steel reinforcing materials
NZS
3404.1 Steel Structures Standard
AASHTO
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1.5 NOTATION
Symbols used in this Standard are listed in Table 1.5.
Unless a contrary intention is given, the following applies:
(a) Where non-dimensional ratios are involved, both the numerator and denominator are
expressed in identical units.
(b) The dimensional units for length, force and stress in all expressions or equations are
to be taken as millimetres (mm), Newtons (N) and megapascals (MPa) respectively,
unless specifically noted otherwise.
(c) An asterisk (*) placed after a symbol as a superscript denotes a design action effect
due to the design load for the ultimate limit state specified in AS 5100.2.
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3 Requirements for steels for machined parts and for uses in other than structural
member or elements (see Clause 2.2.4).
4 Requirements for structures, members and materials (see Clause 1.2).
5 Requirements for the fatigue design assessment method (see Clause 13.6).
1.7 WORKMANSHIP
The minimum requirements for fabrication and erection shall be in accordance with
AS/NZS 5131.
NOTE: Minimum required standards of workmanship are to ensure that the design assumptions
remain valid.
NOTE: For purchasing guidelines for steels other than specified in Section 2, see Appendix J.
TABLE 1.5
NOTATION
Symbol Definition
A area of a cross-section
A bs area of bottom slab reinforcement, shown in Figure 6.8.5.2.1
A bt area of bottom transverse reinforcement, shown in Figure 6.8.5.2.1
A bv cross-sectional area of the transverse reinforcement per unit length of a beam placed in the
bottom of a slab or haunch
Ac area of concrete in a cross-section; or
minor diameter area of the bolt
Ad deducted area for fastener holes based on the gross area of a hole in the plane of its axis and
not that of the fastener
Ae effective area of the cross-section; or
effective area of a diaphragm and flanges at the vertical cross-section through the reference
point; or
effective area of a vertical cross-section of the diaphragm and flanges, at the point under
consideration; or
area enclosed by the hollow section
A ep area of the end plate
A fb area of the bottom flange
A fc flange area at the critical cross-section
A ff area per unit width of the flange of a box girder (including longitudinal stiffeners)
A fg gross area of a flange
A fm flange area at the minimum cross-section; or
lesser of the flange effective areas
A fn net area of a flange
Ag gross area of the cross-section of the member or element
A he effective horizontal shear area of a diaphragm plate only
An sum of the net areas of the flanges and the gross area of the web; or
net area of the cross-section
Ao nominal plain shank area of the bolt
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Symbol Definition
Ap cross-sectional area of the pin
Ar cross-sectional area of the reinforcement
A rs area of slab reinforcement within the effective width of the slab
As area of the stiffener; or
cross-sectional area of the structural steel section; or
tensile stress area of a bolt
A se area of effective stiffener section; or
effective cross-sectional area of a group of bearing stiffeners; or
effective cross-sectional area of the stiffener; or
effective area of the diaphragm and web junction; or
effective area of the horizontal stiffeners, or
effective cross-sectional area of a continuity member
At area of the section to one side of the shear plane under consideration
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A tf total area of both steel flanges and the longitudinal reinforcement included in the section
A ts effective cross-sectional area of the transverse reinforcement per unit length of beam, which
is fully anchored in accordance with AS 5100.5, and crosses a shear plane in Figure 6.8.5.2.1
that is assumed to resist shear failure along that plane
A tt area of top transverse reinforcement, shown in Figure 6.8.5.2.1
A ve effective vertical shear area of a diaphragm plate only
A vea minimum value of the effective vertical shear area, shown in Figure 7.6.5.2.1
A veb minimum value of the effective vertical shear area, shown in Figure 7.6.5.2.1
Aw area of the web; or
effective shear area of a plug or slot weld; or
gross sectional area of the web
Az sum of the areas of all holes in a zig-zag line extending progressively across a member or part
of a member
a a distance or dimension as defined in the text
length between transverse stiffeners; or
length of a panel; or
clear distance between transverse web stiffeners; or
transverse member spacing (or mean of adjacent spacings); or
length of the plate panel (that is, the distance between transverse stiffeners); or
panel dimension adjacent to an inclined web; or
length of the longer side of a plate panel
ae minimum distance from the edge of a hole to the edge of a ply measured in the direction of
the component of the force, plus half the diameter of the bolt
a max. maximum spacing of vertical stiffeners; or
one-half of the sum of the panel widths on each side of the stiffener
ao, a1 out-of-square dimensions of flanges
a2, a3 diagonal dimensions of a box section
a1, a2, a3 dimensions of bearing stress, shown in Figure 7.4.3.1
B spacing between main beams of a U-frame; or
spacing of the main beam webs at the level of the transverse member
Bc length of the cantilever portion of a transverse member
Bf total width of a stiffened flange between main beam webs
b distance or dimension as defined in the text; or
clear width of an element outstand from the face of a supporting plate element or the clear
width of the element between the faces of the supporting plate elements; or
distance between centres of adjacent beams or maximum distance when the beams are not
exactly parallel; or
total length of the section; or
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Symbol Definition
b (cont.) width of panel; or
mean of the clear widths of the web plate panels above and below the line of attachment of
the stiffener under consideration; or
width of a diaphragm taken as the average of the widths at the top and bottom flange levels
for boxes with sloping webs; or
spacing of stiffeners or the distance between a stiffener and a beam flange and web boundary,
as appropriate; or
width of the concrete flange of the composite section; or
lesser dimension of a web panel; or
length of the shorter side of a plate panel; or
clear width of the element outstand from the face of the supporting plate element or the clear
width of the element between the faces of supporting plate elements
bb total width of the bearing obtained by dispersions at 1:1 from b bf to the neutral axis, shown in
Figure 5.12.1(A)
b bf width of the bearing obtained by dispersion at 1:2.5 from b s to the underside of the flange,
shown in Figure 5.12.1(A)
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b bw width of the bearing obtained at the neutral axis to either side of the width bbf , shown in
Figure 5.12.1(A)
bd distance from a stiff bearing to the end of the member, shown in Figure 5.12.1(C); or
width of bottom flange of a box girder, shown in Figure 7.6.1
be width of a diaphragm at the point under consideration; or
effective width of a plate element
b eff,i total effective width
b es outstand width of a stiffener from the face of a web
bf width of the flange
b fe effective width of a flange for checking the web restraint
b fo value used in calculating flange restraint factor; or
half the clear distance between the centre-lines of adjacent webs or the distance from the
centre-line of a web to the free edge of the flange or width of the top flange of a steel section
bo trunkated value of b bw , shown in Figure 5.12.1(A)
bs length of a stiff bearing; or
width of an angle stiffener
b so width of the flange outstand of a stiffener
bw depth of the web
b 1, b 2 greater and lesser leg lengths of an angle section; or
dimension across a U stiffener or between U stiffeners
Cd factor to allow for the effects of boundary shears
C3, C4 factors for beams unrestrained at one end
C 4r reduced value of C 4
c width between supports at a diaphragm of box girder, shown in Figure 7.6.1; or
distance between centres of bearings
ch perpendicular distance to the centroid of an angle section from the face of the loaded leg of
the angle
cm factor for unequal moments
d depth of the steel section; or
depth of web of a box girder, shown in Figure 7.6.1; or
depth of the diaphragm; or
depth of preparation for incomplete penetration butt weld
db lateral distance between the centroids of the welds or fasteners
d bs nominal shank diameter
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Symbol Definition
dc depth of a section at the critical cross-section
de net depth of a diaphragm at the point under consideration; or
effective outside diameter of a circular hollow section; or
factor for buckling capacity
df distance between flange centroids; or
nominal diameter of fastener
dg distance from the centroid of a steel beam to the centroid of a composite concrete slab
dh depth of a compression block
dm depth of a section at the minimum cross-section
dn distance from the outer fibre of the bottom flange to the centroidal axis of the section (or of
the transformed composite section)
do outside diameter of a circular hollow section; or
overall section depth of the segment; or
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Symbol Definition
F* total design load on a member between supports
Fc* additional horizontal force per unit length resulting from interaction between the bending of
cross-members and vertical stiffeners
Fh* total horizontal shear on connectors
Fn* design force normal to the web
Fp* design force parallel to the web panel
Fu* nominal horizontal force acting normal to the compression flange at the level of its centroid
f flexibility of the joint between a cross-member and the verticals of a U-frame
fa longitudinal stress at the centroid of the effective section of the stiffener
fb bending strength for bending about the x-axis
f ci equivalent buckling stress in the flange
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*
f b2 bending stress induced in a stiffener
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Symbol Definition
*
f d1 vertical stress in stiffened diaphragm
*
f d2 horizontal stress in stiffened diaphragm
f i*n design stress range for loading event ‘i’ for normal stresses
f i*s design stress range for loading event ‘i’ for shear stresses
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*
f jn design stress range for loading event ‘j’ for normal stresses
* design stress range for loading event ‘k’ for shear stresses
f ks
*
f Rv reference value of in-plane shear stress in unstiffened diaphragm
* reference value of in-plane vertical stress in unstiffened diaphragm
f R1
*
f R2 reference value of in-plane horizontal stress in unstiffened diaphragm
fs* summation of stresses in each flange; or
longitudinal stress, including any redistribution of stresses from the web, positive when
compressive, at the centroid of the effective section of the stiffener; or
design stress range for shear stresses
f se* equivalent axial stress in the stiffener for buckling
f v* average design shear stress due to the applied shear force and, in a closed section, due to the
applied torsional moment; or
average shear stress in the panels on either side of the stiffener
* average design shear stress in a web
f va
f vf* shear stress in the flange due to torsion and shear force on the beam
* shear stress which would occur in the plating adjacent to a stiffener if the opening had been
f vh
fully plated
f vj* shear stress in the flange at the junction with the web of the beam due to shear force on the
beam
* maximum design shear stress in a web
f vm
f vt* in-plane shear stress in the flange due to torsion
f w* equivalent design stress on the web panel
f x* summation of the stresses about the x-axis
f y* summation of stresses about the y-axis
f1* mean longitudinal in-plane stress on a cross-section of the panel after any assumed
redistribution of stresses; or
longitudinal stress along the stiffener connection centre-line derived without distribution
f1e* effective longitudinal in-plane stress in a plate panel
f1s* vertical stress in a bearing stiffener
* vertical stress from torsional reaction on a single bearing
f1T
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Symbol Definition
f 2* in-plane transverse stress at the mid-plane of the flange plate; or
in-plane transverse stress
* horizontal bending stress in a stiffened diaphragm
f 2b
* *
f 2b max. , maximum and minimum values of f 2b within the length L s
*
f 2b min.
* *
f 2s average value of f d2 within the middle-third of the length L s
* horizontal stress in the horizontal component of a girder shear in a stiffened diaphragm when
f 2v
the webs are inclined
f c concrete compressive stress in regions of sagging moment; or
characteristic compressive strength of concrete at 28 days
f cy characteristic strength of the concrete at the age being considered
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Symbol Definition
J torsion constant for a cross-section
j contact width of a stiffened diaphragm above a bearing, shown in Figure 7.6.1; or
width of contact of a bearing pad plus 1.5 times the thickness of the bottom flange at each end
if available
K a coefficient for calculating elastic buckling
Kb plate buckling coefficient under in-plane bending
Kc plate buckling coefficient under direct compression
KD diaphragm buckling coefficient
K D1 , K D2 , K D3, coefficients used for checking buckling of diaphragms (K D )
K D4 , K D5
KT buckling coefficient for transverse members
Kv shear coefficient
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K1 axial coefficient
K2 transverse coefficient
k coefficient given by the lesser of y/b or 0.77; or
coefficient
kb elastic buckling coefficient for a plate element
k bo basic value of kb
k co cohesion coefficient given in Table 6.8.5.2.1
kd a factor for buckling of diaphragms
ke member effective length factor
kf form factor for members subject to axial compression
kh factor for different hole types
kL load height effective length factor
k L1, k L2 values of the reduction factor kL for longitudinal flange stiffeners
kn load-sharing factor given as a function of n
kp factor for pin rotation
kr lateral rotation restraint factor; or
reduction factor to account for the length of a bolted lap connection; or
reduction factor to account for the length of a welded lap connection
ks ratio used to calculate p and pm ; or
coefficient used in determining effective stiffener stress
k s1 , k s2 coefficients used for the design of longitudinal stiffeners
kt twist restraint factor; or
correction factor defined for distribution of forces
kv ratio of the flat width of a web (d 5 ) to the thickness (t) of the section
k1 U-frame restraint effective length factor
k s coefficient used in determining effective stiffener stress
L laterally restrained
L length of a stringer; or
member length from centre-to-centre of its intersections with supporting members; or
length of a segment; or
overhang from the outer edge of a bearing to the box; or
member length; or
clear length of stiffener between adjacent transverse stiffeners, cross-frames, cantilevers or
diaphragms
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Symbol Definition
Lb span length of the beam between vertical supports; or
length between points of effective bracing or restraint
Le effective length of a member
(L e /r) geometrical slenderness ratio
(L e /r) bn slenderness ratio of a battened compression member about the axis normal to the plane of the
battens
(L e /r) bp slenderness ratio of a battened compression member about the axis parallel to the plane of the
batten
(L e /r) c maximum slenderness ratio of the main component in a laced or battened compression
member; or
slenderness ratio of the main component between the interconnections
(L e /r) m slenderness ratio of the whole battened compression member
Lf horizontal distance from the reference point to the nearest edge of the bottom flange
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Symbol Definition
M ox nominal out-of-plane member moment capacity about the principal x-axis
Mp nominal section moment capacity determined by simple plastic theory; or
nominal moment capacity of a pin
M rx nominal section moment capacity about the principal x-axis reduced by axial force tension or
compression
M ry nominal section moment capacity about the principal y-axis reduced by axial force tension or
compression
Ms nominal section moment capacity
M sh nominal section moment capacity for an angle bent about the rectangular h-axis parallel to the
loaded leg
M ss nominal section moment capacity of the steel section in the support region
M sx nominal section moment capacity about the principal x-axis
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Symbol Definition
N uc nominal member capacity for a member in axial compression; or
nominal member capacity of a composite member
N us nominal section capacity for a member in axial compression; or
nominal section capacity of a concentrically loaded composite compression member
Now nominal axial capacity of a web panel if the web panel resisted axial load alone
N* design axial tensile or compressive force
N e* effective axial force resulting from out-of-plane eccentricity of the design axial force (N * )
N s* design axial load in the shear connector
N t* minimum tensile force per unit length of a beam in the transverse reinforcement in the top of
a slab due to transverse bending in the slab
N tf* design tensile force on a bolt
N u* design axial tension on the shear stud
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*
Nw design axial force acting on a web panel
n number of shear connectors per unit length
nb number of parallel planes of battens
n ei number of effective interfaces
nn number of shear planes with threads intercepting the shear plane in a bolted connection
ns number of longitudinal stiffeners in width B f ; or
number of full width horizontal stiffeners; or
number of shear planes
nw number of webs
nx number of shear planes without threads intercepting the shear plane
n number of shear connectors per unit length placed within 200 mm of the centre-line of the
web being considered
P partially restrained
P* local load on a beam, shown in Figure 7.4.3.1; or
local load applied to the top of a diaphragm; or
force on the effective diaphragm and web junction section
Pd* total vertical load applied to the top of a diaphragm
Pi* locally applied deck load between the section under consideration and the web
Ps* total vertical force in a group of bearing stiffeners
Q* design transverse force
*
Q bv total vertical force transmitted to the diaphragm by the portion of the bottom flange between
the inner edges of the bearings when there is a change in flange slope
Qc* vertical component of any cross-beam or cantilever shear
*
Qfv vertical force transmitted to the diaphragm by the portion of the bottom flange over a width L f
when there is a change of flange slope
Q h* shear force due to transverse horizontal loads on the bridge transmitted from the top flange to
the diaphragm
QT* vertical component of torsional shear transmitted into the diaphragm from one web
Q v* total vertical component of symmetric shear transmitted into the diaphragm from one web
q* shear flow at a the section of a diaphragm under consideration
Rb nominal bearing capacity of a web
R bb nominal bearing buckling capacity
R by nominal bearing yield capacity
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Symbol Definition
R sb nominal buckling capacity of a stiffened web and stiffener; or
nominal buckling capacity of a transversely stiffened web panel in bearing alone
R sy nominal yield capacity of the stiffened web
Ru nominal capacity
R* design bearing force on a web; or
design bearing force or design reaction, including the effects of any shear forces applied
directly to the stiffener; or
design reaction at the bearing
Rv* total vertical load transmitted by the diaphragm to one bearing, including the effects of torque
on twin bearings
*
Rw design bearing force acting on a web panel
r radius of gyration
re ratio of the distance from the elastic neutral axis to the compression edge of the web to the
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Symbol Definition
td plate thickness of a diaphragm
tf thickness of the flange; or
thickness of the compression flange plate; or
top flange thickness of a steel beam
tp thickness of the thinner ply element; or
thickness of the thinner part joined; or
thickness of a plate
ts thickness of a stiffener
t so average thickness of a flange outstand of width b so
tt design throat thickness of a weld
tw thickness of the web of the beam; or
size of a fillet weld
t w1 , t w2 leg lengths of a fillet weld
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U unrestrained
u factor for a U-frame restraint; or
length of a shear plane
Vb nominal shear buckling capacity of the web; or
nominal shear buckling capacity for a stiffened web; or
nominal bearing capacity of a ply; or
nominal bearing capacity of a pin
Vf nominal shear capacity of the bolt; or
nominal shear capacity of the pin
V sf nominal shear capacity of a bolt for a friction-type connection
Vu nominal shear capacity of a web with uniform shear stress distribution
Vv nominal shear capacity of a web; or
nominal shear capacity of a web panel if the web panel resisted shear alone
V vm nominal shear capacity of a web in the presence of bending moment
Vw nominal shear yield capacity of the web; or
nominal shear capacity of a weld
V* design shear force at the cross-section under consideration; or
design transverse shear force
Vb* design bearing force of a ply; or
design bearing force of a pin
*
Veff effective design longitudinal shear force on a shear connector
Vf* design shear force on a bolt or on a pin
*
VLx design longitudinal shear force on a connector at a distance x from the centre-line of the web
Vsf* design shear force in the plane of the interfaces of a friction-type connection
V w* design shear force acting on a weld; or
design shear force acting on a web panel
v L* design longitudinal shear force per unit length of a composite beam
*
vLp design longitudinal shear force per unit length of the beam on the particular shear plane
considered
design shear force per unit length; or
v*w
design force per unit length of weld
v Ls permissible longitudinal shear design force per unit length at the serviceability limit state
vw nominal capacity of a fillet weld per unit length
Wd* total uniformly distributed load applied to the top of a diaphragm
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Symbol Definition
w distributed load; or
width of the load P *, shown in Figure 7.4.3.1; or
actual width of the load P * on a diaphragm
wh width of a stiffener loop in a box girder, shown in Figure 7.6.1; or
width of a cut-out for a stiffener in a diaphragm, shown in Figure 7.6.5.2.1
x dimension along x-axis; or
major axis coordinate; or
horizontal distance of a stiffener under consideration from the centroidal axis, normal to the
plane of a diaphragm, of a stiffener group
xb distance from the section under consideration to the inner edge of the nearest bearing
xc horizontal distance from the section under consideration to the root of the cross-beam or
cantilever
xi distance from the section under consideration to the locally applied deck load Pi*
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xR distance parallel to the bottom flange from the reference point to the web mid-point
xw horizontal distance from the section under consideration to the mid-point of the web
y dimension along y-axis; or
minor axis coordinate; or
perpendicular distance from the point being considered to the longitudinal centre-line of the
panel; or
distance of the extreme fibre of a stiffener under consideration from the centroidal axis,
parallel to the plane of the diaphragm, of a stiffener group
y Bs distance from the centroid of the effective stiffener section to the neutral axis of the effective
cross-section of the beam
yc distance from the neutral axis of the composite cross-section to the centroid of area A t
yL distance of the gravity loading below the centroid
yo coordinate of the shear centre; or
distance from the centroid of the effective stiffener section to the point on the stiffener
furthest from the plate
yt distance from the axis of zero stress to the extreme tension fibre of a section
yz distance from the centroid of the effective stiffener section to the mid-plane of the flange
plate
Z elastic section modulus
Ze effective section modulus; or
effective section modulus of a diaphragm and flanges at the vertical cross-section through the
reference point; or
effective section modulus of a vertical cross-section of a diaphragm and flanges at the point
under consideration
Z ec effective section modulus of the transformed composite section
Z en effective elastic section modulus of a not compact section
Z enc effective elastic section modulus of the section transformed to steel
Z enx effective elastic section modulus of the tension and compression flange, as appropriate
Z ex effective section modulus about the principal x-axis
Z se lowest section modulus of the effective junction section about the centroidal axis parallel to
the web
Z we elastic section modulus of the web panel
angle between the x-and h-axes; or
dynamic load allowance in AS 5100.2 Table 7.7.2
a compression member factor
b compression member section constant
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Symbol Definition
bc moment modification factor for bending and compression
c compression member slenderness reduction factor
d tension field coefficient for web shear buckling; or
distortional buckling reduction factor
f flange restraint factor for web shear buckling
L, Lc factor for bending
m moment modification factor for bending
mc factor for bending
n a factor for interaction curve
p coefficient used to calculate the nominal bearing yield capacity; or
value of S/Z for compact sections
pm coefficient used to calculate p
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Symbol Definition
b moment amplification factor for a braced member
m moment amplification factor, taken as the greater of b and s
s moment amplification factor for a sway member
nom nominal strain
true true strain
compression member imperfection factor ( = eta)
1, 2,
coefficients used to calculate Nus of a circular member with an increase in concrete strength
10 , 20
rotation in radians of a cross-member at its junction with the main beam under consideration;
or
angle of preparation of an incomplete penetration butt weld
slenderness ratio
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c
p
R u
v Ls
Symbol
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
shear capacity
design capacity
26
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ratio of section depths for a hybrid girder ( = psi)
Definition
capacity factor for concrete in compression members
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SECTI ON 2 MATERIALS
2.2.1 Compliance
Except as otherwise permitted in Clause 2.2.4, all structural steel covered by the scope of
this Standard shall, before fabrication, comply with the requirements of the following
Standards, as appropriate:
(a) AS 3597.
(b) AS/NZS 1163.
(c) AS/NZS 1594.
(d) AS/NZS 3678.
(e) AS/NZS 3679.1.
(f) AS/NZS 3679.2.
Additionally, for New Zealand only, other certified steels shall comply with Appendix H.
2.2.2 Acceptance of steel
Mill certificates that comply with the minimum requirements of the appropriate Standard
listed in Clause 2.2.1 shall constitute sufficient evidence of compliance of the steel with the
Standards listed in Clause 2.2.1.
NOTE: A mill certificate includes both test and inspection certificates.
2.2.3 Unidentified steel
Where steel does not satisfy the requirements of Clause 2.2.2, it shall be classed as
unidentified steel. Unidentified steel shall not be used.
2.2.4 Other steels
Except where permitted with the specific approval of the relevant authority, steels for
machined parts and for uses in other than structural members or elements shall comply with
the relevant Standard.
2.2.5 Properties of steel
The following properties shall be assumed for all grades of steel for design purposes:
(a) Modulus of elasticity (E) ..................................................................... 200 103 MPa.
(b) Shear modulus of elasticity (G) ............................................................. 80 103 MPa.
(c) Poisson’s ratio (ν) ................................................................................................ 0.25.
(d) Coefficient of thermal expansion (αT) .................................................. 11.7 106 /°C.
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TABLE 2.2.6
MINIMUM REDUCTION IN AREA
Grade suffix %
Z15 15
Z25 25
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Z35 35
2.4 FASTENERS
Steel bolts, nuts and washers and screws shall comply with the following Standards, as
appropriate:
(a) AS 1110.
(b) AS 1111.
(c) AS 1112.1.
(d) AS 1112.2.
(e) AS 1112.3.
(f) AS 1237.1.
(g) AS 1237.2.
(h) AS/NZS 1252.
(i) ISO 7040.
(j) ISO 7041.
(k) ISO 10511.
2.5 WELDS
All welding consumables and deposited weld metal shall comply with AS/NZS 1554 series
as appropriate. Weld quality shall be either SP or GP as specified in AS/NZS 1554.1, or
AS/NZS 1554.4, as appropriate, except that where a higher weld is required by Section 13,
weld quality conforming with AS/NZS 1554.4 category FP or AS/NZS 1554.5, as
appropriate, shall be used.
Welding shall be undertaken in accordance with AS/NZS ISO 3834.2 and
AS/NZS ISO 3834.3.
NOTE: Where welding of wrought iron is proposed, specialized metallurgist advice should be
sought.
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may be checked using the rules of this Clause for steel, but with particular consideration
taken of the fatigue strength of critical details.
NOTE: For material characteristics of typical existing wrought iron, refer to AS 5100.7.
2.9 RIVETS
Where unidentified steel is used, it shall be free from surface imperfections and shall be
used only where the particular physical properties of the steel and its weldability will not
adversely affect the strength and serviceability of the structure. Unless the material is tested
in accordance with AS 1391, and sufficient samples of the material are tested to provide a
reasonable statistical basis for assessing its properties, the yield stress of the steel used in
design (fy) shall be taken as not exceeding 170 MPa, and the tensile strength used in design
(fu ) shall be taken as not exceeding 300 MPa.
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TABLE 2.1
STRENGTHS OF STEELS COMPLYING WITH AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 1594,
AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1, AS/NZS 3679.2(Note 3) AND AS 3597
Thickness of Yield stress Tensile strength
Steel Standard Form Steel grade material (t) (f y ) (f u )
mm MPa MPa
AS/NZS 1163 Hollow sections C450 All 450 500
(Note 3)
C350 All 350 430
C250 All 250 320
AS/NZS 1594 Plate, strip, sheet
HA400 All 380 460
floorplate
HW350 All 340 450
HA350 All 350 430
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HA300
All 300 400
HU300
HA250
All 250 350
HU250
AS/NZS 3678 Plate and
450 t 20 450 520
(Note 2 and 3) floorplate
450 20 < t 32 420 500
450 32 < t 50 400 500
400 t 12 400 480
400 12 < t 20 380 480
400 20 < t 80 360 480
350 t 12 360 450
350 12 < t 20 350 450
350 20 < t 80 340 450
350 80 < t 150 330 450
WR350 t 50 340 450
300 t8 320 430
300 8 < t 12 310 430
300 12 < t 20 300 430
300 20 < t 50 280 430
300 50 < t 80 270 430
300 80 < t 150 260 430
250 t8 280 410
250 8 < t 12 260 410
250 12 < t 50 250 410
250 50 < t 80 240 410
250 80 < t 150 230 410
200 t 12 200 300
(continued)
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3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 Aim
The aim of structural design is to provide a structure that does not reach any of the limit
states defined in AS 5100.1, which requires that the structure be durable, serviceable and be
adequately strong while serving its intended function. In addition, the structure has to
satisfy other relevant requirements, such as robustness, fatigue, brittle fracture, corrosion
resistance and protection, fire resistance, ease of construction and economy.
3.1.2 Design for ultimate limit states
The structure as a whole and its components shall be designed for the requirements of all
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TABLE 3.2
CAPACITY REDUCTION FACTORS ( ) FOR ULTIMATE (STRENGTH) LIMIT
STATES
Capacity reduction factor
Design capacity for Clauses
( )
(a) Structural steel:
(i) Members subject to bending—
– full lateral support 5.1, 5.11, 8.4 0.90
and App. B
– segment without full lateral support 5.1 and 5.11 0.90
– web in shear 5.10 and 5.11 0.90
– web in bearing 5.12 and 4.13 0.90
– stiffener 5.12, 5.13 and 5.14 0.90
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TABLE 3.3
CAPACITY REDUCTION FACTORS ( ) FOR SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES
Design capacity for Clauses Capacity reduction factor ( )
(a) Connections:
Bolted connection 12.5.4 0.70
– bolts in friction type connection checked for
serviceability limit state
(b) Cast steel:
– members subject to axial tension 15.3 1.00
– members subject to axial compression 15.3 1.00
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3.6 FATIGUE
For members subjected to fatigue, a fatigue assessment shall be carried out in accordance
with Section 13.
3.7 CORROSION
3.7.1 Resistance and protection
All steelwork shall be designed and detailed to minimize the risk of corrosion (see Notes 1,
3, 4 and 5).
Where necessary, the effects of possible stray current corrosion shall be considered (see
Note 2).
NOTES:
1 The basis for the design of components contained in this Standard makes no allowance for
any loss of material due to corrosion.
2 A corrosion allowance is not required for structural steel in Corrosivity Categories C1 and C2
where the coatings are appropriately specified, applied, and maintained to AS/NZS 2312.1 or
the structural steel is hot dip galvanized to AS/NZS 4680 with design details from
AS/NZS 2312.2. For Corrosivity Categories C3, C4, C5 and CX, the selection of a coating
system and the maintenance strategy should be the subject of professional advice.
3 An estimate of the durability of a coating system can be obtained from AS/NZS 2312.
4 For corrosion maps for Australia and New Zealand, see Appendix G.
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5 Guidance for applying AS/NZS 2312.1 and AS/NZS 2312.2 in combinations with the
corrosion maps in Appendix G can be found in: Australian steelwork corrosion and coatings
guide, Australian Steel Institute (ASI), ASI Number 870; and, in New Zealand, New Zealand
Steelwork Corrosion and Coatings Guide, Heavy Engineering Research Association (HERA),
HERA R4-133.
3.7.2 Allowances of weathering steel
To cater for loss of structurally effective material due to the development of rust patina
during the life of the bridge, the following corrosion allowances shall be made on each
exposed surface, representing a loss of thickness of material used for structural purposes:
(a) For AS 4312 atmospheric corrosivity categories C1 and C2, the corrosion allowance
shall be 1.0 mm per surface. For AS 4312 atmospheric corrosivity category C3, the
corrosion allowance shall be 1.5 mm per surface.
NOTE: Caution is needed for the use of weathering steel in corrosivity Category C3 in
environments in which levels of chlorides, sulfur dioxide and any other type of contaminants
are high.
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(b) For AS 4312 atmospheric corrosivity categories C4 and C5, weathering steel shall be
allowed, provided the steel is protected.
NOTE: Weathering steel with an applied corrosion protective coating is deemed to perform
the same as ordinary carbon steel with an identical applied corrosion protective coating.
(c) For ‘interior’ surfaces of box sections, the allowance shall be 0.5 mm.
The allowances stated in Items (a), (b) and (c) shall apply to fillet welds and partial
penetration butt welds.
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(c) Where steel plate, timber or precast concrete decking is utilized in ballasted or direct
fixed deck construction with top lateral bracing ................................................. 5.5 m.
(d) Where cast in situ concrete decking is used in ballasted or direct fixed deck
construction .......................................................................................................... 7 m.
Beams restrained by U-frames designed in accordance with Clauses 5.6.3 and 8.4.6, and
beams continuously restrained by a deck not at compression flange level, which have been
designed in accordance with Clauses 5.6.4 and 8.4.7, shall be deemed to comply with this
Clause.
3.10.2 Slenderness ratio for rail bridges
The slenderness ratio of length to the least radius of gyration in rail bridges shall be not
greater than—
(a) 100 for main compression members;
(b) 120 for wind and sway bracing in compression;
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permitted.
(b) The end 40 mm of stiffener to web weld shall be fatigue life enhanced.
NOTE: For methods of enhancement, refer to ‘TGN-D-02, Introduction to Fatigue of Welded
Steel Structures and Post-Weld Improvement Techniques,’ Welding Technology Institute of
Australia.
(c) At cross-girder to through girder connections, the cross-girder bottom flange shall be
bolted to the through girder bottom flange.
3.10.8 Transom top rail bridge
For transom top spans where transoms load either girders or trusses, full account of the
eccentricity of transom loading shall be taken in the following cases:
(a) Local bending under transoms of top flanges of girders or top chords of trusses.
(b) Torsional loading of girders or top chords of trusses.
3.10.9 Thickness of material for rail bridges
Metal, except for fillers, shall be not less than 8 mm thick.
NOTE: Parts used in highly corrosive environment should have their thickness increased as
appropriate, or else protected against such influences.
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E ar t h q u a ke d e s i g n
NZ TA
AS 510 0. 2
B r i d g e m anu al
S p e c i al No
design and μ ≤ 2 NZS 3 4 0 4.1
d et ailing
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Ye s
D e s i g n to
AS / NZS 510 0.6
an d AS 510 0. 2
Po s s i b l e s o lut i o n
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In addition, where appropriate, the requirements of Clauses 4.4 to 4.9 shall be satisfied.
4.1.2 Definitions
For the purpose of this Section, the definitions below apply:
4.1.2.1 Braced member
One for which the transverse displacement of one end of the member relative to the other is
effectively prevented. This applies to triangulated frames and trusses or to frames where in-
plane stiffness is provided by diagonal bracing, or by deck slabs or by bracing systems
parallel to the plane of buckling of the member.
4.1.2.2 Sway member
One for which the transverse displacement of one end of the member relative to the other is
not effectively prevented. Such members occur in structures that depend on flexural action
to limit the sway.
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For a braced member with zero axial force or a braced member subject to axial tension, the
design bending moment (M*) shall be calculated as follows:
M* = M m* . . . 4.2.2.2(1)
For a braced member with a design axial compressive force (N*) as determined by the
analysis, the design bending moment (M*) shall be calculated as follows:
M* = b M m* . . . 4.2.2.2(2)
where
M m* = maximum calculated design bending moment along the length of a member
or in a segment
b = moment amplification factor for a braced member, calculated as follows:
cm
b 1
N* . . . 4.2.2.2(3)
1
N omb
Nomb = elastic flexural buckling load of a braced member, determined in
accordance with Clause 4.3.1 for the braced member buckling
about the same axis as that about which the design bending
moment (M* ) is applied
For a braced member subject to end moments only, the factor for unequal moments (c m)
shall be calculated as follows:
cm = 0.6 0.4 m 1.0 . . . 4.2.2.2(4)
where
m = ratio of the smaller to the larger moment at the ends of the member, taken
as positive when the member is bent in reverse curvature, except that for
column members being designed for load combinations which include
earthquake loads
= 0
The same expression for c m shall be used for a braced member with transverse load applied
to it, with the values of m approximated by the value obtained by matching the distribution
of moment along the member with one of the typical distributions of bending moment
shown in Figure 4.2.2.2. For members where the maximum moment occurs within the
length of the member, m may conservatively be taken as 1.0.
