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Risks, Impacts and Management of invasive species in Ethiopia

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 SPECIES IN ETHIOPIA.

Takele Negewo,
Ethiopian Agricultural Research ganization (EARO), Plant Protection Research Center (PPRC), P.O. Box 37.
Ambo, Ethiopia E-mail: ntakele@yahoo.com, Fax: 251-1-362325

ABSTRACT
Ethiopia is one of the most important countries in Africa for biodiversity conservation at local,
regional and global levels. The flora of the country is very heterogeneous and has arich endemic
element. However, the biodiversity is facing multifaceted risks of which introduction and spread
of invasive alien plant species (IAPS) are posing a great destruction next to habitat degradation.
The major IAPS so far identified occurring widely in the country are Parthenium hysterophorus,
Eichhornia crassipes, Prosopis juliflora, Lantana camara and Striga species. They cause loss of
biodiversity through their proliferation and spread, displacing or killing native flora and fauna and
affecting eco-system services. They are of great concern in several areas of the country and posing
particular problems in agricultural lands, rangelands, national parks, waterways, lakes, rivers,
power dams, roadsides and urban green spaces with great economic and ecological consequences.
0n combating LAPS, the research and development activities made in Bthiopia have been discussed.
However, attempts to assess the status and combat the thrcat and impact have followed usual
piecemeal approach due to weak policy environment, lack of awareness and insufficient capacity.
Aspossible solutions it is suggested that effective management of IAPS in the country needs to
strengthen the enabling policy environment, provision and exchange of eritical information amongst
key stakeholders, implementation of control and prevention programs, and building capacity for
sustainable management of IAPS. Hence, the concept of integrated and coordinated approach to
the prevention and management of IAPS should become a reality in the Ethiopian context.
Keywords: Invasive Alien Plant Species (IAPS) , risks, impacts, management, Ethiopia.
INTRODUCTION
Ethiopia is one of the most important countries in Africa for biodiversity conservation at local,
regional and global levels. The range of habitats and vegetation is very wide, reflecting the great
diversity in climate, altitude and topography. The large diversity ofecological conditions, determined
by topography ranging from 100 meters below sea level at Kobar sink in the Afar depression to
a peak of4,620 meters above sea level at Ras Dashen in Semien mountains, have created diverse
and conducive environment for the development of a wide variety of fauna and flora. The flora of
Ethiopia is very heterogeneous and has a rich endemic element. It is estimated to contain between
6,500 and 7,000 species of higher plants of which 12% are endemic. Ethiopia has the fifth largest
flora in tropical Africa. The country is a very important center of crop genetic diversity, and for
this reasons it is serving as one of the twelve Vavilov Centers. Large numbers of cultivated plants
and their wild relatives are found best suited in several ecosystems in the country. The country is
the most important center of diversity for Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.), teff [Eragrostis teff
(Zucc.) Trotter], enset [Ensete ventiricosum (Welw.) Cheesman], sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L)
Moench], barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), anchote (Caccimia abyssinica), durum wheat (Triticum
turgidum L.),sesame (Sesamum indicum) and finger millet [Eleusine coracana L. (Gaerther)].
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 The aforementioned floristic resources of the
in the human population and the high
country are facing multifaceted threats. The increase
pressure that this
accelerates the change in the land use pattern including theexerts on the biological possessions
conversion of land to agriculture,
settlement, etc. This problem has been aggravated by the introduction and spread of invasive
plants most of which are of foreign origin. Invasive alien
plant species (IAPS) are plant species
entering newregions and detected as noxious potential to the habitats. A
interaction threatens man's activities or the native flora and fauna. Likeplant is noxious when the
many African countries,
Ethiopia is facing the spread of IAPS problems in recent decades.
hysterophorus L.), water hyacinth [Eichhornia Parthenium weed (Parthenium
juliflora (Sw.)DC.J, Lantana (Lantana camara L.)crassipes (Mart.) Solnms], mesquites [Prosopis
and witch weeds [Striga hermonthica (Delile)
Benths] and [S. asiatica (L.) Kuntze] are causing major problems. They have a substantial but
unquantified effect on the environment, agricultural production and human welfare. They pose a
threat to the conservation ofbiodiversity through their proliferation and
native flora and fauna and affecting eco-system services. They are spread, displacing or killing
posing particular problems in
agricultural lands, rangelands, national parks, waterways, lakes, rivers, power dams,
and urban green spaces with great economic and ecological consequences. roadsides
growing problems of IAPS, there is no integrated and coordinated nationalHowever,
effort
despite the
to arrest the
risks and impacts of IAPS in the country. To prepare this document
besides personal observations
and judgments, Ihad reviewed strategic documents, working reports and
other related reference
materials. The objective of this paper was to elaborate the risks, impacts of IAPS, and
restrictive
measures practiced in Ethiopia to manage IAPS and their drawbacks, and to conclusively
possible prevention and management options as the solutions. suggest

