T E X TS

BIOLOGY

The word biology is derived from the Greek words /bios/ meaning /life/ and
/logos/ meaning /study/ and is defined as the science of life and living organisms.
An organism is a living entity consisting of one cell e.g. bacteria, or several cells
e.g. animals, plants and fungi. Aspects of biological science range from the study
of molecular mechanisms in cells, to the classification and behavior of organisms,
how species evolve and interaction between ecosystems. Biology often overlaps
with other sciences; for example, biochemistry and toxicology with biology,
chemistry, and medicine; biophysics with biology and physics; stratigraphy with
biology and geography; astrobiology with biology and astronomy. Social sciences
such as geography, philosophy, psychology and sociology can also interact with
biology, for example, in administration of biological resources, developmental
biology, biogeography, evolutionary psychology and ethics.
 BIOLOGY AND ITS MAIN BRANCHES – I part

Biology is the study of life and living organisms. It is a broad field including
many branches and sub-disciplines. Biologists study structure, function, growth,
evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Below are the main branches
of study included in this field. Aerobiology is the study of airborne organic
particles. Agriculture is the study of producing crops and raising livestock.
Anatomy is the study of the internal structures of living things. Bacteriology is the
study of bacteria. Biochemistry is the use of chemistry in the study of living things.
Bioengineering is the study of living things through the means of engineering.
Biogeography is the study of the geographical distribution of living things.
Bioinformatics is the use of information technology for the study, collection, and
storage of genomic and other biological data. .Biomechanics is the study of the
mechanics of living beings. .Biological Earth Sciences are the use of earth
sciences, such as geography, in the study of living things. Biomathematics is the
application of math to the study of living things. Biomedical research is the study
of health and disease. Bio-musicology is the study of music from a biological
perspective. Biophysics is application of physics to the study of living things.
BIOLOGY AND ITS MAIN BRANCHES – II part

Biology is the study of life and living organisms. It is a broad field including
many branches and sub-disciplines. Biologists study structure, function, growth,
evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Below are the main branches
of study included in this field. Biological Psychology is the application of biology
to the study of the human mind. Bio-semiotics is the study of biological processes
through semiotics, by applying the models of meaning-making and
communication. Botany is the study of plants. Building biology is the study of the
indoor living environment. Cell biology is the study of the cell as a complete unit.
Cognitive biology is the study of cognition as a biological function.
Developmental biology is the study of the processes through which an organism
forms. Ecology is the study of the relationships of living things to each other and to
the environment. Embryology is the study of the formation and development of
living things from fertilization to birth as independent organisms. Endocrinology is
the study of hormones. Entomology is the study of insects. Environmental biology
is the study of the natural world especially as affected by human activity.
Epidemiology is the study of the health of populations. Evolutionary biology is the
study of the origin and descent of species over time.

FISHES - I

There are more than 25000 species of fishes in the world – more than all
different kinds that all other vertebrates combined. The largest fish is the whale
shark. Its weight of more than 13 tons has been reported. At the other extreme
some fishes as adults are less than an inch in length. Some fishes build nests and
even the guard them. Others carry the eggs in their mouths until they are
developed. And even the young in time of danger may hide in the parent’s wide –
open mouth. Some kind of fish found along the coast of California lays their eggs
on land. During the spring and summer these fish swim rapidly on the beach. The
female makes a small hole in the sand and lays the eggs there. Papa and mamma
fish then return back to the sea and forget about the whole affair. Two weeks later
the eggs are washed out of the sand and the young fishes swim happily away.
 KLIMENT ARKADYEVICH TIMIRYAZEV ( 1843 – 1920 )

Kliment Arkadyevich Timiryazev belongs to the scientists who are most

popular in the world. He was born in Petersburg on the 3rd of June, 1843.His
parents were well-educated and progressive people of that time. In 1868 after
graduating from the Petersburg University he made a report on his experiments in
the field of air nutrition of plants at the first Congress of Naturalists in Petersburg.
The same year he went abroad and worked in the laboratories of famous scientists
till 1870 when he returned to Russia and became the head of the Chair of Botany
of Petrovskaya Academy. His books “ The Life of Plants, Charles Darwin and His
Teaching, The Historical Method in Biology” and many others have been
published and republished in many countries. He died in 1920 on the 20th of April.