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M o m e nt d i s t r i b u ti o n M o m e nt d i s t r i b u ti o n
M* M*
-1.0 -1.0
M* M*
+0. 2 +0. 5
M* M*
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M* M*
2 2
+0.6 +1.0
M* M*
M* M*
- 0. 5 +0.4
M* M*
2 2
M* M*
+0. 2 +0
M* M*
M* M*
2 2
+0. 2 +0. 5
M* M*
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M o m e n t di s tr ib u ti o n βm M o m e n t di s tr ib u ti o n βm
M* M*
- 0.4 - 0. 5
M* M*
2 2
M* M*
+ 0.1 - 0.1
M* M*
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M* M*
2 2
+ 0.7 + 0. 3
M* M*
M* M*
M* M*
2 2
- 0. 5 - 0.4
M* M*
2 2
M* M*
M* M*
2 2
- 0. 2 - 0.1
M* M*
M* M*
β +1. 0
βM *
M*
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The elastic buckling load factor (ms) for the member under consideration shall
be determined as follows:
N oms
L
ms . . . 4.2.2.3(3)
N*
L
where
Noms = member buckling load for each column determined in accordance
with Clause 4.3.1, and the summations include all columns at the
same level
N* = member design axial force, with tension taken as negative
(b) Sway members in non-rectangular frames The amplification factor (s) for
each sway member shall be taken as the value for the frame calculated as
follows:
1
s
1 . . . 4.2.2.3(4)
1
c
where the elastic buckling load factor (c) shall be determined from a rational
buckling analysis of the whole frame.
NOTE: c is the ratio of the elastic buckling load set of the frame to the design load set
for the frame, and hence will vary with each design load set.
4.2.3 Residual stresses
The design strengths determined by the methods defined in this Standard may be assumed
to allow for residual stresses due to rolling, handling, transportation and normal welding
procedures. Allowance may however need to be made for the effects of residual stresses in
the calculation of initial deflections.
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B r ac e d m e m b er S way m e m b er
P P P P P P
Buckled
shape
Ef fe c t i ve l e n g t h
0.70 0.8 5 1.0 0 1. 20 2. 20 2. 20
fac tor (K e)
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TABLE 4.3.2.3
STIFFNESS MODIFYING FACTORS (e)
Fixity conditions at far end of beam Beam restraining a Beam restraining a
braced member sway member
Rigidly connected to a column 1.0 1.0
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ST IFFN ES S R AT I O AT EN D 1, 1
0
50
0
6
3
4
0. 5
2
0
10
1.0
1. 5
1. 2
0
0.
55
0.
60
0.
65
0. 5
0.
70
0.
75
47
ke
1.0
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1. 2
0.
80
1. 5
ST IFFN ES S R AT I O AT EN D 2,
2
2
0.
85
3
0.
90
NOTE: For a braced member, the translational restraint stiffness has been assumed to be infinite.
0.
95
0
0
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
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0
0
50
4
10
3
2.
5
6
2.
0
4
1.
8
3
1.
6
2
1.
5
1
ST IFFN ES S R AT I O AT EN D 1,
1. 5
1.
4
1. 2 ke
1.0
1.
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3
1.
25
1.
20
1.
0. 5
15
1.
10
1.
05
0
0
0 0. 5 1.0 1. 2 1. 5 2 3 4 6 10 50
ST IFFN ES S R AT I O AT EN D 2, 2
NOTE: For a sway member, the translational restraint stiffness has been assumed to be zero.
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where
b0 = distance between the centres of the outstand shear connectors
bei = value of the effective width of the concrete flange on each side of the
web and taken as Lef,i /8 (but not greater than the geometric width bi)
The geometric breadth (bi) of each portion shall be taken as half the
distance to the adjacent beam, measured to the centre-line of the web,
except that at a free edge the actual breadth is the distance from the
beam to free edge.
For typical continuous composite beams, where a moment envelope
from various load arrangements governs the design (and for
cantilevers), the equivalent span Lef,i shall be assumed to be as shown in
Figure 4.4.2
The effective width at an end support shall be determined as follows:
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CL of beam
b eff
b0
2 4 b1 b2
1 3 b e1 be2
L1 L2 L3
L 1 /4 L 1 /2 L 1 /4 L 2 /4 L 2 /2 L 2 /4
(c) Ef fe c t i ve b eam w i d t h s h ow n in p l an
LEGEN D:
L e f1 = 0.8 5 L 1 for b e f f1 in se g m e nt 1
L e f 2 = 0. 25 (L 1 + L 2 ) for b e f f 2 in se g m e nt 2
L e f 3 = 0.70 L 2 for b e f f 3 in se g m e nt 3
L e f4 = 2 L 3 for b e f f4 in se g m e nt 4
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connectors in the negative moment region shall be designed on the basis that the concrete is
uncracked, as specified in Clause 6.4.3.
Alternatively, the stiffening effect of the concrete over 15% of the length of the span on
each side of each internal support may be neglected. In this case, the area of longitudinal
reinforcement in the effective width of the concrete slab over the support shall be included
in the determination of the flexural stiffness of the section.
4.4.5 Calculation of deflections
In calculating deflections, consideration shall be given to the sequence of construction and,
where appropriate, proper account shall be taken of the deflections of the steel section due
to loads applied to it prior to the development of composite action and of partial composite
action where deck slabs are cast in stages.
Deflections may be calculated by first order elastic theory assuming full interaction
between the concrete and steel beam, and neglecting the effect of the concrete in tension.
Allowance for shear lag effects in flanges shall be made by using effective flange widths in
calculations.
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No shedding shall be made from any panel containing a hole or opening having a diameter
in any direction greater than six times the thickness of the web, or one-fifth of the smaller
dimension of the panel, whichever is less, nor from any panel, any part of which is within a
distance from the nearest edge of such hole or opening equal to the largest diameter of the
hole or opening.
4.5.4 Effective web thickness for bending stress analysis
For beams with longitudinally stiffened webs that are designed in accordance with
Clauses 7.3 and 7.4, the effective web thickness may be taken to be the full thickness of the
web plate where adequate stiffeners are provided perpendicular to the compression flange.
4.5.5 Stiffener continuity
The area of longitudinal stiffeners may be included for stress analysis only if the stiffeners
are continuous on either side of the section under consideration over a distance equal to the
depth of the beam.
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4.7 CONNECTIONS
4.7.1 General
Each element in a connection shall be designed so that the structure is capable of resisting
all design actions. The design capacities of each element shall be not less than the
calculated design action effects.
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Connections and the adjacent area of members shall be designed by distributing the design
action effects so that they comply with the following:
(a) The distributed design action effects are in equilibrium with the design action effects
acting on the connection.
(b) The deformations in the connection are within the deformation capacities of the
connection elements.
(c) All of the connection elements and the adjacent areas of members are capable of
resisting the design action effects acting on them.
(d) The connection elements shall remain stable under the design action effects and
deformations.
Residual actions due to the installation of bolts need not be considered.
4.7.2 Analysis of a bolt group subject to in-plane loading
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The design actions in a bolt group shall be determined by an analysis based on the
following assumptions:
(a) The connection plates shall be considered to be rigid and to rotate relative to each
other about a point known as the instantaneous centre of the bolt group.
(b) In the case of a bolt group subject to a pure couple only, the instantaneous centre of
rotation shall be taken to coincide with the bolt group centroid.
In the case of a bolt group subject to an in-plane shear force applied at the group
centroid, the instantaneous centre of rotation is at infinity and the design shear force
is uniformly distributed throughout the group.
In all other cases, either the results of independent analyses for a pure couple alone
and for an in-plane shear force applied at the bolt group centroid shall be
superimposed, or a recognized method of analysis shall be used.
(c) The design shear force in each bolt shall be assumed to act at right angles to the
radius from the bolt to the instantaneous centre, and shall be taken as proportional to
that radius.
4.7.3 Analysis of a bolt group subject to out-of-plane loading
The design actions in any bolt in a bolt group subject to out-of-plane loading shall be
determined in accordance with Clause 4.7.1.
4.7.4 Analysis of a bolt group subject to a combination of in-plane and out-of-plane
loading
The design actions in any bolt in a bolt group shall be determined in accordance with
Clauses 4.7.2 and 4.7.3.
4.7.5 Analysis of a weld group subject to in-plane loading
4.7.5.1 General method of analysis
The design force per unit length in a fillet weld group subject to in-plane loading shall be
determined in accordance with the following:
(a) The connection plates shall be considered to be rigid and to rotate relative to each
other about a point known as the instantaneous centre of rotation of the weld group.
(b) In the case of a weld group subject to a pure couple only, the instantaneous centre of
rotation shall be taken to coincide with the weld group centroid.
In the case of a weld group subject to an in-plane shear force applied at the group
centroid, the instantaneous centre of the rotation is at infinity and the design force per
unit length ( v w* ) is uniformly distributed throughout the group.
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In all other cases, either the results of independent analyses for a pure couple alone
and for an in-plane shear force applied at the weld group centroid shall be
superposed, or a recognized method of analysis shall be used.
(c) The design force per unit length ( v w* ) at any point in the fillet weld group shall be
assumed to act at right angles to the radius from that point to the instantaneous centre,
and shall be taken as proportional to that radius.
4.7.5.2 Alternative analysis
The design force per unit length of weld ( v w* ) in the fillet weld group may be determined by
considering the fillet weld group as an extension of the connected member and
proportioning the design force per unit length in the fillet weld group to satisfy equilibrium
between the fillet weld group and the elements of the connected member.
4.7.6 Analysis of a weld group subject to out-of-plane loading
4.7.6.1 General method of analysis
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The design force per unit length of weld ( v w* ) in a fillet weld group subject to out-of-plane
loading shall be determined in accordance with the following:
(a) The fillet weld group shall be considered in isolation from the connected element.
(b) The design force per unit length of weld ( v w* ) in the fillet weld resulting from a
design bending moment shall be considered to vary linearly with the distance from
the relevant centroidal axes. The design force per unit length in the fillet weld group
resulting from any shear force or axial force shall be considered to be uniformly
distributed over the length of the fillet weld group.
4.7.6.2 Alternative analysis
The design force per unit length of weld ( v w* ) in a fillet weld group may be determined by
considering the fillet weld group as an extension of the connected member and distributing
the design forces among the welds of the fillet weld group so as to satisfy equilibrium
between the fillet weld group and the elements of the connected member.
4.7.7 Analysis of a weld group subject to a combination of in-plane and out-of-plane
loading
The design force per unit length shall be determined from analyses in accordance with
Clauses 4.7.5.1 and 4.7.6.1, or Clauses 4.7.5.2 and 4.7.6.2, as appropriate.
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The effective width of the concrete flange may be calculated in accordance with
Clause 4.4.2. Where the section properties of a composite section varies significantly along
the length of any span, account shall be taken of the variation of section properties when
calculating the longitudinal shear flow.
steel beam. The stiffness shall be based on the transformed composite cross-section using a
modular ratio appropriate to short-term loading and assuming the concrete slab to have an
effective width calculated in accordance with Clause 4.4.2.
4.9.1.2 Shrinkage effects
When the effects of shrinkage modified by creep adversely affect the structure, they shall
be calculated in the manner described for differential temperature effects, but using a
modular ratio appropriate to long-term loading. The beneficial effects of the creep of
concrete shall be taken into account.
4.9.2 Serviceability limit state
4.9.2.1 General
The effects of shrinkage and differential temperature shall be considered at the
serviceability limit state for composite beams with sections that are not compact at internal
supports.
Account shall be taken of the longitudinal shear forces arising from shrinkage and
differential temperature effects in the design of all composite beams for the serviceability
limit state.
4.9.2.2 Longitudinal shear
Longitudinal shear forces due to the primary effects of shrinkage or differential temperature
shall be assumed to be transmitted across the interface between the steel beam and the
concrete slab by shear connectors at each end of the beam, ignoring the effects of bond.
In the absence of a more accurate analysis, the forces on the connectors may be calculated
by assuming that the rate of transfer of longitudinal force varies linearly from a maximum
at the end of the beam to zero at a distance from the end equal to the total effective width of
the slab. Alternatively, where stud shear connectors are used, the rate of transfer of force
may be assumed to be constant over a distance from each end of the beam equal to one fifth
of the span of the beam.
4.9.3 Strength limit state
4.9.3.1 General
The effects of shrinkage and differential temperature need only be considered at the
strength limit state when the cross-section of the steel member is not compact.
4.9.3.2 Longitudinal shear
The longitudinal shear forces arising from the effects of shrinkage and differential
temperature shall be considered in the design of the longitudinal and transverse
reinforcement in the concrete slab.
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TABLE 4.10.1
ASSUMPTIONS FOR FE-METHODS
Material Geometric Imperfections
No Example of use
behaviour behaviour (see Clause 4.10.5)
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TABLE 4.10.5(A)
EQUIVALENT GEOMETRIC IMPERFECTIONS
Type of imperfection Component Shape Magnitude
global member with length ℓ bow e 0 /ℓ from Table 4.10.5(B)
global longitudinal stiffener with length a bow min (a/400, b/400)
local panel or subpanel with short span a buckling shape min (a/200, b/200)
or b
local stiffener or flange subject to twist bow twist 1/50
TABLE 4.10.5(B)
DESIGN VALUES OF INITIAL LOCAL BOW IMPERFECTION e0 /ℓ
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global
Type of
length a
subpanel
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
longitudinal
with length ℓ
imperfection
stiffener with
local panel or
global member
b
b
e 0w
a
58
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l
l
ee00 yy
ee00 zz
a
Component
b
e 0w
e 0w
a
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Type of
Component
imperfection
1
50
local stiffener or
flange subject b
to twist
a
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Model
σ σ
fy fy 1
with yielding
plateau
t an -1(E) t an -1(E)
ε ε
1 t an -1(E /10 0 0)
(or s im il ar ly s m all valu e)
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a) b)
σ σ 1
fy t an -1(E /10 0) fy
2
with strain-
hardening
t an -1(E) t an -1(E)
ε ε
1 tr ue stres s - strain c ur ve
2 stres s - strain c ur ve from te sts
c) d)
4.10.7 Loads
The loads applied to the structures shall include relevant load factors and load combination
factors. For simplicity, a single load multiplier α may be used.
4.10.8 Limit state criteria
The ultimate limit state criteria shall be used as follows:
(a) For structures susceptible to buckling—attainment of the maximum load.
(b) For regions subjected to tensile stresses—attainment of a limiting value of the
principal membrane strain.
4.10.9 Load factors
The load magnification factor (u) to the ultimate limit state shall be sufficient to achieve
the required reliability.
The magnification factor αu shall consist of two factors as follows:
(a) α1 to cover the model uncertainty of the FE-modelling used. It shall be obtained from
evaluations of test calibrations, as set out in AS/NZS 1170.0;
(b) α2 to cover the scatter of the loading and resistance models. It shall be taken as the
reciprocal of the appropriate capacity reduction factor from Table 3.2 (i.e. α2 = 1/ϕ).
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2 It is conservative to model contact between the concrete slab bottom face and steel I-section
top flange upper face. If full composite action is assumed this interface can be rigid (i.e. bond
or tie).
3 It is often sufficient to represent the steel I-section by shell modelling, but 3D modelling is
also acceptable.
4.10.13.5 Sensitivity of analysis to input data, modelling approach and material
parameters
A clear problem description and scope of work shall be given prior to the commencement of
the FE modelling.
NOTE: The choice of concrete slab modelling approach is also influenced by the FE analysis
objectives.
Checks shall be made to investigate the influence of key input data and mesh sensitivity on
the analysis results. Attention shall be paid to the meshing of the concrete shell or 3D
volume in relation to the spacing of the reinforcement.
NOTE: Results of reinforced concrete structures are often dependent on the amount and
specification of concrete tension stiffening, reinforcement bar per finite element ratio, embedded
reinforcement and other data.
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σt
σ t0
E0
(1- d t ) E 0
εt
~ ~
ε pt l ε et l
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(a) In te n s i o n
σc
σ cu
σ c0
E0 (1- d c ) E 0
εc
~ ~
ε pc l ε ec l
(b) In c o m pre s s i o n
NOTES:
1 Under uniaxial tension the concrete engineering stress-strain response follows a linear elastic relationship
until the value of the failure stress, σ t0, is reached. The post failure behaviour for direct straining is
modelled with tension stiffening, which permits the strain-softening behaviour for cracked concrete to be
defined. ~tpl and ε t el are tensile equivalent plastic and elastic strains, respectively.
2 Under uniaxial compression the concrete engineering response is linear until the value of initial yield, σ c0.
In the plastic regime, the response is typically characterized by stress hardening followed by strain
softening beyond the ultimate stress, σ cu . This representation, although somewhat simplified, captures the
main features of the response of concrete. ~cpl and ε c el are compressive equivalent plastic strains and
elastic strains, respectively.
3 E 0 is the initial (undamaged) elastic stiffness of the concrete in tension and compression. The modelling of
stiffness degradation of concrete in tension and compression is denoted by uniaxial damage variables, d t
and d c . Including damage in the material model is optional.
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e
ey
where
e = plate element slenderness
= b f
y
. . . 5.1.2(1)
t 250
b = clear width of the element outstand from the face of the supporting
plate element or the clear width of the element between the faces of
supporting plate elements
NOTE: A longitudinal stiffener that complies with Clause 5.1.5 may be
considered to be a supporting plate element for the purposes of calculating
b.
t = element thickness
ey = plate element yield slenderness limit (see Table 5.1.2)
The section plasticity and yield slenderness limits (sp) and (sy) respectively shall be taken
as the values of the element plasticity and yield slenderness limits (ep) and (ey)
respectively, given in Table 5.1.2 for the element of the cross-section that has the greatest
value of e/ey.
For circular hollow sections, the section slenderness (s) shall be calculated as follows:
do f y
s
. . . 5.1.2(2)
t 250
where do is the outside diameter of the section.
The section plasticity and yield slenderness limits (sp) and (sy), respectively, shall be
taken as the values of the element plasticity and yield slenderness limits (ep) and (ey),
respectively, given in Table 5.1.2.
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TABLE 5.1.2
VALUES OF PLATE ELEMENT SLENDERNESS LIMITS
Plate Longitudinal Residual Plasticity Stress Yield limit Stress Deformation
element edges stress limit distribution ( ey ) distribution limit
type supported (see Notes) ( ep ) ( ed )
Flat One SR 10 Compression 16 Compression 35
HR 9 16 35
LW, CF 8 15 35
HW 8 14 35
(Uniform compression)
Flat One SR 10 25 —
HR 9 25 —
LW, CF 8 22 —
HW 8 22 —
(Maximum compression
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(Uniform compression)
Flat Both Any 82 115 —
(Compression at one
edge, tension at the other,
neutral axis at mid
height)
Flat Both Any For r p d 1 C o m p. For re d 1 C o m p.
1.0 r p 0.5 1.0 r e 0
d1 d1
111 60
4.7 rp 1 Te n s i o n re Te n s i o n
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by omitting from each flat compression element the width in excess of the width
corresponding to ey for that element. Flat plate elements in non-uniform compression may
conservatively be assumed to be in uniform compression.
When the web of an I-section or channel section member is not compact, the effective
cross-section shall be determined by ignoring a section of the web in the compression zone.
The section to be ignored shall be a height (x) of the web as shown in Figure 5.1.4.
For elements where e > ed in which ed is the plate element deformation slenderness limit
given in Table 5.1.2, noticeable deformations may occur under service loading.
C o m pre s s i o n fl a n g e
25 0
28 t w
fy
El a s t i c c e ntr o i d a x i s
25 0
28 t w
fy
tw
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For sections with holes that reduce either of the flange areas by more than
100{1 [f y/(0.85fu)]}%, the elastic and plastic section moduli shall be calculated using
either—
(a) (An/Ag) times the value for the gross section, in which An is the sum of the net areas of
the flanges and the gross area of the web, and Ag is the gross area of the cross-section;
or
(b) the net section.
When net areas are calculated, any deductions for fastener holes shall be made in
accordance with Clause 12.4.
For rail bridges, the net areas shall be used in all cases.
5.1.6 Design of compact sections for bending moment
A member with compact cross-sections bent about the section principal x-axis shall
satisfy—
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where
M y* = design bending moment about the principal y-axis determined in accordance
with Clause 4.2
Msy = nominal section moment capacity, as specified in Clause 5.2, for bending
about the principal y-axis
A member whose deflections are constrained to a non-principal plane shall be analysed in
accordance with Clause 5.7.1 and shall satisfy Clause 11.3.4.
A member that is bent about a non-principal axis and whose deflections are unconstrained
shall be analysed in accordance with Clause 5.7.2 and shall satisfy Clauses 11.3.4
and 11.4.4.
A member subjected to combined bending and shear shall satisfy this Clause and
Clause 5.11.
A member subjected to combined bending and axial compression or tension shall satisfy
Clause 11.4.
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5.1.7 Design of sections that are not compact for bending moment
A member with sections that are not compact bent about the section principal x-axis shall
satisfy—
(a) f x* f y; and . . . 5.1.7(1)
(b) f x* fb . . . 5.1.7(2)
where
f x* = summation of stresses about the x-axis, determined in accordance with
Clause 4.2, at the stage of construction under consideration, determined using
the elastic section modulus based on effective section, appropriate for that
stage of construction and calculated separately for each flange
fb = bending strength for bending about the x-axis
M bx
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where
f y* = summation of stresses about the principal y-axis determined in accordance
with Clause 4.2, at the stage of construction under consideration, determined
using the elastic section modulus based on effective section, appropriate for
that stage of construction and calculated separately for each flange
A member whose deflections are constrained to a non-principal plane shall be analysed in
accordance with Clause 5.6.1 and shall satisfy Clause 11.3.4.
A member that is bent about a non-principal axis and whose deflections are unconstrained
shall be analysed in accordance with Clause 5.7.2 and shall satisfy Clauses 11.3.4
and 11.4.4.
A member subjected to combined bending and shear shall satisfy this Clause and
Clause 5.11.
A member subjected to combined bending and axial compression or tension shall satisfy
Clause 11.4.
5.1.8 Hybrid beams
5.1.8.1 General
Hybrid beams are steel beams where the web is of lower strength steel than the flanges.
Hybrid beams comprising compact sections shall be designed for bending moment in
accordance with Clause 5.1.6.
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Hybrid beam sections that are not compact shall be designed for bending moment such
that—
(a) f* rn f y; and . . . 5.1.8.1(1)
(b) f fb
*
. . . 5.1.8.1(2)
where
f* = as specified in Clause 5.1.7
rn = hybrid factor specified in Clauses 5.1.8.2 and 5.1.8.3, as appropriate
fy = yield stress of the flanges
fb = as specified in Clause 5.1.7
For homogenous sections, rn shall be taken as 1.0.
5.1.8.2 Hybrid factors for sagging moment regions
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In sagging moment regions, the hybrid factor (rn) shall be taken as follows:
1 2 3
rn 1 . . . 5.1.8.2(1)
6 (3 )
where
= ratio of web to bottom flange area for a hybrid girder
= Aw/Afb . . . 5.1.8.2(2)
Aw = area of the web, in square millimetres
Afb = area of the bottom flange, in square millimetres
= ratio of section depths for a hybrid girder
= dn/d . . . 5.1.8.2(3)
dn = distance from outer fibre of bottom flange to the centroidal axis of the
section (or transformed composite section)
d = depth of steel section
= ratio of yield stresses of web to bottom flange for a hybrid girder
= fyw/f yb . . . 5.1.8.2(4)
fyw = nominal yield stress of the web material
fyb = nominal yield stress of the bottom flange material
5.1.8.3 Hybrid factor for hogging moment regions
In hogging moment regions, the hybrid factor (rn) shall be taken as either one of the
following:
(a) Where the elastic neutral axis of the full section (including composite section)
determined from the algebraic sum of stresses in the steel (and composite section) is
located within 10% of the web depth from mid-depth of the web—
rn
12 3 3 . . . 5.1.8.3(1)
12 2
where
= 2Aw/Atf . . . 5.1.8.3(2)
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= fyw/ffl . . . 5.1.8.3(3)
Atf = total area of both steel flanges and the longitudinal reinforcement
included in the section
ffl = lesser of the yield stress used in design, or the design stress in
either flange
(b) For other hybrid sections—
M yr
rn . . . 5.1.8.3(4)
My
where
Myr = section moment capacity (elastic) when web yielding is accounted for
My = section moment capacity (elastic) when web yielding is disregarded
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(b) the length (L) of each sub-segment satisfies Clause 5.3.2.4; and
(c) the lateral restraints act at the critical flange, as specified in Clause 5.5.
5.3.2.4 Segments with full or partial restraints at both ends
A segment with full or partial restraints at both ends, as specified in Clauses 5.4.2.1 and
5.4.2.2, may be considered to have full lateral restraint, provided its length (L) satisfies—
L 250
(a) 80 50 m if the segment is of equal flanged I section;
ry fy
L 250
(b) 60 40 m if the segment is an equal flanged channel;
ry fy
L 2 Ad f 250
(c) 80 50 m if the segment is an I section with unequal flanges;
ry 2.5 Z ex fy
L b 250
(e) 210 175 m 2 if the segment is of angle section
t b f
1 y
where
ry = radius of gyration about the principal y-axis
= proportion of stress redistributed from an unrestrained web panel
= Icy/I y . . . 5.2.3.4
Icy = second moment of area of the compression flange about the section
principal y-axis
Iy = second moment of area of the section about the section principal y-
axis
A = area of cross-section
df = distance between flange centroids
Zex = effective section modulus about the principal x-axis, as specified in
Clause 5.1
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5.4 RESTRAINTS
5.4.1 General
A cross-section may be considered to be fully, partially, rotationally or laterally restrained
if its restraints satisfy Clause 5.4.2, as appropriate.
Restraints against lateral deflection, twist rotation, or lateral rotation shall be designed in
accordance with Clause 8.4.
Any cross-section of a member, which does not satisfy any of Clauses 5.4.2.1 to 5.4.2.4,
shall be considered to be unrestrained, for example in Figure 5.4.1, unless the member
capacity in bending is determined by the method of design by buckling analysis specified in
Clause 5.6.6.
C
Tw i st
r ot at i o n C
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We b
s t i f fe n er
N OTE: Eit h er fl an g e m ay b e c r it i c al
(a) Cr it i c al fl an g e re str aint , ef fe c t i ve t w i st re str aint
C C
Fl ex i b l e Fl ex i b l e
C
Fly br ac e
Stiff Stiff
C We b C
s t i f fe n er Fly br ac e
Stiff Fl ex i b l e
C Fl ex i b l e
C
C Fly br ac e
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L ater al
r ot at i o n
Restrained Ef fe c t i ve
s e g m e nt s l e n g t h (l e )
Restrained
s e g m e nt
R ot at i o n a l
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restraint L ater al Ef fe c t i ve
r ot at i o n l e n g t h (l e )
TOP VIE W
S e g m e nt w i t h f u l l
lateral sup p or t
C C
LEGEN D:
Pin c o n n e c t i o n
M o m e nt c o n n e c t i o n
C Cr it i c al fl an g e
C r i ti c a l f l a n g e r e s tr a i nt, n o t wi s t r e s tr a i nt
L EG EN D:
Pi n c o n n e c ti o n
C C r i ti c a l f l a n g e
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Displacement at midspan
M a i n g i r d e r r ot a te s ,
d i s p l a c e s u pwa r d
a n d l ate r a ll y
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where
M m* = maximum design bending moment in the segment
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2 EI y 2 EI
M o 2 GJ 2 w . . . 5.6.1.1(4)
le le
where
E, G = elastic moduli
Iy, J, Iw = section constants (see Appendix A)
le = effective length, determined in accordance with Clause 5.6.3,
Clause 5.6.4 or Clause 5.6.5
NOTE: Expressions for J and I w are given in Appendix A.
(b) Segments of varying cross-section The nominal member moment capacity (Mb) shall
be determined in accordance with Clause 5.6.1.1(a) using any of the following:
(i) The properties of the minimum cross-section.
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Afm 0.4d m
rs = 0.6 . . . 5.6.1.1(7)
Afc dc
Afm, Afc = flange areas at the minimum and critical cross-sections,
respectively
d m, d c = section depths at the minimum and critical cross-
sections, respectively
(iii) The method of design by buckling analysis as specified in Clause 5.6.6.
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TABLE 5.6.1
MOMENT MODIFICATION FACTOR (α m) FOR SEGMENTS FULLY OR
PARTIALLY RESTRAINED AT BOTH ENDS
Moment
Beam segment Moment distribution modification Range
f a c to r, m
m
M 2. 5 0.6 < m
< 1
Fl 2a
F F 2
1-( l )
2
2a
(
1.0+0. 3 5 1-
l
) 0 < 2a < 1
l
2a
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Fl 2a 2
F 4 [ ( )]
1-
l 2
1.0+0.4 ( 2la ) 0 < 2a < 1
l
a
Fl 2
F
3 m
Fl 4 ( 1- 8
m
) 1. 3 5 + 0.15 0 < < 0.9
m m
16
l l 3 m
Fl
-1. 2 + 3.0 0.9 < < 1
2 2 16 m m
Fl Fl Fl
m F m
4 ( 1- 2
m
)
8 8 1. 3 5 + 0. 3 6 0 < < 1
l l m
Fl m m
2 2 8
wl2 2
w m
wl 2
8
(
1- m
4
) 1.13 + 0.10 0 < m
< 0.7
m
8
m wl 2 -1. 25 + 3. 5 m
0.7 < m
< 1
8
wl2 2 m
m
wl 2 w m
wl 2
8
1-( 3
) 1.13 + 0.12 m 0 < < 0.75
12 12 m
2
m wl -2. 3 8 + 4. 8 m 0.75 < m
< 1
12
M M M 1.0 0
Fl 1.75
w
wl2
3.50
2
N OT E: f u l l o r p a r ti a l r e s t r a i n t
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2 EI y 2 EI w x EI y
2
2 EI y
(a) Mo 2
L
GJ 2
2 x 2 . . . 5.6.1.2(1)
e Le 4 Le 2 Le
where
df = distance between flange centroids
Icy = second moment of area of the compression flange about the section
principal y-axis
x
1
(ii) x 2
y y 3 dA 2 y o . . . 5.6.1.2(3)
Ix
where yo is the coordinate of the shear centre and x and y are the major and minor axis
coordinates.
NOTE: The values of x are positive when the larger flange is in compression, and negative when
the smaller flange is in compression.
5.6.1.3 Angle sections
The nominal member moment capacity (Mb) of an angle section shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 5.6.1.1(a), using Iw = 0.
5.6.1.4 Hollow sections
The nominal member moment capacity (Mb) of a rectangular hollow section shall be
determined in accordance with Clause 5.6.1.1(a), using Iw = 0.
5.6.2 Segments unrestrained at one end
The nominal member moment capacity (Mb) of a segment unrestrained at one end and at the
other end both—
(a) fully or partially restrained; and
(b) laterally continuous or restrained against lateral rotation, shall be determined using
either—
(i) the provisions of Clause 5.6.1.1(a) with Moa equal to the appropriate value of
Mo and the appropriate value of α m given in Table 5.6.2; or
(ii) Mb = αsMs Ms, where the slenderness reduction factor (αs) shall be determined
as follows:
2
M
Ms
s 0.6 3 s . . . 5.6.2
M ob M ob
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where the nominal section moment capacity (Ms) shall be determined in accordance
with Clause 5.2 for the gross section, and the elastic buckling moment ( Mob) shall be
determined by an elastic buckling analysis in accordance with Clause 5.6.6.
TABLE 5.6.2
MOMENT MODIFICATION FACTORS (α m) FOR SEGMENTS
UNRESTRAINED AT ONE END
M o m e n t m o d i f i c a ti o n
Member segment M o m e nt d i s t r i b u ti o n
fa c to r, m
M M M 0. 25
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Fl 1. 25
w
wl 2
2. 25
2
N OT E: Fu ll o r p a r ti a l r e s tr a i nt
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In cases of symmetrical U-frames, where cross-members and verticals are each of constant
moment of inertia throughout their own length, it may be assumed that—
d13 ubd 22
u fd 22 . . . 5.6.3(2)
3EI1 EI 2
where
d1 = distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the nearer face of the
cross-member of the U-frame [see Figure 5.6.3(a)]
I1 = second moment of area of the effective section of the vertical about its axis of
bending
A width of web plate of up to 16 times the web thickness may be included on
each side of the centre-line of its connection when determining the effective
section of the vertical
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u = a factor
= 0.5 for an outer beam
= 0.33 for an inner beam, if there are three or more beams interconnected by
U-frames
b = distance between centres of adjacent beams, or the maximum distance when
the beams are not exactly parallel
d2 = distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the centroidal axis of
the cross-member of the U-frame [see Figure 5.6.3(a)]
I2 = second moment of area of the cross-member of the U-frame about an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the U-frame
A width of deck on either side of the U-frame equal to b/8 or Lu/2, whichever
is less, may be taken as the effective cross-member when no other discrete
member is present, or may be taken together with a cross-member if
structurally connected to it. In calculating the transformed area of a concrete
deck, the gross area of concrete within the effective width may be considered
f = flexibility of the joint between the cross-member and the verticals of the
U-frame, expressed in radians per unit moment. The value f may be taken as—
(a) 0.5 1010 rad/Nmm, when the cross-member is bolted or riveted through
unstiffened end plates or cleats
(b) 0.2 1010 rad/Nmm, when the cross-member is bolted or riveted through
stiffened end plates; or
(c) 0.1 1010 rad/Nmm, when the cross-member is welded right around its
cross-section, or the connection is by bolting or riveting between stiffened
end plates on the cross-member and a stiffened part of the vertical
The U-frames shall be designed in accordance with Clause 8.4.6.
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Compression
f l a n g e of b e a m
b b
d1
d2 d1 d2
S t r u c tu r a l c o n n e c ti o n
b e t we e n we b a n d d e c k
(a) M a i n b e a m s r e s tr a i n e d by U -f r a m e s ( b) M a i n b e a m s c o n ti n u o u s l y r e s t r a i n e d by d e c k
5.6.4 Effective length for beams continuously restrained by a deck not at compression
flange level
When determining the beam moment capacity of the beam in accordance with Clause 5.6,
the effective length (Le) shall be taken as follows:
Le = 2.5k1(EIcΔu)0.25 . . . 5.6.4(1)
where
Δu = lateral deflection that would occur in an effective U-frame, at the level of the
centroid of the flange being considered when a unit force acts laterally to the
effective U-frame only at this point, and simultaneously at each corresponding
point on the other flange or flanges connecting to the same effective U-frame
The direction of each unit force shall be such as to produce the maximum
aggregate value of Δu. The effective U-frame shall be taken as fixed in
position at each point of intersection of deck and web, and as free and
unconnected at all other points
In cases where the deck and webs of the beam are of constant thickness throughout the
span, and the beam is of constant depth, it may be assumed that—
d13 ubd 22
u . . . 5.6.4(2)
3EI1 EI 2
where
d1 = distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the nearest surface of
the structural deck [see Figure 5.6.3(b)]
I1 = second moment of area of the web to the beam
= t w3 . . . 5.6.4(3)
12
tw = thickness of the web to the beam
d2 = distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the centroidal axis of
the structural deck [see Figure 5.6.3(b)]
I2 = second moment of area of the deck per unit length, about its axis of bending,
with the gross concrete area being transformed in terms of steel
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The deck restraint and its connection details shall be designed in accordance with
Clause 8.4.6.