Risks of Invasive Alien Plant Species (IAPS) in Ethiopia

In the present day, because of the advancement in technologies such as air
of plant and animal material between widely separated countries is very much
transport, movements
increasing. This has
caused the introduction of pests from the country of their origin to other countries leaving
natural enemies back in the country of origin. In the absence of adequate restrictive their
the increasing movement of different plant species through import-export trade, measures,
exchange of
germplasms, the aid of humans and animals, and tourists' visit is having consideralble risks.
is one of the developing countries exposed to these risks. In spite of being land locked, the
Ethiopia
is the hinterland for all the coastal line of Eritrea on the Red Sea, and of Diibouti and country
Somalia on
the Gulfof Aden and the Indian Ocean that also easily open the country to the threats.

The International Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in its Article 8(h) states that Prevent
the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species which threaten the ecosystem, habitats
or species" and decision Vi/23 of the convention has also further amplified the Article. Since
cach country faces unique challenges and willneed to develop context specific solutions, the plant
quarantine policy can only be decided based on the risk analysis which requires knowledge of
the country. Pest Risk Analysis (PRA)estimates the likelihood of pests entering and establishing
in an area and evaluates the economic and environmental consequences. If there is complete
information on local pests then it can make PRA very easy. Hence, appropriate quarantine action
is warranted if there are serious exotic pests. Though the 1951 Intermational Plant Protection
Convention revised in 1997,Ethiopia is stilloperating under the previous directives and old national
plant quarantine legislation and regulation. The convention requested the contracting parties to co
operate with one another in achieving the aims of the convention which include among others: the
protection of endangered areas and the designation, maintenance and surveillance of pest free areas
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 the Food and
and area of low pest prevalence, and conducting Pest Risk Assessments. Above all,
Agricultural Organization (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO) specifications consider
safety to human health and the environment. In Ethiopia, all these have not been welladopted due to
several constraints.

Biological materials which are self regenerative and impossible to control once allowed to get out
of control may result in the most insidious and damaging pollution, which is biological pollution,
thus the importation of biological material should be under stringent regulation. The then Ethiopian
Ministry ofAgriculture (MoA) now Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) by
Proclamation No. 2/1991Article 12(g) has been given mandate of conducting quarantine control on
plants, seeds, animals and animal products brought into or taken out of the country. There are only
five national quarantine stations giving passive services at Moyale, Dire Dawa, Nazareth, Shola
Plant Protection and Regulatory Department and Addis Ababa airport. Moreover, organization
like Ethiopian Agricultural Rescarch Organization (EARO) are designated to undertake internal
quarantine activities of biological materials/germplasms imported for scientific research and other
purposes. However, up to now there is no centrally coordinated and strongly functioning national
quarantine control service to combat IAPS due to various technical and financial problems. Early
warning and eradication of incipient invasions havebeen given lesser attention. Moreover, Ethiopia
has a large border with its neighboring countries but with the exception of entry through the official
land ports, borders, movement of people and goods is largely unrestricted by the proclamation.
This situation makes enforcement at official entry places along the border meaningless.
In Ethiopia, different sectors have identified IAPS as posing a major threat to biodiversity and
economic well being of the population for many years by invading several areas of the country. It
is suspected that there are several IAPS in the country that are also of a potential danger in the near
future. Moreover, the species known to be invasive continue to be introduced. The eminent threat
posed by IAPS to the country's biological resources and the ecosystem at large have been explicitly
acknowledged by the policy and strategy documents of Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (EPE),
Ethiopian National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (ENBSAP), Ethiopian Weed Science
Research Strategy (EWSRS), Ethiopian Plant Protectiop Strategy (EPPS), Ethiopian Forestry
Research Strategy (EFRS), and International Convention on Biological Diversity (1CBD) (Ababu
et al., 2004, unpublished). The existing LAPS issues of federal policies, strategies, proclamations
and action plans are developed based on sectoral lines with no cross-sectoral linkages and
synergies. Moreover, they are lacking strong legal and institutional backing for their enforcement.
In general,it can be said that in the country there is not a well developed up to date PRA capacity
or quarantine service to meet international phyto-sanitary information exchange obligations and to
provide effective official communication with partners, and to protect the country from the risks.
Socio-economic and biological impacts of LAPS in Ethiopia
In Ethiopia studies have not been conducted on the impacts of invasive weeds on crop and livestock
production, biodiversity and human health, except some starting activities by Ethiopian Agricultural
Research Organization (EARO) supported by Global Environmental Fund (GEF) through United
Nations Environment Program (UNEP) (Taye et al., 2004, unpublished). The public at large and
the goverment institutions at federal and regional state levels may not be aware on the magnitude
of the problem of IAPS and their impacts on the environment. There is a lot to be said about the
impacts of already widespread IAPS in the country, though not quantified. Currently, IAPS are of
great concerm posing particular problems to agricultural development (the mainstay of the country's
143
 economy) as well as threat to biodiversity conservation in several areas of the country, particularly;
Awash basin, Woldya-Alamata, Melka Worer, Jijiga, Dire Dawa, Konso areas, Addis Ababa-Asseb
and Harer roads. Foremost, among these is parthenium weed; major problems are also being caused by
water hyacinth, mesquites, lantana and witch weeds (EARO, 2000).