HONEY BEE

There are many kinds of wild bees, some of which are solitary while others,
such as honey bee, are social and from communities. A hive of bees is a highly
organized society of insects all working for common good. 20 In this society there
are three kinds of individual .In each hive there are many thousands of worker bees
and two or three hundred drones, by only one queen bee. It makes from fifty to
eighty thousand bees in a hive. The development from egg to perfect insect takes
about three weeks in all. In summer the worker bee lives for about five weeks more
before during of over work. When its wings are worn out and it is no longer of any
use to the hive, it usually files away to die. If the worker has brought the nectar, it
performs a peculiar little dance. Taking rapid steps, it runs in small circles, first in
one direction and then in another. The worker may dance for a few seconds or for a
minute. The dance is performed each time it returns with nectar and it nectar is to
be found.
IVAN MIKHAILOVICH SECHENOV

The Russian people are proud of the name of Ivan Mikhailovich

Sechenov, the founder of Russian physiological science. He was born in a village
in Symbirskaya Guberniya in the family of a former officer on the 13th of
Agust,1829.His mother was a peasant. When his father died he entered to Medical
Faculty of the Moscow University. In 1856 Sechenov graduated from the Moscow
University and went abroad. There he wrote his work about the influence of
alcoholism on a human being. He worked in the laboratory of a human being. At
the end of 1859 Sechenov returned to Petersburg and became a professor of
Medico-Surgical Academy. ( Tibbi Cərrahiyə Akademiyası )At that time
Secehnov’s work- The Brain Reflexes- appeared. It was in 1868. More than 30
years of his life Sechenov devoted to studying of mental phenomena. He was
elected an honorable member of the Russian Academy of Sciences only in 1904,a
year before his death. He died on the 15th of November,1905.His last words
addressed to K.A. Timiryazev were,” Work, work and work.

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 SNAKES

There are about 2400 different species of snakes and some 200 are
dangerously poisonous to man .In most areas the kinds of poisonous snakes are a
very small percentage of the snake population. Australia is the one outstanding
exception; there are majority of snakes are venomous .According to an estimate by
the United Nations. World Health Organization approximately 40 000 people in
the world are killed each year by snake bite. One of the most striking methods of
defense that snakes have developed is found in a few cobras. They actually spit
their venom at their enemies .If the venom gets into the eyes it causes intense pain
and if it is not washed out, temporary or even permanent blindness may result.
These snakes may sometimes eject their venom as far as 10 or 12 feet with
surprising accuracy. The two chief competitors for the title of the python of the Far
East some anaconda species are up to 10,5 to 12 ,meters in length, while pythons
may grow up to 10 to 10,5 meters. There is very little information about the weight
of anacondas over 6 meters in length. But most specialists agree that these snakes
are considerable heavier than pythons of the same length. A 6 meter anaconda was
found to weight 107 kg, but it was later found that this snake has cheated she later
gave with to 72 youngsters.

REPTILES
 These are cold – blooded, air-breathing vertebrates, which may be regarded as
the earliest types of vertebrates and which have become well adapted to the life on
land. Reptiles lay large eggs protected by calcareous shells. Inside these, the
embryo animals develop into miniature adults, feeding on the food contained in the
egg. Reptiles are characterized by their complete covering of dry scales and the
presence on their jaws of teeth, all of the same simple type. Most reptiles have two
pairs of limbs, which do not fully supported the body from the ground. Replies
include such animals as lizards, snakes ( limbless reptiles),crocodiles and tortoises.
It is unfortunate that so many people are either afraid of reptiles or are repulsed by
them, for within this group are some of the most interesting of vertebrates. It is
true, however, that some reptiles are dangerous, but most of them do more good
than harm. Reptiles occupy a place in the middle of the vertebrate group with
respected to the number of species. There are approximately 6000 known species
of reptiles. Millions of years ago, 23 however, reptiles were the dominant from of
animal life in the sea, on land, and even in the air.

