Art & Culture for Mains 2024 by M.K. Yadav Sir

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 ARCHITECTURE 3-21
1.1 EVOLUTION OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
1.1.1 INDUS VALLEY ARCHITECTURE
1.1.2 ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE
1.2 ARCHITECTURE DURING MAURYAN PERIOD
1.3 ARCHITECTURE IN POST-MAURYAN PERIOD
1.4 ART & ARCHITECTURE IN GUPTA PERIOD
1.5 ART & ARCHITECTURE DURING IMPORTANT DYNASTIES
1.6 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
1.6.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF TEMPLE IN INDIA
1.7 INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
1.8 TYPES OF ARCHITECTURE
1.9 MODERN/ COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE
1.10 SIGNIFICANCE OF ANIMAL FIGURE IN INDIAN MYTHOLOGY, ART & ARCHITECTURE
1.11 SIGNIFICANCE OF ARCHITECTURE
1.12 MOST IMPORTANT TOPICS FOR MAINS 2024
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
2 POTTERY 22-24
2.1 EVOLUTION OF POTTERY
2.2 IMPORTANCE OF POTTERY
3 INDIAN PAINTINGS 25-35
3.1 MURAL PAINTINGS
3.2 MINIATURE PAINTINGS
3.2.1 EVOLUTION OF MINIATURE PAINTINGS BY VARIOUS SCHOOLS
3.3 MUGHAL PAINTINGS
3.4 PITHORA PAINTINGS
3.5 ROGAN PAINTINGS
3.6 RAJPUT PAINTINGS
3.6.1 DIFFERENT SCHOOLS INVOLVE IN RAJPUT PAINTING
3.7 PAHARI PAINTINGS
3.7.1 DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF PAHARI PAINTINGS
3.8 PATTACHITRA PAINTINGS
3.9 IMPORTANCE OF PAINTINGS
4 INDIAN DANCES 36-39
4.1 CLASSICAL DANCES
4.1.1 DIFFERENT FORMS OF CLASSICAL DANCES IN INDIA
4.2 FOLK DANCES
5 INDIAN MUSIC 40-44
5.1 CLASSICAL MUSIC
5.1.1 HINDUSTANI MUSIC
5.1.2 CARNATIC MUSIC
5.1.3 SUB CLASSICAL STYLES OF CLASSICAL MUSIC
5.2 FOLK MUSIC
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5.3 IMPORTANCE OF DANCE AND MUSIC

5.4 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS BY GOVERNMENT
5.5 PROMOTION OF INDIAN ARTS, CULTURE AND HERITAGE
5.6 MOST IMPORTANT TOPIC FOR MAINS 2024
6 HANDICRAFTS: SIGNIFICANCE AND CHALLENGES 45-46
6.1 EVOLUTION OF HANDICRAFTS IN INDIA
6.2 IMPORTANCE OF HANDICRAFTS INDUSTRY
6.3 REASON FOR THE DECLINE OF HANDICRAFT INDUSTRY
6.4 CHALLENGES IN MODERN TIMES
6.5 KEY GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
7 INDIAN LITERATURE 47-56
7.1 CATEGORIZATION OF INDIAN LITERATURE
7.1 BY RELIGION, BY HISTORICAL PERIODS, BY LINGUISTIC TRADITIONS, BY GENRES
7.2 LITERATURE OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA ON DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS
7.3 SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA AND ITS MODERN ADOPTION
7.4 FOREIGN LITERARY SOURCES
7.4.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF THESE ACCOUNTS
7.4.2 ISSUES WITH FOREIGN LITERARY SOURCES
7.5 LITERARY WORKS ABOUT COLONIAL RULE IN INDIA
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1 ARCHITECTURE
Indian architecture, stands as a testament to the subcontinent's rich cultural heritage and historical evolution.
From the intricately carved cave temples of ancient India to the grand palaces and forts of the medieval period,
and the fusion of various styles during the colonial era, Indian architecture offers a compelling journey through
time. We need to study architecture to know about the invaluable insights of India's diverse traditions,
innovative construction techniques, and the philosophical ideals that influenced its built environment.
1.1 EVOLUTION OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

The evolution of Indian architecture spans a rich and diverse history, influenced by various cultural, religious,
and historical developments. A brief overview of the evolution of Indian architecture:
1.1.1 INDUS VALLEY ARCHITECTURE

• The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, was one of the world's earliest
urban civilizations. It flourished around the Indus River basin.
• The Harappans' architecture is regarded as being avant-garde.
• Kot Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the Punjab, Banawali in Haryana, Lothal, Surkotada,
and Dholavira—all three of which are in Gujarat—are a few additional significant archaeological sites
from this time period.
Features of Indus Valley Civilization:

• Town Planning: Indus cities were well planned. The excavations
at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro have shown a lot of evidence of
this. The city had two parts, i.e., the citadel and the outer city
(lower part).
- Citadel: The citadel was built on an elevated area. An
upraised citadel in the western part was used for
constructing buildings of large dimensions, such as
granaries, administrative buildings, pillared halls and
courtyard.
✓ While certain major cities, such Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi,
Lothal, and Dholavira, had a citadel and lower town, this was not the case in the majority of
them.
- The outer city was at a lower level.
• Granaries: They were intelligently designed with strategic air ducts and raised platforms which helped
in storage of grains and protecting them from pests.
• Roads: The roads were wide and straight cutting each other at right angles.
• Drainage System: They also had a perfect drainage system.
- Drains: Each house had a well-constructed sink from which water flowed into the underground
drains.
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- To facilitate self-cleaning, the drains were built with drops at regular intervals.
- The small drains went into huge drains, while the private drains went into smaller drains. The huge
drains transported all of the city's waste water to ponds or open spaces outside.
- Some sewers had huge bricks or stones covering them. The crucial parts of the drainage system
included soakage jars, man-hole cesspools, etc.
• Houses: Houses were of different types, small and large.
• Burnt bricks: Burnt bricks were extensively' used.
• Wells and bathrooms: Houses were also provided with ‘wells and bathrooms.
• Gateways: The gateways were of two types, one simple entrance for vehicular activities while the other
had some special importance.
• Water management: The Harappan people’s-built CURRENT CONNECT
canals to increase productivity and protect their • The Indian government is developing National
crops from unfavourable weather. Maritime Heritage Complex at Lothal, Gujarat.
- At several locations, some evidence including
This envisages to showcase India’s rich and
dams, canals, and reservoirs was discovered (Ex
diverse Maritime Heritage. NMHC is one of the
– Lothal and Dholavira).
- Building a synthetic dock for berthing ships was major projects of Sagarmala Programme under
the Lothal engineers' greatest contribution to MoPSW and will be the world’s biggest
the advancement of science and technology. Maritime Museum complex'.
• Great Bath: The Great Bath is one of the most • Archeologists have found a new IVC site
remarkable structures discovered at the “Morodharo”, in Kachh district which closel
archaeological site of Mohenjo-Daro. resembles to Dholavira, a world heritage site.
- It is located east of the granary, a significant
building complex in the ancient city.
- The floor of the bath has five levels. It is still functional today. It was probably used for religious
celebrations and events.
HARAPPAN SCULPTURE
• Seals: Made of steatite, and occasionally of copper, faience and terracotta, with beautiful figures of
animals, such as unicorn, bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison, goat, buffalo, etc.
- Usgae: Mainly commercial, also used as amulets, carried on the persons of their owners.
- Square or rectangular copper tablets, with an animal or a human figure on one side and an
inscription on the other, or an inscription on both sides have also been found.
• Stone Statues: Statues whether in stone, bronze or terracotta found
in Harappan sites are not abundant, but refined.
- In stone, two male figures—one is a torso in red sandstone and
the other is a bust of a bearded man in soapstone—which are
extensively discussed.
- The bearded man, interpreted as a priest, is draped in a shawl
decorated with trefoil patterns.
• Bronze Art: In bronze we find human as well as animal figures, the
best example of the former being the statue of a girl popularly titled
Dancing Girl. Amongst animal figures in bronze the buffalo with
its uplifted head, back and sweeping horns and the goat are of artistic merit.
• Terracotta: The most important among the Indus figures are those representing the mother
goddess. We also find a few figurines of bearded males with coiled hair. Toy carts with wheels, whistles,
rattles, birds and animals, gamesmen and discs were also rendered in terracotta.
• Beads and Ornaments: Produced from every conceivable material ranging from precious metals and
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gemstones to bone and baked clay.

• Pottery: Broadly classified into two types – plain pottery and painted pottery. The painted pottery is
also known as Red and Black pottery. Trees, birds, animal figures and geometrical patterns were the
recurring themes of the paintings.
1.1.2 ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE

Indian art and architecture have a long and rich history, spanning around five thousand years. Recent
archaeological findings suggest that the roots of art, architecture, and water management in India can be traced
back to the Harappan and Indus Valley Civilization (at Dholavira). The Mauryan Empire further advanced these
traditions in the third century BCE.
Evolution of Rock Cut Architecture
1.2 ARCHITECTURE DURING MAURYAN PERIOD