Parthenium hysterophorus

Eichhorniacrassipes

Eichhornia crassipes

Lemtana cainaru
Lantana camara

Striga hermonthica

44
 Srgdiuica
Striga asiatica

Parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus L)

The weed is originated from tropical Americas (Mexico, USA) and West Indies, and has spread to
Australia, Asia and Africa. This pest is thought to have been introduced into Ethiopia accidentally
along with the wheat aid during the famine period of 1985, because of sustaineddrought. Originally,
itwas considered as a weed of wastelands and non-arable areas. At a later period, it was seen
invading on many crop felds even where the moisture is inadequate to grow other crops. It is widely
occurring in Oromiya, Somali, Afar, Tigray, Amhara, and Southern People Nation and Nationalities
regional states. Its invasion at an alarming rate is attributed to wider adaptability, photo and thermo
insensitivity, drought tolerance, and absence of seed dormancy, high competitiveness, allelopathy,
and prolific production of small and light weighted seeds (photo on page 144).

145
 It is posing problems in
urban green spaces during agricultural lands, rangelands, national parks, waterways,
both the crop growing and fallow roadsides and
periods with great economic and
ecological consequences. Besides its allelopathic effects, parthenium has a high capacity to uptake
soil nutrients and moisture. In crop
the other hand, small scale and fields, it causes yield reduction by suppressing
to clear the weed from their commercial farmers are spending theirgrowth. On
farm. considerable amounts of money
and forages taste sour when used as When
food
harvested from parthenium invaded fields' crop grains
grazing lands causing up to 90% reductionand animal feeds, respectively. In off-farms it
encroaches
feed, affects quantity and quality of milk in forage production and suppresses sources of livestock
visited by bees. It is perceived that grasses,and meat when fed by cows, and quality of honey when
important plant species are endangered by theforageweed.
plants, medicinal plants and other
economically
animal species (human being, livestock, rats and It also causes serious allergies against sensitive
birds) (Taye et al., 2004,
unpublished).
Mesquites [Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.]
A multipurpose (shade,
forestry species, which is windbreak, fence, fuel wood, charcoal and forage)
native to North and South America, leguminous agro
intentionally around 1980 to use it as windbreaker for cottonintroduced to Northeastern Ethiopia
rainfall and tolerates drought for a
prolonged
commercial farm. It adapts to low
However, it has become very aggressive and period then serves in lessening
overweigh the advantages. rampant invader of an area, and then itsdesertification.
disadvantages
Commonly it occurs in Oromiya,
wild animals' (goats, cattle, camels,Somali, Afar, Tigray and Amhara regional states. Livestock and
major means of its seeds dispersal sheep, warthogs, etc.) and irrigation water have served as the
mechanisms. is posing problems in farmlands, rangelands,
Awash National Park, bush lands, irrigation It
economic and ecological consequences. Thisschemes,invasive
roadsides and urban green spaces with great
bush encroaches on roadside, where it is
seen as hazard due to reduced visibility and
it has to be removed before enters thecommercial companies' cotton fields,
planting the crop incurring high cost of where
grasses and forages to grow under its canopy, that is it is production. does not allow
It
invading bushland and obviously replacing
the destroying natural pasture. It is also
shrubs) presumably due to competition for water. Its considerable number plant species (trees and
of
human population. The very dense thickets are thorns also threaten animal health and the
and then reduces the grazing potential. almost impossible to enter so that it prevents access
they heavily depend on grazing land for These all are the most disappointing to the local people as
Aphid and Jassid (Spider mite), and harboring livestock production. It also serves as an alternate host for
place for mosquitoes.
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes
It was reported for the first time as early as(Mart.) Solms]
of Ethiopia in Oromiya regional state 1950's. The weed has been introduced to one of thelakes
plant. The lake served as source of (Lake Melka Denbi) from tropical America as ornamental
river catchments, Gora river, Melka infestation for low lying and
neighboring water bodies; Awash
Koka Electric Power generating dam, Berbere, Lake Koka, Lake Akaki Beseka, Lake Aba Samuel,
It is believed that both irigation canals and Wonji sugar cane industry
running water and wind served as means reservoirs.
of dissemination (farmers
area, personal communication).
Moreover, most likely due to transfer of severed boots withofgerm
able parts of the plant from infected
the
lakes to faraway uninfected lakes, very
reports mentioning the serious infection of Finchewa, White Nile and Baro recently there are