AMOEBA
Amoeba is one of the simplest members of the animal kingdom. It may be found at
the bottom of ponds. Amoeba is an irregular jelly-like mass. The main part of the
body is made up of protoplasm called plasmasol. The name amoeba is derived
from the Greek word which means change. If we examine amoeba under the
microscope, we shall see that its shape is continually changing. The amoeba grows
until it reaches the maximum size and then it divides into two. The nucleus
lengthens and then divides into two halves. By this process of the division the
original amoeba gives rise two smaller amoebae which grow and will divide in
their turn. If the pond dries up, then amoeba secrets a thin covering which, protects
it from drought.
CROCODILES

Crocodiles are considered to be amphibious, since both youngest and adults

spend part of their time in the water and part on land. They are relatively awkward
on land, but if necessity demands most of them can raise the body on the legs and
run with surprising speed for short distances. The long powerful tail, often used as
a weapon, is capable of knocking a man off his feet. Once in the water crocodile
really comes into own and no one considers him to be awkward. Powerful strokes
of the tail push the body so rapidly that there are few land 25 animals that have a
chance of escaping out of the water if they are followed by one of these hungry
reptiles. Crocodiles are lung – breathers and must keep their noses above the water
in order to get air. Many crocodiles construct dens in the banks of streams, which
may extend inward for 4,5 – 6 meters. The entrance may be under water, but at the
opposite end is a relatively large room above the water. Here the crocodile comes
to rest or for safety
TURTLES

Turtles may be found in seawater, on land and in fresh water. The land or
Fresh water turtle is called a tortoise. Turtles are entirely toothless, but they have
sharp bony jaws which they use efficiently. These jaws are well adapted to the diet
and manner of eating of the animals, since they do not chew but bite off pieces are
often eaten and together with insets make up the food of the smaller tortoises.
Some of the larger ones, especially the sea – water turtles, will eat almost any kind
of animal that they can capture. A female turtle, usually constructs a nest of some
kind, which normally consists of a hole dug in the sand, soil or decaying
vegetation. The hole is dug by the hind legs and after a batch of eggs is deposited,
they are covered and left to their fate by the female. The number of eggs laid by a
single turtle at one time varies with the kinds of turtles and even with individuals
of the same species. Nests with more than 100 eggs have been discovered, and
some scientists believe that large sea- water turtles are capable of laying between
200 and 300 eggs.
 LARGE CABBAGE WHITE BUTTERFLY

The large cabbage white butterfly is very common in early summer and can
be easily recognized with its large white wings with black markings. The head of it
bears a pair of large compound eyes and also three small simple eyes sugary
solution which is called nectar. The female cabbage white butterfly lays eggs in
April or May on the underside of cabbage leaves. After 8 to 10 days tiny
caterpillars appear. The caterpillar first eats the eggshell and then the leaf of the
cabbage. It rapidly increases in size and is fully grown when it is about 3,8 cm
long. After about thirty days the caterpillar moves down its leaf into the ground
and proceeds to a place suitable for the development into the next pupa stage.
Inside the pupa there is a reorganization of structure and it takes from two to three
weeks for the butterfly to become fully developed.

WORLD Of PLANTS

Without planting, people couldn’t live. We eat plants. We breathe the

oxygen which plants produce. We need plants for another, very different reason:
we need them for their beauty. Imagine a world with no plants. Imagine no flowers
with their sweet smells, their beautiful colours and their lovely shapes. Imagine,
when the wind blows, not being the branches swing from side to side. Imagine not
being able to see the buds (qönçə) on the trees open and turn to colorful blossom.
(çıçəklənmə) Everywhere people need the beauty of plants. That is why even in big
modern cities, we have parks full of trees, bushes and fllowers. That is why
architecs always try to design houses with room for some grass and a garden. That
is why in every city apartment you are sure to find some green houseplants
growing in pots( dibçək) or freshly cut flowers in a vase of water.
INSECTS