Mauryan art can be classified into court and popular architecture as shown
in the figure.
1. PALACES: The palace of Mauryan empire was inspired by the
Achaemenid palaces at Persepolis in Iran.
• Ashoka’s palace at Kumrahar (Patliputra) was a massive structure
and has been described as the most beautiful city by many because
of the numerous palaces, towers, and pavilions.
• According to Megasthenes, the city was encircled by a massive
timber-palisade, pierced by loopholes through which archers could
shoot.
2. PILLARS: Stone pillars were erected by Ashoka, which have been
found in the north Indian part of the Mauryan Empire with inscriptions
engraved on them.
• The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital figures like the bull, the lion,
the elephant, etc. Some of the existing pillars with capital figures were found at
Basarah Bakhira, LauriyaNandangarh and Rampurva in Bihar, Sankisa and Sarnath in
Uttar Pradesh.
• The Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath popularly known as the Lion Capital is
the finest example of Mauryan sculptural tradition.
• The Mauryan pillars are different from the Achamenian pillars.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ASHOKAN PILLARS AND ACHAEMENIAN PILLARS
Basis Ashokan Pillars Achaemenian pillars
Composition The shaft of the Ashokan pillars were monolithic, The shaft Achaemenian of pillars were
i.e. they were inscribed from a single piece of stone made up of various pieces of sandstone
(mainly chunar sandstones). cemented together.
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Location The Ashokan pillars independently erected. The Achaemenian pillars were generally
attached to state buildings.
3. STUPAS (BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE): Three types of structures are associated with the religious
architecture of early Buddhism: monasteries (viharas), places to venerate relics (stupas), and shrines or
prayer halls (chaityas, also called chaitya grihas), which later came to be called temples in some places.
Pottery and sculptures are two other popular art (individual initatives) prevalent in Buddhism.
Stupa are burial mounds prevalent in India from the Vedic

period. It is a conventional representation of a funeral
cumulus in which relics and ashes of the dead were kept.
During the period of Ashoka, the art of stupas reached its
climax.
• The stupa structure of pre-common era was
composed of a hemispherical dome called anda.
• The dome was erected on a low platform of stone.
• It was surmounted by a kiosk with railing called
Harmika.
• The medhi and the toran were decorated by wooden sculptures.
• It was further crowned by three discs (Chatras) of reducing sizes, the smallest being on the top.
- The Chatras were mounted on a supporting mast called Yasti. A circumambulatory path called
Pradaksinapatha encircles the Stupa.
- It was meant to undertake sacred circumambulation on the ground level. The entire complex was
then fenced by a railing called Vedika.
Famous Stupas Examples: Stupa architecture of Andhra Pradesh, Stupas of
Amrawati and Nagarjunikonda, both on river Krishna, have box like
projections on all the four cardinal directions of the Stupa.
• Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh): The stupa's foundation was most
likely set by Ashoka. It features an upper and lower
Pradakshinapatha. It showcases four beautifully decorated
“Toranas” depicting events from Buddha's life and the Jataka tales.
The stupa's figure compositions display high relief with naturalistic
postures and prominent projection of heads
• Amravati Stupa (Andhra Pradesh): Its surfaces were carved in the Bharhut style, but some
characteristics of the Mathura and Gandhara sculptures were also adopted. It has carved panels
narrating the story of the life of Buddha. Limestone with a white marble finish was utilised in the
building.
4. CAVE ARCHITECTURE: This period saw the emergence of rock-cut cave

architectures. During the Mauryan period, these caves were generally used
as viharas, i.e. living quarters, by the Jain and Buddhist monks. The caves
during Mauryan period were marked by a highly polished finish of the
interior walls and decorative gateways. Example - The rock-cut caves of
Barabar and Nagarjuni caves, along with the Swarna Bhandar cave in
Rajgir, Bihar, are among the oldest in India and date back to the Mauryan
period.
• The Barabar and Nagarjuni caves were dedicated to the Ajivika sect founded by Gopala, a contemporary
of Buddha and Mahavira.
6

• Lomas Rishi cave, an early example, replicates unknown wooden architecture using grooved rafters and
curved frames and finials, screens and low-relief sculptural decorations.
• An Age also witnessed the Buddhist rock-cut architecture.
5. POTTERY: Pottery of the Mauryan period is generally referred to as Northern Black Polished Ware
(NBPW). They were characterised by the black paint and highly lustrous finish and were generally used
as luxury items. They have often been referred to as the highest level of pottery.
6. SCULPTURES: Sculptures were used primarily for the decoration of stupas, in

the torana and medhi and as the form of religious expression.
• Two of the famous sculptures of the Mauryan period are those of Yaksha
and Yakshi. They were objects of worship related to all three religions –
Jainism, Hinduism and Buddhism.
• One of the distinguishing elements in all these images is their polished
surface. The depiction of faces is in full round with pronounced cheeks
and physiognomic detail. One of the finest examples is a Yakshi figure
from Didarganj, Patna, which is tall and well-built.
1.3 ARCHITECTURE IN POST-MAURYAN PERIOD

• From the 2nd Century BC onwards, various rulers established their control over the vast Mauryan
Empire:
- Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north and parts of central India.
- Satvahanas, Ikshavakus, and Vakataks in southern and western India.
• Incidentally, the period of the 2nd Century BC is also marked the rise of the main Brahmanical sects
such as the Shaivites, Vaishnavites and Shaktites.
• The art of this period started reflecting the changing socio-political scenario as well. The architecture in
the form of rock-cut caves and stupas continued, with each dynasty introducing some unique features
of their own.
• Post-Mauryan art has the following broad characteristics:
- Structural art: Meaning that it was originally part of architectural structures like the gateways,
railings and facades of stupas, chaityas, viharas and temples.
- Narrative feature: Describing scenes from myths and legends to do with divine and semi-divine
beings, and depicting signs and symbols.
- Regarded as popular art: Representing the folk spirit of commoners, unlike Mauryan art which was
royal and stately.
- Other features: Overwhelmingly religious in nature and predominantly Buddhist, stupas were
larger and depicted the influence of Greeks, architecture style was influenced by each dynasty in
their region, stone was increasingly used in place of brick and wood.
1. CAVE ARCHITECTURE: The construction of rock caves continued as in the Mauryan period. However, this
period saw the development of two types of rock caves – Chaitya and Vihar. Exmaples: Karle Chaitya Hall
(Ajanta Caves), Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves (Odisha) etc.
CHAITYAS (GRIHAS) AND VIHARAS

The Chaitya-Grihas and the Viharas are two major types of the Buddhist rock cut architecture. Though the process
required much skill and patience, the technique involved in creating rock-cut architecture was simple.
7

• The Chaityas: They are mainly quadrangular chambers with flat roofs
and used as prayer halls. They belong to the period from 2nd century
BCE to around 50 BCE do not depict Buddha in human form, rather
he was represented by symbols alone.
- These symbols were associated with the life of Buddha himself,
like stupa, Vajrasana (his seat of meditation), Pipal Tree or Bodhi
Vriksha, feet, turban, etc.
• Viharas: Vihara, etymologically meaning ‘dwelling place’ and they
were residential halls for the Buddhist and Jain monks and were
developed during the time of the Mauryan Empire.
- The rock-cut vihara comprises of a central hall for worship and a few cells around it for the monks to live in.
The square or rectangular hall is entered through a rock-cut doorway and a pillared verandah.
• Hinayanist viharas are majorly found in the Western Ghats, at sites like Ajanta and Ellora.
• Hinayana viharas also include those at Bedsa, Kondane and Pitalkhora, and cave no. 3, 8 and 15 at Nasik. The
highly decorated facades, i.e., frontals as well as sculptural panels and friezes are the noteworthy elements of
these viharas.
ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE AS SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE OF ART AND HISTORY
• Insights on day-to-day life: Provide insights into the tools and lifestyle of prehistoric people, showcasing
evolution from the Paleolithic to the Chalcolithic era. For example, Barabar Caves and Lomas Rishi Caves.
• Religious knowledge: Ajanta Caves: Known for their intricate Buddhist sculptures and murals.
- Barabar Caves: Earliest rock-cut caves in India, linked to the Ajivika sec.
• Insights on economy: Bhaja and Karle Caves: Located on prominent trade routes in the Western Ghats,
connecting seaports to inland areas.
- Kanheri and Ajanta Caves: Indicate the relationship between religion and commerce through inscriptions
and artifacts.
• Social condition: Early humans used natural caves for various purposes, including as shrines and shelters.
• Sustainable practices: Kanheri Caves: Exhibit practices of water harvesting, showing an early understanding of
resource management.
Khandgiri-Udayagiri Caves: It is one of the most prominent siddhakshetras of Digambara Jain community. It is
believed that Lord Kharavela has developed these caves around 2000 years prior for the resting of Jain priests.
There are 18 caves in Udayagiri and 14 caves in Khandgiri.
• The most important and prominent architectures are the Hathi Gumpha cave with the inscriptions of
Kalinga king Kharavela of the Chedi tradition, the Rani Gumpha, Svargapuri and Manchapuri caves,
Ganesa-Gumpha.
• The caves in Udayagiri especially the Rani and Ganesa Gumpha describe the Jaina legends, mythology
and iconography.
• The representation of Kalinga real figures can be witnessed in the Rani Gumpha and Manchapuri caves.
2. STUPAS: They became larger and more decorative, stone was increasingly used in place of wood and brick.
• The Shunga dynasty introduced the idea of torans as beautifully decorated gateways to the stupas.
The torans were intricately carved with figures and patterns and were evidence of Hellenistic
influence. Example – Bharhut stupa, Chaukhandi stupa, etc.
3. SCULPTURES: Stupas became larger and more decorative in the post-Mauryan period. Stone was
increasingly used in place of wood and brick.
• The Shunga dynasty introduced the idea of torans as beautifully decorated gateways to the stupas.
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• The torans were intricately carved with figures and patterns and were evidence of Hellenistic influence.
• Examples: Bharhut Stupa in Madhya Pradesh, the toran at Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh, etc.
- Three prominent schools of sculpture developed in this period at three different regions of India –
centred at Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati.
1.4 ART & ARCHITECTURE IN GUPTA PERIOD

The Gupta Empire is considered a golden age of Indian history. During this period, the Gupta Empire ruled most
of northern India, and its art and culture flourished.
1. CAVE ARCHITECTURE: During the Gupta period, architectural development of the caves remained constant.
However, the use of mural paintings on the walls of the caves became an added feature. Some of the finest
examples of mural paintings can be found in the caves of Ajanta and Ellora.
• Ajanta Caves (UNESCO World Heritage Site): Located in the Sahyadri ranges near Aurangabad in
Maharashtra.
- The figures in these caves were made using fresco painting technique and demonstrate
considerable naturalism.
- The colours were obtained from local vegetation and minerals. The paintings are generally themed
around Buddhism – the life of Buddha and Jataka stories.
• Ellora Caves (UNESCO World Heritage Site): Located in Aurangabad in Maharashtra, nearly 100 kms
from Ajanta caves.
- These caves are a group of caves in which all three religion is reflected – Buddhism, Brahminism and
Jainism.
- They reflect a natural diversity in terms of theme and architectural styles.
2. TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE: The doctrine of bhakti and the growing importance of image worship led to the
construction of the free standing temple with its sanctuary (garbha griha), in which the central cult image
was placed.
• The Gupta period marks the beginning of Indian temple architecture.
• The temples are simple and impretentious structures, but their bearing upon later.
9

• Features: Flat rooted, square temple with a covered ambulatory around the sanctum and proceeded by
a pillared porch, sometimes with a second story above.
- Square temple with a low and squat sikhara (tower) above, Rectangular temple with an apsidal back
and a barrel – vaulted roof above, Circular temple with shallow rectangular projections at the four
cardinal faces.
3. SCULPTURE IN GUPTA PERIOD: A new school of sculpture developed around Sarnath.