5.6.5 Effective length
The effective length (Le) of a segment or sub-segment shall be determined as follows:
Le = kt kL kr L . . . 5.6.5
where
kt = twist restraint factor given in Table 5.6.5(A)
kL = load height effective length factor given in Table 5.6.5(B)
kr = lateral rotation restraint factor given in Table 5.6.5(C)
and the length (L) shall be taken as either—
(a) the segment length, for segments without intermediate restraints, or for segments
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TABLE 5.6.5(A)
TWIST RESTRAINT FACTORS (k t)
Restraint arrangement kt
FF, FL, LL, FU 1.0
FP, PL, PU d t
3
1 f
L 2t w
1
nw
PP d t
3
2 1 f
L 2t w
1
nw
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TABLE 5.6.5(B)
LOAD HEIGHT FACTORS (k L) FOR GRAVITY LOADS
TABLE 5.6.5(C)
LATERAL ROTATION RESTRAINT FACTORS (k r)
Restraint arrangement Ends with lateral rotation kr
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M os
(b) m . . . 5.6.6(2)
M oo
where
Mos = elastic buckling moment for a segment, fully restrained at both ends, which is
unrestrained against lateral rotation and loaded at the shear centre
Moo = reference elastic buckling moment specified in Clause 5.6.1.1(a) or
Clause 5.6.1.2 as appropriate, with Le = L
determined, and the principal axis bending moments acting on the member shall be
calculated from these forces and the applied forces by a rational analysis.
The calculated principal axis bending moments shall satisfy Clause 11.3.4.
5.7.2 Deflections unconstrained
When the deflections of a member loaded in a non-principal plane are unconstrained, the
principal axis bending moments shall be calculated by a rational analysis.
The calculated principal axis bending moments shall satisfy Clauses 11.3.4 and 11.4.4.
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d1 f y
180 250
where d1 is the clear depth of the web between flanges, ignoring fillets or welds.
The thickness of an unstiffened web bounded on one longitudinal side by a free edge shall
be not less than—
d1 f y
90 250
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d1 f y
(a) when 1.0 s/d1 3.0;
200 250
s fy
(b) when 0.74 s/d1 1.0; or
200 250
d1 f y
(c) when s/d1 0.74.
270 250
All web lengths for which s/dp > 3.0 shall be considered to be unstiffened, where dp is the
greatest panel depth in the length.
5.9.4 Webs with longitudinal and transverse stiffeners
The thickness of a web with a set of longitudinal stiffeners placed on one or both sides of
the web at a distance 0.2d2 from the compression flange shall be not less than—
d1 f y
(a) when 1.0 s/d1 2.4;
250 250
s fy
(b) when 0.74 s/d1 1.0; or
250 250
d1 f y
(c) when s/d1 0.74.
340 250
where d2 is twice the clear distance from the neutral axis to the compression flange.
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The thickness of a web with an additional set of longitudinal stiffeners placed on one or
both sides of the web at the neutral axis shall be not less than—
d1 f y
when s/d1 1.5.
400 250
5.9.5 Openings in webs
Except for a castellated member, an opening in a web may be unstiffened, provided the
greatest internal dimension of the opening (Lw) satisfies either—
(a) Lw/d1 0.10 for webs without longitudinal stiffeners; or
(b) Lw/d1 0.33 for longitudinally stiffened webs,
provided that the longitudinal distance between boundaries of adjacent openings is at least
three times the greatest internal dimension of the opening.
In addition, not more than one unstiffened opening shall be provided at any cross-section
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the nominal shear capacity of the web (Vu) shall be taken as follows:
Vu = Vb . . . 5.10.2(5)
where the nominal shear buckling capacity of the web (Vb) is specified in
Clause 5.10.5.
5.10.3 Non-uniform shear stress distribution
The nominal shear capacity of a web (Vv) with a non-uniform shear stress distribution, such
as in a member with unequal flanges, varying web thickness or holes not used for fasteners,
shall be calculated as follows:
2Vu
Vv Vu
f* . . . 5.10.3
0.9 vm *
f va
where
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2
82 0.75 s
v 2
1.0 1.0 if 1.0 3 .0 . . . 5.10.5.2(2)
dp
d p f y s
t w 250
d p
2
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82 1 .0 s
v 2
0. 75 1.0 if 1 .0 . . . 5.10.5.2(3)
dp
d p f y s
t w 250
d p
d = tension field coefficient for web shear buckling
1v
1
2 . . . 5.10.5.2(4)
s
1.15 v 1
dp
= 1.0 when required by Clause 5.14.2.2
dp = the depth of the deepest web panel
Values of the product vd are given in Table 5.10.5.2.
The flange restraint factor (f) shall be taken as either—
(a) f = 1.0; or . . . 5.10.5.2(5)
0.6
(b) f 1.6 for webs without longitudinal . . . 5.10.5.2(6)
40bfo tf 2 stiffeners, in which bfo is the least of
1 2
d1 tw all of the following:
(i) 12tf
;
f y / 250
(ii) the distance from the mid-plane of the web to the nearer edge of the flange
(taken as zero if there is no flange outstand);
(iii) half the clear distance between the webs if there are two or more webs.
Alternatively, the flange restraint factor (f) shall be determined from a rational
buckling analysis.
NOTE: Guidance on the shear buckling capacity of a web which contains an axial load is given in
Appendix A.
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TABLE 5.10.5.2
VALUES OF αv αd
s
dp fy
t
250 dp
w
0.3 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0 > 3.0
90 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.991 0.952 0.927 0.830
100 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.998 0.946 0.907 0.877 0.833 0.803 0.672
110 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.989 0.919 0.866 0.825 0.792 0.744 0.711 0.556
120 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.930 0.859 0.805 0.762 0.728 0.677 0.642 0.467
130 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.883 0.812 0.757 0.713 0.678 0.625 0.587 0.398
140 1.000 1.000 0.960 0.846 0.775 0.719 0.674 0.638 0.583 0.544 0.343
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150 1.000 1.000 0.926 0.816 0.745 0.689 0.643 0.606 0.550 0.510 0.299
160 1.000 1.000 0.898 0.792 0.721 0.664 0.617 0.579 0.522 0.481 0.263
170 1.000 1.000 0.875 0.772 0.701 0.643 0.596 0.558 0.499 0.458 0.233
180 1.000 0.997 0.855 0.755 0.684 0.626 0.578 0.539 0.480 0.438 0.208
190 1.000 0.974 0.839 0.740 0.669 0.611 0.563 0.524 0.464 0.421 —
200 1.000 0.955 0.825 0.728 0.657 0.598 0.550 0.511 0.450 0.407 —
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where
Mf = nominal moment capacity calculated for the flanges alone and determined as
follows:
= Afmdf fy . . . 5.11.2(3)
Afm = lesser of the flange effective areas, determined in accordance with
Clause 10.2.2 for the compression flange and the lesser of Afg and 0.85Afnfu/f y
for the tension flange
Afg = gross area of the flange
Afn = net area of the flange
df = distance between flange centroids
Vvm = nominal web shear capacity in the presence of bending moment, determined in
accordance with either Clause 5.10.2 or Clause 5.10.3
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= Vv
5.11.3 Shear and bending interaction method
When the bending moment is assumed to be resisted by the whole of the cross-section, the
member shall be designed for combined bending and shear, and shall satisfy—
V* Vvm . . . 5.11.3(1)
where
Vvm = Vv for M* 0.75Ms . . . 5.11.3(2)
1.6 M *
= V v 2.2
for 0.75 Ms < M* Ms . . . 5.11.3(3)
M s
Vv = nominal shear capacity of a web in shear alone as specified in
Clause 5.10.1
Ms = nominal section moment capacity determined in accordance with
Clause 5.2
NOTE: Guidance on stiffened web panels required to resist bending moment, shear, axial and
transverse loading is given in Appendix B.
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bs
R*
tf
2. 5 1
1 1
d2
2
b bw b bf b bw
N e u tr a l
bb
axis
b b f = b s + 5t f
d2
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b bw =
2
(a) Inte r i o r fo r c e
bs
R*
tf
2. 5 1
d2 1 1
2
bo b bf b bw
N e u tr a l a x i s
bb
b b f = b s + 5t f
d2
b bw =
2
( b) En d fo r c e
1 1
1 1
bs
bs
1
1
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b rex t
d d 5 = d - 2r e x t
rex t
(a) S e c ti o n
bd bs
rex t
2. 5
1
b b = b b f + 2 b bw
1
1 b b f = b b s + 5 rex t
d5
b bw b bf b bw
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2 d5
b bw =
2
bb
( b) I nte r i o r fo r c e
bs
rex t
2. 5
1
b b = b b f + b bw
1
1
b b f = b s + 2. 5 r e x t
d5
b bf b bw
2 d5
b bw =
2
bb
(c) En d fo r c e
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where bbf is the width shown in Figure 5.12.1(A), except that for square and rectangular
hollow sections to AS 1163, the nominal bearing yield capacity (Rby) of both webs shall be
calculated as follows:
Rby = 2bbtfyp . . . 5.12.3(2)
where
bb = bearing width [see Figures 5.12.1(C)(b) and 5.12.1(C)(c)]
p = coefficient used to calculate the nominal bearing yield capacity (Rby) for square
and rectangular hollow sections to AS 1163.
The coefficient (p) shall be determined as follows:
(a) For interior bearing, where bd is greater than or equal to 1.5d5—
0.5
p
k s
1 1 pm
2
1 kk 1 0k.25
s 2
pm 2 . . . 5.12.3(3)
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v v
where
bd = distance from the stiff bearing to the end of the member [see
Figure 5.12.1(C)(b)]
d5 = flat width of the web [see Figure 5.12.1(C)(a)]
pm = coefficient used to calculate p
= 1 0.5
. . . 5.12.3(4)
ks k v
p 2 k s2 k s . . . 5.12.3(8)
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(b) kf = 1.0
(c) area of web = twbb
(d) geometrical slenderness ratio taken as 2.5d1/tw when the top and bottom flanges are
effectively restrained against lateral movement out of the plane of the web or 5.0d1/tw
when only one flange is effectively restrained against lateral movement
(e) bb is the total bearing width obtained by dispersions at a slope of 1:1 from bbf to the
neutral axis (if available), as shown in Figure 5.12.1(A)
The nominal bearing buckling capacity (Rbb) of a square or rectangular hollow section web
to AS/NZS 1163 without transverse stiffeners shall be taken as the axial compression
capacity determined in accordance with Section 6 using the following parameters:
(i) b = 0.5
(ii) kf = 1.0
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R* M*
(b) 0.8
M
1.0 otherwise
. . . 5.12.5(2)
Rb s
where
bs = stiff bearing width
b = total length of the section
= capacity reduction factor (see Table 3.2)
Rb = nominal bearing capacity of the web as specified in Clause 5.12.2
Ms = nominal section moment capacity determined in accordance with Clause 5.2
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the web
The effective section of the compression member shall be taken as the area of the stiffener,
together with a length of web on each side of the centre-line not greater than—
17.5t w
; or
(a) fy
250
(b) s/2, if available.
The effective length (Le) of the compression member used in calculating the nominal
buckling capacity (Rsb) shall be determined as either—
where the flanges are restrained by other structural
(i) Le = 0.7d1 . . . 5.13.2(2)
elements against rotation in the plane of the stiffener; or
(ii) Le = d1 if either of the flanges is not so restrained . . . 5.13.2(3)
5.13.3 Outstand of stiffeners
Unless the outer edge of a flat stiffener is continuously stiffened, the stiffener outstand from
the face of a web (bes) shall satisfy—
15ts
bes . . . 5.13.3
f ys
250
where
ts = thickness of the stiffener
fys = yield stress of the stiffener used in design
5.13.4 Fitting of loadbearing stiffeners
Loadbearing stiffeners shall be attached to the flange through which they are loaded by
welding.
Loadbearing stiffeners shall be provided with sufficient welds or bolts to transmit the entire
bearing force or design reaction at the bearing (R*) to the web.
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d t f R
3 *
I s t * . . . 5.13.5(1)
1000 F
where
s = factor for torsional end restraint
230
0.60 and 0 t 4
=
Le / ry
. . . 5.13.5(2)
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where
= factor for transverse stiffener arrangement
= 1.0 for a pair of stiffeners
= 1.8 for a single angle stiffener
= 2.4 for a single plate stiffener
v = shear buckling coefficient for the web, determined in accordance with
Clause 5.10.5.2
5.14.4 Buckling capacity
An intermediate web stiffener shall satisfy—
V* (Rsb + Vb) . . . 5.14.4
where
= capacity reduction factor (see Table 3.2)
Rsb = nominal buckling capacity of the web and intermediate stiffener determined in
accordance with Clause 5.13.2
Vb = nominal shear buckling capacity specified in Clause 5.10.5.2 for a stiffened web
using f = 1.0 and d = 1.0
The effective length (Le) of the compression member used in calculating Rsb shall be taken
as the clear depth of the web.
5.14.5 Minimum stiffness
An intermediate web stiffener not subject to external loads or moments shall have a
minimum second moment of area (Is) about the centre-line of the web such that—
s
(a) I s 0.75d1t w3 for 2 ; and . . . 5.14.5(1)
d1
1.5d13t w3 s
(b) Is 2
for 2 . . . 5.14.5(2)
s d1
5.14.6 Outstand of stiffeners
The outstand of an intermediate web stiffener (bes) shall satisfy Clause 5.13.3.
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* M * Fp*e
d 2 Fn
4
1 d1 . . . 5.14.7.1
Ed1tw
where
e = distance between the end plate and loadbearing stiffener
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0.0008 tw f ys
2
. . . 5.14.8
bes
where
tw = web thickness
bes = outstand width of the stiffener from the face of the web
5.14.9 End posts
Where an end post is required by Clause 5.14.2.2, it shall be formed by a loadbearing
stiffener and a parallel end plate. The loadbearing stiffener shall be designed in accordance
with Clause 5.13, and shall be no smaller than the end plate. The area of the end plate (Aep)
shall satisfy—
d1 V * / vVw
Aep . . . 5.14.9
8ef ys
where
v = shear buckling coefficient for the web specified in Clause 5.10.5.2
Vw = nominal shear yield capacity of the web specified in Clause 5.10.4
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slab shall be designed to give complete shear connection. The slab shall be constructed
using normal weight concrete that conforms to AS 5100.5.
For the purposes of this Section, complete shear connection shall be taken to mean that
condition where the maximum compressive force developed in the concrete is not governed
by the shear capacity of the shear connectors.
6.2.2 Composite action
6.2.2.1 General
Steel beams, which are compact when acting compositely with the slab, may not be
compact when acting alone during construction. In such a case, the checks for the relevant
stage of loading shall be made on the basis of sections that are not compact.
Consideration shall be given to the speed and sequence of concreting the deck slab to
prevent damage occurring to partly matured concrete as a result of limited composite action
due to deformation of the steel beams under subsequent concreting operations.
The steel section shall be proportioned to support all applied loadings before the concrete
compressive strength reaches 0.75 f c' .
6.2.2.2 Compact sections
Where the cross-section is compact at the relevant stage of loading and premature failure of
the steel compression flange by lateral torsional buckling is prevented by satisfying the
requirements of Clause 5.3, composite action may be assumed to exist for the whole of the
loading at the ultimate limit state, even when unpropped construction is used, provided the
shear connectors and transverse reinforcement are designed in accordance with Clause 6.8.
6.2.2.3 Sections that are not compact
Where the cross-section is not compact, at the relevant stage of loading, the equivalent
design bending moment resistance at that stage of construction shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 4.6.3. The adequacy of the cross-section shall then be checked for
that stage of the construction in accordance with Clauses 6.6 and 6.8.
6.2.3 Steel reinforcement in concrete deck slabs
The reinforcement for the concrete deck slab of composite girders shall be designed in
accordance with AS 5100.5.
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The control of cracking due to early thermal and shrinkage effects shall be undertaken
either by a detailed assessment of the concrete using an appropriate model and taking into
consideration the construction method, structural form, local materials and environment, or
by using the following simplified method:
(a) The minimum area of reinforcement in fully restrained slabs, including cast in situ
concrete decks on concrete or steel girders, in the restrained direction shall be not less
than—
(8.0 2.5σcp)bDeff 103 . . . 6.2.3
NOTE: Reinforcement provided for structural reasons may be considered as contributing to
this requirement.
(b) The reinforcement shall be placed equally on each face of the slab and located as
close to each face as cover and detailing permit. D eff shall be taken as—
(i) D, where D is less than 500 mm; or
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(b) the spacing of shear connectors in the direction of compression is not greater than—
250
(i) 14t f for unstaggered connector; or . . . 6.2.6(2)
f yf
250
(ii) 21t f for staggered connectors . . . 6.2.6(3)
f yf
where
tf = thickness of the compression flange plate
fyf = nominal yield stress of the flange
6.2.7 Not compact composite sections
A composite cross-section for which the steel section satisfies s > sp at the relevant stage
of loading shall be considered as not compact.
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(a) f s* f y ; . . . 6.3.2(1)
fb Mb
= fy determined for the higher stressed steel flange . . . 6.3.2(4)
Z enc
Mb = nominal member moment capacity, as specified in Clause 6.5 using Ms
as specified in Clause 6.4.4
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b eff
0.8 5 ·f ´ c β
- N 1.0
dn
0.8 5
-
h Ms
fy
+ N
dn
M
fy 0.15 0.4 h
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where
Mp = nominal section moment capacity,
Mp shall be determined by simple plastic theory using the following
assumptions:
(a) Plane cross-sections of structural steel and of concrete each remain plane.
(b) The effective section of the composite beam replaces an effective width of
the concrete compression flange, determined in accordance with
Clause 4.4.1.
6.4.4 Sections that are not compact
The nominal section moment capacity (Ms) of a cross-section that is not compact shall be
determined as follows:
Ms = fyZenc . . . 6.4.4
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Ms shall be calculated for both steel flanges and the smaller value taken.
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where
Mds = nominal moment capacity of the steel section
The nominal moment capacity (Mds) of the steel section allowing for the interaction
between plasticity and elastic lateral distortional buckling shall be calculated as follows:
Mds = d Mss Mss . . . 6.5.2.2(2)
where
d = distortional buckling reduction factor
Mss = nominal section moment capacity of the steel section in the support region
determined in accordance with Clause 5.2
Ms = nominal section moment capacity of the composite section determined in
accordance with Clause 6.4
The distortional buckling reduction factor (d ) shall be determined as follows:
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Longitudinal shear force per unit length of the composite beam ( v L* ) shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 4.8.
6.8.2 Detailing of shear connection
The shear connectors connecting the steel and concrete sections of a composite girder shall
satisfy the following:
(a) The surface of a connector that resists separation forces, that is, the underside of the
head of a stud or outer top flange of a channel shall extend not less than 40 mm clear
above the bottom transverse reinforcement, nor less than 4 mm into the compression
zone of the concrete flange in regions of positive longitudinal moments.
Alternatively, where a concrete haunch is used between the steel girders and the soffit
of the slab, the surface of the connector that resists separation forces may be placed
not less than 40 mm above the reinforcement in the haunches provided this
reinforcement is sufficient to satisfy the requirements for the transfer of longitudinal
shear specified in Clause 6.8.5.
(b) Where concrete haunches are used between the steel flange and the soffit of the
concrete deck slab, the sides of the haunch shall lie outside a line drawn at 45° from
the outside edge of the base of the connectors.
(c) The clear depth of concrete cover over the tops of the shear connectors shall be not
less than 50 mm. The horizontal clear concrete cover to any shear connector shall be
not less than 60 mm.
(d) Where the shear connection is adjacent to a longitudinal edge of a concrete deck slab,
transverse reinforcement provided in accordance with Clause 6.8.5 shall be fully
anchored in the concrete between the edge of the slab and the adjacent row of
connectors.
(e) The detailing of shear connectors shall be such that concrete can be adequately
compacted around the base of the connector.
(f) At the end of a cantilever, in a cantilever and suspended span structure, sufficient
transverse and longitudinal reinforcement shall be positioned adjacent to the free edge
of the concrete deck slab to transfer the longitudinal shear connector loads back into
the slab.
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(g) The longitudinal spacing of the connectors shall be not greater than 600 mm or three
times the thickness of the slab, or four times the height of the connector, whichever is
the least. Alternatively, connectors may be placed in groups, with the group spacing
greater than that specified for individual connectors, provided consideration is given
in design to the non-uniform flow of longitudinal shear and of the greater possibility
of slip and vertical separation between the slab and the steel member.
(h) The minimum pitch of stud shear connectors in any direction shall be 75 mm. The
pitch of stud shear connectors along a flange shall be not less than 5 times the shank
diameter, and not less than the height of the stud shear connectors.
(i) The clear distance between the edge of a girder flange and the edge of the shear
connectors shall be not less than 25 mm.
(j) The diameter of a stud connector welded to a flange plate subject to tensile stresses
shall be not greater than 1.5 times the thickness of the plate. Where a plate is not
subject to tensile stresses, the diameter of stud connectors shall be not greater than
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twice the plate thickness. The height of stud connectors shall be not less than four
times their diameter.
(k) The leg length of the weld joining other types of connectors to the flange plate shall
be not greater than half the thickness of the flange plate. The design and execution of
welding for the shear connectors shall be in accordance with Clause 12.6 and
AS/NZS 1554.1.
(l) The spacing of bottom reinforcing bars designed in accordance with Clause 6.8.5
shall be less than four times the vertical projection of the connectors above the
bottom transverse reinforcement.
(m) The longitudinal spacing of channels shall provide at least 100 mm clear space
between the adjacent edges of the channels.
(n) Where shear connectors are used to make sections act as compact sections,
Clause 6.4.1 shall apply.
(o) The same type of shear connectors shall be used along the entire length of the
composite girder.
6.8.3 Design of shear connectors
6.8.3.1 General
The nominal static shear strengths of stud, channel and bolt connectors shall be in
accordance with Clause 6.8.4.
6.8.3.2 Design for longitudinal shear
The total design longitudinal shear force per unit length ( v L* ) at the serviceability limit state
shall satisfy the following:
vL* vLs . . . 6.8.3.2(1)
where
= capacity reduction factor (see Table 3.3)
vLs = permissible longitudinal shear design force per unit length at the serviceability
limit state
= 0.55nfks . . . 6.8.3.2(2)
n = number of shear connectors per unit length
fks = characteristic shear capacity of the connector specified in Clause 6.8.4.4
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The size and spacing of the shear connectors at the end of each span shall be maintained for
at least 10% of the length of each span.
Elsewhere, the size and spacing of the connectors may be kept constant over any length
where the total design longitudinal shear force per unit length ( v L* ) shall be not greater than
the shear capacity (vLs) by more than 10%. Over every such length, the total design
longitudinal shear force shall be not greater than the product of the number of connectors
and the design static strength (fks) per connector.
6.8.3.3 Design in areas of negative moment
The total horizontal shear ( Fh* ) to be resisted by shear connectors between the point of
maximum negative bending moment and the adjacent point of zero moment, at the
serviceability limit state, shall be taken as the larger of the following:
where
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Ars = area of slab reinforcement within the effective width of the slab
fsy = nominal yield stress of tensile reinforcement
(b) The total horizontal shear force determined on the assumption that the concrete is
uncracked in the negative bending moment area.
6.8.3.4 Design for longitudinal shear and tension
Where the shear connectors are subject to significant calculable direct tension due either
to—
(a) forces tending to separate the slab from a girder; or
(b) transverse moments on a group of connectors resulting from transverse bending of the
slab, particularly in the region of diaphragms or transverse cross-bracing,
then additional ties, suitably anchored, shall be provided to resist these forces.
Where headed stud connectors are subject to both tension and shear, the following apply:
(i) If N u* 0.1f ks , the tensile force shall be neglected.
(ii) If N u* 0.1f ks , the following interaction between the design shear and design tension
shall be satisfied:
5 5
N u* 3
* 3
L 1.0 . . . 6.8.3.4
0.85 f ks f ks
where
= capacity reduction factor (see Table 3.2)
n = number of shear connectors per unit length
fks = characteristic shear capacity of the connector specified in Clause 6.8.4
N u* = design axial tension on the shear stud at the strength limit state
L* = design shear force on the shear stud at the strength limit state
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H ead d i am eter
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H e ad h e i g ht
G r ad e 8 . 8 b o l t
O ver a l l h e i g ht
(af ter at t ac h m e nt)
O ver a l l h e i g ht m in. 5 x b o lt Ø
(af ter we l d in g) Shank d i ameter d b s
m in. 4 d b s We l d
S te e l b e a m
flang e
Steel beam flang e
(a) H e ad e d s t u d s (b) H i g h - s t r e n g t h s t r u c tu r a l b o l t s
Le n g t h (L)
Par a l l e l f l a n g e
c ha n n e l
5 m m fill et
we l d s S te e l b e a m
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6.8.4.3 Geometry
The geometry of the shear connectors shall satisfy the following:
(a) Headed studs Standard-type headed studs shall have nominal shank diameters of
15.9, 19.0 or 22.2, and shall comply with the dimensions and tolerances specified in
AS 1554.2. The minimum size of the fillet welds to the steel beams shall be 8 for 15.9
and 19.00 studs, and 10 for 22.2 studs, and welding shall be in accordance with
AS 1554.2.
The minimum overall height of studs after welding, measured from the top of the stud
to the top surface of the steel beam, shall be 4.0 times the nominal shank diameter
(dbs) (see Figure 6.8.4.1).
(b) High-strength structural bolts High-strength structural bolts shall be fitted with one
nut above and one nut below the top flange of the steel beam. After tightening, at
least one clear thread shall show above the top nut and at least one thread plus the
thread run-on shall show below the bottom nut. The overall height of the bolts,
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measured between the top of the bolt head and the top surface of the flange of the
steel beam, shall be not less than 5 times the nominal bolt diameter (see
Figure 6.8.4.1). Tapered washers shall be provided for tapered flanged sections.
6.8.4.4 Characteristic shear capacity of shear connectors
The characteristic shear capacity (fks) of a welded headed stud or a high strength structural
bolt shall be determined as the lesser value from the following equations:
(a) f ks shear d bs2 f uc ; or . . . 6.8.4.4(1)
where
dbs = nominal shank diameter of a shear stud, where 15.9 dbs 25 mm
fuc = ultimate tensile strength of the shear connector material, not to exceed
500 MPa when substituted into Equations 6.8.4.4(1)
f cy = characteristic strength of the concrete at the age being considered, but not
greater than f c or f cy = 100 MPa
1.5 0.024 f cmi 0.12 for fcmi > 40 MPa
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where
tf = average flange thickness of the channel shear connector
tw = web thickness of the channel shear connector
Lsc = length of the channel connector shear connector
6.8.4.6 Design shear capacity
The design shear capacity (fds) of a shear connector shall be calculated as follows:
fds = fks . . . 6.8.4.6
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where
= capacity reduction factor (see Table 3.3)
6.8.5 Design of transverse reinforcement
6.8.5.1 General
In the design of transverse reinforcement, only reinforcement perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the steel beam and which is fully anchored in accordance with
AS 5100.5 on both sides of a possible plane of longitudinal shear failure (shear plane) shall
be included in the design.
NOTE: A minimum amount of longitudinal reinforcement should also be provided, as specified in
Clause 6.2.3.
The size and spacing of the transverse reinforcement at the end of each span shall be
maintained for not less than 10% of the length of each span. Elsewhere, the size and
spacing of the transverse reinforcement may be kept constant over any length where the
maximum shear force per unit length does not exceed the shear capacity by more than 10%.
Consideration shall be given to the difference between the meaning of the symbols v L* and
*
vLp —
v L* = design longitudinal shear force per unit length of the composite beam at the
steel and concrete interface, determined in accordance with Clause 4.8
* = design longitudinal shear force per unit length of the beam on the particular
vLp
shear plane considered. It may be equal to or different from vL* depending on
the location of the shear plane
6.8.5.2 Design for longitudinal shear
6.8.5.2.1 General
*
The total design longitudinal shear force per unit length ( vLp ) at the ultimate limit state on
any shear plane through the concrete shall satisfy the following requirements:
*
v Lp u
where
u Ats f sy kco f ct Atc . . . 6.8.5.2.1
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Where concrete haunches are used, not less than half the reinforcement required to satisfy
Equation 6.8.5.2.1 in respect of shear planes through the haunch (Planes 3-3 and 4-4 shown
in Figure 6.8.5.2.1 shall be placed in the bottom of the slab or haunch at a clear distance not
greater than 50 mm from the nearest surface of the steel beam.
TABLE 6.8.5.2.1
SHEAR PLANE SURFACE COEFFICIENTS
Coefficients
Surface condition of the shear plane
µ k co
A smooth surface; as obtained by casting against a form, or finished to a similar standard 0.6 0.1
A surface deliberately roughened—
(a) by texturing the concrete to give a pronounced profile; 0.9 0.4
(b) by providing mechanical shear keys.
Monolithic construction 0.9 0.5
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Att A bs Att
1 1
ds
4 0 m in.
50 max. 1 1
2 2
A bt
4 0 m in. 4 4
50 max.
A bt
(a) (b)
Att
4 0 m in.
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3 3 A bs
S h e ar p l a n e
50 max. Ats
A bt type
1-1 (A t t + A b t ) or (A t t + A b s)
2-2 2 A bt
3-3 2(A b t + A b s)
(c)
4-4 2 A bt
6.8.5.2.2 Design for longitudinal shear using strut and tie modelling
As an alternative to Equation 6.8.5.2.1, the shear strength of the concrete flange shall be
evaluated using a truss analogy, where it is assumed that successive concrete struts form in
the flange to the beam with the transverse reinforcement acting as ties to maintain
equilibrium and prevent the concrete struts from rotating (see Figure 6.8.5.2.2).
NOTE: For a shear surface passing around the shear connectors (e.g. shear surface 2-2 in
Figure 6.8.5.2.1), the dimension d s should be taken as the length of the shear surface.
The maximum value that shall be assumed for x is half the distance between the section
where the moment is zero and the section where the moment is maximum. Where point
loads are applied, the length x shall not exceed the distance between point loads. The
effective transverse reinforcement per unit length Ats shall be as shown in Figure 6.8.5.2.2
(in which Att, Abt and Abs are areas of reinforcement per unit length of beam from
Figure 6.8.5.2.1), fully anchored in accordance with AS 5100.5. The effective transverse
reinforcement per unit length Ats shall be determined as follows:
Lp
*
f c Ats f sy cot f . . . 6.8.5.2.2(1)
To prevent crushing of the compression struts in the flange, the following condition shall be
satisfied:
Lp
*
f csin f cos f ds . . . 6.8.5.2.2(2)
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where
f c
0.6 1 . . . 6.8.5.2.2(3)
250
In the absence of more rigorous calculation, the permitted range of the values for cotθf shall
be:
1.0 cot θf 2.0 for compression flanges (45° θf 26.5°)
1.0 cot θf 1.25 for tension flanges (45° θf 38.6°)
Longitudinal tension reinforcement in the flange shall be anchored beyond the strut
required to transmit the force back to the web at the section where this reinforcement is
required (see Section A-A in Figure 6.8.5.2.2).
Where the depth of a haunch is not greater than 50 mm, reinforcement in the bottom of a
slab may be included, provided it is placed at a clear distance greater than 40 mm below
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that surface of each shear connector that resists uplift forces and at a clear distance not
greater than 80 mm from the nearest surface of the steel beam.
Ef fe c t i ve
Lo n g i t u d i n a l tr ansver se
bar an c h ore d r e i nfor c e m e nt
b eyo n d t h i s t i e s w i t h are a
m o m e nt or
p o int l o ad
proj e c te d p o int Ats and
M a ximum
s pac in g S
b eff
A
F F + ΔF
1 1
ds
b eff 1 1
1 1
F 1 1F + ΔF
C o m pre s s i ve s tr u t s
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where
ds = thickness of the concrete deck slab forming the flange of the composite beam
Not less than 50% of this area of reinforcement shall be placed near the bottom of the slab
so that it satisfies Abv, as specified in Clause 6.8.5.3.
6.8.5.5 Minimum transverse reinforcement in haunched beams
The cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement in a haunch per unit length of beam
(Abv) shall be not less than—
0.4u
. . . 6.8.5.5
f ry
where
u = length of the shear plane for shear failure around the connectors (see shear
plane type 3-3 or 4-4 in Figure 6.8.5.2.1)
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7.1 GENERAL
This Section sets out requirements for plated structural elements incorporating longitudinal
stiffeners. This includes box and trough girders and plate I-girders.
The specific rules for the structural elements in this Section complement the rules given in
the remainder of this Part (AS/NZS 5100.6). In particular, the requirements of Clause 4.5
shall be met.
f f f
f
* 2
2
* 2 * *
f f2 3 f
* 2
vf f yf . . . 7.3.3.1(1)
where
f f* = longitudinal stress at the mid-plane of the flange plate, treated as positive
when compressive
f 2* = co-existent in-plane transverse stress at the mid-plane of the flange plate,
treated as positive when compressive, due to bending of cross-beams or
diaphragms, or due to curvature
f vf* = shear stress in the flange due to torsion and shear force on the beam
= f vt* 0.5 f vj* . . . 7.3.3.1(2)
f vt* = in-plane shear stress in the flange plate due to torsion on a box beam
f vj* = shear stress in the flange at the junction with the web of the beam due to
shear force on the beam
fvf = nominal yield stress of the flange plate material
= capacity reduction factor (given in Table 3.2)
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(b) When there is only one longitudinal stiffener, or the flange is unstiffened, from the
appropriate curve for unrestrained panels.
(c) When the number of open stiffeners is two, by taking the mean of the values obtained
from the two curves 1 and 2, or from curve 3, as appropriate.