There are six principal orders of insects: Hymenoptera, orthopters, Lepidoma,

Donate, Diphtheria, Coleopteran. The first group includes the highest type of social
insects, whose habits and development are very complicated indeed. The ordinary
honey-bee is the best example of this order and many people are interested in it
because of it’s practical as a honey producer. In a life of this sort there are probably
five hundred males. The grasshopper is a good example of the order called
Orthoptera, and is about as different from the honey-bee as one could imagine. The
order Lepidoptera is represented by the butterflies, the largest and most stingingly
colored insects that we have. Like the bees these creatures have a complete
metamorphosis. The group known as Odon ate is composed of Dragonflies and
Damselfish, of which the formers are the more striking and important. These are
brilliantly colored “shaky-feeders” which may be seen darting about over almost
any roadside pond or stream.
 FISHES – II

The fishes are recognized as the lowers of the true Vertebrates and the
parasitic Lamprey. The skeleton is composed of cartilage instead of bone, and
there are no jaws, but attaches, it leech-fashion to larger fishes, and lives by
sucking their blood. The higher fishes have bony skeletons, the Perch, Salmon,
Bass, Crappie, Catfish and nearly all of our common food fishes being of the type.
The anatomy of these fishes is very different from of the Lampreys and Sharks and
their habits differ almost tent characteristic of the bony fishes is the possession of
an airbladder which allows them to swim at any desired depth. The fishes of
former ages were very seas are the remains of gigantic Ganoids, Great Fishes with
rigid interlocking plates all over their bodies and long jaws full of large teeth.
BIRDS

There are numerous species of bird found in a wide variety of habitats all
around the world. Birds are one of the most thriving groups of animals on the
planet as they generally have their habitat to themselves. Birds can be easily
distinguished from other animals due to their sharp , pointed beaks , thin legs ,
wings and feathers covering their bodies. Although all bird species have wings,
some are actually flightless animals that only use their wings for balance and not
for flying. Where other birds, such as penguins ,use their wings for swimming.
Birds are often omnivorous animals, generally eating nearly anything that they can
find. Most species of bird survive on a diet primarily consisting on insects and
plants such as fruits, nuts, berries and seeds. Birds are also distinctive in the fact
that they lay eggs in a similar way to other animal groups such as fish and reptiles.
Birds often make nests in the trees or on the ground in which to lay their eggs.
ALL ABOUT TREES

A tree is a tall plant with a trunk and branches made of wood. Trees can
live for many years. The oldest tree ever discovered is approximately 5,000 years
old. The four main parts of a tree are the roots, the trunk, the branches, and the
leaves. The roots of a tree are usually under the ground. One case for which this is
not true are the roots of the mangrove tree which are often under water. A single
tree has many roots. The roots carry food and water from the ground through the
trunk and branches to the leaves of the tree. They can also breathe in air.
Sometimes, roots are specialized into aerial roots, which can also provide support,
as is the case with the banyan tree. The trunk is the main body of the tree. The
trunk is covered with bark which protects it from damage. Branches grow from the
trunk. They spread out so that the leaves can get more sunlight. The leaves of a tree
are green most of the time, but they can come in many colours, shapes and sizes.
The leaves take in sunlight and use water and food from the roots to make the tree
grow, and to reproduce. Trees and shrubs take in water and carbon dioxide and
give out oxygen with sunlight to form sugars. This is the opposite of what animals
do in respiration. Plants also do some respiration using oxygen the way animals do.
They need oxygen as well as carbon dioxide to live.
 KINDS OF FLOWERS

A flower is a special kind of plant part. Flowers are also called the bloom or
blossom of a plant. The flower grows on a stalk – a thin node – which supports it.
Flowers have petals. Inside the part of the flower that has petals are the parts which
produce pollen and seeds. Flowers are the reproductive structure of flowering
plants, which are plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also called the
Angiosperms. In many plants, a flower is its most colourful part. We say the plant
'flowers', 'is flowering' or 'is in flower' when this colourful part begins to grow
bigger and open out. There are many different kinds of flowers in different areas in
the world. Even in the coldest places, for example the Arctic, flowers can grow
during a few months. Flowers may grow separately on the plant, or they may grow
together in an inflorescence.
KINDS OF APPLES
 The apple is a fleshy fruit from the apple tree. It is in the species Malus
domestica in the rose family Rosaceae. The apple is one of the most grown tree
fruits. It is grown in orchards. An apple is a type of fruit that is grown on an apple
tree. It is called a pomaceous fruit because the plant that it grows on flowers. The
flowers on an apple tree are pink or white. Most apples are ready to be harvested in
autumn. There’s more than 7,000 varieties of apples grown in the world today .
The fruit comes in many different shapes and sizes. Apples also can be found in a
large ranges of colours. Red, yellow, orange and green apples can be found in most
grocery stores. Some apples are extremely good for eating while others are
primarily used for cooking.
BUTTERFLIES