• It was characterised by the use of cream coloured sandstone and the use of metal.
• The sculptures of this school were immaculately dressed and lacked any form of nakedness.
• Characterized by naturalism, grace, and elegance. Mastery in depicting human anatomy with lifelike
proportions and expressions.
• Creation of significant sculptures of Hindu and Buddhist deities, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Buddha, and
Bodhisattvas.
• Famous sculptures found in the caves of Ajanta, Ellora, and Elephanta. Udayagiri caves in Madhya
Prades.
• Example - Sultanganj Buddha (7.5 ft high) in Bihar. It is a copper sculpture.
OTHER KEY CONTRIBUTIONS OF GUPTA PERIOD

• Paintings: The art of painting reached its height of glory and splendour in this age. For example, the Ajanta
caves, the Bagh caves.
• Gupta Literature: Sanskrit language and literature after centuries of evolution, through lavish royal patronage
reached to the level of classical excellence. Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas.
- The Puranas were finally compiled and given their present form during gupta period.
- The period also saw the compilation of various Smritis or the law-books written in verse. The Smritis of
Yajnavalkya, Narada, Katyayana and Brihaspati were written during this period.
- The two great epics namely the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were almost completed by the 4th century
A.D.
- Production of secular literature: Such as Abhijnanashakuntalam (considered to be one of the best hundred
literary works in the world) Ritusamhara, Malavikagnimitra, Kumarasambhava, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha
and Vikrama Urvashiyam.
- Buddhist and Jaina literature in Sanskrit were also written during the Gupta period.
1.5 ART & ARCHITECTURE DURING IMPORTANT DYNASTIES

The rock-cut shrines at Badami, Ellora, Elephanta, Mamallapuram, Aurangabad, and Aihole are important in
the evolution of Indian rock-cut architecture. They thrived during the rule of the Chalukyas, Pallavas, and
Rashtrakutas.
1. Chalukyan Rock Cut Architecture: Chalukyan architecture includes rock-cut shrines and structural Hindu
temples.
• The rock-cut caves in Badami and Aihole influenced the later structural temples in Bijapur, Karnataka.
• Chalukyan temples have common features like a front porch, main hall, and a deep-cut sanctum cell,
with Badami having four cave shrines, three of them dedicated to Brahmanical deities.
• Cave number 3 is dedicated to Vishnu and was the largest and earliest shrine carved during the rule of
Chalukya king Mangalesa (CE 578).
2. Rashtrakuta contribution: Cave number 15 of Ellora belongs to the period of Rashtrakuta Dantidurga.
• Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu are mostly represented in this cave in many forms. This two-story building
features a sizable courtyard where a monolithic Nandi mandapa is located.
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• Great Kailasa temple of Cave 16 at Ellora was carved under the direction of Krishna I (CE 757-83), the
successor of Dantidurga.
- The Kailasa temple is a magnificent example of rock-cut architecture.
- It is a huge temple complex with walled compound.
- It consists of the entrance gateway (mukha- mandapa), the oblong (gopuram) with barrel-vault
(sikhara), Nandi Madapa and Garbha- grha.
- The temple is west facing and rests on a raised rectangular platform in east-west direction.
3. Chola’s Contribution in Art and Culture: A powerful South Indian dynasty from the 9th to 13th centuries,
excelled in art, architecture, and maritime trade. Led by influential rulers like Rajaraja Chola, it left a lasting
impact with grand temples, a robust navy, and a prosperous society, contributing significantly to India's
cultural and economic history.
• Temple Architecture:
- Chola temples can be categorised in two groups – Early Temples and Later Temples; early temples
are influenced with Pallava architecture while later have Chalukya influence.
- Temples were surrounded by high boundary wall unlike Nagara.
- The spire in in the form of stepped pyramid, popularly known as Vimana. Pallava influence may be
seen in spire/vimana similar to Rathas, an octagon shaped crowning element known as Shikhara.
- Panchayatan style, but no vimana on subsidiary shrines.
- Absence of lion motifs in pillar’s base as seen in the Pallava architecture, but presence of Kudus
decoration, however, it is little bit different with that of Pallavas.
- The temple mostly consists grabhgriha, antarala, sabhamandapa. Presence of water tank inside
the boundary of the temple.
- The raw material used are blocks of gneiss and granite.
- The important example of early group is Vijayalaya temple while later group represents
Brihadishwar temple ofTanjaur and Brihadishwar temple of Gangaikondcholpuram.
• Sculpture: Chola bronzes strike a special chord with the Western eye where Indian culture is concerned.
- Shiva Nataraja – Lord of Dance, is particularly evocative of this perception, appearing as divine yet
elegant, exotic, fantastical, fluid, sensual, and spiritual – in essence an abstract rather than realistic
artistic form.
• Litrature: In terms of language, the Cholas were known for their patronage of the Tamil language, which
they helped to standardize and promote.
- They also encouraged the use of Tamil in literature and inscriptions.
- In terms of literature, the Cholas are known for their patronage of the Tamil epic, Silappatikaram,
which is one of the five great epics of Tamil literature.
- The epic describes the life of the merchants of the ancient Tamil country, and it is considered a
masterpiece of Tamil literature.
- In addition, the Cholas also patronized the development of other literary genres such as the
"Pathinenkilkanakku" (Eighteen Minor works), a collection of short stories and poems that are
considered to be the earliest specimens of Tamil prose literature.
4. Pallava rock cut architecture:
Pallavas of Kanchi was a powerful royal house during the second half of sixth century. It reigned over the Telugu
and northern part of Tamil region till the end of ninth century.
• The Pallavas pioneered the Dravidian temple style using hard rock hills for their intricate rock-cut and
structural temples.
• These temples, called mandapas, feature beautiful carved sculptures and are divided into mukha
mandapa and mahamandapa.
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• Its architecture includes the Trimurti Mandapa, honoring Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu, and Lord Shiva; the
Mahishamardini Mandapa, honoring Goddess Durga and the Govardhanadhari panel, depicting Lord
Krishna supporting the Govardhana hill.
• The famous Pandava Rathas and the Draupadi Rathas were chiselled out during the time of
Narasimhavarman I Mamalla.
PALLAVA’S TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
The Pallavas were the pioneer of the Dravida style of architecture. During the rule of Pallavas the cave architecture
saw a new turn, monolithic temples and statues were built during their time.The architecture of the Pallavas can be
divided into four categories such as:
Mahendravarman style of Architecture(610-640A.D): The Pallava architecture began from the time of
Mahendravarman I He started building temples without making the use of bricks, iron, lime, wood, etc began to
take place.
• Fine examples of rock cut temples can be seen at Mahabalipuram. These rock cut temples were termed as
‘Mandapas’.
• These Mandapas were the pillared Varamdas which consisted of Garbhagirha at the end. Ex: Trimurti Mandapa
of Mandaggapattu, Panchapandava Mandapa of Pallvaram, Mahendravishnu Mandapa of Mahendravadi.
Mamalla style of Architecture(640-674A.D): In Mamalla style of architecture, two styles of temples can be seen
they are- a) Mandapas and b) Rathas.
• The Mandapas of Mamalla style are more ornamental as compared to Mahendravarman style of Mandapas. The
main features of these Mandapas are their pillars which are built on the heads of lions.
• Famous Mandapas of Mamalla style are- Varaha Mandapa, Mahisasur Mandapa and Pancha Pandava Manda.
• The second component of Mamalla style of architecture was the free-standing monolithic shrines called
‘Rathas’ (chariots) which were constructed alongside pillared halls.
- They were generally built of granite stones also known asas ‘Seven Pagodas’ or ‘Seven Rathas’.
Rajasimha style of Architecture: This style of Architecture was begun by Narsimhavarman II Rajsimha.
• In this style of architecture the temples were now built by making the use of bricks, woods, stones,etc. a few
examples of the Rajasimha style of architecture are- Shore temple, Ishwariya temple, Mukunda temple, etc.
Nandivarman style of Architecture/ Aparajitvarman style (800-900A.D): After the decline of the Rajasimha style of
architecture the Pallava architecture began to decline.
• The temples of this style were comparatively smaller in size less ornamented and also lacked innovation.
• Ex:- Mukteshawara temple and Matangeshwara temple of Kanchi.
1.6 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Evolution of Temples
• Architecture of temples have developed out of the types of houses such as huts (Neolithic period) and
different ground plan such as round, square, rectangular, the apsidal and oval.
• This occurred in the reign of Sunga-Kusana, i.e., from 200 BCE through CE 200.
• Influence of foreigners belonging to the ruling and business classes can be seen in the architectural
remains with decorative elements excavated from Mathura.
Paramete Nagara Dravidian Vesara
rs/ type
About • North Indian temples with • A stepped vimana with six or • A hybrid form.
curvilinear shikhara. eight sides and a round stupi • Ex: Cennakesava temple
• Built by Guptas, Chandelas, (well fashioned boulder) at the built by the Hoyasala king
Odishan temples, temples of top. Visnuvardhana in CE 1117.
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Rajasthan and Gujarat and • Emerged from Southern India,