7.3.3.3 Strength of longitudinal flange stiffeners
The design of a longitudinal compression flange shall be such that—
where
f s* = longitudinal stress, including any redistribution of stresses from the web,
positive when compressive, at the centroid of the effective section of the
stiffener
f vt* = in-plane shear stress in the flange plate due to torsion on the beam, always
to be taken as positive
ks1, ks2 = coefficients used for the design of longitudinal flange stiffeners obtained
from Figure 7.3.3.3
kL1, kL2 = values of the reduction factor kL obtained from Figure 7.3.3.3
fys = normal yield stress of the stiffener material
f yf2 3 f vf*
2
fye = . . . 7.3.3.3(3)
f vj* = shear stress in the flange plate at the junction with the web of the
beam due to shear force on the beam
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1.0
0.9
0.8
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0.7
0.6
Kc
0. 5
0.4
Cur ve 1
0.3
Cur ve 2 Re
R e str
s t r ain
ained
Cur ve 3
0.1
Restrained
Re str ain e d or
unrestrained
u nre str ain e d
0
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 300
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NOTE: The value of Kc shall be the higher of the values obtained from Figure 7.3.3.2, using either—
b fy
(a) curve 1 or 2, as relevant, with ; or . . . 7.3.3.3(5)
t 355
a fy
(b) curve 3 with . . . 7.3.3.3(6)
t 355
where
b = panel dimension normal to the direction of the stress being considered
a = panel dimension in the direction of the stress being considered
Item (a) will always give the higher value of K c when a/b 0.5.
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k L or k s
0
0.6
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.9
0. 5
0.7
0. 2
0.1
1.0
0
1. 5
0.8
0.3
50
0.0 5
0.4
0. 2
2.0
0.6
0.1
1.0
0.0 25
η
10 0
121
λ =
15 0
Ls
rs e
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fy
355
20 0
kL
NOTE:
Ls f ys
when obtaining k L1 and k s 1 . . . 7.3.3.3(7)
rse 355
Ls f ye
when obtaining k L2 and k s 2 . . . 7.3.3.3(8)
rse 355
yo
when obtaining k L1 . . . 7.3.3.3(9)
rse2
yz
when obtaining k L2 . . . 7.3.3.3(10)
rse2
where
= slenderness ratio
rse = radius of gyration of the effective section of a longitudinal stiffener about the centroidal axis
parallel to the flange plate
y o = distance from the centroid of the effective stiffener section to the point on the stiffener furthest
from the plate
yz = distance from the centroid of the effective stiffener section to the mid-plane of the flange plate
Δ = imperfection
Ls rse2 ef
= . . . 7.3.3.3(11)
625 yBs 2
y Bs = distance from the centroid of the effective stiffener section to the neutral axis of the
effective cross-section of the beam
ef = greatest offset of the flange plate from a straight line of length L s due to a specified
camber or curvature
= 1 1.35 f s
*
f E when obtaining k L2
fE = 2 E Ls rse 2
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No other use of this material is permitted.)
satisfied.
Longitudinal web stiffeners shall satisfy Clause 7.4.4, and intermediate transverse stiffeners
shall satisfy Clause 7.4.6.
7.4.2 Yielding of web panels
The following condition shall be satisfied at all points on the panel:
f f
* 2 * 2
f le* f 2* 3 f v* f y
2
le 2
. . . 7.4.2(1)
where
f le* = effective longitudinal in-plane stress in the plate panel
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f 2*
f b* f v* f b*
a
p =
b y
b
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f b* f 1* f v* f 1* f b*
f 2* D i r e c ti o n of m a i n
l o n g i tu d i n a l s t r e s s
a i n th e p l ate p a n e l
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w
P*
Pa n e l Tr a n sve r s e
60° s t r e s s f 2*
to b e u s e d
4 5° fo r e a c h p a n e l
1 ove r l e n g th a
a1 tw
P*
1 a 1t w
5 a2
P*
2 a 2t w
2
P*
4 3 a 3t w
a3
b
a4 3 P*
4
a 3t w
a
5
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(a) Ty p i c a l p a n e l s ( b) Tr e atm e nt of p a n e l s
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No other use of this material is permitted.)
b f yw
= . . . 7.4.3.2.2(1)
tw 355
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f yf bfe t f2
mfw = . . . 7.4.3.2.2(2)
2 f yw b 2 t w
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0. 5
0.4
F p =10
mfw 0.3
Fp= 5
0. 2
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Fp= 3
0.1
Fp=2
F p =1
0 F p = 0. 5
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 300
b fyw
λ =
tw 355
(Permission to reproduce extracts from British Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI).
No other use of this material is permitted.)
b f yw
. . . 7.4.3.3.2(1)
tw 355
unless is less than 24, when—
2
t 204500
K1 w ; or . . . 7.4.3.3.2(2)
b f yw
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a f yw
. . . 7.4.3.3.2(3)
tw 355
unless is less than 4.33, when—
2
t 6600
K1 w . . . 7.4.3.3.2(4)
a f yw
where
b, a = plate panel dimensions
tw = web thickness
fyw = nominal yield stress of the web material
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a f yw
. . . 7.4.3.3.5(1)
tw 355
unless is less than 24, in which case—
2
t 204500
K2 w ; or . . . 7.4.3.3.5(2)
a f yw
b f yw
. . . 7.4.3.3.5(3)
tw 355
unless is less than 4.33, in which case—
2
t 6600
K2 w . . . 7.4.3.3.5(4)
b f yw
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1.0
0.8
Cur ve 1
0.6
Kc
Cur ve 2
0.4
Re
R e str
s t r ain
ained
Unre str ain e d
Unrestrained
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0. 2
Cur ve 3
NOT ES
a
Fp =
b a
b Fp =
a b b
a
b fyw
λ =
tw 355
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1.0
φp
0.9
≤ 0. 5
1.0
0.8 Re
R e str
s t r ain
ained
≥ 2.0
0.7
≤ 0. 5
0.6
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Kv
1.0
0. 5
≥3 .0
≥3.0
0.3
0. 2
0.1
0
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 300
b fyw
λ =
tw 355
NOT ES:
1. For i nt e r me d iat e va lue s of φ p .K v m ay b e obt a i ne d by
l i ne a r i nt e r p olat ion b et we e n t wo a dja ce nt va lue s of φ p for t h is
pu r p ose a cu r ve m ay b e ex t e nde d b eyond K v = 1 by t he
ex pre ssion i n 7.4.3.3.3
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1.4
1. 2
1.0
Kb
Re
R e str
s t r ain
ained
0.8
Unre str ain e d
Unrestrained
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0.6
0.4
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 300
b fyw
λ =
tw 355
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2
f 2*
m2 shall be taken as negative if f 2* is tensile . . . 7.4.3.4(8)
f yw K 2
where
m1, m2 = factors for checking the plate panel interaction buckling criterion
f 2* = specified in Clause 7.4.2 but the algebraically higher of the two values on
the opposite edges shall be used
K2 = coefficient derived in accordance with Clause 7.4.3.3.5
7.4.4 Longitudinal web stiffeners
7.4.4.1 Effective section for longitudinal web stiffeners
The effective stiffener section shall comprise the stiffener with a width of web plate on each
side of the stiffener connection centre-line not exceeding the lesser of—
(a) 16t w (1 ); or
b
(b) 1
2
where
tw = thickness of the web plate
= proportion of the longitudinal stress assumed to be redistributed from the
relevant panel in accordance with Clause 4.5.3
b = width of the relevant plate panel adjacent to the stiffener
7.4.4.2 Strength of longitudinal web stiffeners
The design of a longitudinal stiffener shall be such that—
f se* f Ls . . . 7.4.4.2(1)
where
f se* = equivalent axial stress in the stiffener for buckling
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a f ys
= , and . . . 7.4.4.2(2)
rse 355
a2 * bt w k s
f se* k s f1* 2.5 f v* 2 f2
A . . . 7.4.4.2(3)
b se
k s = coefficient used in determining the effective stiffener stress
= 1.0 for continuous longitudinal stiffeners
= 2.5ks for discontinuous longitudinal stiffeners
f1* = longitudinal stress along the stiffener connection centre-line derived
without redistribution, taken as positive if compressive
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a f ys
. . . 7.4.4.2(4)
rse 355
rse = radius of gyration of the effective stiffener section about an x-
x axis parallel to the web
Ase = area of effective stiffener section
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1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
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0.6
f Ls
fys
0. 5
or k s
f Ls
fys
0.4 ks
0.3
0. 2
0.1
0
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 300
a fys
λ =
rs e 355
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strength to prevent the overall buckling of the flange, as well as to carry all the loads
directly applied to them. Transverse members of compression flanges shall be supported by
transverse web stiffeners at main beam webs. Transverse members required for a flange
projecting from an outer main beam web shall be continuous with the transverse member
between the main beam webs.
7.5.2 Effective section for transverse members
7.5.2.1 Effective section for stiffness
In determining the stiffness of a transverse member for global analysis and for overall
buckling of a compression flange, an effective width of attached flange shall be assumed to
act with the member, on each side of the web of the cross-member, where available, and
shall be taken as the lesser of—
(a) half the spacing of transverse members; or
(b) either—
(i) one-eighth of the distance between main beam webs, for a portion between such
webs; or
(ii) one-sixth of the cantilever length, for a cantilever portion.
This effective width shall be taken as constant over each relevant portion of the transverse
member.
NOTE: When the flange consists of composite reinforced concrete, the reinforcement within the
effective width, but not the concrete, may be taken into account in calculating the overall
buckling strength of the compression flange, but both reinforcement and concrete may be taken
into account for global analysis.
7.5.2.2 Effective section for strength and stress calculation
For calculating stresses in, or the strength of, a transverse member, the effective section
shall be taken as for stiffness (see Clause 7.5.2.1), but with the following modifications:
(a) When, in a non-composite transverse member, the attached flange is in compression
parallel to its axis, (e.g., in the sagging moment zone of a top flange transverse
member) the effective width on each side of the web of the cross-member shall not
exceed one-quarter of the transverse member spacing.
(b) Between main beam webs, in the portion subjected to hogging bending moments, the
effective width on each side of the web of the cross-member shall not locally exceed
one-fourteenth of the distance between main beam webs.
(c) When the effective widths on two sides of a main beam web are unequal, an average
value shall be taken for the section at the main beam web.
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(d) In the case of composite flanges, the area of concrete in tension shall be ignored.
The capacity of the cross-member web shall be determined in accordance with
Clauses 5.10.4 and 5.10.5.
7.5.2.3 Compact section
Irrespective of the effective width of flange, transverse members attached to a continuous
deck may be taken as compact, provided their webs and flange outstands meet the
appropriate provisions of Clause 5.2.1.
7.5.3 Stiffness of transverse members in compression flanges
7.5.3.1 Stiffness of transverse members in compression flanges
In order to satisfy the stiffness provisions of Clause 7.5.1 for a transverse member
supporting a compression flange, the entire length of the effective member shall be divided,
for analysis, into segments as follows:
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I be
2
9 f f* aB 4 Aff2
. . . 7.5.3.2
16 K T E 2 I ff
where
Ibe = average second moment of area of the effective transverse member (see
Clause 7.5.2.1) between the webs
f f* = longitudinal compressive stress in the flange of the main beam, averaged
across the width of the segment between main beam webs
a = transverse member spacing (or mean of adjacent spacings)
B = spacing of the main beam webs at the level of the transverse member
Aff = area per unit width of the flange of the box girder (including longitudinal
stiffeners)
Iff = second moment of area per unit width of the flange of the box girder
(including longitudinal stiffeners), taken about the centroidal axis of the
flange
KT = buckling coefficient for transverse members
= 24 for Type I segments (see Clause 7.5.3.1) with open longitudinal stiffeners
(see Note 2 for closed stiffeners); or
for Type II segments (see Clause 7.5.3.1)
KT shall be obtained from Figures 7.5.3.2(a) or 7.5.3.2(b) for cantilever
overhangs on one or both sides respectively, for the appropriate values of
Ibc/Ibe and Bc/B provided the following limitations are taken into account:
(a) Longitudinal stiffeners are of open type (see Note 2 for closed
stiffeners).
(b) Iff and f f* are constant over the whole segment including cantilevers.
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Clause 7.3.3.2.
2 For closed longitudinal stiffeners, values of the buckling coefficient (KT ) may be either taken
conservatively as given above or be determined more accurately from more detailed analysis.
7.5.4 Strength of transverse members in compression flanges
Transverse members in compression flanges shall be designed for strength in accordance
with the provisions of Section 5, using the effective section defined in Clause 7.5.2.
30
Bc B
20
I bc I be
10 Centre of
main beam we bs
5
3
KT
2
I bc
I be
1
10
2
0. 5 1
0. 5
0.3
0.3 0. 2
0.1
0. 2
0.1
0 0. 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1. 2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Bc
B
(a) W it h c ant il ever s o n o n e s i d e
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30
Bc B Bc
20
I bc I be I bc
10 Centreline of
main beam we bs
5
3
KT
2
I bc
I be
1
10
0. 5 2
1
0. 5
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0.3
0.3
0. 2 0. 2
0.1
0.1
0 0. 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1. 2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Bc
B
(b) W i t h c ant i l ever s o n b ot h s i d e s
(Permission to reproduce extracts from British Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI).
No other use of this material is permitted.)
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b
ss Inter m e d i ate Thickness
stif fe ner s td
d
tw
d/2
B ear in g
s t i f fe n er s tf
wh
D i a p hr ag m / we b
c junction section
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bd
Sub
s t i f fe n er s
x 1. 5 t f
td
y
X X
Y 355
12 t d (m a x.)
f yd
j
B ear in g d et ail
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No other use of this material is permitted.)
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A bearing below a stiffened diaphragm shall not extend across the width of the diaphragm
beyond the line of attachment of a bearing stiffener by more than 12 355 / f yd times the
thickness of the diaphragm plate.
Bearing stiffeners shall be symmetrically placed about the diaphragm plate, unless a special
analysis is made of the effects of any eccentricity with respect to that plate.
7.6.2.2 Openings in unstiffened diaphragms
Openings in unstiffened diaphragms shall be in accordance with the following:
(a) Only one circular opening shall be provided on each side of the vertical centre-line of
the diaphragm within the upper-third of the height of the diaphragm.
(b) The diameter of any such opening shall be not greater than any of the following:
(i) 6td
(ii) d/20
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(iii) b/20,
where
td = diaphragm plate thickness
d = depth of the diaphragm
b = width of the diaphragm taken as the average of the widths at the top and
bottom flange levels for boxes with sloping webs
(c) Cut-outs for longitudinal stiffeners on the box walls shall have the stiffeners
connected to the diaphragm plate either by—
(i) welding, along at least one-third of the perimeter of the cut-out; or
(ii) cleating to the longitudinal stiffener with at least two bolts per side of the
connection, or by full perimeter welding of the cleat.
In addition, the length of the free edge of any cut-out shall be not greater than—
8t d 355 / f yd
when any part of this free edge is within a distance 10t d 355 / f yd from any part of a
bearing plate.
7.6.2.3 Openings in stiffened diaphragms
Openings in stiffened diaphragms shall be in accordance with the following:
(a) With the exception of cut-outs for longitudinal stiffeners, openings shall not be
positioned within the areas shown in Figure 7.6.2.3.
(b) Unstiffened openings shall be circular and of diameter not greater than or equal to
any of the following:
(i) 6td
(ii) a/20
(iii) b/20,
where a is the length of the plate panel (that is, the distance between transverse
stiffeners), except that when the calculated maximum principal stress is less than half
of the nominal yield stress of the diaphragm plate, the limiting diameter shall be
twice the above limit.
Not more than one opening shall be positioned in a single plate panel.
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355
12 t d
f yd
C o n n e c t i o n l i n e of
b e ar i n g s t i f fe n er s
Single Double
b e ar i n g bear ing
s t i f fe n er s stif fe ner s
d /3
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355
12 t d
f yd
355
12 t d
f yd
C o n n e c t i o n l i n e of
b e ar i n g s t i f fe n er s 0.7d 1 (m in.)
d2
0.7d 2 (m in.)
d1
d
d/3
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No other use of this material is permitted.)
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Additionally, for a bearing stiffener, the effective width of plate assumed on the side
towards the web shall be not greater than half the distance from the stiffener to the web and
bottom flange junction.
The sectional area of discontinuous diaphragm stiffeners shall be ignored.
7.6.4.2 Diaphragm and web junction
The effective section of a stiffener on a diaphragm shall be taken to comprise the following:
(a) A width of web plating each side of the diaphragm, where available, of up to 16 times
the web thickness.
(b) The area of a stiffener, together with a width of diaphragm plate equal to 25td, where
there is a stiffener on the diaphragm parallel to the web within 25td of the web, or a
width of diaphragm plate equal to 12t d 355 / f yd where there is no stiffener parallel
to the web.
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4e
Rv* 1
td T* j
. . . 7.6.5.2.2(1)
f RI* 0.77 b
j wh td 2I
yd
(b) For a diaphragm with a symmetrical pair of bearings
f RI* Rv*
1 4e / t d
. . . 7.6.5.2.2(2)
j wh t d
where
Rv* = total vertical load transmitted by the diaphragm to one bearing, including the
effects of torque on twin bearings
e = eccentricity of bearing reaction along the span
NOTE: e should include the effects of—
(a) movements of the beam relative to the bearing due to changes in temperature;
(b) changes in the point or line of contact at the spherical or cylindrical surface of
a bearing due to slope of the beam when deflected by load;
(c) uneven seating which may occur on a flat bearing surface;
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(d) inaccuracy which may occur in positioning of the beam relative to the
bearing.
Values of eccentricity to satisfy Items (c) and (d) may be taken from
Clause 7.6.1 (f) (iii).
td = plate thickness of a diaphragm
j = width of contact of the bearing pad plus 1.5 times the thickness of the bottom
flange at each end if available (see Figure 7.6.1)
wh = sum of the widths of any cut-outs for stiffeners within the width j at the level
immediately above the flange
Tb* = torsional reaction at a single central bearing
Iyd = second moment of area of the diaphragm plate of width j, excluding cut-outs,
about the y-axis (see Figure 7.6.1)
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xR
Referen c e
p o int d
wh
T h i c k n e s s of d/2
d i a p hr ag m
p l ate = t d β
tf LR
1. 5 t f 1. 5 t f
j LR Lf
L
j /4
IR
j /4
E x te nt of p o s it i o n
E x te nt of p o s it i o n bd
for A ve b
for A ve b
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No other use of this material is permitted.)
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where
Cd = factor to allow for the effects of boundary shears
= 2.0 in the absence of any special analysis
Rv* = total vertical force transmitted by the diaphragm to the bearings
T* = torque transmitted to the diaphragm in shear through the box walls and from
cross-beam or cantilever loading, or both
b = width of the diaphragm taken as the average of the widths at the top and
bottom flange levels for boxes with sloping webs
xR = distance parallel to the bottom flange from the reference point to the web
mid-point (see Figure 7.6.5.2.1)
Qfv* = vertical force transmitted to the diaphragm by the portion of the bottom
flange over a width Lf when there is a change of flange slope
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Lf = horizontal distance from the reference point to the nearest edge of the bottom
flange
Ze, Ae= effective section modulus and the effective area respectively of the
diaphragm and flanges at the vertical cross-section through the reference
point, derived in accordance with Clause 7.6.2
= inclination of the box web to the vertical
7.6.5.2.4 Shear stresses
*
The reference value of in-plane shear stress ( f Rv ) shall be determined as follows:
*
(a) Except as required by Item (b), the reference value of the in-plane shear stress ( f Rv )
shall be taken as follows:
R * T* 1 Qh*
*
f Rv v Qfv* . . . 7.6.5.2.4(1)
2 2b Avea Ahe
where
Rv* , Qfv* , T*, b = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.3
Avea = minimum value of the effective vertical shear area, as
specified in Clause 7.6.3 for any section of diaphragm
plating taken between the web and a point j/4 inside the outer
edge of the bearing (see Figure 7.6.5.2.1)
j = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.2
Qh* = shear force due to transverse horizontal loads on the bridge
transmitted from the top flange to the diaphragm
Ahe = effective horizontal shear area, as specified in Clause 7.6.3
for the section of diaphragm plating through the reference
point
(b) In addition, in the case of diaphragms on twin symmetrical bearings where there is a
*
change in slope of the bottom flange, an alternative value f Rv shall be derived from—
T * Qbv
*
T* 1 Qh*
*
f Rv . . . 7.6.5.2.4(2)
c 2 2b Aveb Ahe
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where
T* = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.3
c = distance between centres of bearings
*
Qbv = total vertical force transmitted to the diaphragm by the portion of the
bottom flange between the inner edges of the bearings when there is a
change in flange slope
Aveb = minimum value of the effective vertical shear area, as specified in
Clause 7.6.3, for any section of diaphragm plating taken within a
distance LR from the inner edge of a bearing, i.e., towards the diaphragm
centre-line and a distance j/4 inside the same inner edge of the bearing
(see Figure 7.6.5.2.1)
LR = as shown in Figure 7.6.5.2.1
*
The value of f Rv
determined in accordance with Item (b) shall be adopted if it is greater
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j
K D2 0.4 for single central bearings . . . 7.6.5.3(3)
2bd
j
c
0 .4 3 for twin bearings . . . 7.6.5.3(4)
bd
K D3 1.0 . . . 7.6.5.3(5)
100
k d Pd* 2b
K D4 1.0 1
T* bd . . . 7.6.5.3(6)
Rv*
Lb
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= P*
Wd* K
D5
. . . 7.6.5.3(7)
(a) f yd; or
* T*
R v d
Lb
(b)
f yd 1.2
1.25 K D Et d3
where
* * *
f R1 , f R2 , f Rv = reference values of stress as specified in Clauses 7.6.5.2.2, 7.6.5.2.3
and 7.6.5.2.4, respectively
Rv* , T* = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.3
T* 0.7 K D Et d3
Rv*
Lv
d
. . . 7.6.5.5
where
Rv* , T* = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.3
(b) Stub stiffeners, which are short vertical stiffeners above bearings.
(c) Intermediate stiffeners, which may be either primary or secondary.
Stiffeners spanning between box walls or, if horizontal, between a box web and a bearing
stiffener, or between bearing stiffeners, shall be treated as primary. All other stiffeners shall
be treated as secondary.
7.6.6.2 Stresses in diaphragm plates
7.6.6.2.1 General
Relevant stress components shall be calculated at the corners of each plate panel, using the
appropriate section properties obtained from Clause 7.6.2, in accordance with
Clauses 7.6.6.2.2 and 7.6.6.2.4. When considering secondary bending stresses to take into
account the effect of holes in the diaphragms, they shall be added to these components.
7.6.6.2.2 Vertical stresses
Vertical stresses in stiffened diaphragms ( f d1* ) may be neglected with the exception of those
due to—
(a) a change in slope of the main girder flange; and
(b) local wheel loads applied above the diaphragm, which shall be calculated in
accordance with Clause 7.4.3.1.
7.6.6.2.3 Horizontal stresses
Horizontal stresses f d2* shall be calculated under the action of the following:
(a) The in-plane primary moment (M*) on the diaphragm which shall be calculated as
follows:
Q* L
P x R x
n
M * C d Qv* 2QT* x w C d Qc* xc i
*
i
*
v b fv f
. . . 7.6.6.2.3(1)
l i 2
where (as shown in Figure 7.6.6.2)
Cd = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.3
Qv* = total vertical component of symmetric shear transmitted into the
diaphragm from one web
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the web
xi = distance from the section under consideration to the locally applied
deck load Pi*
Rv* = total vertical load transmitted by the diaphragm to one bearing
xb = distance from the section under consideration to the inner edge of the
nearest bearing plus j/4, for sections between twin bearings, or is zero
for all other sections, and for diaphragms with a single bearing
Qfv* Lf = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.3
j = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.2
The horizontal bending stress in a stiffened diaphragm ( f 2b* ) shall be calculated as
follows:
M*
f 2*b
Ze
where
Ze = the effective section modulus of a vertical cross-section of the diaphragm
and flanges at the point under consideration, derived in accordance with
Clause 7.6.2
(b) The horizontal component of the girder shear when the webs are inclined. The
horizontal stress ( f 2v* ) from this component shall be calculated as follows:
Qv* tan
f 2*v . . . 7.6.6.2.3(2)
Ae
where
Qv* = as specified in Item (a)
= inclination of the box web to the vertical
Ae = effective area of a vertical cross-section of the diaphragm and flanges, at
the point under consideration, derived in accordance with Clause 7.6.2
The total horizontal stress ( f d2* ) at the point under consideration shall be calculated as
follows:
f d2* f 2b* f 2v* . . . 7.6.6.2.3(4)
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(d) In sections between pairs of bearing stiffeners above a single bearing, up to the height
of longitudinal flange stiffener cut-outs:
Q* T * 1 Qh*
q * v QT* . . . 7.6.6.2.4(4)
4 ss d e j wh
where
Qv* QT* Qc* , Pi* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.2.3
Qh* Qbv
*
,c = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.4
de, be = net depth and width of the diaphragm at the point under
consideration, respectively
j, wh = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.2
ss = distance between stiffener centroids
The shear stress ( f v* ) in the sections referred to in Item (a), Item (b), Item (c) or Item (d)
shall be calculated as follows:
q*
f v* . . . 7.6.6.2.4(5)
td
where td is the thickness of the diaphragm plate in the panel under consideration.
In sections other than those referred to in Item (a), Item (b), Item (c) or Item (d), f v* may be
disregarded.
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P *i
wi
Q *h
xi
S e c t i o n u n d er xc
c o n s i d er at i o n
xw Q *c
Q *v Q *T
f v* f d1
*
d /2
f d*2 f d*2
f d1
* f v*
xb R*v L
j /4
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No other use of this material is permitted.)
Ps*
f1s* . . . 7.6.6.3.2(1)
Ase
where
Ps* = total vertical force in the group of bearing stiffeners
Ase = effective cross-sectional area of the group of bearing stiffeners, derived in
accordance with Clause 7.6.4.1
NOTE: Both values are taken at the level under consideration.
In the absence of openings in the diaphragm between the group of bearing stiffeners and the
adjacent web, the vertical force ( Ps* ) may be assumed to vary linearly from the value of the
reaction at the bearing to the value of any reaction transmitted from the deck to the top of
the bearing stiffener.
If there are any openings in the diaphragm between the group of bearing stiffeners and the
adjacent web, no variation of load over the depth of such openings shall be assumed. The
variation over the remaining parts of the diaphragm shall be assumed to be linear of
constant slope. In the case of a diaphragm above a single bearing, an additional vertical
stress ( f1T* ) from torsional reaction in a bearing stiffener shall be calculated as follows:
Ts* x
f1T* . . . 7.6.6.3.2(2)
I yse
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where
Ts* = value of the moment in the plane of the diaphragm on the group of bearing
stiffeners
x = horizontal distance of the stiffener under consideration from the centroidal axis,
normal to the plane of the diaphragm, of the stiffener group (see Figure 7.6.1)
Iyse = effective second moment of area of the stiffener group about the centroidal axis
of the stiffener group (axis y-y in Figure 7.6.1), derived in accordance with
Clause 7.6.4
NOTE: All values are taken at the point under consideration. Ts* may be assumed to vary
linearly, from the torsional reaction above the bearing, to zero at the top flange level.
Where stub stiffeners are used, the stress calculated in this Clause may be reduced locally
by including the area of such stiffeners, provided their connections to the diaphragm plate
are adequate to transfer their share of the bearing reaction.
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1 f q* L2s t d k s As
f se* f a* 1 f vh* t d hh . . . 7.6.6.3.4(1)
Ase a max Ls t d
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Ls f ys
= . . . 7.6.6.3.4(2)
rse 355
rse = radius of gyration of the effective section of the stiffener about its
centroidal axis parallel to the plane of the diaphragm, derived in
accordance with Clause 7.6.4.1
fys = nominal yield stress of the stiffener
As = sum of the areas of all stiffeners which intersect the stiffeners being designed,
within the length Ls not including any adjacent diaphragm plate
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f d2* = specified in Clause 7.6.6.2.3 for the level being considered, and taken as
positive when compressive
f 2s* = average value of f d2* within the middle-third of the length Ls
f a* , f q* , amax, f vh* and hh shall be calculated as follows for the appropriate type of stiffener:
= f 2s*
In calculating amax. and f q* , account shall not be taken of any opening in the
diaphragm adjacent to the stiffener, i.e., it shall be assumed that a plate of thickness td
fills the opening.
(b) For all intermediate stiffeners:
amax. = one-half of the sum of the panel widths on each side of the stiffener
Where the widths vary over the length (Ls), the average value of the
middle-third shall be used
f v* = average shear stress in the panels on either side of the stiffener
f vh* = shear stress which would occur in the plating adjacent to a stiffener if
the opening had been fully plated
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f q* f v* . . . 7.6.6.3.4(5)
f f
* 2
d1
* 2
d2
f d*1 f d*2 3 f v*
2
f yd . . . 7.6.6.4
where
f d1* = vertical stress in stiffened diaphragm
= f1s* f1T* for parts of plate panels forming part of the effective section of any
bearing stiffener, or is the vertical in-plane stress due to local deck loads and
change in flange slope, if relevant, for all remaining parts of the plate panels
f1s* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.3.2
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(b) the ratio of the depth of the diaphragm (d) to the minimum plate thickness (td) is less
than—
355
80
f yd
(c) the overhang (see Figure 7.6.5.2.1 or Figure 7.6.6.2) from the outer edge of the
bearing to the box web (L) is less than d/2;
(d) stiffening is limited to the bearing stiffeners themselves and any member providing
continuity of cross-beam or cantilever flanges through the diaphragm; and
(e) there is no change in flange slope at the diaphragm.
Where plate panels do not meet the criteria specified in Items (a) to (e), they shall meet the
buckling criteria specified in Clause 7.4.3, but with the following qualifications:
(i) For panels adjacent to an inclined web, the panel dimension (a) shall be taken as the
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1.3 106 td
2
b 2
1 7.6.6.5
f yd b a
where
fyd, td = nominal yield stress and thickness, respectively, of the diaphragm plate
b, a = width and length of the panel, respectively
(v) f d2* shall be taken as the main longitudinal stress in the plate panel, and hence for the
purposes of meeting the buckling criterion specified in Clause 7.4.3, f d1* and f d2* as
derived in accordance with Clause 7.6.6.4 shall be taken as f 2* and f1* respectively,
in Clause 7.4.3.
7.6.6.6 Yielding of diaphragm stiffeners
A bearing stiffener section shall be designed such that, at any point along its length shall
be—
f1s* f1T* f bs* f ys . . . 7.6.6.6
where
f1s* f1T* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.3.2
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where
f se* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.3.4
fLs = limiting stiffener stress, obtained from Figure 7.4.4.2 using the slenderness
parameter (ratio)
Ls f ys
= . . . 7.6.6.7(2)
se 355
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where
P*, M* = maximum force on the effective junction section, and the maximum moment
about the centroidal axis parallel to the web due to the loadings specified in
Clause 7.6.7.2 within the middle third of the length of the junction
respectively
Ase = effective area of the diaphragm and web junction (see Clause 7.6.4.2)
fLs = obtained from Figure 7.4.4.2 using the slenderness parameter (ratio)
Ls f ys
= . . . 7.6.7.3(2)
rse 355
Ls = total length of the junction section
rse = radius of gyration of the effective junction section about its
centroidal axis parallel to the web, derived in accordance with
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Clause 7.6.4.2
fys = nominal yield stress of the junction section
Zse = lowest section modulus of the effective junction section about the centroidal
axis parallel to the web (see Clause 7.6.4.2)
= capacity reduction factor (see Table 3.2)
7.6.7.4 Junction restraint provided by diaphragm stiffeners
Diaphragm and web junctions shall be designed in accordance with Clauses 7.6.7.1
to 7.6.7.3, except that full width horizontal stiffeners in the diaphragm may be assumed to
offer restraint to the junction in the plane of the diaphragm, provided that the equivalent
axial stress ( f se* ) in such stiffeners (see Clause 7.6.6.3.4) is increased by an amount equal
to—
0.025P *
ns Ase
where
P* = specified in Clause 7.6.7.3
ns = number of full width horizontal stiffeners
Ase = effective area of the horizontal stiffeners derived in accordance with
Clause 7.6.4.1
NOTE: In this case, Ls specified in Clause 7.6.7.3 may be taken as the distance between such
stiffeners.
7.6.8 Continuity of cross-beams and cantilevers
When continuity of cross-beams and cantilevers is provided in the plane of a diaphragm,
that portion within the box walls shall be determined in accordance with the following:
(a) The force in the member providing continuity to the bottom flange of the transverse
member shall be taken as the moment in the transverse member at the box wall
divided by the distance between the mid-plane of the top and bottom flanges of the
member. If the force is different at the two box walls, a linear variation along the
length may be assumed.
(b) If the member providing the continuity in Item (a) is also required as a horizontal
stiffener for a diaphragm designed in accordance with Clause 7.6.6, it shall be
designed to withstand, in addition to the load given in Item (a), an axial force equal to
Ase f se* ;
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where
Ase = effective cross-sectional area of the continuity member derived in
accordance with Clause 7.6.4
f se* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.3.4
(c) The member providing the continuity in Item (a) shall be designed as a compression
member and shall be assumed to be unrestrained out of the plane of the diaphragm
unless provided with effective intermediate restraint. If these restraints are provided
by bearing or primary vertical diaphragm stiffeners, such stiffeners shall each be
designed to resist, in addition to all other forces specified in Clause 7.6.6.3, a force
equal to 2.5% of the maximum axial load in the continuity member including that
given in Item (b), if appropriate. This force shall be applied, out of the plane of the
diaphragm, at the point of intersection of the continuity member and the stiffener
providing the restraint. The stiffener shall be designed to satisfy—
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f se* f * f b*2
bs . . . 7.6.8
f Ls f ys
where
f se* , f Ls , f bs* , f ys = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.7
b b1 b2 b1
t = t f or t w
ts
ts ts ds ts hs
ts ds2 ds2
hs hs
tso d s1
bso bso
bs bs
d s1
(Permission to reproduce extracts from British Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI).