Butterflies are beautiful, flying insects with large scaly wings. Like all
insects, they have six jointed legs, 3 body parts, a pair of antennae , compound
eyes , and an exoskeleton . The three body parts are the head, thorax (the chest),
and abdomen (the tail end). The butterfly's body is covered by tiny sensory hairs.
The four wings and the six legs of the butterfly are attached to the thorax. The
thorax contains the muscles that make the legs and wings move. Butterflies are
very good fliers. They have two pairs of large wings covered with colorful,
iridescent scales in overlapping rows. Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) are the
only insects that have scaly wings. The wings are attached to the butterfly's thorax
(mid-section). Veins support the delicate wings and nourish them with blood.
Butterflies can only fly if their body temperature is above 86 degrees. Butterflies
sun themselves to warm up in cool weather. As butterflies age, the color of the
wings fades and the wings become ragged. The speed varies among butterfly
species (the poisonous varieties are slower than non-poisonous varieties). The
fastest butterflies (some skippers) can fly at about 30 mile per hour or faster. Slow
flying butterflies fly about 5 mph.
 ALL ABOUT FROGS

Frogs are amphibians that belong to a group called vertebrates which

mean animals that have a backbone. The word amphibian comes from a Greek
word that means "two lives." Amphibians are cold blooded. Frogs have very strong
legs for leaping great distances. Frogs may be found anywhere in the world ,
although most frogs are found in tropics. Most species are found in tropical
regions. You can find frogs in or near places that have water. Some frogs never go
into the water they live mainly on land. Some frogs even live in trees. These frogs
have tiny, sticky pads on their fingers and toes to help them cling to the trees they
climb. Some frogs burrow. A frog is a small, tailless animal with bulging eyes.
Almost all frogs have long back legs and short front legs, a flat head, and body
with no neck. Adult frogs have no tail, though one North American species has a
short tail - like structure. The most frogs have a sticky tongue attached to the front
part of the mouth. They can rapidly flip out the tongue to capture prey. They may
vary in color or size, but some have colorful markings.
 WILD NATURE

Nature is paradise which is given us. Azerbaijan has its rich nature - flora and
fauna. And we call this rich wild nature. When we say wild nature it means our
rich forest, different kind of plants, animals, fruits, lakes, rivers waterfalls and etc.
Nowadays Azerbaijan takes first place in the world with its wild nature. Forests are
considered to be one of the most valuable natural resources of Azerbaijan that
integrate soil, water, trees, bushes, vegetation, wildlife, and microorganisms . The
main part of the integral wild nature consists of different kinds of animals family.
Plants and animals are the main criteria of the forest.
 KINDS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS

The word, Domestic, means that a species of animal live along side with
people for so many years that they are no longer considered wild. Humans keep
many kinds of animals as pets (birds, fish, rabbits) but even though they have been
with humans for hundreds of years, they are still not domestic. It takes thousands
of years to take the wild out a species of animal. Dogs and cats are the most
common domestic animal. Deference between domestic animals from others is
they live with care of people in their farm. Cows, hens, chicken, horse, pigs,
turkeys, rabbits, parrots, sheep are domestic animals .We get some foods from
domestic animals in our own farm and in the industry of republic.
 WILD FRUITS