temples of Rajput period. reaching its final form by
the sixteenth century.
Features • Tallest Tower: The tallest • A compound wall encloses the • These temples stand in an
tower is always exactly Dravida temple. enclosure with a usual
beneath the garbhagriha. • Gopuram: A Gopuram, or garbha-grha fronted by an
• The installation of Amalaka entrance doorway, is located in antrala and a pillared
or Kalash on Shikhara is a the middle of the front wall. mandapa known as
navaranga/gudha-
distinguishing element. • Vimana: The vimana, or main
mandapa.
• Examples: Kandariya temple tower, is shaped like a • Some temples also have
Mahadev Temple in Madhya stepped pyramid. mukha-mandapa or sabha-
Pradesh, Sun Temple in • Stupika: In south india mandapa.
Konark. "shikhara" is only used to refer
• A main Rekha-Prasad to the crowning part at the top • The navaranga are specially
Shikara and one or more of South Indian temples, which known for its “lantern
rows of smaller steeples are is typically formed like a tiny ceilings”
located on either side of the stupika or an octagonal cupola. • Examples: Brahmadeva
main spire. Mini Shikaras are • Entrance: Dvarapalas, or the temple, Savadi, remarkable
also present at the base and doorkeepers, guarding the for being entirely stellate;
Mallikarjuna temple, Sudi
corners. temple.
(and Joda-kalasha temple);
• Examples: Shiva temple of Ramalingesvara temple,
Thanjavu, Annamalaiyar Temple Gudur.
in Tiruvannamalai, etc.
SIGNIFICANCE OF TEMPLE IN INDIA
• Religious:
- Worship and Rituals:Temples served as places of worship, fostering spiritual growth and connecting
individuals with the divine.
- Spiritual Education:Temples were hubs of learning, providing spiritual education to seekers and scholars
alike.
- Bhajans and Kirtans: Devotional music, in the form of bhajans and kirtans, echoed through temple precincts.
• Social:
- Community Gathering: Temples acted as focal points for community gatherings, fostering a sense of unity
and shared identity.
- Cultural Preservation: Rich in art and architecture, temples became bastions of cultural preservation.
- Education and Welfare: Many temples ran educational institutions and hospitals.
- Social Hierarchy: Temples played a role in defining and maintaining social hierarchy, providing a sense of
order and structure to the society.
• Economic:
- Economic Centers: Temples were economic hubs, attracting pilgrims and traders. The influx of people led to
the growth of local markets and the development of surrounding areas.
- Patronage of Arts: Artisans and craftsmen found patronage in temples, creating exquisite sculptures,
paintings, and handicrafts.
- Trade and Commerce: Temples, often strategically located, became centers for trade and commerce. They
facilitated economic transactions, contributing to the prosperity of the regions.
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- Agricultural Prosperity: Many temples owned vast lands, engaging in agriculture. The revenue generated
supported both the temple activities and the overall economic well-being of the region.
• Political:
- Power and Influence: Temples wielded significant influence, and the control over political institutions often
correlated with political power. The rulers sought the support and legitimacy that came with association
with prominent temples.
- Administrative Function: Temples had well-organized administrative structures to manage their vast
resources.
- Social Order: Temples played a role in maintaining social order by upholding religious and moral values.
- Diplomacy and Regions: Temples often played a diplomatic role, acting as intermediaries between regions
and kingdoms. They facilitated cultural exchanges and contributed to regional integration.
1.7 INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

Indian architecture (1206-1761 C.E.) blended native and foreign influences under Muslim patronage.
Evolution of Indo-Islamic Architecture
Indo-Islamic architecture is categorized into three phases:
• Delhi or Imperial style: Classification dynasty wise
• Provincial Style:
Features: They developed buildings in this style of architecture, which persisted for 250 years, using
locally available materials and fusing regional designs with conventional Muslim characteristics like
domes, arches, minarets, and mihrabs.
- They initially constructed on the remains of Hindu and Jain temples before creating their own
architectural style.
• Mughal Style:
Features: The Mughal style was a thriving architectural movement in India from the middle of the 16th
century until the early 17th century.
- It is a distinctive fusion of Turkish, Persian, and Indo-Islamic design.
- The structures were excellent, strikingly symmetrical in form, homogeneous in pattern, and
ornately decorated.
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1.8 TYPES OF ARCHITECTURE

Forts: Building monumental forts with embattlements was a regular feature in medieval times, often
symbolising the seat of power of a king.
• Some examples of strong, complex edifices which still exercise the imagination of the visitor are the forts
of Chittor, Gwalior, Daulatabad, earlier known as Devgiri and Golconda. Commanding heights were
utilised to great advantage to construct forts.
• Daulatabad had several strategic devices to confound the enemy, such as staggered entrances so that
gates could not be opened even with the help of elephants.
- It also had twin forts, one within the other but at a higher elevation and accessed by a complex
defence design arrangement.
- The Gwalior Fort was invincible because its steep height made it impossible to scale. It had many
habitations and usages.
- An interesting aspect associated with forts is that within the palace complexes stylistic and
decorative influences were absorbed most liberally.
Minars: In the subcontinent, another form of tower known as the minar was
commonly seen. Two remarkable minars from medieval times are the Qutub
Minar in Delhi and the Chand Minar at Daulatabad Fort.
Features:
• The everyday use of the minar was for the azaan or call to prayer.
• It’s phenomenal height, however, symbolised the might and power
of the ruler.
• The Qutub Minar also came to be associated with the much-revered saint of Delhi, Khwaja Qutbuddin
Bakhtiyar Kaki.
- It is characterised by highly decorated balconies and bands of inscriptions intertwined with foliated
designs.
• Chand Minar, built in the fifteenth century, is a 210- feet-high tapering tower divided into four storeys.
- Painted peach now, its façade once boasted of chevron patterning on the encaustic tile work and
bold bands of Quranic verses.
Tombs: Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty were a popular feature of medieval India. Some
well-known examples of such tombs are those of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanna
in Delhi, Akbar and Itmaduddaula in Agra.
• According to Anthony Welch, the idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise as a reward for the true
believer on the Day of Judgement.
• This led to the paradisiacal imagery for tomb construction.
• Beginning with the introduction of Quranic verses on the walls, the tomb was, subsequently, placed
within paradisiacal elements such as a garden or near a body of water or both, as is in the case of the
Humayun’s tomb and the Taj Mahal, which follows the charbagh style.
Sarai: A hugely interesting feature of medieval India was the sarais which ringed cities and dotted the vast space
of the Indian subcontinent.
• Sarais were largely built on a simple square or rectangular plan and were meant to provide temporary
accommodation to Indian and foreign travellers, pilgrims, merchants, traders, etc.
• In effect, sarais were public domains which thronged with people of varied cultural backgrounds.
• This led to cross-cultural interaction, influences and syncretic tendencies in the cultural mores of the
times and at the level of the people.
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1.9 MODERN/ COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE

The Europeans came to India as traders and over gained power and established as rulers. They brought in the
effects of industrial revolution as well as the European architectural styles.
• In the early 20th century some Indian architects also trained and adapted the European styles. Corbusier
and Louis Kahn who were commissioned for projects in India also influenced many architects in India
and started a trend in Modem Architecture.
Evolution of Modern Architecture

• Portuguese: Few places can rival the grandeur of the magnificent religious and secular works in Goa,
which served as the prosperous seat of the Portuguese in India from 1530 to 1835.
- The Portuguese introduced Gothic and Baroque architecture in India.
- With its three floors and baroque design, the Basilica do Bom Jesus in Old Goa is reminiscent of
late Renaissance architecture.
- The large Golden Bell is housed at the Cathedral de Santa Catarina, which combines Tuscan and
Corinthian architectural elements.
- The Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, Convent of Santa Monica, Chapel of the Weeping Cross,
Sanctuary of Saint Joseph Vaz, and other religious buildings constructed during their rule also
heavily use Portuguese architectural elements.
- The Bandel Church, located on the banks of the River Hooghly in West Bengal, is another well-
known Portuguese structure in India.
• French: Numerous locations in India display Parisian architectural designs.
- French architecture utilised regionally-sourced materials and took local climatic factors into
account.
- The French style included French shutter windows, carvings on archways, and thin street fronts.
• British: The British officer wanted to implement the Palladian style in the 18th century. Constantia, a
well-known example of a structure in this style, was built by General Martin in Lucknow.
- A trend to incorporate the greatest features of Indian and Western architecture emerged in the
19th century.
- Example: It can be seen in the Moor Market in Chennai and the Museum in Jaipur.
- The Gateway of India in Mumbai was designed by G Wittet, who used a number of Mughal
features.
1.10 SIGNIFICANCE OF ANIMAL FIGURE IN INDIAN MYTHOLOGY, ART & ARCHITECTURE