No other use of this material is permitted.)
hs f ys
(a) 10,
ts 355
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or a higher value obtained from Figure 7.7.2, when the following proportions are
achieved
b fy
(b) 31
t 355
where (as shown in Figure 7.7.1)
hs, ts = depth and thickness, respectively, of the stiffener
spacing of stiffeners, or the distance between the stiffener and the beam
b =
flange and web boundary, as appropriate
NOTE: In the case of non-uniform spacing, the average value on the two sides
may be taken.
t = plate thickness tf or tw
fys, f y = yield stresses of the stiffener and web or flange plate sections
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bs f ys
(b) 11; and
ts 355
hs f ys Ls f ys
(c) 7, or a higher value obtained from Figure 7.7.3, when 50.
ts 355 bs 355
b fy h f ys
NOTE: When 30 , there is no limitation on s ,
t 355 ts 355
where
bs, ts, hs = width, thickness depth of the angle stiffener, as shown in Figure 7.7.1
Ls = span of the stiffener between supporting members
b , t, f ys, f y = as specified in Clause 7.7.2
7.7.4 Tee stiffeners
Tee stiffeners shall be proportioned such that—
bso f ys
(a) 10;
t so 355
ds f ys f a
(b) 41; and
ts 355
ds f ys
(c) either 7; or higher value obtained from either—
ts 355
Ls f ys
(i) Figure 7.7.4(A), when 25; or
bs 355
b f ys d
(ii) Figure 7.7.4(B), when both 32; and s 4;
t 355 bs
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where
bso = width of the flange outstand of a stiffener
tso = average thickness of the flange outstand of width bso
fys = as specified in Clause 7.7.2
ds, ts = depth and thickness of the tee stiffener, as shown in Figure 7.7.1
fa = longitudinal stress (positive when compressive for the strength limit
state) at the centroid of the effective section of the stiffener, but may
conservatively be taken as fys
Ls = as specified in Clause 7.7.3
bs = width of the tee stiffener, as shown in Figure 7.7.1
7.7.5 Closed stiffeners
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d s1 f ys
(a) 29; and
ts 355
d s2 f ys f a
(b) 41
ts 355
where
ds1, = widths of the walls of the stiffeners, as shown in Figure 7.7.1
ds2
ts = thickness of the stiffener, as shown in Figure 7.7.1
fys = as specified in Clause 7.7.2
fa = as specified in Clause 7.7.4
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50 50
45 45
40 40
35 35
30 30
355
fys
355
fy
25 25
bs
Ls
b
t
20 bt fys 20
t s2 355
15 15
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10 16 0 10
80
40
20
10
5
5 5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
fys hs fys
hs
ts 355 ts 355
(Permission to reproduce extracts from British (Permission to reproduce extracts from British
Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI). Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI).
No other use of this material is permitted.) No other use of this material is permitted.)
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50 50
45 45
40 40
2.. 5
2
35 35 2.0
1. 5
30 30
355
fys
355
fys
25 1.0
25
ds
ts
bs
Ls
20 20
0. 5
15 t
15
ts
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10 10
5 5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
ds fys
b fy
ts 355
t 355
(Permission to reproduce extracts from British (Permission to reproduce extracts from British
Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI). Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI).
No other use of this material is permitted.) No other use of this material is permitted.)
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8.1 GENERAL
Sufficient transverse members and restraint systems shall be provided between members to
ensure that all external loads and load effects can be transmitted to the supporting
structures, and that adequate restraint is provided where such restraint has been assumed in
accordance with Section 5.
8.2 DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this Section, the definitions below apply.
8.2.1 Cross-girders
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forces and moments specified in Clause 8.4.2 to Clause 8.4.6, together with any other forces
or moments that may act simultaneously, from the points where the forces or moments arise
to anchorage or reaction points. The detailing of the connections shall be such as to obviate
fatigue.
8.4.2 Restraint against lateral deflection
The lateral restraint at any cross-section considered to be fully, partially or laterally
restrained in terms of Clause 5.4.2 shall be designed to transfer a transverse force acting at
the critical flange equal to 0.025 times the maximum force in the critical flanges of the
adjacent segments or sub-segments, except where the restraints are more closely spaced
than is required to ensure that M* = Mb .
Where the restraints are more closely spaced, then a lesser force may be designed for. The
actual arrangement of restraints shall be assumed to be equivalent to a set of restraints that
will ensure that M* = Mb . Each equivalent restraint shall correspond to an appropriate
group of the actual restraints. This group shall then be designed as a whole to transfer the
transverse force of 0.025 times the maximum force in the critical flanges of the equivalent
adjacent segments or sub-segments.
8.4.3 Restraint against twist rotation
A torsional restraint at a cross-section shall be deemed to provide effective restraint against
twist rotation, provided it is designed to transfer a transverse force equal to 0.025 times the
maximum force in the critical flange from any unrestrained flange to the lateral restraint.
A torsional restraint at a cross-section shall be deemed to provide partial restraint against
twist rotation, provided it is able to provide an elastic restraint against twist rotation
without rotational slip. Flexible elements such as unstiffened webs may form part of such a
restraint, provided they are connected in such a way as to prevent rotational slip.
Any restraint at a cross-section that permits rotational slip shall be deemed to be ineffective
in restraining twist rotation.
8.4.4 Parallel restrained members
At a cross-section where a series of parallel members is restrained by a line of restraints,
each restraining element shall be designed to transfer a transverse force equal to the sum of
0.025 times the flange force from the connected member and 0.0125 times the sum of the
flange forces in the connected members beyond, except that no more than seven members
need be considered.
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Where there are several interconnecting beams, two such forces ( Fu* ) shall be applied in the
same or opposite direction, in such a way as to produce the most severe effect in the part
being considered.
8.4.6.3 U-frames with cross-members subject to vertical loading
Where the cross-member of a U-frame is subjected to vertical loading, an additional force,
Fc* shall be applied to the U-frame, in the same manner as Fu* , resulting from the
interaction between the bending of the cross-members and vertical stiffeners, which shall be
determined as follows:
3EI1
Fc* . . . 8.4.6.3
d 22
where
I1 , d2 = as specified in Clause 5.6.3
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= rotation in radians of the cross-member at its junction with the main beam
under consideration, under the loading used in calculating f f* , in accordance
with Clause 8.4.6.2
NOTE: For all bridges, except deck-type road bridges with cross-members formed entirely of
reinforced concrete, the lateral flexure of a compression flange due to loading on a cross-member
should be considered.
8.4.7 Continuous restraint provided by deck
8.4.7.1 Deck at compression flange level
A deck at the critical flange level may be considered as providing a continuous restraint to
the critical flange, provided the deck and its connections to the beam flange satisfy
Clause 8.4.2. The lateral force determined in accordance with Clause 8.4.2 shall be
uniformly distributed along the span of the main beams.
8.4.7.2 Deck not at compression flange level
The deck and webs and their connections shall be designed to resist, in addition to the
applied loadings, a nominal horizontal force ( Fu* ), per unit length, acting normal to the
compression flange at the level of its centroid, using the following equation:
f f* Le
Fu*
* . . . 8.4.7.2(1)
f
ci f f 667 u
where
f f* , fci = as specified in Clause 8.4.6
Le, Δu = as specified in Clause 5.6.4
When there are several interconnecting beams, two such forces ( Fu* ) shall be applied in the
same or opposite directions, in such a way as to produce the most severe effect in the part
being considered.
In addition, an additional nominal horizontal force ( Fc* ) per unit length shall be applied in
the same manner as Fu* resulting from the interaction between the bending of the deck and
the vertical stiffeners, which shall be determined as follows:
Et w3
Fc* . . . 8.4.7.2(2)
4d 22
where
tw, d2 = as specified in Clause 5.6.4
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= rotation in radians of the deck at its junction with the main beam under
consideration, under the loading used in calculating f f* in Clause 8.4.6.2
For all bridges, except deck-type road bridges with cross-members formed entirely of
reinforced concrete, the lateral flexure of a compression flange due to loading on the deck
shall be considered.
occurring in the most heavily loaded compression flange of any member forming the
unit. The design transverse force (Q*) shall be taken as being shared equally between
the separators.
(b) Diaphragms shall be used where external forces applied perpendicular to the axis of
the members are to be transmitted from one member to another. The diaphragms and
their fastenings shall be proportioned to distribute the forces applied to them and in
addition, to resist the design transverse force (Q*) specified in Item (a), and the
resulting shear forces. The design transverse force (Q*) shall be taken as being shared
equally between the diaphragms.
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(ii) each flange connection is proportioned to transmit at least half of the maximum
design force carried by the connected member.
TABLE 9.2.2.2
CORRECTION FACTOR (k t)
Configuration case Correction factor (k t )
(i) 0.75 for unequal angles
connected by the short
leg
0.85 otherwise
(ii)
As for Case (i)
(iii)
0.85
(iv)
0.90
(v)
1.0
(vi)
1.0
(continued)
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1.0
(b) Battens attached by bolts shall be connected by not less than two bolts and
Clause 10.4.3.7 shall not apply.
(c) Batten plates shall have a thickness of not less than 0.017 times the distance between
the innermost lines of connections.
(d) Intermediate battens shall have a width of not less than half the effective width of end
batten plates.
does not apply to the internal plies where the connected elements are clamped
together by external nuts.
(b) The net area beyond a hole for a pin, parallel to or within 45° of the axis of the
member, shall be greater than or equal to the net area required for the member.
(c) The sum of the areas at a hole for a pin, perpendicular to the axis of the member, shall
be greater than or equal to 1.33 times the net area required for the member.
(d) Pin plates provided to increase the net area of a member or to increase the bearing
capacity of a pin shall be arranged to avoid eccentricity and shall be proportioned to
distribute the load from the pin into the member.
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b fy
e . . . 10.2.3(1)
t 250
where
b = clear width of an element outstand from the face of the supporting plate
element, or the clear width of the element between the faces of the supporting
plate elements
t = thickness of the plate
For circular hollow sections, the element slenderness (e) shall be calculated as follows:
do fy
e . . . 10.2.3(2)
250
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t
where
do = outside diameter of the section
t = wall thickness of the section
10.2.4 Effective width
The effective width (be) of a flat plate element of clear width (b), or the effective outside
diameter (de) of a circular hollow section outside diameter (do), shall be calculated from the
value of the element slenderness ( e) given in Clause 10.2.3 and the element yield
slenderness limit (ey) given in Table 10.2.4.
The effective width (be) for a flat plate element shall be calculated as follows:
ey
be b b . . . 10.2.4(1)
e
The effective outside diameter (de) for a circular hollow section shall be the lesser of—
ey
(a) de do d o ; and . . . 10.2.4(2)
e
2
3ey
(b) d e d o
. . . 10.2.4(3)
e
Alternatively, the effective width (be) for a flat plate element may be obtained from the
following:
ey k b
be b b . . . 10.2.4(4)
e k bo
where
kb = elastic buckling coefficient for the element
kbo = basic value of kb
= 4.0 for a flat plate element supported along both edges
= 10 for a flat plate element supported along both longitudinal edges and
restrained by concrete
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= 0.425 for flat pates supported along one longitudinal edge, i.e., outstands
= 2.0 for a flat plate element supported along one longitudinal edge (outstand)
and restrained by concrete
The elastic buckling coefficient (kb ) for the plate element shall be determined from a
rational elastic buckling analysis of the whole member as a flat plate assemblage.
TABLE 10.2.4
VALUES OF PLATE ELEMENT YIELD SLENDERNESS LIMIT
Plate element type Edges supported Residual stresses Yield slenderness limit
(see Note) ( ey )
One SR 16
(outstand) HR 16
LW, CF 15
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HW 14
Flat
Both SR 45
HR 45
LW, CF 40
HW 35
SR, 82
HR, CF 82
Circular hollow sections
LW 82
HW 82
LEGEND:
SR = Stress relieved
LW = Lightly welded longitudinally
HR = Hot rolled or hot finished
HW = Heavily welded longitudinally
CF = Cold formed
NOTE: Welded members whose compressive residual stresses are less than 40 MPa may be considered to be
lightly welded.
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= compression member factor
= 2 . . . 10.3.4(4)
1
90
2
2
90
= η + ab . . . 10.3.3(5)
η = 0.00326 ( 13.5) 0 . . . 10.3.3(6)
Le fy
η = k f
. . . 10.3.3(7)
r 250
a =
2100 η 13.5 . . . 10.3.3(8)
15.3η 2050
2
η
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TABLE 10.3.3(A)
VALUES OF MEMBER SECTION CONSTANT (b) FOR k f = 1.0
b Section description
1.0 – Hot-formed RHS sections and CHS sections
– Cold-formed (stress-relieved) RHS sections and CHS sections
0.5 – Cold-formed (non-stress relieved) RHS sections and CHS sections
0 – Hot-rolled UB sections and UC sections (flange thickness up to 40 mm)
– Welded H-sections and I-sections fabricated from flame-cut plates
– Welded box sections
0.5 – Tees flame-cut from universal sections, and angles
– Hot-rolled channels
– Welded H-sections and I-sections fabricated from as-rolled plates (flange
thickness up to 40 mm)
– Other sections not listed in this Table
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TABLE 10.3.3(B)
VALUES OF MEMBER SECTION CONSTANT (b) FOR k f < 1.0
b Section description
0.5 – Hot-formed RHS sections and CHS sections
– Cold-formed RHS sections and CHS sections (stress-relieved)
– Cold-formed RHS sections and CHS sections (non-stress-relieved)
0 – Hot-rolled UB sections and UC sections (flange thickness up to 40 mm)
– Welded box sections
0.5 – Welded H-sections and I-sections (flange thickness up to 40 mm)
1.0 – Other sections not listed in this Table
TABLE 10.3.3(C)
VALUES OF MEMBER SLENDERNESS REDUCTION FACTOR ( c)
Modified Compression member section constant, b
member
slenderness 1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0
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where
Nom = elastic flexural buckling load of the member in axial compression,
determined using a rational elastic buckling analysis
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(Le/r) m= slenderness ratio of the whole battened compression member about the
above axis calculated by assuming that the main components act as an
integral member
(Le/r)c = maximum slenderness ratio of the main component determined in
accordance with Clause 10.4.3.1
The slenderness ratio (L e/r)bp of a battened compression member about the axis parallel to
the plane of the battens shall be greater than or equal to 1.4 (Le/r)c.
10.4.3.3 Effective length of a batten
The effective length of an end batten shall be taken as the perpendicular distance between
the centroids of the main components. The effective length of an intermediate batten shall
be taken as 0.7 times the perpendicular distance between the centroids of the main
components.
10.4.3.4 Maximum slenderness ratio of a batten
The slenderness ratio of a batten shall be not greater than 180.
10.4.3.5 Width of a batten
The width of an end batten shall be not less than the greater of the distance between the
centroids of the main components members and twice the width of the narrower main
component.
The width of an intermediate batten shall be not less than the greater of half the distance
between the main components and twice the width of the narrower main component.
10.4.3.6 Thickness of a batten
The thickness of a batten shall be not less than 0.02 times the minimum distance between
the innermost lines of welds or fasteners, except where the batten is effectively stiffened at
the free edges. The batten shall be deemed to be effectively stiffened at the free edges when
the edge stiffeners have a slenderness ratio of not greater than 170, where the radius of
gyration is taken about the axis parallel to the member axis.
10.4.3.7 Loads on battens
The batten and its connections shall be designed to transmit simultaneously to the main
components at the strength limit state a design longitudinal shear force ( VL* ), using the
following equation:
V * sb
VL* . . . 10.4.3.7(1)
nb d b
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10.5.1.1 Application
This Clause applies to compression members composed of two-angle, channel or T-section
components discontinuously separated back to back by a distance not exceeding that
required for the end gusset connection. If such a member is designed as a single integral
member, it shall comply with Clauses 10.5.1.2 to 10.5.1.5.
10.5.1.2 Configuration
The configuration of the main components shall be of similar sections arranged
symmetrically with their corresponding rectangular axes aligned.
10.5.1.3 Slenderness
The slenderness of the compound column about the axis parallel to the connected surfaces
shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 10.4.3.2.
10.5.1.4 Connection
The main components shall be interconnected by fasteners. Where the components are
connected together, the member shall be designed as a battened compression member in
accordance with Clause 10.4.3. The main components shall be connected at intervals so that
the member is divided into at least three bays of approximately equal length. At the ends of
the member, the main components shall be connected by not less than two fasteners in each
line along the length of the member, or by equivalent welds.
10.5.1.5 Design forces
The interconnecting fasteners shall be designed to transmit a design longitudinal shear force
between the components induced by the transverse shear force (V*) as given in Clause
10.4.1. The design longitudinal shear force ( VL* ) per connection shall be calculated as
follows:
L
VL* 0.25V * e . . . 10.5.1.5
r c
where
Le
= slenderness ratio of the main component between the interconnections
r c
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The main components shall be connected at intervals so that the member is divided into at
least three bays of approximately equal length. At the ends of the member, the main
components shall be interconnected by not less than two fasteners in each line along the
length of the members, or by equivalent welds.
10.5.2.5 Design forces
The interconnecting fasteners or welds shall be designed to transmit a longitudinal shear
force between the components induced by the transverse shear force (V*) in accordance with
Clause 10.4.1. The design longitudinal shear force ( VL* ) per connection shall be as specified
in Clause 10.5.1.5.
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Provided the surface of the steel section in contact with the concrete is unpainted and free
from oil, grease and loose scale or rust, the values given in Table 10.6.1.3 shall be taken for
bond.
TABLE 10.6.1.3
DESIGN SHEAR STRENGTH (bond)
Type of cross-section bond, MPa
Completely concrete-encased steel sections 0.30
Concrete filled circular hollow sections 0.55
Concrete filled rectangular hollow sections 0.40
Flanges of partially encased sections 0.20
Webs of partially encased sections 0.00
The value of bond given in Table 10.6.1.3 for completely concrete encased-steel sections
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Unless a more accurate analysis is used, V* shall be distributed into Vs acting on the
structural steel and Vc acting on the reinforced concrete section by:
Vs = V*Ms/Ms.comp . . . 10.6.1.4(1)
Vc = V Vs
*
. . . 10.6.1.4(2)
where
Ms = plastic resistance moment of the steel section
Ms.comp = plastic resistance moment of the composite section
For simplification V* may be assumed to act on the structural steel section alone.
C (a)
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C (b)
TABLE 10.6.1.5(A)
LIMITING WIDTH-TO-THICKNESS RATIOS FOR COMPRESSION STEEL
ELEMENTS IN COMPOSITE MEMBERS SUBJECT TO AXIAL COMPRESSION
Description Width-to- λ ep λ ey λ ed limit
thickness ratio Compact/ Noncompact/ Maximum
noncompact slender permitted
Walls of rectangular HSS and E E E
boxes of uniform thickness b/t 2.26 3.00 5.00
fy fy fy
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TABLE 10.6.1.5(B)
LIMITING WIDTH-TO-THICKNESS RATIOS FOR COMPRESSION STEEL
ELEMENTS IN COMPOSITE MEMBERS SUBJECT TO FLEXURE
Description of elements Width-to- λ ep λ ey λ ed limit
thickness ratio Compact/ Noncompact/ Maximum
noncompact slender permitted
Flanges of rectangular HSS E E E
and boxes of uniform thickness b/t 2.26 3.00 5.00
fy fy fy
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where
= capacity reduction factor for steel given in Table 3.2
kf = form factor
As = cross-sectional area of the structural steel section
fy = nominal yield strength of the structural steel measured parallel to Nus
Ar = cross-sectional area of the reinforcement
fry = nominal yield stress of the reinforcement
c = capacity factor for concrete in compression given in Table 3.2
Ac = area of concrete in the cross-section
f c = characteristic compressive strength of the concrete at 28 days
TABLE 10.6.2.2
VALUES OF η10 AND η 20 WHEN e = 0
r 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
η 10 4.90 3.22 1.88 0.88 0.22 0.00
η 20 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
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. . . 10.6.2.3(2)
Vs
The column shall be classified as composite if the steel contribution ratio falls within the
range of 0.2 0.9. If is less than 0.2, the column shall be designed as a reinforced
concrete column in accordance with AS 5100.5. If is greater than 0.9, the column shall be
designed as a bare steel column.
10.6.2.4 Effective flexural stiffness
The effective elastic flexural stiffness of a composite column, (EI)e shall be calculated as
follows:
EI e EIs EI r Ec,eff I c(t) . . . 10.6.2.4(1)
where
E = modulus of elasticity for the structural steel and the reinforcement
Is = second moment of area of the structural steel section
Ir = second moment of area of the reinforcement
Ec,eff = modulus of elasticity of concrete at time t, calculated in accordance with
AS 5100.5
Ic(t) = second moment of area of the uncracked concrete section at time t
Account shall be taken to the influence of long-term effects on the effective elastic flexural
stiffness. The modulus of elasticity of concrete [Ec(t) ] shall be reduced to the value Ec,eff
using the following equation:
1
Ec,eff Ec(t) . . . 10.6.2.4(2)
NG
1 cc
N G N Q
where
NG = unfactored axial load components due to permanent action (dead load)
NQ = unfactored axial load components due to imposed action (live load)
cc = creep coefficient calculated in accordance with AS 5100.5
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where
Ns = value of Nus determined in accordance with Clause 10.6.2.1, Clause 10.6.2.2 or
Clause 10.6.2.3, as appropriate, but taking the values of and c to be 1.0
Ncr = elastic critical load
2 EI e
= 2
. . . 10.6.2.5(2)
Le
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where
E = modulus of elasticity for the structural steel and the reinforcement
Is = second moment of area of the structural steel section
Ir = second moment of area of the reinforcement
Ec = modulus of elasticity for concrete, calculated in accordance with Clause 4.4.2
Ic = second moment of area of the uncracked concrete section
As = cross-sectional area of the structural steel section
Ar = cross-sectional area of the reinforcement
Ac = area of concrete in the cross-section
10.6.3.2 Effective length
The effective length (Le) of a composite compression member shall be determined as
follows:
Le = keL . . . 10.6.3.2
where
ke = member effective length factor determined in accordance with Clause 4.3.2
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90
= 2 . . . 10.6.3.3(3)
2
90
= η + a b . . . 10.6.3.3(4)
η = 0.00326( 13.5) 0 . . . 10.6.3.3(5)
η = 90r
2100 η 13.5
a = . . . 10.6.3.3(6)
15.3η 2050
2
η
TABLE 10.6.3.3(A)
VALUES OF MEMBER SECTION CONSTANT (αb) FOR k f < 1.0
Cross-section αb
p s 3% 0
3% < ps 6% 0
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TABLE 10.6.3.3(B)
VALUES OF MEMBER SECTION CONSTANT (αb) FOR k f = 1.0
Cross-section αb
p s 3% 0.5
3% < ps 6% 0
0
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TABLE 10.6.3.3(C)
VALUES OF MEMBER SLENDERNESS REDUCTION FACTOR ( c)
Modified member Compression member section constant ( b )
slenderness ( )
0.5 0 0.5 1.0
1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
5 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
10 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
15 0.998 0.995 0.992 0.990
20 0.989 0.978 0.967 0.956
25 0.979 0.961 0.942 0.923
30 0.968 0.943 0.917 0.888
35 0.955 0.925 0.891 0.853
40 0.940 0.905 0.865 0.818
45 0.924 0.884 0.837 0.782
50 0.905 0.861 0.808 0.747
55 0.885 0.838 0.778 0.711
60 0.862 0.809 0.746 0.676
65 0.837 0.779 0.714 0.642
70 0.809 0.748 0.680 0.609
75 0.779 0.715 0.646 0.576
80 0.746 0.681 0.612 0.545
85 0.711 0.645 0.579 0.516
90 0.675 0.610 0.547 0.487
95 0.638 0.575 0.515 0.461
100 0.600 0.541 0.485 0.435
105 0.564 0.508 0.457 0.412
110 0.528 0.477 0.431 0.389
115 0.495 0.448 0.406 0.368
120 0.463 0.421 0.383 0.348
125 0.434 0.395 0.361 0.330
130 0.408 0.372 0.341 0.313
(continued)
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where
Ns = value of Nus determined in accordance with Clause 10.6.2.1,
Clause 10.6.2.2 or Clause 10.6.2.3, as appropriate, but taking the values
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of and c to be 1.0
Nom = elastic flexural buckling load of the member in axial compression
determined using a rational elastic buckling analysis
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0.3
0.8
1 t t0 1
cc = 34.2 . . . 10.8.4
f c 8 8874.1 0.2
0.1 t 0
t t 0
f c 8
where
t0 = time of first loading, in days
t = instant in time at which creep effects are calculated, in days
Selected values for the creep coefficient cc shall be as given in Table 10.8.4.
NOTE: These values have been evaluated for t0 = 28 days and t = 30 years.
TABLE 10.8.4
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11.1 GENERAL
A member subject to combined axial and bending actions shall be proportioned so that its
design actions, as specified in Clause 11.2 in combination with its nominal section and
member capacities, as specified in Sections 5, 9 and 10, satisfy Clauses 11.3 and 11.4.
Composite members subject to combined axial and bending actions shall satisfy
Clause 11.5, using the design actions specified in Clause 11.2 and the section and member
capacities defined in Section 6 and Section 10.
Eccentrically loaded double-bolted or welded angles in trusses shall be proportioned to
satisfy Clause 11.3 and either Clause 11.4.3 or Appendix D.
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In this Clause—
Msx , Msy = nominal section moment capacities about the x-axes and y-axes
respectively, determined in accordance with Clause 5.2 or Clause 6.3, as
appropriate
Ns = nominal section axial capacity determined in accordance with Clause 10.2
for axial compression, or Clause 9.2 for axial tension, for which Ns = Nt
11.3.2 Uniaxial bending about the major principal x-axis
Where uniaxial bending occurs about the major principal x -axis, the following shall be
satisfied:
M x* M rx . . . 11.3.2(1)
where
= capacity reduction factor given in Table 3.2
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N* 82 w
M rx M sx 1 1 0.18 M sx . . . 11.3.2(4)
82 wy
Ns
where w and wy are the values of e and ey for the web, as specified in
Clause 10.2.3 and given in Table 10.2.4.
11.3.3 Uniaxial bending about the minor principal y-axis
Where uniaxial bending occurs about the minor principal y-axis, the following shall be
satisfied:
M y* M ry . . . 11.3.3(1)
where
= capacity reduction factor given in Table 3.2
Mry = nominal section moment capacity reduced by axial force, tension or
compression
N*
= M
sy 1 . . . 11.3.3(2)
Ns
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(b) For rectangular or square hollow sections to AS 1163 that are compact, as specified in
Clause 5.2.1:
N*
M ry 1.18M sy 1 M sy
. . . 11.3.3(4)
Ns
11.3.4 Biaxial bending
Where biaxial bending occurs, the design tensile or compressive force (N* ) and the design
moments ( M x* ) and ( M y* ) about the major principal x-axis and minor principal y-axis shall
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Mbx = nominal member moment capacity of the member without full lateral
restraint and bent about the major principal x-axis, determined in
accordance with Clause 5.6 using a moment modification factor (m)
appropriate to the distribution of design bending moments along the
member
Ncy = nominal member capacity in axial compression for buckling about the
minor principal y-axis, determined in accordance with Clause 10.3
Alternatively for doubly-symmetric I-sections that are compact, as defined in Clause 5.2.1,
and where the form factor (kf), as determined in accordance with Clause 10.2.2, is unity,
Mox may be calculated as follows:
N * N*
M ox bc M bxo 1 1 M rx . . . 11.4.3.1(3)
N N
cy oz
where
1 1 m 1 m
3
*
0.4 0.23 N . . . 11.4.3.1(4)
bc 2 2 N cy
Mbxo = nominal member capacity without full lateral restraint and with a uniform
distribution of design bending moment so that m is unity, determined in
accordance with Clause 5.6
Ncy = nominal member capacity in axial compression, determined in accordance
with Clause 10.3 for buckling about the minor principal y-axis
m = ratio of the smaller to the larger end bending moment, taken as positive when
the member is bent in reverse curvature
Noz = nominal elastic torsional buckling capacity of the member, calculated as
follows:
GJ 2
EI w / L2
Noz =
Ix Iy / A . . . 11.4.3.1(5)
G, E = elastic moduli
J, Iw, Ix , Iy, A = section constants
L = overall length
NOTE: Values for E and G, and expressions for I w and J are given in Appendix A.
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For compression and uniaxial bending the member shall satisfy the requirements of
Clause 11.5.2 for the bending plane, and Clause 10.6.2 for the non-bending plane.
For compression and biaxial bending, the member shall satisfy the requirements of
Clause 11.5.3.
11.5.1.3 Combined tension and bending
The capacity of concrete-filled hollow steel members subjected to tensile and bending
actions shall be determined in accordance with Clauses 11.3 and 11.4, ignoring the
structural capacity of the concrete.
11.5.2 Uniaxial bending
An interaction curve of the form shown in Figure 11.5.2 shall be determined for the
composite section, assuming that the maximum concrete compressive stress is ( c f c ) and
the maximum steel compressive stress is (sf y).
The section shall satisfy the following criteria:
M x* 0.9M rx . . . 11.5.2(1)
M y* 0.9 M ry . . . 11.5.2(2)
where
Mrx, Mry = section moment capacity, reduced by the effects of axial compression,
slenderness and imperfections, determined from an interaction curve in
the form of Figure 11.5.2
The reduced moment capacity, Mrx or Mry, shall not be taken to be greater than Msx or Msy,
the nominal section moment capacity derived in accordance with Clause 6.3, unless the
design moment M x* or M y* is due only to the action of the eccentricity of the design axial
force (N*).
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Nus A Inter ac t i o n c ur ve - - NA = N us
for t h e c ro s s - se c t i o n N o m o m e nt
N uc( = α cN us )
Po int B
N* C M B= M pl
hn - -
A XIAL LOAD
+ + zero a x i al for c e
M r x or M r y
Po int C
α nN us D
M C= Mpl
- -
hn + N C= Nc
+
Po int D
Mdx B M sx
M D= Mpl
(or M d y) (or M s y) - -
+
Nc
+ N D=
M O M ENT
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2
LEGEND:
N us = nominal section capacity for a member in axial compression, derived in accordance with
Clause 10.6.2
N uc = nominal member capacity for a member in axial compression, derived in accordance with
Clause 10.6.3
= c N us
c = compression member slenderness reduction factor
M dx , M dy = total moment capacity of the section when the design axial force (N*) is acting on the section
n = factor for interaction curve
1 m
= c . . . 11.5.2(3)
4
m = ratio of the smaller to the larger bending moment at the ends of a member, taken as positive
when the member is bent in reverse curvature
M y* 0.9M dy . . . 11.5.3(2)
*
M x* M y
1 . . . 11.5.3(3)
M rx M dy
M y* 0.9 M ry . . . 11.5.3(5)
*
M x* M y
1 . . . 11.5.3(6)
M dx M ry
where
M x* , M y* = design moments about the principal x-axis and y-axis
Mrx, Mry = reduced bending moment capacities about the principal x-axis and y-axis,
determined in accordance with Clause 11.5.2
Mdx, Mdy = total bending moment capacities about the principal x-axis and y-axis
when the design axial force (N*) is acting on the section, determined in
accordance with Clause 11.5.2
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c1.5 0.024 f cmi 0.12 for fcmi > 40 MPa
Long-term effects shall be taken into account in accordance with Clause 4.4.
Where second-order effects need to be considered, the elastic critical load shall be
determined with the flexural stiffness (EI)eff,II in accordance with Equation 11.5.4(1).
The influence of geometrical and structural imperfections shall be taken into account by
equivalent geometrical imperfections. Equivalent member imperfections for composite
columns shall be as given in Table 11.5.4, where L is the column length.
Within the column length, second-order effects shall be allowed for by multiplying the
greatest first-order design bending moment (M* ) by a factor k given by the following
equation:
k = 1.0 . . . 11.5.4(2)
N*
1
N omb
where
Nomb = critical normal force for the relevant axis and corresponding to the
effective flexural stiffness given in 11.5.4(1), with the effective length
taken as the column length
= equivalent moment factor given in Table 11.5.4
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TABLE 11.5.4
FACTORS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MOMENTS
TO SECOND ORDER THEORY
Moment distribution Moment factors Comment
First-order bending *
M is the maximum
M* moments from bending moment
member within the column
imperfection or length, ignoring
lateral load: second-order effects
= 1.0
M*
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-1 ≤ r ≤ 1
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SECTI ON 12 CONNECTIONS
12.1 GENERAL
Connection elements consist of connection components (cleats, gusset plates, brackets,
connecting plates) and connectors (bolts, rivets, pins and welds).
The connections in a structure shall be proportioned so as to be consistent with the
assumptions made in the analysis of the structure and to comply with this Section.
Connections shall be capable of transmitting the calculated design action effects.
12.2 DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this Section, the definitions below apply.
12.2.1 Bearing-type connection
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bolted end connections may be neglected in statically loaded members; however, they shall
be considered in members and connection components subject to fatigue loading.
12.3.4 Combined connections
When non-slip fasteners, such as high-strength bolts in a friction-type connection or welds
are used in a connection in conjunction with slip-type fasteners, such as snug-tight bolts or
tensioned high-strength bolts in bearing-type connections, all the design actions shall be
assumed to be carried by the non-slip fasteners.
Where a mixture of non-slip fasteners is used, sharing of the load may be assumed. Where
welding is used in a connection in conjunction with other non-slip fasteners—
(a) any design actions initially applied directly to the welds shall not be assumed to be
distributed to fasteners added after the application of the load design actions; and
(b) any design actions applied after welding shall be assumed to be carried by the welds.
12.3.5 Splices in members subject to axial compression
Bolted splices in compression members shall be located as close as practicable to points of
effective lateral support.
12.3.6 Connection components
Connection components shall have their capacities assessed using the provisions of
Sections 5, 9, 10 and 11, as applicable.
(b)
Ad Az sp2t / 4 sg for each gauge space in the chain of holes;
where
Az = sum of the areas of all holes in a zig-zag line extending progressively across the
member or part of the member [see Figure 12.4.3(A)]
sp = staggered pitch, which is the distance measured parallel to the direction of
design action in the member, centre-to-centre of holes in consecutive lines
t = thickness of the holed material
sg = gauge distance, measured at right angles to the direction of the design action in
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Zi g -z a g line
sg
D i r e c ti o n
of d e s i g n
a c ti o n
sp sp
Back mark
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TABLE 12.5.1
BOLTS AND BOLTING CATEGORY
Minimum tensile strength
Method of
Bolting category Bolt Standard Bolt grade (f uf ) MPa
tensioning
(see Note 2)
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TABLE 12.5.2.2
MINIMUM EDGE DISTANCES
Rolled plate, machine flame
Sheared or hand flame cut edge Rolled edge of a rolled section
cut, sawn or planed edge
1.75d f 1.50d f 1.25d f
NOTE: The edge distance may also be affected by Clause 12.5.3.4.
12.5.2.3 Maximum pitch
The maximum distance between centres of fasteners shall be the lesser of 15tp, where tp is
the thickness of thinner ply element connected, or 200 mm. In the following cases, the
maximum distances shall be as follows:
(a) For fasteners that are not required to carry design actions in regions not liable to
corrosion, the lesser of 32tp or 300 mm.
(b) For an outside line of fasteners in the direction of the design action, the lesser of
(4tp + 100) mm, or 200 mm.
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TABLE 12.5.3.1
REDUCTION FACTOR FOR A BOLTED LAP CONNECTION (kr)
Length
L j < 300 300 L j 1300 L j > 1300
mm
kr 1.0 1.075 L j /4000 0.75
where
= capacity reduction factor given in Table 3.2
Ntf nominal tensile capacity of a bolt
The nominal tensile capacity of a bolt (Ntf) shall be calculated as follows:
Ntf = Asfuf . . . 12.5.3.2(2)
where As is the tensile stress area of a bolt as specified in AS/NZS 1275.