Wild fruit are the main part of the forest. They grow in various kinds of in
the forest or woodland. Some of them are eatable but others are toxic. Example:
many kinds of blackberries -many wild berries are not safe to eat, it’s best to stay
away from them. But wild blackberries are 100% safe to eat and easy to recognize.
They have red branches that have long thorns similar to a rose, the green leaves are
wide They are best to find in the spring Besides that nuts, hazelnuts, walnuts,
acorns- also known as oak nuts, kinds of pear, apple, and others are wild fruit
which eatable
DECORATIVE PLANTS
 There are many good indoor flowering plants available to choose. Some can
grow outdoors too, they are available in red, salmon, pink, orange and
multicolored. Most people love being surrounded by plants indoors, bringing the
nature indoors to enjoy. When you have good indoor flowering plants around you
in your home, it makes you feel good bringing their brightness to your garden,
along with their beauty. Many flowering plants can be grown indoors especially if
you’re an apartment dweller, or someone who doesn’t have space for an outdoor
garden. Available in various elegant designs, our comprehensive range of
decorative Hanging Plants are available at reasonable prices. These are known for
features like durability and reliability.
KINDS OF VEGETABLES

Vegetables are all the other parts of the plant, including the leaves , roots, stems
and even the flower buds. A vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by
humans as food as part of a meal. Originally, vegetables were collected from the
wild by hunter-gatherers and entered cultivation in several parts of the world.
Nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and
crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China
is the largest producer of vegetables . There are many kinds of vegetables in our
republic and in the world . Such as: Leafy green – lettuce, spinach and silver beet.
Cruciferous – cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts and broccoli. Marrow –
pumpkin, cucumber and zucchini. Root – potato, sweet potato and yam. Edible
plant stem – celery and asparagus. Allium – onion, garlic and shallot.
DESERT PLANTS
 These plants are adapted to the arid and hostile environment of a desert.
These plants have the capability to store water. They also have the ability to use
water efficiently. They usually have few or no leaves, which greatly reduces
transpiration. Plant species like cacti and succulents, have dense flesh which is
capable of storing large amounts of water. Several plants have developed the
typical spikes and spines to prevent them from being eaten by animals.

BIRDS OF FEATHER
 There are a lot of animals on our planet. They can be wild and domestic.
Wild animals are those animals who live in the forest without a man. Wolves,
foxes, giraffes are wild animals. Domestic animals are animals who live with a
man, who are not really scary. People always call them “pets”. Cats, dogs, sheep
are domestic animals. People divide animals into four groups – reptiles, birds,
insects and mammals. Reptiles are animals without wings who lay eggs. Some of
reptiles are very dangerous. Crocodiles and snakes are reptiles. Birds are animals
with feathers, two wings and two legs. Parrots and eagles are birds. Insects are
small creatures with six legs and usually two pair of wings. Butterflies and
ladybirds are insects. Mammals are animals who fee their babies on milk. Dogs,
kangaroos, dolphins are mammals. Cats are mammals too. Their short fur can be of
different colors – clear white, black, red, grey or other. Cats have no fins and
wings, just legs, a body, a head with whiskers and a long tail. They have 4 long
legs, so they run quite fast. Sometimes cats can be friendly and nice to people,
sometimes – selfish. It depends on cat’s temper. Cats are domestic animals, so they
live with people – in people’s houses and apartments. They eat fish, meat, milk,
sometimes – human’s food. Cats live for 10 - 15 years, but some of them can live
more.
ANIMALS NEED HELP. EARTT IS IN DANGER

People have lived on our planet for many years. They lived and live on different
continents, in different countries. People depend on their planet, on the sun, on
animals and plants around them. People must take care of Earth. Our ecology
becomes worse and worse with every new day. Many species of animals and birds
are disappearing nowadays. People destruct wildlife, cut down trees to make
furniture. They forget that people can’t live without trees and plants, because they
fill air with oxygen. And, of course, great problems are population and animals
destruction. The main reason of pollution is rubbish. Most of our rubbish goes to
big holes in the ground, called ‘dumps’. But dumps are very dangerous for our life
‘cause they are full of rats, which can carry infections away from dumps. Another
way to get rid of rubbish is to burn it. But the fires make poisons, which go into the
air and pollute it. But pollution isn’t the only actual problem. Every day a big
number of animals disappears .