Animal Significance
Lion • Symbol of Power: The lion is often associated with power and royalty
• In Hindu mythology, deities like Goddess Durga and Narasimha (an avatar of Lord Vishnu) are
depicted riding or having a lion as their mount, symbolizing their divine authority and strength.
• Vehicle of Goddess Durga: In particular, the lion is the vahana (vehicle) of Goddess Durga.
• Lion capital of ashok: Its crowning features are four life-sized lions set back to back on a drum-
shaped abacus
• Depict on numismatics forn example Western Chalukyas.
• Used in painting throughout history.
• Lion used as symbol in buddhism as a bodhisattava.
Bull • Nandi and Shiva are often depicted together as they are considered inseparable in Hindu
mythology. Nandi is the divine vehicle and gatekeeper of Lord Shiva.
• It symbolizes strength, virility, and the loyal nature of a devotee. The bull is also associated with
fertility.
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• Cultural Symbol: In some Indian cultures, the bull is revered as a symbol of agricultural
prosperity, as it has been traditionally used in farming.
• Baked clay Bull, Mohenjodaro.
• Rampurva Bull: The Ashokan Pillar’s sandstone capital from the third century B.C.
• The Nandipada (“foot of Nandi”) is an ancient Indian symbol, also called a taurine symbol,
representing a bull’s hoof or the mark left by the foot of a bull in the ground.
• Ajanta Painting: Bull is not depicted as the part of the composition but as decoration or design.
• Cattle depictions were a common feature on the borders of Mughal miniature paintings.
• Krishna’s association with cattle in paintings is rooted in the mythology and traditions of the
region of Vrindavan.
Elephant • Seals from the Indus Valley Civilization often feature various animals, including elephants. For
example, Pashupati seal.
• Ex: Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram (7th century), which features a large scene with
many figures, including elephants, carved into the rock to depict the divine descent of the Ganges
River.
• Elephants are a common motif in Indian painting, especially in Mughal miniatures.
• In Hindu mythology, Indra, the King of the Devas (gods), rides a majestic flying white elephant
named Airavata, who is also the King of all elephants, a title bestowed by Lord Indra himself.
• Maha Maya, mother of Gautama Buddha dreamed that a white elephant with six tusks entered
her right side, which was interpreted to mean that she had conceived a child who would become
either a world ruler or a buddha.
Tiger • In Hinduism, the tiger symbolises strength, royalty, fearlessness, and regal power.
• The tiger was closely associated with a few gods and goddesses such as goddess Kali.
• Tiger was displayed on the Pashupati seal, where the Tiger, being the largest, represents the Yogi
Shiva’s people.
• The Tiger was the Royal Emblem of the Cholas and was depicted on coins, seals and banners.
• The tiger, national animal of a country.
Horse • In Hindu mythology, the origin of the horse comes from the “Samundra Manthan” in Sanskrit.
This is one of the fundamental myths of Hinduism.
• The Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice is a notable ritual of the Yajurveda.
• Horses were valued for their speed, strength, and agility, and were used for chariot warfare, and
cavalry.
• Horse Riding was a symbol of power and prestige in the Vedic times.
• Ashoka pillars display various carvings and inscriptions that depict horses. For example, the
Sarnath pillar.
• The horses represent the four directions, the four seasons, and the four noble truths of
Buddhism.
• Ajanta caves and the paintings show the Buddha’s birth, where his mother Maya holds a branch
of a tree, while a white elephant and a white horse stand beside her.
• Mughal miniatures depict kings riding horses during Hunts.
CURRENT CONNECT
Use of animal figure in parliament building:
Animal Discription
Garud (eagle) • Garuda is the Vehicle of Vishnu in Hindu mythology – half man and half eagle.
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Maggar(Crocodile) • Maggar is also associated with many gods. It is the vehicle of river deities Ganga and
Varuna, and sometimes the emblem of Kamadeva.
• The crocodile is also the symbol of the ninth Jain Tirthankara, Suvidhinatha.
• The earliest representation of the crocodile is probably its image on the seals of
Mohenjodaro depicted with a fish in its mouth.
• Today, with crocodiles being worshipped in parts of Bengal and Goa as a protector
of children and crops respectively.
Hans (Swan) • The hamsa (swan) is the vahana, the mount or vehicle, of the god Brahma.
• In the Vedas and the Purânas it is a symbol for the soul/Soul.
Shardul • Shardul or Vyala, guarding the temples of Khajuraho, is a mythological
(mythological creature, depicted with the body of a lion and head of a horse, elephant or parrot.
creature) • These creatures are known to represent human and wordly desires on earth.
Peacock • A symbol of beauty, rebirth and wealth, as well as of sinful pride.
• Peacock is the national bird and it is the symbol of good fortune and royalty.
• A peacock symbolizes celestial love, knowledge, romance, and prosperity in
Madhubani paintings.
• In Kalamkari paintings, the Peacock as a motif is responsible for spreading the
message of peace, passion, and harmony.
• The peacock motif in the Pichwai painting essentially represents the importance of
the bird in Lord Krishna’s life.
• In Gond paintings, the peacock motif is an example of the harmony that nature
provides us.
1.11 SIGNIFICANCE OF ARCHITECTURE
Physical Importance Social Importance Political Importance

• Style of Building: Shaped • Societal Representation: • Power Dynamics: Power play
by local climate and Architecture reflects values and the through architecture is not limited to
environmental factors. rise and fall of civilizations. only legislative buildings.
• Materials: Determined by • Social Insight: Buildings provide • Economic Prosperity: Monuments
availability and societal insight into the lives of past like the Taj Mahal symbolize the
values. inhabitants. economic wellbeing of a state.
• Mood: Design impacts • Cultural Significance: Architecture • Tourism Revenue: Preserved
occupant health, mood, is a part of our culture and shapes architecture attracts tourism,
and productivity. our environment. generating economic income.
• Architectural Evolution: • Disciplinary Nature: Architecture is • Local Employment: Building
Various eras and styles, a distinct discipline. ornamentation provides
from rock-cut to Indo- • Conservation: Architecture employment and fosters artistic
Islamic to colonial preserves cultural and historic talent.
architecture. values.
CONCLUSION
Indian art has existed from the beginning of civilization. Several structures are now well-known tourist
attractions. India has a long history of producing distinctive patterns and artwork. There have been various
historical artefacts found on the Indian subcontinent. The setting is therefore thought to be perfect for
preserving historical artefacts.
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PRE - INDEPENDENCE ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA
• Indus Valley: Characterized by granaries, advanced drainage systems, and minimalistic decor in mud-brick and
stone structures, offering relief from the intense summer heat.
• Mauryan Empire: Known for impressive rock-cut architecture, primarily Buddhist stupas and monasteries,
featuring multi-storied buildings, walled cities, and geometric patterns.
• Gupta Architecture: Introduces Hindu temple architecture with Ajanta Caves showcasing detailed paintings,
columned porches, chaitya halls, and divine idols.
• Islamic and Mughal Styles: Fusion of native Indic, Persian, Central Asian, Arabic, and Ottoman Turkish styles.
- Features include scalloped arches, domes, minarets, and ornate marble structures.
• Regional Styles: Diverse influences like Rajput and Solanki styles, featuring ornate havelis, chhatris, and step-
wells, each contributing unique architectural elements and cultural amalgamations.
• Colonial Styles: Reflects British Gothic style in buildings like Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus and Gateway of India.
- Also includes Art Deco elements in structures such as Eros Cinema in Mumbai.
POST - INDEPENDENCE ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA

• Revivalist and Modernist Schools: Post-1947, India witnessed the emergence of two architectural schools:
Revivalist and Modernist, both influenced by colonial legacies.
- Le Corbusier's urban planning in Chandigarh addressed traffic challenges and emphasized local materials
for sustainable housing solutions in Kerala.
• Charles Correa's Contributions: He designs like Sabarmati Ashram and Kanchanjunga Tower integrated
environmental and climatic considerations in Navi Mumbai.
• Impact: Indian architects post-independence fused modernism with traditional elements, reflecting socio-
cultural diversity and addressing rapid urbanization.
PRESERVATION TECHNIQUE OF ARCHITECTURE IN ANCIENT VS MODERN TIME

Aspects Ancient Architecture Preservation Modern Architecture Preservation
Materials Used • Stone, brick, lime mortar; focused on • Concrete, steel, glass; emphasis on
durability and local availability. strength and sustainability.
Techniques • Load-bearing structures, arches, vaults, • Reinforced concrete,
domes; minimal use of mortar. prefabrication, modular
construction.
Conservation • Restoration of weathered stone, • Structural integrity, environmental
conservation of murals and frescoes. impact, adaptive reuse.
Methods of • Manual craftsmanship, lime plaster, • Digital documentation, 3D
Preservation traditional building techniques. scanning, chemical treatments.
SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE TRADITIONS OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVIAL TIME

• Ancient Stepwells: These were deep structures with stairs leading to fresh groundwater, serving as community
retreats and minimizing water use in hot seasons.Example: Adalaj Stepwell, and Chand Baori, Jaipur.
• Medieval Step-wells (Baolis) in India: Baolis were underground step-wells designed for water conservation and
community use across ancient and medieval India. Examples: Dholavira and Lothal.
• Angkor Wat Temple Complex: Angkor Wat in Cambodia utilized moats and water bodies to maintain cool
temperatures, with structures built atop sandy bases for easy access to groundwater.
• Ancient Cooling Techniques: Badgirs, or wind catchers, were traditional Persian structures used to cool
buildings in hot, dry climates through natural ventilation.
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• Jerusalem's Ancient Water Supply System: The Hasmonean Dynasty's aqueducts and water management
systems in Jerusalem preserved water for household use, waste disposal, and gardening.
• Natural Building Material: Cob, a mix of subsoil, water, and fibrous materials like straw, provided thermal mass
for well-insulated homes, exemplified by traditional structures in Lahaul and Spiti valleys.
- Examples: Tabo mud monastery in Spiti.
SCULPTURE PROVIDES INFORMATION ABOUT ANCIENT INDIA

Social:
• Status of women: Mother Goddess worship in Indus valley civilisation which has continued to this day with the
worship of Gramdevis, Shakti Devi, Bhudevi.
• Cultural aspect of society: Dancing Girl from Mohenjo-Daro reflects sophisticated metal working skills and
suggests the presence of entertainment and possibly ritualistic dance practice.
• Socio-economic conditions of Mauryan: Sanchi Stupa depict scenes of daily life, market activities, and
agricultural practices, providing a comprehensive picture of the socio-economic conditions during the Mauryan
and Shunga period.
Economy:
• Urban planning: The well-planned cities of the Indus Valley, such as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa’s grid-like street
layouts, drainage systems, and public baths.
• Developed craft industry: The detail and neatness of the steatite bust of the priest king bear testimony to the
high level of technical and craft skills in the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Trade network: Artifacts such as beads, pottery, and metal objects reveal a flourishing trade network. For
example, Materials like lapis lazuli, carnelian, and tin, which were not locally available, indicate long-distance
trade with regions such as Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and the Persian Gulf.
• The uniformity in weights and measures found in various Indus sites suggests a standardized economic system
that facilitated trade and commerce. For example, Indus valley civilisation.
• Agriculture: Sculptures and seals often depict animals like bulls, which were crucial to agriculture. This highlights
the importance of agriculture and domesticated animals in the Indus Valley economy.
SCULPTURE PROVIDES INFORMATION ABOUT MEDIEVAL INDIA