sheds of Oromiya, Amhara and Gambela
146 regional states, respectively (photo onAkobo river water
page144).
 power dams with great negative
The weed is posing problems in waterways, lakes, rivers and movement of water via the canals
Forming thick mats on water bodies, it blocks smooth
effects.
evapo-transpiration. It prevents access to the
for use and causes the loss of considerable water by
light and oxygen, hampers
water for animals to drink and people to fetch the water. It also reduces
a loss of imnportant aquatic and
fishing and boating activities. It invades water bodies leading toworms/parasites in the water that
marshy plant species. However, it favors the growth of different
make the water imnpure and dangerous for health.
Lantana (Lantana camara L.)
people continued to use
This weed was introduced to Eastern Ethiopia as an ornamental plant, later
degraded hillsides and
it as life fence, windbreaks and farm boundary. These days it is invadingencroachment problems
other productive areas Oromiya and Somali regional states. It is posing
Though it seems a weed with
in agricultural lands, rangelands, roadsides and urban green spaces. uninfected areas replacing
lesser harm, it has a great potential to widely and densely invade the
important plant species (photo on page 144).
Kuntze]
Witch weeds [Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benths], [S. asiatica (L.)
in agricultural lands
They are the introduced and still spreading parasiticweeds posing problem
witch weed species are registered
with great economic and ecological consequences. So far, sevenmaize and finger millet) cultivated in
as occurring in Ethiopia. They are weeds of cereals (sorghum, Amhara, and Southern People Nation
arid and semi-arid agro ecological zones of Oromiya, Tigray,
weed species specially, S.
and Nationalities regional states (photos on page144 and 145). Witch cereals in severely infested
hermonthica andS. asiatica account for 60 to 70% yield reduction on
hemi-parasite and cause severe wilting
areas of the country (Fasil Reda, 2002). They are obligate of replacing important
and somne times total death of alternate wild hosts, so they are on the way
plant species.

Strategic approach of Ethiopia in the management of IAPS

a serious global concern for IAPS
The magnitude and complexity of the problem has led to global significant biodiversity
management. In order to curb the emerging problem that affect the
and regional states government
of Ethiopia it needs to address wide ranges of issues. Federal in the management of IAPS.
organizations, NGOs and local communities have vested interests
organized nation-wide effort that
However, despite the growing problem of invasive, there is no
infestation in the country. In Ethiopia,
has been made to arrest the spread and build up of IAPS
IAPS management has been hindered by many constraints.
are practicing could not be able to escape
The IAPS management activities that local communities
related to adoption and implementation
old cultural and labor-intensive practices. The problem Biological Diversity (CBD) and the
on
of international conventions such as the Convention provisions of IAPS resulted in
International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) with specific
efforts against IAPS. Attempts
complications that prevented the harmonization of management
have followed usual piecemeal approach,
to assess the status and combat the threats of IAPS
limited to tackling of the problem.
insufficient resources, capacity and availability of informationresponsibilities of institutions. The
IAPS roles and
In the country there is no clear distinction of
responsibility ofIAPS management in the country is spread over a number of government institutions
This indicates the intention and commitment
at federal, regional state as well as at district levels.
managenment in the country, though it is not in
of Ethiopian government to implement the IAPS 147
 an integrated and coordinated manner. There are also Non
Governmental
playing direct and indirect roles in IAPS management, though not served asOrganizations
long lasting
(NGOs)
In the country, quarantine programs are not given attention for early solutions.
warning and eradication of
incipient invasions, and initiation of internal quarantine regulations. The Weed Science
Research
Strategy of the country has given a strong emphasis on the existing and identified IAPS. However,
except the substantial work on Striga hermontica, there has been very
limited research geared
towards addressing the troublesome species such as Parthenium hysterophorus, Prosopis
Eichhornia crassipesand Lantanacamara. Recognizing the urgent juliflora,
need to address the problem,
Ethiopia as one of the pilot countries works with CAB International and the World
Union ([UCN) to implement a project on Removing Barriers to Invasive Plant Conservation
Africa" having the purpose of removing the barriers to effective prevention and Management in
IAPS. management of