12.5.3.3 Bolt subject to combined shear and tension
A bolt required to resist both design shear ( Vf* ) and design tension ( N tf* ) forces at the same
time shall satisfy—
2 2
Vf* N tf*
1 .0 . . . 12.5.3.3
V N
f tf
where
= capacity reduction factor given in Table 3.2
Vf = nominal shear capacity of the bolt, calculated in accordance with
Clause 12.5.3.1
Ntf = nominal tensile capacity, calculated in accordance with Clause 12.5.3.2
12.5.3.4 Ply in bearing
A ply subjected to a design bearing force ( Vb* ) at the ultimate limit state due to a bolt in
shear shall satisfy—
Vb* Vb . . . 12.5.3.4(1)
where
= capacity reduction factor given in Table 3.2
Vb = nominal bearing capacity of a ply
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direction of the component of the force, plus half the bolt diameter
The edge of a ply shall be deemed to include the edge of an adjacent bolt hole.
12.5.3.5 Filler plates
Where bolts or rivets transmitting load in shear and bearing pass through packing of total
thickness (tp) greater than one-third of the nominal diameter df, see Figure 12.5.3.5, the
design shear resistance (Vf) calculated as specified in Clause 12.5.3.1, shall be multiplied
by a reduction factor (βp) as given by the following:
9d f
p but βp 1 . . . 12.5.3.5
8d f 3tp
For double shear connections with packing on both sides of the splice, tp shall be taken as
the thickness of the thicker packing.
Pa c k i n g p l a te s
tp
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where
= capacity reduction factor given in Table 3.3
Vsf = nominal shear capacity of a bolt, for a friction-type connection
The nominal shear capacity of a bolt (Vsf) shall be calculated as follows:
Vsf = neiNtikh . . . 12.5.4.1(2)
where
= slip factor as defined below
nei = number of effective interfaces
Nti = minimum bolt tension at installation, given in Table 12.5.4.1
kh = factor for different hole types
= 1.0 for standard holes
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TABLE 12.5.4.1
MINIMUM BOLT TENSION (Nti)
Nominal diameter of bolt Minimum bolt tension
kN
M16 95
M20 145
M24 210
M30 335
M36 490
NOTE: The minimum bolt tensions given in this Table
are approximately equivalent to the minimum proof
loads given in AS 1252.
12.5.4.2 Friction-type connections in combined shear and tension
Bolts in a connection for which slip in the serviceability limit state is required to be limited
and which are subject to a design tensile force shall satisfy the following:
2 2
Vsf* N tf*
1 .0 . . . 12.5.4.2(1)
V N
sf tf
where
Vsf* = design shear force on the bolt in the plane of the interfaces for serviceability
limit state
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where
= capacity reduction factor given in Table 3.2
Mp = nominal moment capacity of the pin
The nominal moment capacity of a pin shall be calculated as follows:
Mp = fypS . . . 12.5.5.3(2)
where
fyp = yield stress of the pin
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Q Q
90°
90°
tw 4 5° tw2
θ
R θ P R P
tt tw t w1
tt
Eq u al l e g fill et we l d Un e q u al l e g fill et we l d
Q Q
tw2 90°
tw
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9 0°
θ θ
R P R P
tt tw t w1
tt
Eq u al l e g fill et we l d Un e q u al l e g fill et we l d
Q 90°
A p pare nt tw
s ize
θ
R P
tt tw
Gap
(c) Fill et we l d w it h ro ot g a p
LEGEN D:
PQ R = tr i an g l e in s c r i b e d w it hin t h e c ro s s - se c t i o n of t h e we l d
t w , t w1, t w 2 = s ize s of fill et we l d s
tt = d e s i g n t hroat t hi c k n e s s
NOTE: The design throat thickness (tt) of a weld is the minimum distance from the root of a weld to its face, less any
reinforcement.
t t1
D e s i g n t hr o at t h i c k n e s s for d e e p
tt2
p e n etr at i o n we l d s m ad e by
auto m at i c pro c e s se s:
t t = t t1 + 0.8 5 t t 2
NOTE: The design throat thickness (tt) of a weld is the minimum distance from the root of a weld to its face, less any
reinforcement.
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tt tt 90° tt
90° 90°
NOTE: The design throat thickness (tt) of a weld is the minimum distance from the root of a weld to its face, less any
reinforcement.
butt weld, other than a complete penetration butt weld in a T-joint or a corner joint,
and the size of an incomplete penetration butt weld, shall be the minimum depth to
which the weld extends from its face into a joint, exclusive of reinforcement.
The size of a complete penetration butt weld for a T-joint or a corner joint shall be the
thickness of the part whose end or edge butts against the face of the other part.
(b) Fillet weld The leg lengths shall be defined as the lengths (tw1, tw2) of the sides lying
along legs of a triangle inscribed within the cross-section of the weld [see
Figures 12.6.3(A)(a) and (b)]. When the legs are of equal length, the size shall be
specified by a single dimension (tw). Where there is a root gap, the size (tw) shall be
given by the lengths of the legs of the inscribed triangle reduced by the root gap as
shown in Figure 12.6.3(A)(c).
12.6.5 Effective length
The effective lengths shall comply with the following:
(a) Butt weld The effective length of a butt weld shall be the length of the continuous
full-size weld.
(b) Fillet weld The effective length of a fillet weld shall be the overall length of the full-
size fillet, including end returns. No reduction in effective length shall be made by
either the start or crater of the weld if the weld is full-size throughout its length.
The minimum effective length of a fillet weld shall be four times the size of the weld. If the
ratio of the effective length of the weld to the size of the weld does not comply with this
requirement, the size of the weld for design calculation purposes shall be taken as
0.25 times the effective length. The minimum length requirement shall also apply to lap
joints.
Any segment of intermittent fillet weld shall have an effective length of not less than
40 mm or four times the nominal size of the weld, whichever is the greater.
12.6.6 Particular requirements for butt welds
12.6.6.1 Incomplete-penetration butt welds
Incomplete-penetration butt welds shall be used only for longitudinal joints to connect the
elements of built-up members, such as girders and columns.
Incomplete-penetration butt welds shall not be used to transmit tensile or compressive
loads, or bending moments about the longitudinal axis of the weld.
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The transition slope between the parts shall be not greater than 1:1.
NOTE: The fatigue provisions of Section 13 may require a lesser slope than this or a curved
transition between the parts.
Butt-welded T-joints may have a small fillet weld superimposed on each welded face not
exceeding the lesser of 6 mm or thinner during fabrication process. Larger fillet welds may
be used, provided a compound weld (see Clause 12.6.2.3) is specified.
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1 1
Chamfer Chamfer
1 1
before we l d ing before we l d ing
1
1
C e nt r e - l i n e a l i g n m e nt O f f set ali g n m e nt
(Par t i c ul ar ly a p p li c a b l e to we b p l ate s) (Par t i c ul ar ly a p p li c a b l e to fl an g e p l ate s)
1
1 1
1
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1
1
1 Rem ove
1 1 Rem ove
af ter we l d in g
1 af ter we l d in g
1
1
1 B u t t j o i nt
1
W i d t h of
w i d er p l ate
1 W i d t h of
1 narrower plate
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TABLE 12.6.7.2
MINIMUM SIZE OF A FILLET WELD
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tw= t
1 mm
t tw
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tw= t
LEGEN D:
t w = s ize of fill et we l d s
t = t hi c k n e s s of t hin n er par t j o in e d
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shall be fillet-welded along the edge of both lapped parts except where the deflection of the
lapped parts is sufficiently restrained to prevent opening of the joint under maximum
loading, in which case welding along one edge only may be used.
12.6.7.9 Packing in welded construction
Where packing is welded between two members and is less than 6 mm thick, or is too thin
to allow provision of adequate welds or to prevent buckling, the packing shall be trimmed
flush with the edges of the load-carrying element and the size of the welds along the edges
shall be increased over the required sizes by an amount equal to the thickness of the
packing. Alternatively, the packing shall extend beyond the edges and shall be welded to
the piece to which it is fitted.
12.6.8 Particular requirements for plug and slot welds
12.6.8.1 General
Plug and slot welds shall be used only to transmit shear in a lap joints or to prevent
buckling of lapped parts.
12.6.8.2 Thickness of plug and slot welds
The thickness of plug or slot welds in material 16 mm or less in thickness shall be equal to
the thickness of the material. In material over 16 mm in thickness, it shall be at least
one-half the thickness of the material, but not less than 16 mm.
12.6.8.3 Sizes of plug and slot welds
The minimum size of plug and slot welds in the form of fillet welds around the
circumference of the hole or slot shall be as for fillet welds.
The minimum diameter of holes for plug welds or width of slots for slot welds shall be as
follows:
(a) 20 mm for plates less than or equal to 12 mm thick.
(b) 25 mm for plates greater than 12 mm, less than or equal to 20 mm thick.
(c) 30 mm for plates greater than 20 mm, less than or equal to 25 mm thick.
(d) 40 mm for plates greater than 25 mm, less than or equal to 30 mm thick.
The length of slot for a slot weld shall not exceed 10 times the width of the slot. Ends of
slots shall be semi-circular or have corners rounded to a radius not less than the thickness of
the part containing them.
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TABLE 12.6.10.2(A)
NOMINAL TENSILE STRENGTH OF WELD METAL (fuw )
Structural steel welding to AS/NZS 1554.1 and AS/NZS 1554.5—Steel types 1–8C
Manual metal Submerged arc Flux cored arc Gas metal arc Nominal
arc (AS/NZS 14171) (AS/NZS ISO 17632) (AS/NZS ISO14341) tensile
(AS/NZS 4855) strength of
weld metal,
f uw
B-E43XX B-S43 B-T43 B-G43 430
B-E49XX B-S49 B-T49 B-G49 490
B-E55XX B-S55, B-S57 B-T55, B-T57 B-G55, B-G57 550
Structural steel welding to AS/NZS 1554.4—Steel types 8Q–10Q
Manual metal Submerged arc Flux cored arc Gas metal arc Nominal
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arc (AS/NZS 14171, (AS/NZS ISO 17632, (AS/NZS ISO 14341, tensile
(AS/NZS 4855, AS/NZS 26304) AS/NZS ISO 18276) AS/NZS ISO 16834) strength of
AS/NZS 4857) weld metal,
f uw
B-E43XX B-S43 B-T43 B-G43 430
B-E49XX B-S49 B-T49 B-G49 490
B-E55XX B-S55 B-T55 B-G55 550
B-E57XX B-S57 B-T57, B-T59 B-G57, B-G59
B-E59XX B-S59
B-E62XX B-S62 B-T62 B-G62 620
B-E69XX B-S69 B-T69 B-G69 690
B-E76XX B-S76 B-T76, B-T78 B-G76, B-G78 760
B-E78XX B-S78
B-E83XX B-S83 B-T83 B-G83 830
NOTES:
1 Equivalent European type A classification series consumables may be used in lieu of the Type B
consumable. Refer to AS/NZS 1554.1, AS/NZS 1554.4 and AS/NZS 1554.5 as appropriate.
2 The B-E57XX, B-E59XX, B-78XX and equivalent strength consumables for other welding processes may
be difficult to source commercially.
3 The letter X represents any flux type (manual metal arc welding process).
TABLE 12.6.10.2(B)
REDUCTION FACTOR FOR A WELDED LAP CONNECTION (k r)
Length of weld L w
L w 1.7 1.7 < Lw 8.0 L w > 8.0
m
kr 1.00 1.10 0.06 L w 0.62
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(b) Plug and slot welds with hole filled with weld metal The effective shear area (Aw) of
a plug or slot weld in a hole filled with weld metal shall be considered as the nominal
cross-sectional area of the hole or slot in the plane of the faying surface.
Such a plug or slot weld subject to a design shear force ( Vw* ) shall satisfy the
following:
Vw* Vw . . . 12.6.10.3(1)
where
= capacity reduction factor given in Table 3.2
Vw = nominal shear capacity of the weld
The nominal shear capacity (Vw) of the weld shall be calculated as follows:
Vw = 0.60fuwAw . . . 12.6.10.3(2)
(c) Limitations Plug or slot welds shall be used only to transmit shear in lap joints or to
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SECTI ON 13 FATIGUE
13.1 SCOPE
This Section sets out requirements for fatigue design, which are based on international best
practice. It includes damage equivalent factors for the fatigue actions given in AS 5100.2.
The requirements of this Section are applicable to structures where execution conforms to
AS/NZS 1554.1, AS/NZS 1554.3 or AS/NZS 1554.5 and AS/NZS ISO 3834.2 (see Note 2).
This Section applies to materials that conform to the toughness requirements of
AS/NZS 5100.6. The assessment methods given in this Section are applicable to all grades
of structural stainless steels and unprotected weathering steel, except where noted otherwise
in the detail category tables.
Structural supports for highway signs, luminaires and traffic signals fatigue design
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13.2 EXCLUSIONS
This Section does not cover the following:
(a) Fatigue assessment using the notch stress or notch strain method.
(b) Fatigue assessment using fracture mechanics
(c) Post fabrication treatments to improve the fatigue strength, other than stress relief.
(d) The effect of seawater corrosion
(e) Microstructural damage from high temperature (>150°C)
(f) High stress-low cycle fatigue
(g) Stress corrosion cracking.
13.3 DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this Section, the definitions below apply.
13.3.1 General
13.3.1.1 Fatigue
The process of initiation and propagation of cracks through a structural part due to action of
fluctuating stress.
13.3.1.2 Geometric stress (structural hot spot stress)
The maximum principal stress in the parent material adjacent to the weld toe, taking into
account stress concentration effects due to the overall geometry of a particular
constructional detail but disregarding the stress concentration effect of the weld toe.
NOTE: Local stress concentration effects e.g. from the weld profile shape (which is already
included in the detail categories in Appendix I) need not be considered.
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13.4 NOTATION
For the purposes of this Section, the following apply.
σ = stress range (direct stress)
= stress range (shear stress)
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Fatigue strengths are determined by considering the structural detail, together with its
metallurgical and geometric notch effects.
NOTE: In the fatigue details presented in this Section, the probable site of crack initiation is also
indicated [see Table 13.10.1(B) to Table 13.10.1(K)].
13.6.4 Capacity reduction factors
The assessment methods given herein use fatigue resistance in terms of fatigue strength
curves for—
(a) standard details applicable to nominal stresses; and
(b) reference weld configurations applicable to geometric stresses.
The required reliability may be achieved as follows:
(i) Damage tolerant method:
(A) Selecting details, materials and stress levels so that in the event of the
formation of cracks a low rate of crack propagation and a long critical crack
length would result.
(B) Provision of multiple load paths.
(C) Provision of crack-arresting details.
(D) Provision of readily inspectable details during regular inspections.
(ii) Safe-life method:
(A) Selecting details and stress levels resulting in a fatigue life sufficient to achieve
the reliability index -values to be at least equal to those required for ultimate
limit state verifications at the end of the design service life.
(B) Specifying definition of classes and numerical values for Mf.
Values for Mf shall be as given in Table 13.6.4 or as agreed with the relevant authority.
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TABLE 13.6.4
VALUES FOR CAPACITY REDUCTION FACTORS ( Mf)
FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH
Consequence of failure
Assessment method CC1 and CC2 CC3
Low consequence High consequence
Damage tolerant 1.00 0.85
Safe life 0.85 0.75
For latticed girders made of hollow sections, the modelling may be based on a simplified
truss model with pinned connections. Provided the stresses due to external loading applied
to members between joints are taken into account, the effects from secondary moments due
to the stiffness of the connection shall be considered using the k1-factors, as given in
Table 13.7(A) for circular hollow sections and Table 13.7(B) for rectangular hollow
sections; these sections are subject to the geometrical restrictions according to
Table 13.10.1(H).
TABLE 13.7(A)
k 1 -FACTORS FOR CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS UNDER
IN-PLANE LOADING
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TABLE 13.7(B)
k 1 -FACTORS FOR RECTANGULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS UNDER
IN-PLANE LOADING
Type of joint Chords Verticals Diagonals
K type 1.5 1.0 1.5
Gap joints
N type/KT type 1.5 2.2 1.6
K type 1.5 1.0 1.3
Overlap joints
N type/KT type 1.5 2.0 1.4
NOTES:
1 For the definition of joint types, refer to Key, PW & Syam AA. Tubular Design Guide,
Australian Steel Institute, 2014.
2 Ranges of geometric validity:
For CHS planar joints (K-, N-, KT-joints):
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0.30 0.60
12.0 30.0
0.25 1.00
30° θ 60°
For SHS joints (K-, N-, KT-joints):
0.40 0.60
6.25 12.5
0.25 1.00
30° θ 60°
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σ IIf
σ ┴f
τ IIf
τ┴f
tt tt
tt tt
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vehicles per day, span of bridge, route conditions, service life or number of cycles, and
effect of multiple lanes.
For A160 and M1600, without uniformly distributed load (UDL) loading model of
AS 5100.2, the -values shall be determined as follows:
= C L R Y M . . . 13.9.2.2
where
C = vehicles per day
L = consideration of span
R = route factor
Y = service life in years or number of cycles
M = effect of multiple lanes, if not yet covered in load assumptions
C-values shall be calculated for different numbers of vehicles per day with reference to
Table 13.8.2.2(A) for A160 and M1600, without UDL loading models. The C-values given
in the Table are based on a span length of 1.0 m.
It is assumed that the λL value for the A160 fatigue load model equals λL = 1 irrespective of
the span length.
λL values for M1600, without UDL fatigue load model shall be as given in
Table 13.9.2.2(B).
The route factor λR is the same for both the A160 and M1600, without UDL fatigue load
model. The λ R-values shall be as given in Table 13.9.2.2(C).
The λY-factors for different service lives in years are the same for both A160 and M1600,
without UDL fatigue load model shall be as given in Table 13.9.2.2(D).
The λM factors if more than one lane is loaded for both A160 and M1600 without UDL
fatigue load model shall be as given in Table 13.9.2.2(E).
NOTE:The λM factor for multiple lanes does not need to be considered where the effect of
multiple lanes was already covered by the load assumptions.
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TABLE 13.9.2.2(A)
C-VALUES FOR A160 AND M1600, WITHOUT UDL
FATIGUE LOAD MODELS BASED ON A SPAN OF 1.0 m
Vehicles per day 200 500 1000 2000 5000
C (A160) 0.92 1.11 1.27 1.46 1.76
C (M1600, without UDL) 0.80 0.97 1.11 1.27 1.53
TABLE 13.9.2.2(B)
L-VALUES FOR M1600, WITHOUT UDL
FATIGUE LOAD MODEL
TABLE 13.9.2.2(C)
R-VALUES FOR A160 AND M1600, WITHOUT UDL FATIGUE LOAD MODEL
Route factor Principal interstate Urban Other rural Urban routes other
freeway or highway freeway routes than freeways
R 1 0.931 0.871 0.786
TABLE 13.9.2.2(D)
Y-FACTORS FOR ROAD AND RAIL BRIDGES FOR DIFFERENT NUMBER OF
YEARS (n), AS DETERMINED ACCORDING TO AS 5100.2
Bridge/years 75 90 100 120
Road bridges—No inspection 1.000 1.04 1.06 1.10
Road and rail bridges—Regular inspection 0.94 0.98 1.00 1.04
NOTE: The number of cycles is determined from cycles per train, dependent of span and number of trains
dependent on type of line in accordance with AS 5100.2. The range is from about 2E4 to 1.44E8 cycles. The
choice of an exponent m = 3 or m = 5 is dependent on load cycles and stress and could vary accordingly. For
uniformity, the values have been calculated for an exponent of m = 5.
TABLE 13.9.2.2(E)
M-FACTORS FOR BRIDGES WITH MULTIPLE LANES
Number of lanes 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more
λM 1.0 1.9 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.5
NOTES:
1 Where no appropriate data for λ i are available, the design value of nominal stress range may be determined
using the principles in Appendix I.
2 Information supplementing the requirements of Appendix I may be specified.
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TABLE 13.9.2.3
λT-FACTORS FOR RAIL BRIDGES ACCORDING TO AS 5100.2
Cycles/λT -factor 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
1 0.176 0.368 0.794 1.710 2.710
2 0.215 0.464 1.000 1.964 3.113
3 0.247 0.531 1.084 2.130 3.376
4 0.271 0.585 1.149 2.256 3.576
5 0.292 0.630 1.201 2.359 3.739
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FfσE,2
= k1 Ff E* , 2 . . .13.9.4
where
Ff E* , 2 = design value of stress range calculated with a simplified truss model with
pinned joints
k1 = magnification factor according to Table 13.7(A) and Table 13.7(B)
α = dynamic load allowance in AS 5100.2
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13.9.5 Design value of stress range for geometrical (hot spot) stress
The design value of geometrical (hot spot) stress range (FfσE,2) shall be determined as
follows:
FfσE,2 = k f Ff E* , 2 . . .13.9.5
where
kf = stress concentration factor
13.9.6 Shear connectors
For verification of stud shear connectors based on nominal stress ranges, the equivalent
constant range of shear stress ( E.2) for 2 million cycles shall be taken to be:
E.2 = v . . . 13.9.6
where
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v = damage equivalent factor depending on the spectrum and the slope m of the
fatigue strength curve
The -values shall be as determined in Clauses 13.9.2.2 and 13.9.2.3
= range of shear stress due to fatigue loading, related to the cross-sectional
area of the shank of the stud using the nominal diameter dbs of the shank
NOTE: The stress ranges refer to maximum stress in spectrum
The equivalent constant amplitude shear stress range in welds of other types of shear
connectors shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 13.8.
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If starting from knee point at 107 cycles, which is not the case here, no factor is needed.
The factors 0.585 and 0.457 consider that the comparison values for direct and shear stress
refer to 2 106 cycles while the knee point is at 107 or 108 cycles respectively.
For variable amplitude nominal stress spectra with stress ranges below the knee point of the
S-N curve, the fatigue strength for a Miner summation shall be based on the extended
fatigue strength curves as follows:
Rm N R 0.585 Cm 2 106 with m = 5 for N > 107 (see Note 1) . . . 13.10.1(5)
1 The conventional assumption is that S-N curves terminate at a fatigue limit, below which
failure will not occur, or in which case the S-N curve becomes a horizontal line. Traditionally,
this constant amplitude fatigue limit (CAFL), also referred to as the ‘knee point’, is defined in
terms of the corresponding fatigue endurance on the S-N curve, N = 10 7 being the most
common practical engineering assumption. However, new experimental data indicate that a
CAFL does not exist and the S-N curve should continue on the basis of a further decline in
stress range of about 10% per decade in terms of cycles, which corresponds to a slope of
m = 22. In this case, the Miner summation is specified as m = 5. This issue is only relevant if
a design is expected to withstand very large numbers of stress cycles such as, for example, at
rotating welded machine parts. The nominal stress-based characteristic S-N curves are
presented with the extrapolation beyond 107 cycles at a slope of m = 22 in Figures 13.10.1(A)
to 13.10.1(B).
2 These are values that represent 95% survival probability (i.e. 5% failure probability)
calculated from the mean on the basis of one-sided confidence of 95%. In practical
applications, that is equivalent to about mean minus two standard deviations.
3 The relevant authority or owner of a bridge or associated structure may permit the verification
of a fatigue strength category for a particular application provided the evaluation is as stated
above.
4 Test data for some details do not exactly fit the fatigue strength curves in Figure 13.10.1(A).
In order to ensure that non-conservative conditions are avoided, such details, marked with an
asterisk, are located one detail category lower than their fatigue strength at 2 × 10 6 cycles
would require. An alternative assessment may increase the classification of such details by
one detail category provided that the constant amplitude fatigue limit ΔσD is defined as the
fatigue strength at 10 7 cycles for m = 3 [see Figure 13.10.1(C)].
The fatigue strength associated with category 160 and a slope exponent of m = 5 is the
highest. No detail can reach a higher fatigue strength at any number of cycles.
Detail categories ΔσC and ΔτC for nominal stresses shall be as given in—
(a) Table 13.10.1(B) for plain members and mechanically fastened joints;
(b) Table 13.10.1(C) for welded built-up sections;
(c) Table 13.10.1(D) for transverse butt welds;
(d) Table 13.10.1(E) for weld attachments and stiffeners;
(e) Table 13.10.1(F) for load carrying welded joints;
(f) Table 13.10.1(G) for hollow sections;
(g) Table 13.10.1(H) for lattice girder node joints;
(h) Table 13.10.1(I) for orthotropic decks – closed stringers;
(i) Table 13.10.1(J) for orthotropic decks – open stringers; and
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(j) Table 13.10.1(K) for top flange to web junctions of runway beams.
The fatigue strength categories Δσ C for geometric stress ranges shall be as given in
Appendix I.
Fatigue strength categories ΔσC and ΔτC for details not covered by Table 13.10.1(A) to
Table 13.10.1(K) and by Appendix I may be specified.
500
400
300
20 0
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Δσ R , MPa
16 0
10 0
90
80
70 12 5
60 11 2
10 0
50 90
80
40 71
63
30 56
50
45
40
20 36
CYCLES, N
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S HE AR STRESS R AN GE Δτ R , M Pa
10
10 0
10 0 0
1.0 E+ 0 4
1
LEGEN D:
m = 5
1.0 E+ 0 5
2 Cut- of f lim it Δτ L
1 D et ail c ate g or y Δτ C
80
10 0
1.0 E+ 0 6
245
2 .0 E+ 0 6
1
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1.0 E+ 07
1.0 E+ 0 8
1.0 E+ 0 9
l o g Δσ R
Δσ C
Δσ C*
7
6
6
log N
10
10
10
5x
2x
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where
R = fatigue shear strength related to the cross-sectional area of the shank of the
stud, using the nominal diameter dbs of the shank
C = reference value at NC = 2 106 cycles with C equal to 90 MPa
m = slope of the fatigue strength curve with the value m = 8
NR = number of stress-range cycles
Δτ R (l o g)
Δτ C
1
m = 8
N c = 2 × 10 6
N (l o g)
10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 4
FIGURE 13.10.2 FATIGUE STRENGTH CURVE FOR HEADED STUDS IN SOLID SLABS
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Tension
σ max.
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σ max
Δσ = σ m a x . + 0.6 σ m i n .
0.6 σ m i n .
C o m pres s i o n σ min.
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Stress ranges shall be based on principal stresses for some details given in Table 13.10.1(B)
to Table 13.10.1(J).
Unless otherwise stated in the fatigue strength categories in Tables 13.10.1(I) and
13.10.1(J), the assessment procedure for combined stress shall be as given in
Table 13.10.1(A) below. The stresses of action and resistance shall be calculated for the
same number of cycles.
When no data for ΔσE,2 or ΔτE,2 are available, the verification format in Appendix I may be
used.
NOTES:
1 Appendix I covers stress ranges in longitudinal direction, which may be adopted also for
shear stress ranges.
2 Information supplementing the requirements of Appendix I may be specified.
TABLE 13.10.1(A)
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TABLE 13.10.1(B)
PLAIN MEMBERS AND MECHANICALLY FASTENED JOINTS
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
NOTE: The fatigue strength associated with Rolled or extruded products: Details 1) to 3):
category 160 is the highest. No detail can reach a
1) Plates and flats with as rolled edges; Sharp edges, surface and rolling flaws to be improved by grinding
better fatigue strength at any number of cycles.
2) Rolled sections with as rolled edges; until removed and smooth transition achieved.
160 3) Seamless hollow sections, either rectangular or
m=5 circular.
1 2 3
Sheared or gas cut plates: 4) All visible signs of edge discontinuities to be removed. The cut
140 areas are to be machined or ground and all burrs to be removed.
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can only be parallel to the stresses.
5) Material with machine gas cut edges having
shallow and regular drag lines or manual gas cut Details 4) and 5):
125 material, subsequently dressed to remove all edge
5 -Re-entrant corners to be improved by grinding (slope 1/4) or
discontinuities.
evaluated using the appropriate stress concentration factors.
Machine gas cut with cut quality according to
-No repair by weld refill.
AS/NZS 5131.
6) and 7) Rolled or extruded products as in Details 6) and 7):
100 details 1), 2), 3).
VS t
m=5 calculated from:
6 7 It
NOTE: For details 1 – 5 made of weathering steel, the next lower category shall be used.
8) Double covered symmetrical joint with 8) σ to be calculated on For bolted connections (Details 8) to
preloaded high strength bolts. the gross cross-section. 13) in general:
112
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
8 8) Double covered symmetrical joint with 8) … gross cross-section. End distance:
preloaded injection bolts. e 1 1.5d
(continued)
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(B) (continued)
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
9) Double covered joint with fitted bolts. 9) … net cross-section. Edge distance:
e 2 1.5d
9 9) Double covered joint with non-preloaded 9) … net cross-section. Spacing:
injection bolts. p 1 2.5d
90 10) One sided connection with preloaded high 10) … gross cross-section. Spacing:
strength bolts. p 2 2.5d
10) One sided connection with preloaded injection 10) … gross cross-section. Detailing to Section 12
10 bolts.
11) Structural element with holes subject to 11) net cross-section. In the absence of suitable experimental
bending and axial forces. data, avoid designing with threads in
the shear plane.
11
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12) One sided connection with fitted bolts. 12) net cross-section.
14) Bolts and rods with rolled or cut threads in 14) σ shall be calculated using the tensile stress area of the bolt.
size effect for Ø Ø tension. Bending and tension resulting from prying effects and bending
50 > 30 mm: For large diameters (anchor bolts) the size effect stresses from other sources shall be taken into account.
14
has to be taken into account with k s. For preloaded bolts, the reduction of the stress range may be taken
k s = (30/ ) 0.25
into account.
Bolts in single or double shear 15) calculated on the shank area of the bolt.
Thread not in the shear plane 15) In the absence of suitable experimental data, avoid designing with
100 15 threads in the shear plane.
m=5 -Fitted bolts.
-Normal bolts without load reversal (bolts of
grade 4.6, 5.6, 8.8 or 10.9).
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TABLE 13.10.1(C)
WELDED BUILT-UP SECTIONS
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
Continuous longitudinal welds: Details 1) and 2):
1) Automatic or fully mechanized butt welds No stop/start position is permitted except when the repair is
125 carried out from both sides. performed by a specialist and inspection is carried out to verify the
1 2 2) Automatic or fully mechanized fillet welds. proper execution of the repair.
Cover plate ends to be checked using detail 6) or
7) in Table 13.10.1(F).
3) Automatic or fully mechanized butt welds 4) When this detail contains stop/start positions, category 100 to be
carried out from both sides but containing used.
stop/start positions.
112 3 4) Automatic or fully mechanized butt welds
made from side only, with a continuous backing
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5) Manual fillet or butt weld. 5), 6) A very good fit between the flange and web plates is
6) Manual or automatic or fully mechanized butt essential. The web edge to be prepared such that the root face is
100 welds carried out from one side only, particularly adequate for the achievement of regular root penetration without
for box girders. break-out.
5 6
7) Repaired automatic or fully mechanized or 7) Improvement by grinding performed by specialist to remove all
manual fillet or butt welds for categories 1) to 6). visible signs and adequate verification can restore the original
100 category.
7
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
(continued)
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(C) (continued)
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
9) Longitudinal butt weld, fillet weld or 9) σ based on direct stress in flange.
intermittent weld with a cope hole height not
71 greater than 60 mm.
For cope holes with a height > 60 mm, see
9
detail 1) in Table 13.10.1(E).
10) Longitudinal butt weld, both sides ground
125
flush parallel to load direction, 100% NDT.
112 10 10) No grinding and no start/stop.
90 10) With start/stop positions.
11) Automatic or fully mechanized longitudinal 11) Wall thickness t 12.5 mm.
140 seam weld without stop/start positions in the
hollow sections.
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11) Automatic or fully mechanized longitudinal 11) Wall thickness t > 12.5 mm.
252
125 11 seam weld without stop/start positions in the
hollow parts.
90 11) With stop/start positions.
NOTE: For details 1) to 11) made with fully mechanized welding the categories for automatic welding apply.
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TABLE 13.10.1(D)
TRANSVERSE BUTT WELDS
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
t Without backing bar: -All welds ground flush to plate surface parallel
≤1/4 to direction of the arrow.
1) Transverse splices in plates and flats.
t -Weld run-on and run-off pieces to be used and
1 2) Flange and web splices in plate girders
subsequently removed, plate edges to be ground
size effect before assembly.
flush in direction of stress.
for 3) Full cross-section butt welds of rolled
112 -Welded from both sides; checked NDT.
> 25 mm: ≤1/4
sections without cope holes.
2 4) Transverse splices in plates or flats tapered Detail 3):
k s = (25/ ) 0.2 4 in width or in thickness, with a slope 1/4.
Applies only to joints of rolled sections, cut and
welded.
3
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5) Transverse splices in plates or flats. -The height of the weld convexity to be not
≤ 0.1b b
253
≤1/4
6) Full cross-section butt welds of rolled greater than 10% of the weld width, with smooth
t t
sections without cope holes. transition to the plate surface.
size effect 7) Transverse splices in plates or flats tapered -Weld run-on and run-off to be used and
for in width or in thickness with a slope 1/4. subsequently removed, plate edges to be ground
90 5
> 25 mm: Translation of welds to be machined notch free. flush in direction of stress.
k s = (25/ ) 0.2 ≤1/4
-Welded from both sides; checked NDT.
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
without tolerance differences.
(continued)
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(D) (continued)
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
9) Transverse splices in welded plate girders -The height of the weld convexity to be not
b without cope hole. greater than 20% of the weld width, with smooth
≤ 0. 2 b
t 10) Full cross-section butt welds of rolled transition to the plate surface.
sections with cope holes. -Weld not ground flush.
size effect 11) Transverse splices in plates, flats, rolled -Weld run-on and run-off pieces to be used and
for 9 11 sections or plate girders. subsequently removed, plate edges to be ground
80 > 25 mm: flush in direction of stress.
-Welded from both sides; checked by NDT.
k s = (25/ ) 0.2
Detail 10):
10
The height of the weld convexity to be not greater
than 10% of the weld width, with smooth
transition to the plate surface.
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12) Full cross-section butt welds or rolled -Weld run-on and run-off pieces to be used and
sections without cope hole. subsequently removed, plate edges to be ground
254
63 flush in direction of stress.
12 -Welded from both sides.
36 13) Butt welds made from one side only. 13) Without backing strip. Eccentricity exceeding
t
10% of wall thickness shall be considered in
size effect 13) Butt welds made from one side only when
analysis.
for full penetration checked by appropriate NDT.
71 > 25 mm:
13
k s = (25/ ) 0.2
t With backing strip: Details 14) and 15):
size effect 14) Transverse splice. Fillet welds attaching the backing strip to
for 15) Transverse butt weld tapered in width or terminate 10 mm from the edges of the stressed
71 > 25 mm:
>10 m m thickness with a slope 1/4. plate. Tack welds inside the shape of butt welds.