• Social hierarchy: Sculptures of kings and nobles display intricate jewellery, while commoners are shown with
simpler attire. For example, Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur.
• Economy: The carvings at Hampi, the capital of the Vijayanagar Empire, illustrate bustling markets, musicians,
dancers, and festivals, showcasing the economic vitality and cultural richness of the period.
• Political: Intricate carvings of rulers and warriors on the temple wall, depict significance of political power and
martial prowess. For example, Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu.
FOREIGN INFLUENCE ON INDIAN ART AND CULTURE

ON ART:
• Sculpture: Heavy influence of Greek or Hellenistic sculpture on Gandhara school, so it is also known as Indo-
Greek art.
- Sakas and Kushanas popularized the use of reins and saddles which find appearance in the Buddhist
sculptures of this period.
- The influence of Gandhara art spread to Mathura school as well. Mathura also has given us many beautiful
images of the Buddha.
• Architecture: Mauryan architecture was influenced by both Achaemenid and Greek styles.
- Colonial presence introduced Western art techniques, perspectives, and genres. This period saw the
emergence of academic art schools and the patronage of European styles among Indian artists.
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- Arrival of Islamic rulers from the 12th century onwards led to the development of Indo-Islamic art and
architecture, characterized by intricate designs, calligraphy, and use of geometric patterns.
• Coins: Kushanas were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a wider scale.
• New technique of war: New elements in cavalry and techniques of war were introduced in India by the Sakas
and the Kushanas. Horse riding gained popularity.
- The Central Asians also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by the warriors.
• Painting: The Mughal Empire, brought Persian artistic traditions to India. These were characterized by their
intricate detail, vibrant colours, and rich symbolism, were heavily influenced by Persian painting.
ON CULTURE:
• Language: The use of the Aramaic language on Ashoka’s Rock Edict found in Kandahar, Afghanistan.
- Aramaic was the official language of the Achaemenid Empire.
- This is the biggest and direct influence the Achaemenids had on the Maurya’s.
• Religion: Kushana spread Buddhism in India through patronized Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha
and Nagarjuna.
- Missionaries were sent to the foreign countries like China, Japan, Tibet and Central Asia for the propagation
of Buddhism.
• Polity: The Sakas had introduced the satrapa system in the administrative set-up. The entire empire, was divided
to satraps.
• Dressing habit: Mauryan and Kushan periods brought new textile patterns and draping styles.
- The Scythians and the Huns, introduced new clothing styles, such as the use of trousers, tunics, and robes.
- Persian and Central Asian influences led to the introduction of garments like the jama (a long coat), churidar
(tight-fitting trousers), and dupatta (a long scarf).
- The Mughal period saw the rise of the sherwani and achkan for men, and anarkali suits and ghararas for
women, which remain popular in Indian fashion.
- British brought Western styles in India such as suits, trousers, and shirts for men, and dresses and skirts for
women, began to influence Indian fashion.
• Food habit: The Greeks and Romans introduced ingredients like grapes, figs, and certain types of cheese to India.
- Mughal: Introduction of dishes like biryani, pilaf, kebabs, and various forms of bread such as naan and
paratha. The use of ingredients like saffron, dried fruits, and nuts became prominent in Mughlai cuisine.
- Portuguese introduced ingredients such as potatoes, tomatoes, chilies, and cashew nuts, which are now
staples in Indian cooking.
- British introduced tea, bakery products, including bread, cakes, and biscuits.

1. Discuss the significance of the lion and bull figures in Indian mythology, art and architecture (2022, 15 Marks)
2. The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most important sources of our knowledge of early Indian art
and history. Discuss.(2020, 10 Marks)
3. Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives, successfully expounds Buddhist ideals.
Elucidate.(2016, 12.5 Marks)
4. Mesolithic rock cut architecture of India not only reflects the cultural life of the times but also a fine aesthetic
sense comparable to modern painting. Critically evaluate this comment (2015, 12.5 Marks)
5. To what extent has the urban planning and culture of the Indus Valley Civilization provided inputs to the
present-day urbanization? Discuss. (2014, 10 Marks)
6. Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple architecture.Discuss. (2013, 5
Marks)
=======================================================================================
21

2 POTTERY
Pottery, one of the oldest and most widespread of the decorative arts, consisting of objects made of clay and
hardened with heat. The objects made are commonly useful ones, such as vessels for holding liquids or plates
or bowls from which food can be served. In the early villages of Mehrgarh, pottery from the Indus Valley
Civilization (3300 BCE– 1500 BCE) has been found.
• In India, this cultural art form is being actively practised even today.
• In the study of culture and the reconstruction of the past, pottery is important.
2.1 EVOLUTION OF POTTERY

Age/ Period Features
Neolithic Age • Pottery or ceramic ware emerged in the Neolithic period and became more advanced in the
post-Neolithic era, spreading across the globe.
• The shaping of pots can be achieved through handmade or wheel-made techniques, while
decorations and paintings, ranging from geometric to naturalistic designs, can be applied
before or after firing.
Chalcolithic • Malwa ware: A characteristic pottery type of Malwa Chalcolithic culture.
Period - It is a wheel made pottery with buff or cream slip and has painted patterns in dark brown
or black color.
• Ahar cultures: The Ahar culture, also known as the Banas culture is a Chalcolithic
archaeological culture on the banks of the Ahar River of southeastern Rajasthan state in India.
• Jorwe Culture: The Jorwe culture is the most important and characteristic chalcolithic culture
of Maharashtra, extending almost all over the present state, excepting the coastal strip on the
west and Vidarbha in the north east.
• Painted Grey Ware (PGW): It is a characteristic pottery of early Iron Age in India, the other
being NBP.
- This is produced from well-levigated clay and on a fast wheel.
- A thin slip is applied on both surfaces and the vessels baked at 600° C under reducing
conditions producing the smooth ashy surface.
• Northern Black Polished ware (NBP): This is made on a fast wheel from well-levigated clay,
well-baked with a blackish-grey and occasionally reddish core, and is thin and sturdy.
- Its distinctive feature is its glossy surface with mirror effect.
Indus Valley • The characteristic pottery is black and red ware with black painted designs.
Civilization • The most popular design is a series of intersecting circles.
• The other common types are plain ware and plain red ware, both glazed and unglazed.
Iron Age • Iron technology in South Asia including India is primarily associated with late prehistoric or
early historic cultural periods.
• Archaeologically, Painted Grey Ware culture of Northern India is considered as iron using group
in the sub-continent.
• In Northern India, Painted Grey Ware and Northern Black Polish were the earliest Iron Age
cultures; at some sites, a pre-Painted Grey Ware known as Black and Red ware is said to mark
the beginning of Iron Age.
Painted Grey • PGW is a very fine ware, fired under reducing condition, which gives it a grey color.
Ware (PGW) • PGW is usually associated with cultures of rural areas.
22

• Over 400 sites have been discovered in Ravi-Sutlej basin, Ghaggar basin and Ganga-Jamuna
Doab.
• PGW people were agriculturists with cattle breeding as their principal occupation.
- They domesticated the cow, buffalo, pig, goat, sheep and horse.
Northern • NBP is made on a fast wheel from well-levigated clay, and it is well baked.
Black Polish • The quality of NBP is quite remarkable. Its distinctive feature is the glossy surface with mirror
Ware (NBPW) effect.
• NBP is usually associated with cultures of cities.
• NBP saw emergence of cities and the first political entities known as Mahajanapadas in the
Ganga plains in the 6th century BCE.
- This was the location of the second major Hindu epic, Ramayana and the rise of Buddhism
and Jainism.
- This period witnessed the second urbanization.
• NBP occurrence is in the Ganges plains in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Mauryan • The ceramic wheel gained popularity. Ceramics from the Mauryan era come in a wide variety
Period of styles.
• The most sophisticated method, however, may be seen in a type of pottery called Northern
Black Polished Ware (NBP), which was well-liked in the earlier and early Mauryan times.
Kushana • The Kushan cultural epoch in Bengal and North India brought about a new era in pottery.
Period • This phase's pottery is characterised by a characteristic red polished ware with stamped design
as well as a sizable amount of dull or strong redware.
Gupta Period • Remains of Gupta pottery found in Ahichchhatra, Rajgarh, Hastinapur, and Bashar are
remarkable examples of their ceramic prowess.
• The most recognisable style of pottery from this era is redware.
Mughal and • Glazed pottery with Persian and Indian designs are found in Gujarat and Maharashtra and
Rajput Period date to the Sultanate era.
• Modern Jaipur's Blue Pottery is frequently regarded as a traditional Jaipur craft.
2.2 IMPORTANCE OF POTTERY

• Cultural Importance: Pottery reveals past cultures. Historically, Style changes with distinct cultures.
- It reflects social, economic and environmental conditions. Also, Helps understand history.
• Social Importance: Pottery provides insights into the use of fire, cooking, storage, and trade.
- It reflects the lifestyle and settlement patterns of ancient societies.
- It helps in understanding social stratification and societal organization.
• Functional Utility: Pottery has been used for practical purposes such as cooking, storing food and water,
and serving meals. It is durable, heat-resistant, and versatile, a valuable material for everyday use.
• Economic Importance: Providing employment and economic opportunities for artisans and
communities. Pottery has been traded and sold as commodities, contributing to local economies.
• Archaeological Value: Pottery fragments found at archaeological sites can provide valuable information
about past civilizations, including dating artifacts and understanding trade networks and cultural
exchanges.
• Environmental Sustainability: Pottery is made from natural Current connect
materials such as clay, which is abundant and environmentally The Manamadurai pottery from
friendly. Tamil Nadu recently earned a
Geographical Indication (GI) tag.
Recent Excavation:
• Keeladi in Tamil Nadu reveals ancient urban civilization. Excavations show pottery industry.
23

• ASI finds Kushan and Gupta pottery at Unnao fort excavation at the dilapidated fort of Raja Ram Baksh
Singh at Unnao in Uttar Pradesh.
Way Forward
• E-commerce: In addition, as the industry develops and receives more traction, leveraging e-commerce
for online visibility and operational efficiencies will show to be a crucial success factor.
• Enhance conditions of craftsmen: The government has already made enormous achievements by
enacting policies that would make handcraft items competitive globally and enhance the conditions of
our craftsmen, notwithstanding the precarious state of artisans needing attentive interventions for their
uplift.
CONCLUSION
In the study of culture and the reconstruction of the past, pottery is important. Pottery has changed over time
in response to various civilizations. It depicts the social, economic, and environmental circumstances in which
civilization arose and developed, assisting historians and archaeologists in understanding our past.