Analysis of the existing scenario reveals that the IAPS management related policies,
action plans in Ethiopia are generally inadequate, incomprehensive and strategies and
of Queensland Development of Natural Resources in Australia fragmented. The experience
showed
necessitates the development of a detailed management strategy that best suitsthat IAPS problem
to the farming and
other ecosystems of the landscape under consideration. Similarly, according to Ababu
unpublished) it is a must that effective and sustainable management of IAPS in the countryet.al. (2004,
to strengthen the enabling policy environment, provision and needs
exchange criticai information
of
amongst key stakeholders, implementation of control and prevention program,
capacity. Therefore, for community, national and global benefit, concrete efforts ofand building
government
institutions, donor agencies, NGOs, communities and professionals at national and international
levels are crucially needed to fight these threats to natural ecosystem,
species and genetic diversity.
International organizations viz. CABI (CABInternational), World Conservation
United Nations Development Program (UNDP), United Nations Environmental Union (IUCN),
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), and Global Invasive Program (UNEP),
referred to have a potential role to play in IAPS management through Species Program (GISP) are
enhancing
and support to complement the efforts of the Ethiopian government, local their partnership
Organizations (NGOS), private sectors and the community. Non-Government
CONCLUSIVE SUGGESTION
Ethiopia is one of the developing countries affected by IAPS, and they have been
as one of the emerging problems facing the country. APS are clearly identified
causing considerable threats to
biodiversity and food security in the country. There is an urgent need to adequately
risks of IAPS in the country. Efforts to identify and prevent address the
as decisions concerning intentional unintentional introduction as well
introductions shall be based on PRA to prevent introduction
of the remaining new quarantine pests or biotypes of already introduced
to harmonize the quarantine regulations among the IAPS. There is a need
in order to ease implementation of necessary and neighboring countries bordering the country
effective prevention measures against IAPS
introduction. There is a need to scientifically determine the impacts of introduced and
IAPS on agricultural development and biodiversity established
conservation. Consultation and
creation workshops, trainings and field days must be conducted to involve and awareness
stakeholders on issues related to the risks, problems and management of IAPS. Theeducate absence
the
of
explicitly stated mandates on one hand and horizontal fragmentation and dispersal of
mandates together with problems of inadequate capacity has been the basic inferred
coordinated approach to the management of IAPS. Strengthening the enabling shortcoming hindering
148 policy environment
and building capacity lead to effective and sustainable management of IAPS. Thus, the concept of
integrated and coordinated approach to the prevention and management of IAPS should become a
reality in the Ethiopian context.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
would like to thank the Tuskegee University Team ("Risk Analysis, Modelling, and Sanitary/
Phytosanitary Capacity Building in Sub-Saharan Africa" ATRIP Project, Director Prof. Tsegaye
Habtemariam and his members) for their initiation, planning and organization of the forum, and
encouragement to produce this paper. Thanks are also extended to the USDA/APHIS team on their
help and assistance during this training. Iwould like to express my thanks and appreciations to
Weed Science Department Head of Ambo Plant Protection Research Center, Dr. Taye Tessema for
his cooperation both in providing me reference materials and giving me valuable comments. I also
thank the National Weed Science Research Project leader and country coordinator of the project on
"Removing Barriers to Invasive Alien Species Management in Africa" Ato Rezene Fesiehaie for
Tariku
his considerable edition and constructive suggestion. My thanks are also extended to Ato
to
Hunduma, Ato Berhanu Bekele, and Ato Gima Kassa who contributed in one way or another
prepare this paper.
REFERENCES
Ababu Anage, Fasil Reda, Getachew Tesfaye, Assefa Admasu and Yigzaw Ayalew (2004,
submitted to
unpublished) Review of IAS relate policies and strategies. Review report
EARO in May 2004, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Research Strategic
Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) (2000) Weed Science
Document. EARO July 2000, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
presented on striga resistant
Fasil Reda (2002) Striga management research in Ethiopia. In: Papers Ethiopia 14-17 May
sorghum seed production and multiplication workshop, Melkasa,
2002.
Adefris Worku and Agajie Tesfaye (2004,
Taye Tessema, Emana Getu, Fasil Reda, Senait Regassa, projects. APart of Removing Barriers
unpublished) Identification and Planning of control 2004, Addis
submitted to EARO in May
to Invasive Plant Management Project". Report
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