≤1/4
Also valid for curved plates. Eccentricity exceeding 10% of wall thickness
k s = (25/ ) 0.2 shall be considered in analysis.
14 15
(continued)
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Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
size effect ≤1/4 16) Transverse butt weld on a permanent 16) Where backing strip fillet welds end < 10 mm
for backing strip tapered in width or thickness with from the plate edge, or if a good fit cannot be
50 > 25 mm: a slope 1/4. guaranteed. Eccentricity exceeding 10% of wall
16 Also valid for curved plates. thickness shall be considered in analysis.
k s = (25/ ) 0.2
Size effect for t > 25 mm and/or 17) Transverse butt weld, different thicknesses
generalization for eccentricity: s l o p e ≤ 1/ 2 without transition, centrelines aligned.
0.2
25 6e t11.5
k s 1 t2 t1
t1 t1 t11.5 t 12.5
71
t2 ≥ t1
e
17
t2 > t1
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r L
40 ℓ
flanges.
The fatigue strength of the continuous component
As detail 19) With transition radius according to has to be checked with Table 13.10.1(E), detail 4)
4) in Table Table 13.10.1(E), detail 4). or 5).
13.10.1(E) 18 19
TABLE 13.10.1(E)
WELD ATTACHMENTS AND STIFFENERS
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
80 L 50 mm Longitudinal attachments: The thickness of the attachment shall be less than
its height. If not, see Table 13.8.5, details 5) or 6).
71 50 < L 80 mm 1) The detail category varies according to the
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
L L
length of the attachment L.
63 80 < L 100 mm
1
56 L > 100 mm
(continued)
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(E) (continued)
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
ℓ
6 3
256
r 1
50 r
6
5) As welded, no radius transition.
40
5
TABLE 13.10.1(F)
LOAD CARRYING WELDED JOINTS
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
all t Cruciform and tee joints: 1) Inspected and found free from discontinuities
80 ℓ < 50 mm
[mm] and misalignments outside the tolerances
1) Toe failure in full penetration butt welds and
specified in AS/NZS 5131.
71 50 < ℓ 80 all t all partial penetration joints.
ℓ ℓ 2) For computing σ, use modified nominal
63 80 < ℓ 100 all t stress.
3) In partial penetration joints, two assessments
56 100 < ℓ 120 all t t t
are required. Firstly, root cracking evaluated
56 ℓ > 120 t 20 1 according to stresses defined in section 5, using
category 36 * for σ w and category 80 for w .
120 < ℓ 200 t > 20 Secondly, toe cracking is evaluated by
50
ℓ > 200 20 < t 30 determining σ in load-carrying plate.
200 < ℓ 300 t > 30
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45 Details 1) to 3):
ℓ > 300 30 < t 50
The misalignment of the load-carrying plates
257
40 ℓ > 300 t > 50 should not exceed 15% of the thickness of the
F l ex i b l e p a n e l 2) Toe failure from edge of attachment to plate, intermediate plate.
ℓ with stress peaks at weld ends due to local
As detail 1) plate deformations.
in this Table t
(continued)
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(F) (continued)
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
>10 m m
>10 m m
Overlapped welded joints: 4) σ in the main plate to be calculated on the
ℓ basis of area shown in the sketch.
As detail 1) 4) Fillet welded lap joint.
5) σ to be calculated in the overlapping plates.
in this Table t 4
1/ 2 Details 4) and 5):
S t r e s s e d ar e a o f m a i n p a n e l: s l o p e = 1/ 2
-Weld terminations more than 10 mm from plate
>10 m m Overlapped: edge.
45 * 5) Fillet welded lap joint. -Shear cracking in the weld should be checked
5 using detail 8).
tc < t tc t Cover plates in beams and plate girders: 6) If the cover plate is wider than the flange, a
transverse end weld is needed. This weld shall be
56 * t 20 — 6) End zones of single or multiple welded
carefully ground to remove undercut.
cover plates, with or without transverse end
50 20 < t 30 t 20 weld.
The minimum length of the cover plate is
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258
40 t > 50 30 < t 50
6
36 — t > 50
R e i n fo r c e d t r a n sve r s e e n d we l d 7) Cover plates in beams and plate girders. 7) Transverse end weld ground flush. In addition,
≤1/4 5t c is the minimum length of the reinforcement if t c > 20 mm, front of plate at the end ground
56 tc
t weld. with a slope < 1 in 4.
7 5tc
>10 m m 8) Continuous fillet welds transmitting a shear 8) to be calculated from the weld throat area.
flow, such as web to flange welds in plate 9) to be calculated from the weld throat area
80
girders. considering the total length of the weld. Weld
m=5
8 9 9) Fillet welded lap joint. terminations more than 10 mm from the plate
edge, see also 4) and 5) above.
see Welded stud shear connectors: 10) to be calculated from the nominal cross
Clause 13.9.2 section of the stud.
10) For composite application.
(90 m = 8) 10
(continued)
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Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
11) Tube socket joint with 80% full penetration 11) Weld toe ground. σ computed in tube.
71
11 butt welds.
12) Tube socket joint with fillet welds. 12) σ computed in tube.
40
12
TABLE 13.10.1(G)
HOLLOW SECTIONS (t 12.5 mm)
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
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category
259
1) Tube-plate joint, tubes flatted, butt weld (X- 1) σ computed in tube.
groove). Only valid for tube diameter less than 200 mm.
71
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
-Welded in flat position, inspected and found free
4) Butt-welded end-to-end connections
from defects outside the tolerances specified in
56 4 between rectangular structural hollow sections.
AS/NZS 5131.
-Classify 2 detail categories higher if t > 8 mm.
(continued)
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(G) (continued)
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
Welded attachments: 5)
-Non load-carrying welds.
71 5) Circular or rectangular structural hollow
-Width parallel to stress direction ℓ 100 mm.
10 0 m m 5 10 0 m m section, fillet-welded to another section.
-Other cases, see Table 13.10.1(E).
Welded splices: Details 6) and 7):
6) Circular structural hollow sections, butt- -Load-carrying welds.
50
welded end-to-end with an intermediate plate. -Welds inspected and found free from defects
6 outside of tolerances specified in AS/NZS 5131.
-Classify 1 detail category higher if t > 8 mm.
7) Rectangular structural hollow sections, butt-
welded end-to-end with an intermediate plate.
45
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260
8) Circular structural hollow sections, fillet- Details 8) and 9):
welded end-to-end with an intermediate plate.
-Load-carrying welds.
40
-Wall thickness t 8 mm.
8
9
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TABLE 13.10.1(H)
LATTICE GIRDER NODE JOINTS
Detail
Constructional detail Requirements
category
90 t0 Gap joints: Detail 1): K and N joints, circular structural hollow sections: Details 1) and 2):
2.0
m=5 ti d0 -Separate assessments needed for the chords and the braces.
-For intermediate values of the ratio t 0/t i interpolate linearly
t
between detail categories.
1
g
t0 -Fillet welds permitted for braces with wall thickness t 8 mm.
45 Θ Θ
1
1.0
d
t0
-t 0 and t i 8 mm.
m=5 ti
1 -35° θ 50°
+ e i/p
-b 0 /t 0 t 0 /ti 25
-d 0 /t 0 t 0 /ti 25
71 t0 Gap joints: Detail 2): K and N joints, rectangular structural hollow sections: -0.4 b i/b 0 1.0
2.0
m=5 ti -0.25 d i/d 0 1.0
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-b 0 200 mm.
b0
-d 0 300 mm.
261
-0.5h 0 ei/p 0.25h 0
-0.5d 0 ei/p 0.25d 0
t
g h0
1 -e o/p 0.02b 0 or 0.02d 0
36 t0 Θ Θ
1
1.0 b
t0
m=5 ti [e o/p is out-of-plane eccentricity]
+ e i/p 2
Detail 2):
0.5(b 0 b i ) g
1.1(b 0 b i ) and g 2t 0.
(continued)
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(H) (continued)
Detail
Constructional detail Requirements
category
71 t0 Overlap joints: Detail 3): K joints, circular or rectangular structural hollow sections: Details 3) and 4):
1.4
m=5 ti -30% overlap 100%.
t
1
-overlap = (q/p) 100%.
t
-Separate assessments needed for the chords and the braces.
1
1
b
-For intermediate values of the ratio t 0/t i interpolate linearly
1
d
Θ Θ between detail categories.
- e i/p
-Fillet welds permitted for braces with wall thickness t 8 mm.
-t 0 and t i 8 mm.
56 t0 d0 b0 -35° θ 50°
1.0
m=5 ti -b 0 /t 0 t 0 /ti 25
h0 -d 0 /t 0 t 0 /ti 25
-0.4 b i/b 0 1.0
t0 -0.25 d i/d 0 1.0
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-b 0 200 mm.
3 -d 0 300 mm.
262
-0.5h 0 ei/p 0.25h 0
71 t0 Overlap joints: Detail 4): N joints, circular or rectangular structural hollow sections: -0.5d 0 ei/p 0.25d 0
1.4
m=5 ti -e o/p 0.02b 0 or 0.02d 0
[e o/p is out-of-plane eccentricity]
t
1
t
Definition of p and q:
1
1
b
p
Θ
1
d
q
- e i/p
50 t0
1.0 d0 b0
m=5 ti
h0
t0
4
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TABLE 13.10.1(I)
ORTHOTROPIC DECKS—CLOSED STRINGERS
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
80 t 12 mm 1) Continuous longitudinal stringer, with 1) Assessment based on the direct stress range σ
Δσ additional cutout in cross girder. in the longitudinal stringer.
71 t > 12 mm t
1
3) Separate longitudinal stringer each side of 3) Assessment based on the direct stress range σ
the cross girder. in the stringer.
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Δσ
36
t
263
3
4) Joint in rib, full penetration butt weld with 4) Assessment based on the direct stress range σ
4
steel backing plate. in the stringer.
71
Δσ
As detail 1), 2), 4) in 5) Full penetration butt weld in rib, welded 5) Assessment based on the direct stress range σ
112
Table 13.10.1(D) from both sides, without backing plate. in the stringer. Tack welds inside the shape of
5 butt welds.
As detail 5), 7) in
90
Table 13.10.1(D)
As detail 9), 11) in
80 Δσ
Table 13.10.1(D)
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
(continued)
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(I) (continued)
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
6) Critical section in web of cross girder due to 6) Assessment based on stress range in critical
cutouts. section taking account of Vierendeel effects.
71 6
A A
Mℓ Mr Weld connecting deck plate to trapezoidal or 7) Assessment based on direct stress range from
V-section rib: bending in the plate.
a ≥ t ≤ 2 mm 7) Partial penetration weld with a t.
71 ΔMW
Δσ =
Mw WW
≤ 2 mm
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264
Fillet weld Mr 8) Fillet weld or partial penetration welds out 8) Assessment based on direct stress range from
a t of the range of detail 7). bending in the plate.
≤ 0. 5 m m
Mℓ
50
Mw
t
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TABLE 13.10.1(J)
ORTHOTROPIC DECKS—OPEN STRINGERS
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
80 t 12 mm 1) Connection of longitudinal stringer to cross 1) Assessment based on the direct stress range σ
girder. in the stringer.
1
71 t > 12 mm
Δσ
t
s s Vs 2
56
265
s Aw.net.s
2
Check also stress range between stringers.
Δτ
Δσ
TABLE 13.10.1(K)
TOP FLANGE TO WEB JUNCTION OF RUNWAY BEAMS
Detail Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
1) Rolled I- or H-sections. 1) Vertical compressive stress range σ vert. in web
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
due to wheel loads.
160
1
(continued)
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(K) (continued)
3) Partial penetration tee-butt welds, or 3) Stress range σ vert. in weld throat due to
effective full penetration tee-butt weld vertical compression from wheel loads.
36 * conforming with Section 12.
3
5) T-section flange with full penetration T-butt 5) Vertical compressive stress range σ vert. in web
266
weld. due to wheel loads.
71
5
6) T-section flange with partial penetration tee- 6) Stress range σ vert. in weld throat due to
butt weld, or effective full penetration tee-butt vertical compression from wheel loads.
36 * weld conforming with Section 12.
6
7) T-section flange with fillet welds. 7) Stress range σ vert. in weld throat due to
vertical compression from wheel loads.
36 *
7
Ff E,2 Ff E,2
1.3 . . . 13.11.2(2)
Mf C Mf,s C
Ff E,2 Ff E , 2
1.0 1.0 . . . 13.11.2(3)
Mf C Mf,s C
where
σE,2 = stress range in the flange determined in accordance with Section 13.6
σC = reference value of fatigue strength, by applying category 80, and the stress
ranges E,2 and C are defined in Equation 13.11.2(1)
The requirement of Equation 13.11.2(2) shall be met for the maximum value of σE,2 and
the corresponding of value E,2, as well as for the combination of the maximum value of
E,2 and the corresponding value σE,2. Unless taking into account the effect of tension
stiffening of concrete by more accurate methods. The requirements of Equations 13.11.2(2)
and 13.11.2(3) shall be met using the corresponding stress ranges determined with both
cracked and un-cracked cross-sectional properties.
13.11.3 Highways signs, luminaires and traffic signals
Fatigue limit state design shall be in accordance with the AASHTO publication Standard
Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals.
All aspects of the fatigue design shall be based on the AASHTO publication, including drag
coefficients, fatigue importance factors, fatigue stress categories and constant-amplitude
fatigue limits. Sign structures or high-mast light poles that could fall onto marked traffic
lanes shall be treated in accordance with AASHTO requirements for Fatigue Category I.
For installation sites where detailed yearly mean wind speed data is available from the
Bureau of Meteorology, that site value of the yearly mean wind speed shall be used in the
fatigue calculations for natural wind gusts in, accordance with Standard Specifications for
Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals.
The potential for a resonant response of the cantilever arm of cantilever sign structures to
vortex shedding originating from the column shall be assessed, including designs in which
steel box-sections are used for the principal members.
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14.1 GENERAL
Under certain conditions, structural steels may become liable to brittle fracture, and
although the risk of this fracture is very small in normal steel structures, the design and
construction of steel bridges shall avoid this mode of failure.
Even though a member has been designed to satisfy the strength and fatigue criteria
provided for in other Sections of this Standard and is fabricated from steel with high
ductility at ambient temperatures, brittle fracture may occur where a critical combination of
the following conditions exists:
(a) A notch or severe structural discontinuity giving rise to a severe stress concentration.
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(b) High tensile stress action across the plane of the notch.
(c) Low fracture toughness of the structural steel at the service temperature.
(d) Dynamic loading.
Where possible steel shall be selected to operate in the notch ductile temperature range
where the steel is insensitive to all but the most gross notches, weld defects or structural
discontinuities. Where for reasons of service temperature or material availability, use of
suitable notch ductile steels is not practicable, alternative methods shall be used.
14.2 METHODS
The steel grade shall be selected either by the notch-ductile range method as specified in
Clause 14.3, or by using a fracture assessment as specified in Clause 14.6.
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T h u r s d ay I .
20
20 20
Darwin
(18 )
15 20 Coen
C o o k tow n
15 15
15
Wyndham Cairns
D a l y Wa te r s 10
Wave H i l l B u r ke tow n
Broome G e o r g e tow n Tow n s v i l l e
Halls Creek Te n n a n t C r e e k
C a m o owe a l
Cloncurry 10
Po r t H e a d l a n d Hughenden M a c k ay
10
Clermont
O n s l ow Boulia Longreach R o c k h a m p to n
5 Alice Springs
Bundaberg
Mundiwindi 5
Wa r b u r to n R a n g e Birdsville 5
C a r n a r vo n Charleville
BRISBANE
Wiluna
Oodnadatta (6)
Thargomindah
Cue Moree
10 Marree
5 B o u r ke 0
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Geraldson Armidale
5 K a l g o o r l i e R aw l i n n a Po r t 5
Eu c l a Ceduna Augusta B r o ke n H i l l Po r t M a c q u a r i e
5 Dubbo
H i l l s to n N e wc a s t l e
PE R T H 0
(6) Mildura (7)
ADEL AIDE
5 SY D N E Y
Esperance (6) CA N B E R R A
Deniliquin
A l b a ny Horsham
5 MELBOURNE Omeo 5
Mt. Gambier ( 2)
5
L a u n c e s to n
HOBART
(3)
5
NOTES:
1 Where site-specific LODMAT temperatures are available, these shall be used in lieu of temperatures from
Figure 14.4.
2 Based on records 1957 to 1971 supplied by Australian Bureau of Meteorology.
3 Isotherms in degree Celsius.
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7. 5
5
5
Au c k l an d (5)
Taur an g a (4)
5
2.5
Tau p o (0)
N ew Ply m o u
utt h (4) Gisbo
orr n e (3)
-5 -5
5
2.5
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2.5
N e l s o n (2)
5 0
We llin g to n (3)
-5
H o k it ika (0)
Q u e e n sstow
tow n (- 5)
-10
-5 -5
D un
u n e d in (0)
0
Inver c ar g ill (- 3)
Inverc
0
NOTES:
1 Where site-specific LODMAT temperatures are available, these shall be used in lieu of temperatures from
Figure 14.4.
2 Based on records 1930 to 1990 supplied by The National Institute of Water and Atmosphere Research Ltd.
3 Isotherms in degree Celsius.
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TABLE 14.5.1
PERMISSIBLE SERVICE TEMPERATURES ACCORDING
TO STEEL TYPE AND THICKNESS
Permissible service temperature, °C (see Note 1)
Steel type
Thickness, mm
(see Table 14.5.4)
6 >6 12 >12 20 >20 32 >32 70 >70
1 20 –10 0 0 0 5
2 30 –20 –10 –10 0 0
2S 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 –40 –30 –20 –15 –15 –10
4 –10 0 0 0 0 5
5 –30 –20 –10 0 0 0
5S 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 –40 –30 –20 –15 –15 –10
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7A –10 0 0 0 0 —
7B –30 –20 –10 0 0 —
7C –40 –30 –20 –15 –15 —
8C –40 –30 — — — —
8Q –20 –20 –20 –20 –20 –20
9Q –20 –20 –20 –20 –20 –20
10Q –20 –20 –20 –20 –20 –20
LEGEND:
— = material is not available in these thicknesses
NOTES:
1 The permissible service temperature for steels with a L20, L40, L50, Y20 or Y40 designation
shall be the colder of the temperature shown in Table 14.5.1 and the specified impact test
temperature.
2 This Table is based on available statistical data on notch toughness characteristics of steels
currently made in Australia or New Zealand. Confirmation shall be sought from other
manufacturers that there is statistical data that confirms their steels meet these same requirements
and that the facility where the steel is produced has factory production control. The statistical
data shall meet the requirements of Appendix K.
3 Steel types 8Q, 9Q and 10Q compliant to AS 3597 are impact tested at -20°C and therefore meet
the requirements of this Table.
14.5.2 Limitations
Table 14.5.1 shall only be used without modification for members and components that
have been fabricated and erected in accordance with normal good practice and which
comply with the provisions of AS/NZS 1554.1, AS/NZS 1554.4, or AS/NZS 1554.5 as
appropriate.
Table 14.5.1 may be used without modification for welded members and connection
components that are not subject to more than 1.0% outer bend fibre strain during
fabrication. Members and components subject to greater outer bend fibre strains shall be
assessed using the provisions of Clause 14.5.3.
14.5.3 Modification for certain applications
14.5.3.1 Steel subject to strain between 1.0% and 10.0%
Where a member or component is subjected to an outer bend fibre strain during fabrication
of between 1.0% and 10.0%, the permissible service temperature for each steel type shall be
increased by at least 20°C above the value given in Table 14.5.1.
NOTE: Local strain due to weld distortion should be disregarded.
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known or is warmer than the design service temperature specified by the designer, shall not
be used, unless compliance with each of the following requirements is demonstrated:
(a) A mock-up of the joint or member shall be fabricated from the desired grade of steel,
having similar dimensions and strains of not less than that of the service component.
(b) Three Charpy test specimens shall be taken from the area of maximum strain and
tested at the design service temperature.
(c) Test impact properties as determined from the Charpy tests shall be not less than the
minimum specified impact properties for the grade of steel under test.
(d) Where the Standard to which the steel complies does not specify minimum impact
properties, the average absorbed energy for three 10 mm 10 mm test specimens
shall be not less than 27 J, provided none of the test results is less than 20 J.
(e) Where a plate thickness prevents a 10 mm 10 mm test piece from being used, the
standard test thickness closest to the plate thickness shall be used and the minimum
value energy absorption requirements shall be reduced proportionally.
14.5.4 Selection of steel grade
The steel grade shall be selected to match the required steel type given in Table 14.5.4.
TABLE 14.5.4
STEEL TYPE RELATIONSHIP TO STEEL GRADE
Specification and grade of parent steel
Steel type
(see Note) AS/NZS 3678
AS/NZS 1163 AS/NZS 1594 AS/NZS 3679.1 AS 3597
AS/NZS 3679.2
1 C250 HA250 200 300 —
HU250 250
HA300 300
HU300
2 C250L0 —
250L0 300L0 —
300L0
2S — — 250S0 300S0 —
300S0
(continued)
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273 AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
HW350 400
5 C350L0 — 350L0 350L0 —
WR350L0
400L0
5S — — 350S0 350S0 —
6 — — 350L15 — —
350L20
350Y20
350L40
350Y40
400L15
400L20
400Y20
400L40
400Y40
7A C450 — 450 — —
7B C450L0 — 450L0 — —
7C — — 450L15 — —
450L20
450Y20
450L40
450Y40
8C — — — — —
8Q — — — — 500
9Q — — — — 600
10Q — — — — 700
NOTE: Steel types 8Q, 9Q and 10Q are quenched and tempered steels.
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15.1 GENERAL
This Section applies to the testing of a new structure or of a prototype to demonstrate
compliance with the strength and serviceability requirements of this Standard. In addition, a
procedure is set out to demonstrate routine compliance for similar units manufactured
following prototype testing.
All testing shall be undertaken by persons competent, and with appropriate expertise in,
performing such tests.
NOTE: The capacity of an existing structure to carry repeated live loads shall be determined in
accordance with AS 5100.7.
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TABLE 15.4.3
FACTOR TO ALLOW FOR VARIABILITY
IN PRODUCTION OF UNITS
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(c) Acceptance for serviceability The test prototype shall be deemed to comply with the
requirement for serviceability if it is able to sustain the serviceability test load for a
minimum period of 1 h without exceeding the serviceability limits appropriate to the
member.
Qualitative indicators for the parameters affecting strength shall be determined for the
expected variability during production. These indicators shall be routinely monitored and
measured in manufactured units and used to ensure the actual coefficient of variation in
production does not exceed the expected coefficient of variation. Alternatively,
manufactured units shall be routinely tested to failure, to determine the coefficient of
variation.
15.4.6 Test reports
A report shall be prepared in accordance with Clause 15.3.4, except that instead of the
requirement in the final sentence of Clause 15.3.4, the report shall contain a statement as to
whether or not the prototypes tested satisfied the relevant acceptance criteria in
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APPENDIX A
ELASTIC RESISTANCE TO LATERAL BUCKLING
(Informative)
A1 GENERAL
The elastic resistance of a beam to lateral buckling is influenced by many factors, including
the beam geometry, the distribution of the loading on it, and the effects of end and
intermediate restraints. Because of this, simple design rules can be formulated only for a
limited number of situations.
A set of simple rules is included in Clauses 5.6.1, 5.6.2, 5.6.3, 5.6.4 and 5.6.5. While these
rules are generally on the safe side, there are many situations where they are overly
conservative. When it is desirable to avoid undue conservatism, then Clause 5.6.6 may be
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used, which requires the use of the results of an elastic flexural-torsional buckling analysis.
This may be carried out by using computer programs such as those described in Refs 1
and 2 (see Bibliography).
Alternatively, the published results of elastic flexural-torsional buckling analyses may be
used. There are many such publications, either in textbooks and surveys such as those listed
in Refs 3 to 7, or in research publications such as Refs 8 to 10 (see Bibliography).
Often, it is the case that suitable computer programs are not available, and that the designer
is daunted by the complexity and scope of the research publications. In this case, it is
desirable that there should be a second level of approximations, more general and more
accurate than the provisions of Clauses 5.6.1, 5.6.2 and 5.6.3. Such a set of approximations
is specified in Paragraphs A2, A3 and A5 of this Appendix. These approximations may be
used in conjunction with the method of design by buckling analysis of Clause 5.6.6.
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Alternatively, for uniform equal flanged segments loaded so that do /2 yL do /2, where do
is the overall section depth of the segment, the amended elastic buckling moment (Moa)
used in Equation 5.6.1.1(2) may be taken as follows:
2 EI y
M oa M o 0.4 m yL . . . A2(3)
L 2
where
mc
C3 C4 K
. . . A3(2)
1 K 2
2 yL K
Lc 1 d f 2
2 . . . A3(3)
2y K
1 L
df 2
Mo = given by Equation A4(2)
K = coefficient given by Equation A4(3)
C3 and C4 = factors given in Table A3
df = distance between flange centroids
The elastic flexural-torsional buckling of a uniform equal flanged segment, unrestrained at
one end, and both fully or partially restrained and unrestrained against lateral rotation at the
other end, may be estimated or calculated by calculating the elastic buckling bending
moment (Mob) in the segment by using C4 = 0 in Equation A3(2).
TABLE A3
FACTORS C3 AND C4 FOR BEAMS UNRESTRAINED AT ONE END
M M M 1.6 0.8
F
Fℓ 4.0 3.7
w
wℓ 2 7.0 8.0
2
LEGE N D:
f u l l or p a r t ia l r e s t r a i nt
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2 EI y 2 2 EI y x 2 EI y
GJ EI w x
2
Mo . . . A4(1)
L2 L2 4 L2 2 L2
For sections bent about an axis of symmetry, x = 0, and Equation A4(2) simplifies to—
EI yGJ
Mo 1 K 2 . . . A4(2)
L
where
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2 EI w
K = . . . A4(3)
GJL2
E = 200 000 MPa
G = 80 000 MPa
Iw = warping constant for a cross-section, taken as
I y df2
= for a doubly-symmetric I-section . . . A4(4)
4
I cy
= I cy d f 1
2
for a monosymmetric I-section . . . A4(5)
I y
bf3tf bw2 3b t b 2
= 8 f f w for a thin-walled channel section . . . A4(6)
48 Ix
= 0 for an angle section or a narrow rectangular section
bt 3
J =
3
for an open section . . . A4(7)
4 Ae2
for a hollow section beam, where Ae is the
= b . . . A4(8)
t
area enclosed by the hollow section
x y y dA 2 y
1 2 3
x = o . . . A4(9)
Ix
2 I cy
= 0.8d f 1
for a monosymmetric I-section . . . A4(10)
Iy
Expressions for the properties of other thin-walled sections are given in Ref. 11 while more
accurate approximations for J are given in Ref. 12 (see Bibliography).
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where t depends on the elastic stiffness (rz) of the torsional end restraint, that is, the ratio
of the restraining torque supplied to the twist rotation.
For segments restrained at both ends:
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rz L
GJ
t . . . A5.1(2)
5 1 K 2
For segments unrestrained at one end and both fully or partially restrained and laterally
continuous or restrained against lateral rotation at the other end:
rz L
GJ
t
1 2K 2 . . . A5.1(3)
25
1 K 2
and for segments unrestrained at one end both fully or partially restrained and unrestrained
against lateral rotation at the other end:
rz L
t GJ
1 2K 2 . . . A5.1(4)
5 2
1 K
A5.2 End restraints against lateral rotation
A5.2.1 Segments restrained at both ends
Continuity of a segment with adjacent segments may introduce restraining moments, which
reduce the lateral deflections and increase the elastic buckling moment. The restraint effects
depend on the relative minor axis flexural stiffnesses of the adjacent segments, and these
depend in turn on the moment distributions in these segments. The restraining effects may
be calculated approximately by using the method given in Refs 6 and 9 to calculate the
effective length (Le) and by using Le instead of the segment length (L) in Equations A4(2)
and A4(3).
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where ry is the elastic stiffness of the flexural end restraint, i.e., the ratio of the restraining
minor axis moment supplied to the end lateral rotation.
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APPENDIX B
STRENGTH OF STIFFENED WEB PANELS UNDER COMBINED ACTIONS
(Informative)
B1 YIELDING CHECK
The design bending, shear, axial and bearing actions (or reactions) M w* , Vw* , N w* and Rw*
acting on a web panel (see Figure B1) should satisfy the yielding criterion—
2 2 2
Rw* f * Rw* f w* Vw*
w
b t
b t 0.6 A f y
2
. . . B1(1)
bf w bf w w
where
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N w* M*
= 0.77 w . . . B1(2)
Aw Z we
bbf = width of the bearing obtained by dispersion at 1:2.5 from bs to the underside of
the flange as shown in Figure 5.12.1(A)
M w* = design bending moment in the web, calculated by elastic theory for sections
with non-compact or slender flanges (see Clause 5.2)
Zwe = elastic section modulus of the web panel
=
tw d p 2
. . . B1(3)
6
Aw = gross sectional area of the web
tw = web thickness
R w*
V w* b bf
M w* M w*
N w* N w*
dp
V w*
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B2 BUCKLING CHECK
The design bending, shear, axial and bearing actions (or reactions) M w* , Vw* , N w* and
Rw* acting on a web panel (see Figure B1) should satisfy the buckling criterion—
2 2
Rw* N w* Vw* M w*
1 . . . B2(1)
R N V M
sb wo v w
where
Nwo = nominal axial load capacity of the web panel if the web panel resisted axial
load alone
45 Aw f y
Aw f y
= dp fy . . . B2(2)
tw 250
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Vv = nominal shear capacity of the web if the web panel resisted shear alone, as
specified in Clause 5.10
Mw = nominal section moment capacity of the web panel if the web panel resisted
bending alone, as specified in Clause 5.2
Rsb = nominal buckling capacity of a transversely stiffened web panel in bearing
alone
= wbbftwfy . . . B2(3)
20
0.10
w = de fy . . . B2(4)
tw 250
1.9 bbf d p
de = . . . B2(5)
w
2 .2 d p 0.5bbf
w = 3.4 0.4 . . . B2(6)
s s
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APPENDIX C
SECOND ORDER ELASTIC ANALYSIS
(Normative)
C1 ANALYSIS
In a second-order elastic analysis, the members shall be assumed to remain elastic, and
changes in frame geometry under the design load and changes in the effective stiffnesses of
the members due to axial forces shall be accounted for.
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APPENDIX D
ECCENTRICALLY LOADED DOUBLE-BOLTED OR WELDED SINGLE
ANGLES IN TRUSSES
(Normative)
Single angle web compression members in trusses that are connected with at least two bolts
or welded at their ends and loaded through one leg (see Figure D1) shall be designed to
satisfy Clause 11.3 and either Clause 11.4.4 or the following:
N* M h*
1 . . . D1
N ch M bx cos
where
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The design end bending moment ( M h* ) shall be calculated from a rational elastic analysis of
the truss, or shall be taken as not less than N e* , resulting from the out-of-plane eccentricity
(e) of the design axial force (N*) in the member,
where
t
e = ch for angles on the same side of the truss chord
2
= (ec + et) for angles on opposite sides of the truss chord (see Figure D1)
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angle
angle
Te n s i o n
Compression
e = ch -
t
t
2
C
(a) A n g l e s o n s a m e s i d e
x
y
h
t
2
e c
h
287
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e
et
ec
angle
angle
Te n s i o n
C
Compression
t
e = ec + et
( b) A n g l e s o n o p p o s i te s i d e s
y
x
h
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APPENDIX E
INTERACTION CURVES FOR COMPOSITE COLUMNS
(Informative)
The design interaction curve for axial load and uniaxial bending of a composite
compression member, which consists of a hollow structural steel member filled with
concrete and meets the requirements of Clause 10.6.1, may be derived as described in this
Appendix. Alternatively, the full curved interaction curve shown in Figure E1 may be
approximated by the polygon joining the four points A, B, C, and D.
Plastic analysis is used in the derivation described below, with rectangular stress blocks
assumed for both the steel and concrete. The plastic compressive stress of the confined
concrete may be taken to be 1.00 f c and the points A, B, C and D are determined as
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follows:
(a) Point A is defined by the nominal axial capacity of the member without bending,
which is Nus determined in accordance with Clause 10.6.2.
(b) Point B is defined by the nominal section moment capacity of the member, i.e.,
without axial load which is Msx or Msy, and which may be determined as follows:
(i) Determine the neutral axis position at which the axial compression on one side
of the axis, i.e., the plastic load in the steel at a stress of fsv and the concrete
at a stress of c f c , is equal to the axial tension of the steel on the other.
(ii) Using this neutral axis position, determine the moment created by the stresses
in the section about the centroid of the section. This moment is Msx or Msy.
(c) Point C is determined by moving the neutral axis determined for point B to a new
position equidistant from the centroid, but on the other side of the centroid, and
parallel with its previous position. The stresses in the section with the neutral axis in
this position will create a moment equal to that derived from point B, i.e., Msx or Msy,
but with a compression load equal to the axial load in that part of the section between
the neutral axis positions for points B and C.
(d) Point D is determined by placing the neutral axis at the centroid of the section, which
happens to be mid-way between its location for points B and C. At this location, the
axial load in the section is half that for point C, and the moment is a maximum.
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- - NA = N us
N o m o m e nt
A Po int B
Nus
Inter ac t i o n c ur ve
for t h e c ro s s - se c t i o n hn - - M B= M pl
+ + zero a x i al for c e
C Po int C
- - M C= Mpl
D hn +
+ N C= Nc
B Po int D
0 M o m e nt
0 M D= Mpl
M sx ( or M s y ) - -
Nc
+ + N D=
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APPENDIX F
MODIFICATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
(Normative)
F1 GENERAL
All provisions of this Standard apply equally to the modification of existing structures or
parts of a structure except as modified in this Appendix.
F2 MATERIALS
The types of base metal involved shall be determined before preparing the drawings and
specifications covering the strengthening of, the repair of, or the welding procedures for an
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F3 CLEANING
Surfaces of existing material, which are to be strengthened, repaired or welded, shall be
cleaned of dirt, rust, and other foreign matter except adherent surface preparation. The
portions of such surfaces that are to be welded shall be cleaned thoroughly of all foreign
matter, including paint film, for a distance of 50 mm from each side of the outside lines of
the weld.
Where modifications to an existing structure with an existing protective coating are
proposed, the nature of that coating shall be determined and appropriate methods for
removal of that coating be implemented. This is particularly important where lead-based
coatings may be present.
F4 SPECIAL PROVISIONS
F4.1 Welding and cutting
The capacity of a member to carry loads while welding or oxygen cutting is being
performed on it shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of this Standard,
taking into consideration the extent of cross-section heating of the member, which results
from the operation that is being performed.