COMPARISON OF ANCIENT POTTERY TRADITION VS MODERN POTTERY
CRITERIA ANCIENT POTTERY MODERN POTTERY

Colour Red, black and grey colour. Multi colour
Material Clay, Ceramics Clay, Granite Stone, Clay Blunger, Granulator etc
Technology Used only wheel Use electric kilns and 3D printing
Style Strictly follow local style for example, Hybrid style, blend elements from different
Indus Valley Civilization, black and red tradition and culture.
ware with black painted designs
Artisanal Learn skill from families or communities. Formal way of learning, learn in college and
craftsmanship Informal way of learning university.
GOVERNMENT SCHEME FOR POTTERY
• Gramodyog Vikas Yojana (GVY)” SCHEME: To enhance the production, technical knowhow of pottery
artisans and to reduce cost of production.
• Pradhan Mantri Vishwakarma Scheme: A central government scheme meant to provide end-to-end support
to artisans and craftspeople. The scheme covers artisans and craftspeople engaged in 18 trades, including
potters (kumhars).
• Kumhar Shashaktikaran Yojana (KSY): It was launched in 2018 to make potters self-dependent.
• Government provide assistance: For ‘Pottery Activity’ Government will provide assistance of pottery wheel,
Clay Blunger, Granulator etc.
- Provide Wheel Pottery Training for traditional pottery artisans and Press Pottery training for pottery as
well as non-pottery artisans in Self Help Groups.
==================================================================================
24
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3 INDIAN PAINTINGS
Indian painting boasts a rich and extensive tradition within the realm of Indian art. The earliest known examples
are the prehistoric rock paintings, including petroglyphs discovered in locations like the Bhimbetka rock shelters.
Some of these Stone Age rock paintings in the Bhimbetka rock shelters date back roughly 10,000 years.
• However, due to the climatic conditions of the Indian subcontinent, only a few early examples have endured
to the present day.
• Indian paintings divided in two main types such as Mural paintings and Miniature Paintings.
3.1 MURAL PAINTINGS

• Mural paintings in India have a diverse history spanning centuries. The earliest examples can be found in
the Buddhist caves of the Satavahana period (224 BC to 200 BC), depicting scenes from the life of Buddha
and his jataka stories.
• Similar murals from the Kushana period can be found in Central Asian caves. However, it was in the 4th
century AD that mural paintings reached their zenith.
• Sites like Ajanta, Bagh, and Badami showcase remarkable murals from this period.
Features: A mural is any piece of graphic artwork that is painted or applied directly to a wall, ceiling or other
permanent substrate.
• Ancient traditional murals were done using natural colours on lime-plastered walls.
• The murals used only five basic colours, ochre red, ochre yellow, green, black and white — which were
made using natural materials such as laterite, coal, patina and leaves.
• Material used: The brushes were made using grass and the fine hair in calves’ ears.
- Over time, when synthetic paints came about, artists started doing murals in acrylic on canvas or
paper.
Evolution of Mural Paintings:

• Pallavas School: The Pallavas of Kanchi, an early South Indian dynasty, had Emperor Mahendravarman as
their illustrious ruler.
- He was an avid supporter of the arts and was known as Chitrakarapuli, or "the tiger among painters,"
for his generosity.
- The cave temple Sittanavasal near Tamil Nadu contains the Jaina paintings from his era.
- Later, during the early Pandya era, stunning figurative paintings were added to this cave.
- The ruins of paintings at the Kailashnath Temple, Kanchi Temple, and Panamalai Temple speak of the
existence of the glorious Pallava art style.
- These artworks show the enduring influence of Ajanta in technique, materials, and figure treatment.
• Chalukya School: In the Deccan region, the Western Chalukyas succeeded the Vakatakas. It was a dynasty
of great power. The well-known kings of this dynasty were Vikramaditya, Mangalesha, Pulakesi, and
Keertivarman.
- The Vaishnava cave, located in Cave 3, is the most magnificent and regal building.
- Paintings in this cave depict palace scenes, one shows Kirtivarman, the son of Pulakesi I and the elder
brother of Mangalesha, seated inside the palace with his wife and feudatories watching a dance scene.
- It is renowned for its towering sculptures of many manifestations of Vishnu, including Varaha,
Trivikrama, Narasimha, and Ananta Vishnu.
- A cave's inscription states that Mangalesha, the cave's patron and a Bhagata Dharma adherent, had
the entire cave decorated. But the magnificent picture is currently just partially visible.
25

- Mangalesha is unmistakably depicted as a patron of the painter's work in the incomplete paintings
from Badami. A scene from the palace is depicted on a huge panel.
• Rashtrakuta School: Rashtrakuta established their rule in Deccan after overthrowing the Badami
Chalukyas.
- The Kailasa cave at Ellora, crafted in the 8th century, is a remarkable rock-cut structure.
- Ellora's mandapas (pillared halls) showcase paintings on walls and ceilings, depicting Shiva Purana
themes, as well as floral, animal, and bird designs.
- One iconic panel in Ellora portrays a dancing, Shiva.
- The unique trait, which here became stylistic elements of Jain manuscript paintings in the 12th
century CE, is the odd placement of the eyes and the angular nose in three-quarter view. This is the
last illustration of a mural painted in the Ajanta style.
• Cholas School: The painting tradition in Tamil Nadu flourished under the Pallava, Pandya, and Chola
dynasties.
- The Pallava kings, who succeeded the Chalukyas, patronized the arts. Mahendravarma I, a Pallava
ruler in the seventh century, built temples at Panamalai, Mandagapattu, and Kanchipuram.
- The Chola kings, who reigned from the ninth to the thirteenth century, continued the tradition of
temple construction and adorned them with carvings and paintings.
- Though Chola paintings are seen in Nartamalai, the most important are those in Brihadeswara temple.
- The paintings were executed on the walls of the narrow passage surrounding the shrine.
- Two layers of paintings were found when they were discovered.
✓ The upper layer was painted during the Nayak period, in the sixteenth century.
✓ The cleaning of the surface painting revealed the splendid tradition of Chola period paintings.
✓ The paintings show narrations and aspects related to Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as
Tripurantaka, Shiva as Nataraja, a portrait of the patron Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar,
dancing figures, etc.
• Vijayanagara Paintings: In the post-Ajanta visual arts scenario, the Badami Chalukyas, Pallavas of
Kanchipuram and Chola kings patronised mural paintings.
- The Virupaksa temple's maharangamantapa is the Vijayanagara monument in Hampi with paintings
that have survived till date.
- The paintings occupy the large ceiling of the maharangamantapa.
- They are divided according to subjects in a rectangular compositional frame.
- The Trimurtis along with their spouses and retinue are depicted in an individual composition.
- The other important themes like Girija Kalyana, Tripura Samhara Shiva and Kama disturbing Shiva's
penance are composed in one row.
• Nayaka Paintings:
- Tirumala Nayaka of Madurai built a new pillared hall adorned with exquisite murals, while Raghunatha
Nayaka of Tanjore oversaw impressive constructions.
- Paintings from Raghunatha Nayaka's era can be found in Tanjore, Tenkasai, Perur, and other places.
- These paintings showcase the fascinating way of life during that time, featuring intricate attire,
adornments, and other elements.
- They faithfully capture the characteristics of the Vijayanagara period, complemented by sculptural
embellishments.
• Kerala Paintings:
- Kerala Paintings: “Kerala murals have a unique charm. Most of the murals in the old temples of Kerala
were done between the 15th and 19th centuries by unnamed artists.
✓ A 10 ft by 16 ft copper-covered cement relief of a mural painting welcomes visitors into Saju
Thuruthil’s 3500 sq ft studio-cum-residential art gallery, Art and Mind, in North Paravur, near Kochi.
26

✓ The top half of the art work is a shiny, cheerful shade of copper and the other is dull, a muddy
brown.
- Although the unique style was formed, many aspects of the Nayaka and Vijayanagara styles were
included.
- The current Kathakali and Kalam Ezhuthu traditions served as inspiration for the artists.
- Three-dimensional human figures have been displayed in vivid and dazzling colours.
- Paintings in palaces as well as on the cloister walls of temples and shrines.
Mural painting remains prevalent on interior and exterior walls of houses in villages and havelis across India.
Women often create these murals during ceremonies, festivals, or as part of routine wall cleaning and
decoration.
3.2 MINIATURE PAINTINGS

As the name suggests, miniature paintings are colourful handmade paintings very small in size. One of the
outstanding features of these paintings is the intricate brushwork which contributes to their unique identity.
Features:
• Colours derived from natural sources like vegetables, indigo,
precious stones, gold, and silver.
• Themes include Ragas (musical notes), religious, and mythological
stories.
• Executed on small-scale materials like paper and cloth.
• Pioneered by the Palas of Bengal, reached its zenith during Mughal
rule.
• Continued by artists of Rajasthani schools: Kishangarh, Bundi,
Jaipur, Mewar, Marwar.
History:
• Miniature paintings originated in India around 750 A.D when the Palas ruled over the eastern part of
India.
• They gained popularity due to their association with religious teachings and images of Buddha written
on palm leaves.
• As these paintings were done on palm leaves, they had to be miniature in nature because of space
constraint.
• Around 960 A.D, similar paintings were introduced in the western parts of India by the rulers of the
Chalukya Dynasty. During this period, miniature paintings often portrayed religious themes.
• With the rise of the Mughal Empire, miniature paintings started growing on a level unknown before.
• Indian miniature paintings combined elements of Persian style of painting, to give rise to the Mughal
style of painting.
• These miniature paintings further evolved with the influence of European paintings in the Mughal
court.
3.2.1 EVOLUTION OF MINIATURE PAINTINGS BY VARIOUS SCHOOLS