F4.2 Welding sequence
The welding sequence shall be chosen so as to minimize distortion of the member, and
ensure that its straightness remains within the appropriate straightness limits specified in
AS/NZS 5131.
F4.3 Welding repair and strengthening
For welding repair and strengthening requirements not specified in AS/NZS 1554.5, the
requirements of ANSI/AWS D1.1 shall apply.
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APPENDIX G
CORROSION RATE MAPS
(Informative)
This Appendix provides corrosion maps (Figures G1 to G8) for the main urban zones found
in New Zealand.
NOTE: For additional information on the atmospheric corrosivity zones in Australia, refer to
AS 4312.
Tables G1 and G2 provide corrosion map zones and categories for New Zealand, and
exposure conditions and use for steelwork.
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE G1
CORROSION MAP ZONES AND CATEGORIES (NEW ZEALAND ONLY)
292
winds and local conditions.
Within 500 m inland from
breaking surf.
Within 50 m of calm salt water Medium salt deposits.
C4 such as harbour foreshores. All coasts Frequent smell of salt sea C4 C5-M C1 C3
This environment may be
spray in the air.
extended inland by prevailing
winds and local conditions.
Within 20 km from breaking West and south coasts of South
surf. Island. Minor salt deposits. C3 C5-M C1 C3
Zone 1 C3 East coast of both islands, west Occasional smell of salt in
Within 5 km from salt water. and south coasts of North the air. C3 C4 C5-M C1 C3
Island, and all harbours.
More than 20 km to 50 km from West and south coasts of South
salt water. Island. C2 C3 C4 C1 C3
Zone 2 C2 More than 5 km to 50 km from
East coast of both islands, west
and south coasts of North C2 C3 C4 C1 C3
salt water.
Island, and all harbours. No marine influence.
TABLE G2
STEELWORK—EXPOSURE CONDITIONS AND USE (NEW ZEALAND ONLY)
Exposure conditions for steelwork Use
Within the external wall and roof cavity with the steel on the cold side of the dew
Damp
point. Steel in subfloor spaces.
Steelwork near openings in external walls. Sheltered
High humidity and corrosive atmosphere, such as chemical processing plant, Specific engineering design required,
swimming pools, paper manufacturing plants, boatyard over sea water, foundries, or refer to AS/NZS 2312.1 and
smelters. AS/NZS 2312.2
Sheltered = open to airborne salts but unwashed by the rain, such as an awning or the underside of a steel bridge
Wet = often wet for extended periods of time, such as crevices, or in low points and pockets that are not drained
293
Dry = dry internal environment, such as fully enclosed office or apartment building, within the building envelope
Damp = internal environment where condensation may occur, such as a non-air-conditioned and poorly insulated vehicle garages and warehouses; or high humidity
environment with some pollution, such as a food processing plant, breweries, and dairies
NOTE TO TABLE G1 AND TABLE G2: The atmospheric corrosivity categories given above provide an indication of the environment corrosivity to assist in the selection of a
suitable corrosion protection system. For confirmation of a site-specific atmospheric corrosivity category (for example, for sites that are sheltered from marine influence by the
local topography), site-specific testing will be needed as described in HERA Report R4-133:2011.
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
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FIGURE G1 NORTH ISLAND CORROSION RATE
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295
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FIGURE G2 SOUTH ISLAND CORROSION RATE
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Melbour ne
Box Hill
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25
Altona Caufield
Dandenong
CORROSIVITY
CATEGORIES
and corrosion rates
(μm/year, 1 year, mild steel)
0 1 2 3 4 5 km
25
Frankston
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Maitland
Raymond
Terrace
Tomago
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BHP
NEWCASTLE
Boolaroo
Char lestown
Belmont
CORROSIVITY
CATEGORIES
and corrosion rates
(μm/year, 1 year, mild steel)
0 1 2 3 4 5 km
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CORROSIVITY
CATEGORIES
and corrosion rates
(μm/year, 1 year, mild steel)
0 50 100 km
Whyalla
Por t Pir ie
25
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25
25
Spencer Gulf
Gulf
St Vincent
25
ADELAIDE
Murray Br idge
50
50
Victor
Harbour
50 50
50
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Broken Bay
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Penr ith
Parramatta SYDNEY
Cronulla
CORROSIVITY Campbelltown
CATEGORIES
and corrosion rates
(μm/year, 1 year, mild steel)
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D eception Bay
Scarborough
Redcliffe
K ALLANGUR
BRISBANE
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Redland
CLEVELAND
Bay
Bellbowr ie
CORROSIVITY
CATEGORIES
and corrosion rates
LOGAN
(μm/year, 1 year, mild steel)
CENTRAL
C2: Low (1.3-25)
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Joondalup
MORLEY MIDLAND
Per th
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CANNINGTON
Fremantle
ARMADALE
CORROSIVITY
CATEGORIES
and corrosion rates
(μm/year, 1 year, mild steel)
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APPENDIX H
REQUIREMENTS—STEEL OTHER THAN SPECIFIED IN SECTION 2
(New Zealand only)
(Normative)
H1 GENERAL
H1.1 Scope
This Appendix sets out requirements for structural steel materials other than those specified
in Section 2. This Appendix is New Zealand only because it reflects existing New Zealand
practice in bridge design (see Note 2 below).
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Under the provisions of this Appendix, certain steel materials not manufactured to
Australian and New Zealand Standards may be used, provided they meet the requirements
of this Appendix. The capacity factors for the steel materials considered in this Appendix
have been evaluated from rigorous reliability analyses according to ISO 2394 and AS 5104
to demonstrate that the values in Table 3.2 may be used.
NOTES:
1 The New Zealand Steel Structures Standard, NZS 3404.1, currently permits the use of the
steel as nominated in this Appendix for the design of structures subjected to gravity, fatigue
and seismic loadings. This Appendix was included following the request to develop this Part
of the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series of Standards as a joint Australian and New Zealand bridge
design Standard.
2 The technical committee revising this Standard reviewed the other certified steels referred to
in this Appendix by comparing them with the Australian and New Zealand Standards
referenced in Clause 2.2. It was agreed that there were differences between the Standards and
further work would need to be undertaken to resolve the impact of these differences, which
include but are not limited to—
(a) the level of product conformity in the absence of a regulatory requirement for
conformity assessment (CE mark or JIS certification); and
(b) the product marking and traceability requirements in AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 3678,
AS/NZS 3679.1 and AS/NZS 3679.2.
The technical committee has a preference that this be a joint Australian and New Zealand
Appendix and will continue to work towards this outcome. However, the differences found
were not able to be addressed in this revision, so the New Zealand only Appendix reflects the
existing practice in that country.
The New Zealand Steel Structures Standard, NZS 3404.1, which also covers design of
bridges, and allows the use of material manufactured to the Standards in Clause 2.2 and this
Appendix.
The previous edition of the Australian Bridge design Standard only applied to steels
manufactured to Australian and New Zealand Standards listed in Clause 2.2.
The design of a bridge structure in New Zealand to the Standards referenced in this Appendix
should include, as a minimum, consideration of points of difference with those Standards
referenced in Clause 2.2. Further commentary is provided in Appendix J.
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H3 STRUCTURAL STEEL
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H3.1 Compliance
All structural steel covered by the scope of this Appendix shall, before fabrication, comply
with the requirements of the following Standards, as appropriate:
(a) EN 10025-1, EN 10025-2, EN 10025-3, EN 10025-4, EN 10025-5 and:
(i) EN 10024, EN 10034, EN 10055, EN 10056-2 or EN 10279; and
(ii) EN 10029 or EN 10051.
(b) EN 10210-1 and EN 10210-2.
(c) EN 10219-1 and EN 10219-2.
(d) JIS G 3106, JIS G 3114, JIS G 3136 and:
(i) JIS G 3193; and
(ii) JIS G 3192.
(e) JIS G 3475.
H3.2 Acceptance of steel
Mill certificates that comply with Paragraph H5.3 and the minimum requirements of the
appropriate Standard listed in Paragraph H1.3.1 shall constitute sufficient evidence of
compliance of the steel with the Standards listed in Paragraph H1.3.1.
NOTE: A mill certificate includes both test and inspection certificates.
H3.3 Properties of steel
Unless otherwise stated, the properties given in Clause 2.2.5 shall be assumed for all grades
of steel for design purposes.
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TABLE H2.1(A)
STRENGTHS OF STEELS COMPLYING WITH EN 10025-2, EN 10025-3,
EN 10025-4, EN 10025-5, EN 10210-1 AND EN 10219-1 (see Note)
Thickness of Yield Tensile
Steel material stress strength
Form Steel grade (t) (f y ) (f u )
Standard
mm MPa MPa
EN 10025-2 Hot-rolled S235 3 < t 16 235 360
structural steel
S235 16 < t 40 225 360
plate and sections
S235 40 < t 63 215 360
S235 63 < t 80 215 360
S275 3 < t 16 275 410
S275 16 < t 40 265 410
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TABLE H2.1(B)
STRENGTHS OF STEELS COMPLYING WITH JIS G 3106, JIS G 3114
AND JIS G 3136
Thickness of Tensile
Yield stress
Steel material strength
Form Steel grade (f y )
Standard (t) (f u )
mm MPa MPa
JIS G 3106 Hot-rolled SM400 A/B/C t 16 245 400
structural steel
SM400 A/B/C 16 < t 40 235 400
plate and sections
SM400 A/B/C 40 < t 75 215 400
SM400 A/B/C 75 < t 100 215 400
SM490 A/B/C t 16 325 490
SM490 A/B/C 16 < t 40 315 490
SM490 A/B/C 40 < t 75 295 490
SM490 A/B/C 75 < t 100 295 490
(continued)
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Thickness of Tensile
Yield stress
Steel material strength
Form Steel grade (f y )
Standard (t) (f u )
mm MPa MPa
SM490 YA/YB t 16 365 490
SM490 YA/YB 16 < t 40 355 490
SM490 YA/YB 40 < t 75 335 490
SM490 YA/YB 75 < t 100 325 490
SM520 B/C t 16 365 520
SM520 B/C 16 < t 40 355 520
SM520 B/C 40 < t 75 335 520
SM520 B/C 75 < t 100 325 520
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Thickness of Tensile
Yield stress
Steel material strength
Form Steel grade (f y )
Standard (t) (f u )
mm MPa MPa
JIS G 3136 Hot rolled SN400 A/B 12 t < 16 235 400
structural steel
SN400 A/B t = 16 235 400
plate and sections
SN400 A/B 16 < t 40 235 400
SN400 A/B 40 < t 100 215 400
SN400 C 12 t < 16 — —
SN400 C t = 16 235 400
SN400 C 16 < t 40 235 400
SN400 C 40 < t 100 215 400
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TABLE H4.1
STEEL TYPE RELATIONSHIP TO STEEL GRADE
Steel grade
EN 10025 JIS G 3106
Steel type
JIS G 3114
JIS G 3136
S275JR SM 400A
SN 400A
1
SMA400AW
SMA400AP
S275J0 SM 400B
SN 400B
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2 SN 400C
SMA400BW
SMA400BP
2S — —
S275J2 SM 400C
3 SMA400CW
SMA400CP
S355JR SMA490AW
4
SMA490AP
S355J0 SM 490YB
S355J0W SM 520B
SM 490B
5
SN 490C
SMA490BW
SMA490BP
5S — —
S355J2 SM 490C
S355J2W SM 520C
S355M SMA490CW
S355N SMA490CP
6
S355ML
S420M
S420N
S420ML
7A —
7B —
S460M SMA570W
7C S460N SMA570P
S460ML
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TABLE H4.2.2
WELDING CONSUMABLES FOR STEELS ACCORDING TO EN 10025-5
Welding Option 1 Option 2 Option 3
MMAW Matching (see Note) 2.5% Ni 1% Cr 0.5% Mo
GMAW Matching 2.5% Ni 1% Cr 0.5% Mo
SAW Matching 2% Ni 1% Cr 0.5% Mo
NOTE: Matching: 0.5% Cu and other alloy elements; C-Mn consumables selected in
accordance with AS/NZS 1554.1 may be used for the body of a multi-run fillet or butt weld,
provided the capping runs are made using suitable consumables.
H5 PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS
H5.1 General
It shall be ensured that other steel materials in accordance with their respective national
Standards, as given in Paragraph H.3.1, and in accordance with the requirements of
Paragraph H3, include an inspection document together with documentation on the factory
production control system.
H5.2 Factory production control
The product shall include documentation on an established factory production control (FPC)
system.
The documentation shall include an outline of the procedures, regular inspections and tests
and/or assessments and the use of the results to control feedstock materials, equipment,
personnel, the production process and the products, in accordance with the relevant
performance requirements (see Paragraph H4).
NOTE: The documentation serves to verify the conformity of the products given in Paragraph H6.
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H6 PRODUCT CONFORMITY
H6.1 General
Conformity of acceptable other steel materials manufactured to EN and JIS Standards shall
be demonstrated by—
(a) initial type testing; and
(b) factory product control, including minimum testing and inspection frequency plan.
H6.2 Requirements for evaluation of conformity
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H6.2.1 General
The product conformity requirements shall be in accordance with either Paragraph H6.2.2
or H6.2.3. The product conformity requirements shall enable conformance assessment to be
made by a manufacturer or supplier (first party), a user or purchaser (second party), or an
independent body (third party), and shall not be dependent on a quality management
systems Standard
NOTE: An example of a quality management system Standard is AS/NZS ISO 9001.
H6.2.2 Steels manufactured to EN product Standards
The requirements of Annex B of EN 10025-1, Annex D of EN 10210-1 or Annex D of
EN 10219-11 shall apply for evaluating the conformity of steels manufactured to
EN 10025-2, EN 10025-3, EN 10025-4, EN 10025-5, EN 10210 and EN 10219 respectively.
H6.2.3 Steels manufactured to JIS product Standards
The requirements for evaluation of product conformity shall be based on the principles of
JIS Q 1001 and JIS Q 1013.
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APPENDIX I
FATIGUE
(Normative)
A stress history shall be determined from the loading events at the structural detail under
consideration taking account of the type and shape of the relevant influence lines to be
considered and the effects of dynamic magnification of the structural response [see
Figure I1.1(b)].
Stress histories may also be determined from measurements on similar structures or from
dynamic calculations of the structural response.
I1.3 Cycle counting
Stress histories shall be evaluated by either rainflow method or reservoir method [see
Figure I1.1(c)] to determine—
(a) stress ranges and their numbers of cycles; and
(b) mean stresses, where the mean stress influence needs to be taken into account.
I1.4 Stress range spectrum
The stress range spectrum shall be determined by presenting the stress ranges and the
associated number of cycles in descending order [see Figure I1.1(d)].
Stress range spectra may be modified by neglecting peak values of stress ranges
representing less than 1% of the total damage and small stress ranges below the cut off
limit.
Stress range spectra may be standardized according to their shape, e.g., with the coordinates
1.0 and n 1.0 .
I1.5 Cycles to failure
When using the design spectrum the applied stress ranges (σi) shall be multiplied by Ff
and the fatigue strength values σi multiplied by to obtain the endurance value N Ri for
each band in the spectrum. The damage Dd from loads during the design life shall be
calculated from the following equation:
n
nEi
Dd N
i Ri
. . . I1.5
where
nEi = number of cycles associated with the stress range Ffσi for band i in the
factored spectrum
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NRi = endurance (in cycles) obtained from the factored Mf C N R curve for a
stress range of Ffσi
On the basis of equivalence of Dd the design stress range spectrum shall be transformed into
any equivalent design stress range spectrum (e.g. a constant amplitude design stress range
spectrum yielding the fatigue equivalent load Qe associated with the cycle number
nmax = ni or Qe,2 associated with the cycle number NC = 2 106).
I1.6 Verification formats
The fatigue assessment based on damage accumulation shall meet the following criteria:
(a) Based on damage accumulation:
Dspec 1.0 . . . I1.6(1)
(b) Based on stress range:
Ff E,2 m Dspec Mf C where m = 3
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. . . I1.6(2)
where Dspec is the specified damage sum
P1
∆σ 2
∆σ 3
∆σ 4
n1 n2 n3 n4 N
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∆σ 1
∆σ 2
∆σ 3
∆σ 4
N1 N 2N 3 N 4
log N
ni n1 n2 n3 n4
(f) Damage summation
(Palmgren-Miner rule)
N
N1 N2 N3 N4
DL
i
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TABLE I2
DETAIL CATEGORIES FOR USE WITH GEOMETRIC (HOT SPOT)
STRESS METHOD
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
1) Full penetration butt 1)
joint. -All welds ground flush to
plate surface parallel to
direction of the arrow.
-Weld run-on and run-off
pieces to be used and
112 1 subsequently removed, plate
edges to be ground flush in
direction of stress.
-Welded from both sides,
checked by NDT.
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APPENDIX J
GUIDANCE ON USING STEELS OTHER THAN STEELS SPECIFIED IN
SECTION 2
(New Zealand only)
Informative
J1 SCOPE
This Appendix covers some of the key issues designers need to consider when other steels
specified in Appendix H are used in conjunction with AS/NZS 5100.6. The issues covered
in this Appendix are not exhaustive, designers need to satisfy themselves that they have
considered all the relevant matters.
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J2 GENERAL
The basis for most limit state design Standards, such as AS/NZS 5100.6, is that there is a
sufficiently low probability of the actual resistance falling below the design resistance
through structural reliability analyses. These reliability analyses use statistical data from
element testing and material production data in conjunction with allowable section
geometry tolerances specified in structural steel manufacturing Standards to establish the
required values of the strength reduction factors (), thereby enabling design capacities to
be established.
When using steels other than those specified in Clause 2.2.2, it is important that these steels
be compatible for use in conjunction with this Standard to ensure that the design
assumptions remain valid and margins of safety are not eroded.
J3 TRACEABILITY
JIS and EN standards allow a range of product marking options. The method of marking is
to be specified by the purchaser. The manufacturer may mark individual products or, if it
they are securely tied together, they may be labelled as a bundle. This places greater onus
on the supply chain to maintain traceability in the eventuality the bundle is broken prior to
delivery to the fabricator’s workshop. Engineers should specify individual product marking.
The method of such marking should be sufficiently durable to remain visible up until the
fabrication stage.
J4 PRODUCT CONFORMITY
J4.1 Conformity requirements
Conformity requirements set out in product Standards provide the following:
(a) The characteristics of the product that are needed to provide an expected
performance.
(b) The measurement and test methods, which specify the procedure for determining the
values of the characteristics or for checking conformity to stated requirements.
(c) The required frequency of the measurements.
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For manufacturers or suppliers of structural steel products, the stated values and
characteristics given in a product Standard are demonstrated through the following:
(i) Initial type testing (ITT)—which consists of the complete set of tests described in a
Standard for a manufacturer or supplier to determine the characteristics of their
products before they are placed on the market. ITT should be performed at the
beginning of a new method of production (where this may affect the stated
properties).
(ii) Factory production control (FPC)—which is the permanent internal control of
production exercised by the manufacturer or supplier. It provides a means by which a
manufacturer or supplier ensures that the declared performances (obtained on the
basis of ITT) continue to be valid for all subsequent products. This generally involves
ensuring that subsequent products remain substantially the same as those submitted to
ITT (i.e., having the same characteristics).
For the Standards listed in Section 2, ITT and FPC requirements are given only in
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AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1 and AS/NZS 3679.2. Conversely, for the EN
products listed in Appendix H, when an evaluation of conformity is required for regulatory
purposes (see conformity assessment below), ITT and FPC requirements are given in
EN 10025-1 for EN 10025-2, EN 10025-3, EN 10025-4 and EN 10025-5. However, in
Australia and New Zealand there is no regulation that invokes the evaluation of conformity
requirements relating to ITT and FPC in EN products.
J4.2 Conformity assessment
Conformity assessment involves a set of processes that show a product, service or system
meets the requirements of a Standard. The main forms of conformity assessment are testing,
certification and inspection. Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand strictly adhere
to the following rules*:
(a) Adherence to ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2, ‘neutrality principle’, such that conformity
can be assessed by a first-party (manufacturer or supplier), second-party (a user or
purchaser), or third-party (an independent body).
(b) No document containing requirements for products, processes, services, persons,
systems (such as an FPC system) and bodies can make conformity dependent on a
quality management systems Standard (e.g., it cannot make normative reference to
AS/NZS ISO 9001).
(c) Conformity assessment is to be considered in a separate Standard containing the
specific requirements for assessment of conformity or for a relevant conformity
assessment scheme.
J5 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
Other international bodies do not necessarily adhere to the Standards Australia and
Standards New Zealand rules when considering conformity assessment of structural steel
products. In these situations, the type of assessment, together with the assignment of roles
and responsibilities may be set by legislation in the countries where the national Standards
were developed. Conformity assessment requirements are not mandatory in Australia nor
are they mandatory in New Zealand. In these circumstances, the purchaser may wish to
specify conformity assessment requirements.
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NOTES:
1 In Europe, the Construction Products Regulation (CPR)* introduced the requirement of CE
Marking for all construction products permanently incorporated into construction works.
Under the CPR, harmonized European product Standards (hENs) are characterized by the
inclusion of an informative Annex ZA, which lists the regulated requirements according to a
mandate issued by the European Commission and the clauses within the hEN in which they
are addressed. Depending on the impact the product has on health and safety of citizens,
Annex ZA defines the degree of involvement of third-party notified bodies in assessing the
conformity of a product. EN 10025-1 is an example of an hEN for structural steelwork.
2 Following the revision of Industrial Standardization Law, steel products used in Japan have
been required to have a JIS Mark since 2005. The JIS Mark scheme requires steel products to
be certified by an Accredited Certification Body according to the conformity assessment
requirements given in JIS Q 1001 and JIS Q 1013 (Refs 1, 2 Bibliography).
3 The Building and Construction Authority (BCA) in Singapore has introduced guide BC1
(Ref. 3 Bibliography) to enable designers to use alternative steel products that are deemed to
have equivalent performance to the European hENs. As well as the EN and JIS products listed
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in Appendix H, BC1 deems AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 3678 and AS/NZS 3679.1 to be
equivalent, together with American (ASTM and API) and Chinese (GB) product Standards. In
this territory, conformity assessment is based on the manufacturer or supplier demonstrating
that their FPC has been validated by a third-party, together with mill certificates that are
traceable to the heat number.
J6 WELDABILITY
The weldability of the steel products presented in Appendix H may be different to that
presented to the AS and AS/NZS products listed in Section 2. As a consequence of this,
welding procedure qualification tests should follow the testing requirements for non-
prequalified materials.
NOTE: Background information on the chemical composition of international iron and steel can
be found in Worldwide guide to equivalent irons and steels (Ref. 4 Bibliography).
J7 STRUCTURAL RELIABILITY
AS 5104 and ISO 2394 provide a common basis for defining design rules relevant to
construction and use of a wide majority of buildings, bridges and civil engineering works,
whatever the nature or combination of the materials used. They include methods for
establishing and calibrating reliability-based design Standards for both actions and
resistances. In addition, reliability differentiation is also given, where different levels of
reliability can be achieved through the introduction of different quality levels.
In reliability-based design, the probability of failure (pf) or the reliability index (β) are the
basic reliability measures used in AS 5104 and ISO 2394. The target reliability index is
related to the expected social and economic consequences from a design failure. The first
order reliability method (FORM) is generally promoted in AS 5104 and ISO 2394, as this
permits the design actions and design resistances to be evaluated separately. For steel
together with steel-concrete composite beams and columns, the basic variables that are
considered in the evaluation of the design resistance are the statistical properties of the
material strengths and the geometrical tolerances. Comprehensive reliability analyses were
undertaken to evaluate the design resistances (assuming ITT and FPC requirements were
satisfied) and capacity reduction factors in Section 3 to demonstrate that products listed in
Section 2 and Appendix H provide the same margins of safety.
NOTE: Background information on the evaluation of the capacity reduction factors for
Appendix H are given in Kang and al and Uy and al (Refs 5, 6 Bibliography).
* EU (European Union) (2011) Regulation (EU) No 305/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council
of 9 March 2011 laying down harmonized conditions for the marketing of construction products and
repealing Council Directive 89/106/EEC. Official Journal of the European Union.
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APPENDIX K
STATISTICAL DATA
(Normative)
K1 SCOPE
This Appendix sets out the test requirements to produce the statistical data required for
products not covered by Table 14.5.1.
K2 STATISTICAL DATA
Statistical data collected from impact tests conducted in accordance with the appropriate
Standard shall be assessed to ensure products meet the requirements of Table 14.5.1.
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Cold-formed structural hollow section tests shall comply with the requirements of
AS/NZS 1163.
Hot-rolled plate and hot-rolled steel flat product tests shall comply with the requirements of
AS/NZS 3678.
Hot-rolled bars and section tests shall comply with the requirements of AS/NZS 3679.1.
K3 TESTING
K3.1 General
Testing shall be in accordance with Section 15 and the following Standards, as applicable:
(a) AS/NZS 1163.
(b) AS/NZS 3678.
(c) AS/NZS 3679.1.
(d) AS/NZS 3679.2.
K3.2 Minimum number of tests
The minimum number of tests shall be in accordance with the initial type testing
requirements for impact grades in Appendix B of the relevant Standard noted in
AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1 and AS/NZS 3679.2. All tests shall be from
the same facility with factory production control compliant with the requirements in
AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1 and AS/NZS 3679.2.
K4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The absorbed energy values for all tests conducted for the temperatures listed in
Table 14.5.1 shall conform to the limits given in Table K4. Retests shall only be permitted
in accordance with the retest requirements in AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1
and AS/NZS 3679.2.
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3 tests
27 Joules
Average of
10 10
test
20 Joules
Individual
3 tests
22 Joules
Average of
321
10 7.5
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TABLE K4
test
Size of test piece, mm
16 Joules
Individual
3 tests
18 Joules
Average of
10 5
CHARPY V-NOTCH IMPACT TEST REQUIREMENTS
test
13 Joules
Individual
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APPENDIX L
GUIDANCE ON DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION CATEGORY
(Informative)
L1 INTRODUCTION
This Appendix provides guidance on the choice of the construction category relevant to the
building or structure as a whole or to components of the structure where it is appropriate to
assign different construction categories.
NOTE: The process outlined for defining a construction category is consistent with the
philosophy and principles on which AS/NZS 1170.0 is based and intended to provide a level of
consistency between the basis for the design assumptions and those for the ensuing fabrication
and erection of the building or structure.
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The determination of the construction category is undertaken in the design phase, based on
the known loading for the building, the intended function, what maintenance and inspection
measures will be in place, the elements that comprise the structure and the expected
complexity of fabrication or erection for the structure. The construction specification
should embody the specifics of these decisions and the additional and optional information
necessary to fully define the necessary requirements for the chosen construction category or
categories.
L2 BACKGROUND
The selection of a ‘Construction Category’, as applicable to a steel structure or components
thereof, is a risk based approach intended to provide consistency with the reliability based
philosophy and principles on which the fundamental load assessment (AS/NZS 1170 series)
and structural design (AS 4100) is based. The approach translates into a fit-for-purpose
assessment that ensures the fabrication and erection of steel structures is based on a rational
risk assessment, recognizing the importance of the structure, what maintenance and
inspection measures will be in place, the consequences of failure and the complexity of the
fabrication and erection.
AS/NZS 1170 series is based on the philosophy and principles set out in ISO 2394, which
provides a common basis for defining design rules relevant to the construction and use of a
wide variety of buildings, bridges and civil engineering works. It includes methods for
establishing and calibrating limit states design Standards. The required reliability is related
to the expected social and economic consequences from a design failure. Significantly, the
required reliability may be achieved through suitable combinations of the following
measures:
(a) Measures related to design, such as choice of values of action variables, reliability of
design calculations, accuracy of mechanical models used and the like.
(b) Measures relating to quality assurance, to reduce the risk of hazards from gross
human errors, design and execution (fabrication and erection).
The construction category classification provides a fit-for-purpose level of quality
assurance to reduce risks associated with fabrication and erection. It achieves this through
reliability differentiation from inspection and supervision levels.
AS/NZS 1170.0 references the ‘importance level’ for the building or structure as the
primary indicator of the relative risk to life in extreme events (consequences of failure), and
is based on the philosophy and principles set out in AS 5104 (ISO 2394). For Australia, the
importance level is defined in the National Construction Code (NCC). For New Zealand, or
for structures in Australia not covered by the NCC, AS/NZS 1170.0, Section 3 is utilized.
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The importance level is one component of the risk assessment that provides the basis for the
calculation of the construction category. Other components reflect the type of loading the
structure is subjected to and the complexity of the fabrication. Taken together, these
components formalize the reliability differentiation that is included in AS 5104 and is
implicit within AS/NZS 1170.0.
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TABLE L1
SUGGESTED CRITERIA FOR SERVICE CATEGORIES
Service category Criteria
• Structures or components designed for predominantly quasi-static actions only.
Examples include typical multi-level buildings, warehouses and storage facilities.
or
• Structures and components subject to low seismic demand (Categories 3, 4 systems
SC1
in New Zealand and earthquake design Categories I and II in Australia).
or
• Structures and components designed for low level fatigue actions where fatigue
assessment is not required.
• Structures and components with members and connections subject to fatigue
assessment in accordance with Section 13. [Examples include road and rail bridges,
cranes and immediate supporting structure (where supported off the building or
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TABLE L2
SUGGESTED CRITERIA FOR FABRICATION CATEGORIES
Fabrication category Criteria
• Non-welded components manufactured from any steel grade products.
FC1 • Welded components manufactured from steel grade components less than or equal
to Grade 450.
• Welded components manufactured from steel above Grade 450.
• Site welded components essential for structural integrity.
FC2
• Components receiving thermic treatment during manufacturing.
• Components of CHS trusses requiring end profile cuts.
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(d) Determination of the construction category from Table L3 (for Australia) or Table L4
(for New Zealand).
TABLE L3
RISK MATRIX FOR DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION CATEGORY
(FOR AUSTRALIA)
Importance level 1 2 3 4
Service categories SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2
Fabrication FC1 CC1 CC3 CC2 CC3 CC3 CC3 CC3 CC3
categories FC2 CC2 CC3 CC2 CC3 CC3 CC3 CC3 CC4
NOTES:
1 The determination of the construction category is the responsibility of the designer, taking national
provisions, published guidance from industry associations and the relevant Work, Health and Safety
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TABLE L4
RISK MATRIX FOR DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION CATEGORY
(FOR NEW ZEALAND)
Importance level 1 2 3 and 4 (see Note 1)
Service categories SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
AS/NZS
2312 Guide to the protection of structural steel against atmospheric corrosion by the
use of protective coatings
2312.1 Part 1: Paint coatings
2312.2 Part 2: Hot dip galvanizing
ISO
2394 General principles on reliability for structures
WTIA Welding Technology Institute of Australia
TGN-D-02 Introduction to Fatigue of Welded Steel Structures and Post-Weld Improvement
Techniques
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Key, P.W. and Syam, A.A., Tubular Design Guide, Australian Steel Institute, 2014.
Hobbacher, A.F., Hicks, S.J., Karpenko, M., Thole, F. and Uy, B., Transfer of Australasian
bridge design to fatigue verification system of Eurocode 3, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, Volume 122, July 2016, pp 532–542, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2016.03.023
PD 6695-1-9 Recommendations for the design of structures to BS EN 1993-1-9.
HERA Report R4-133:2011.
APPENDIX A
1 Barsoum, R.S. and Gallagher, R.H., Finite Element Analysis of Torsional and
Torsional Flexural Stability Problems, International Journal for Numerical Methods
in Engineering, Vol. 2, 1970, pp 335–352.
2 Hancock, G.J. and Trahair, N.S., Finite Element Lateral Buckling of Continuously
Restrained Beam-Columns, Civil Engineering Transactions, Institution of Engineers,
Australia, Vol. CE20, No. 2, 1978, pp 120–127.
3 Timoshenko, S.P. and Gere, J.M., Theory of Elastic Stability, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1961.
4 Column Research Committee of Japan, Handbook of Structural Stability, Corona,
Tokyo, 1971.
5 Structural Stability Research Council, Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal
Structures, 3rd ed, ed. B.G. Johnston, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1976.
6 Trahair, N.S., Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures, Chapman and Hall, London,
1977.
7 Nethercot, D.A., Elastic Lateral Buckling of Beams, Chapter 1 in Developments in
the Stability and Strength of Structures, Vol. 2, Beams and Beam-Columns, Applied
Science Publishers, 1983, pp 1–33.
8 Nethercot, D.A. and Rockey, K.C., A Unified Approach to the Elastic Lateral
Buckling of Beams, The Structural Engineer, Vol. 49, No. 7, July 1971, pp 321–330.
9 Nethercot, D.A. and Trahair, N.S., Lateral Buckling Approximations for Elastic
Beams, The Structural Engineer, Vol. 54, No. 6, June 1976, pp 197–204.
10 Trahair, N.S., Lateral Buckling of Overhanging Beams, Instability and Plastic
Collapse of Steel Structures, ed L.J. Morris, Granada, London 1983, pp 503–518.
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11 Bridge, R.Q. and Trahair, N.S., Bending, Shear and Torsion of Thin-Walled Beams,
Steel Construction, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1981, pp 2–18.
12 El Darwish, I.A. and Johnston, B.G., Torsion of Structural Shapes, Journal of the
Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 91, No. ST1, 1965, pp 203–228.
APPENDIX H
European Standards on design of steel structures
EN 1993-1-1:2005 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures—Part 1-1: General rules
and rules for buildings
EN 1993-1-3:2006 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures—Part 1-3: General rules—
Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting
EN 1993-1-12:2007 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures—Part 1-12: Additional
rules for the extension of EN 1993 up to steel grades S 700
European Standards on execution of steel structures
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APPENDIX J
1 JIS Q 1001 Conformity assessment—Conformity assessment for Japanese Industrial
Standards—General guidance on a third-party certification system for products.
2 JIS Q 1013 Conformity assessment—Conformity assessment for Japanese Industrial
Standards—General guidance on a third-party certification system for steel products.
3 BC1, Design guide on use of alternative structural steel to BS 5950 and Eurocode 3.
BCA, Singapore, 2012.
4 Worldwide guide to equivalent irons and steels (Fifth edition), ASM International,
2006, Ohio, USA.
5 Kang W-H, Hicks S, Uy B. Safety factors for the resistance of steel sections.
Australian Journal of Structural Engineering. 2015. 16(2), pp. 116–128,
DOI:10.7158/S14-020.2015.16.2.
6 Uy B, Hicks S, Kang W-H. Australasian advances in steel & composite structures to
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NOTES
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Standards Australia
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in assisting local industry to compete in international markets. Both organizations are the national
members of ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) and IEC (the International
Electrotechnical Commission).
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