Pala School: Earliest Indian miniature paintings: Related to the Pala School dating back to the 8th century A.D.
- This school of painting emphasized on the symbolic use of colours and the themes were often taken
from the Buddhist tantric rituals.
• Buddha and other deities were portrayed on palm leaves and often displayed in Buddhist monasteries.
• The use of lines with finesse and grace, the modelling of forms using subtle and expressive pressure
variations, the use of natural colours, etc. are all attributes of the Pala School.
Orissa School: In the seventeenth century A.D. the Orissa School of miniature painting was founded.
• Even though paper was widely used in India during the 17th century, the Orissa School of miniature
paintings stayed true to its roots and continued to display this intricate art form on palm leaves.
27

• The Radha and Krishna love story were portrayed in the majority of the paintings.
Jain School: The Jain School of painting, one of the first miniature painting schools in India, rose to
popularity in the 11th century A.D. when holy books like the "Kalpa Sutra" and "Kalkacharya Katha"
were depicted as miniature paintings.
• Jain School presented its artwork on palm leaves, just like other schools of miniature paintings, but they
began employing paper in the latter half of the 12th century.
• To illustrate the story, natural colours like gold and silver were used.
• These paintings have unique characteristics such depicting magnified eyes, square-shaped hands, and
fashionable people.
Mughal School: The Mughal School of miniature painting emerged from the fusion of Indian and Persian
miniature art.
• It's interesting to note how heavily Chinese paintings impacted Persian miniature art.
• In particular during Akbar's rule, the Mughal style of painting flourished from the 16th through the 18th
centuries.
• These paintings frequently depicted scenes from the royal court, hunting expeditions, wild life, and
conflicts.
• Realistic depictions of plants and trees may be seen in the paintings' richly designed frames.
• The Mughal Emperors valued miniature painting so highly that numerous well-known artists were asked
to create a variety of works of art.
• Hindu painters were also influenced by the Mughal style of painting and created miniatures of the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
Rajasthani School: The Rajasthani School of painting includes the Mewar School, Marwar School, Hadoti
School, Dhundar School, Kangra School, and Kullu School of art.
• The Rajput emperors had the same passion of art as the Mughal Emperors and supported miniature
paintings.
• Rajasthani miniature paintings frequently showed the legacies of current and previous rulers, in addition
to stories from the Ramayana and the royal lifestyle of kings and queens.
• Additionally, they illustrated societal norms and the modifications made by rulers to advance society.
• Natural colours derived from plants, minerals, shells, precious stones, gold, and silver were employed.
Pahari Miniature Paintings: From the 17th through the 19th centuries, the Jammu and Garhwal districts saw a
flourishing of the Pahari school of painting.
• A number of other schools of painting developed from the Pahari School.
• Guler School, Basohli School, Garhwal School, Chamba School, and Kangra School are some of the most
significant schools of paintings under Pahari paintings.
• Every painting style has its own unique characteristics, but one of the most typical characteristics of the
Pahari School of miniature painting is the representation of gods and goddesses.
• These paintings frequently featured the Himalayas' breathtaking natural beauty.
Kangra school: The Kangra school's lyrical attractiveness had fully formed by 1770. It peaked in the first several
years of the rule of Raja Sansar Chand (1775–1823), one of its most significant benefactors.
• The school had numerous unique idioms and covered the entire Himalayan foothill region, not just the
Kangra state.
• The most prevalent theme in the paintings is the life and loves of Krishna as they are described in the
literary works the Bhagavata-Purana and the Gitagovinda, along with other Hindu stories, hero-heroine
relationships.
28

Issues and challenge: The decline of Indian miniature painting in Delhi is due to several factors:
• 'Copy' perception: It's seen as a replica of ancient art, even when artists create original works.
• Lack of interest: Few are willing to learn miniature painting, and there's no art school teaching it.
• Lack of verisimilitude: The art retains Persian influence but lacks the realism of older paintings.
3.3 MUGHAL PAINTINGS

Mughal painting is a type of paper painting that is only used for miniatures, either
as book illustrations or as solo pieces to be stored in albums (muraqqa), and
originates from the South Asian region that was once home to the Mughal Empire.
• It originated in the 16th to 18th centuries at the court of the Mughal Empire
from Persian miniature painting, which was partly Chinese in origin.
• Subjects included battles, legends, hunting scenes, animals, royal life, and
mythology. The art gained popularity among kings for its regal appeal and
as a means to showcase their valour and achievements.
Mughal Emperors and paintings during their time:

Mughal Description
Emperors
Akbar • The Mughal painting changed and advanced quickly under his rule. Akbar gave detailed
instructions for the development of numerous paintings and carefully inspected their finished
products.
• He paid close attention to the small details and the creative components.
- Akbar's court housed a sizable number of painters. He commissioned a number of significant
painting pieces between 1560 and 1577.
- One of Akbar's earliest painting commissions was "Tutinama," which is Persian for "Tales of
a Parrot."
- 'Hamzanama,' the story of Amir Hamza, was the second significant project Akbar ordered.
Akbar requested the reproduction of "Hamzanama," which featured 1400 Mughal paintings
that were extraordinarily large for miniatures.
- Other well-known works that Akbar ordered include "Gulistan," "Darab Nama," "Khamsa of
Nizami," "Baharistan," etc. Saadi Shirazi's masterpiece, "Gulistan," was produced at
Fatehpur Sikri.
Jahangir • Under his rule, the Mughal painting grew more and more. Jahangir instructed his painters to
utilise the single point perspective used by European painters since he had been heavily
influenced by European painting.
- His "Jahangirnama" endeavour was one of the more significant ones.
- It was Jahangir's autobiography, and it was made up of a number of paintings with strange
subjects like spider wars.
- They also created several solo portraits of Jahangir.
- He also commissioned a great deal of realistic paintings of flowers, animals, and bird.
Shahjahan • He bought a lot of paintings that were intended for his own collection.
• These paintings were based on beautiful visual subjects like gardens and photographs.
• He also commissioned a lot of pieces that showed lovers in intimate circumstances.
• One of the remarkable works created during his rule was the "Padshanama." This opulent piece
featured lavish gold plating, giving it a grand appearance.
- The "Padshanama" chronicled the achievements of the monarch and included paintings of
courtiers and household staff.
29

Muhammad • Muhammad Shah was a lover of the arts, and as a result, Mughal painting saw a brief renaissance
Shah during his rule. He promoted painting, and two of the best painters of the day, Nidha Mal and
Chitarman, served in his court.
- Their paintings frequently included scenes from the royal court, festivities, festivals, the king's
hunting expeditions, and daring activities like hawking.
3.4 PITHORA PAINTINGS

This is the most prevalent and characteristic art tradition of the Rathwa
community, who live in the region bordering Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh states
in India. While the styles vary with every Bhil group, they hold a deep social
relevance.
Features:
• Seven Horses: Pithora paintings are characterized by the seven horses
representing the seven hills that surround the area where the Rathwas
reside.
• Rectangle fence: This is enclosed within a rectangular fence in the painting that defines this geographical
area.
• Rectangle shape directions: This rectangle usually extends up to the Arabian Sea in the west, Bharuch
in south and Indore in north and east.
• River: The wavy line depicting the river Narmada cuts through the painting.
• Map: Things like fields, trees, farms, wild life, birds, sun and moon are present in their relative positions
in the map along with people and their ancestors.
• Modern Elements: Even modern elements like railway tracks, aeroplanes, and computers feature in
the paintings.
3.5 ROGAN PAINTINGS

• This craft is a form of surface embellishment and practiced for over hundred years, but
now by only a single family in Nirona, Kachchh.
• The Persian term for "oil" is "rogan."
• It first arrived in Kutch some 300 years ago, having its roots in Persia.
• The Khatris of Gujarat's Nirona Village are the only Muslim family that engage in this
uncommon trade.
- A special paste made of castor is used in this craft.
- The pastes of different colours yellow, red, blue, green, black and orange are
stored in earthen-pots with water to prevent them from drying up.
- The kalam, an iron rod, flat at both ends.
- Today, cushion covers, bed spreads, skirts, kurtas, curtains, tablecloths and wall hangings are
painted using this technique.
- Generally, geometrical motifs are preferred; motifs from nature such as tree-of-life are very
popular for wall hangings.
3.6 RAJPUT PAINTINGS

• During the late 16th and early 17th centuries A.D., the royal state of Rajasthan played a crucial role in
the development of the distinctive Rajput Paintings art form, a significant Mughal influence is evident
in Rajput paintings.
• They painted on the interior walls of palaces, havelis, and forts. Colour sources are minerals, plants,
conch shells, precious stones, gold, and silver. Different froms under different rulers are mentioned
below:
30

Bikaner School
Bikaner's art in Rajasthan was influenced by Mughal culture and also showcased elements of Deccan
paintings.
The city began displaying traditional Rajput styles with smoothness and abstractions in the late
18th century. However, they lacked any ostentation or flamboyance.
Indian mythology is frequently used as the inspiration for paintings.
Raja Rai Singh drew heavily on Mughal art and combined it with the Rajput artistic flair. Various
scenes from the Bhagavata Purana, Rasa Lila, and Ragamala have been painted.
Bundi School
The Mughal art form had a significant influence on the Rajput Paintings, which began to emerge in Bundi at the
end of the 16th century.
The Bundi School of Rajput Paintings is most characterised by Rao Ratan Singh (1607–1631), and his wall
paintings.
Along with this, there are instances by Bhao Singh (1658-1681) and Rao Chattar SaI (1631-1658), whose works
place the highest emphasis on court scenes.
Along with this, the lives of lovers, ladies, and nobility were among the other themes that were utilised.
Kota School
The calligraphic style used in Kota paintings makes them appear incredibly natural.
During Jagat Singh's rule (1658–1684), vivid colours and strong lines were frequently used in
portraiture.
After Arjun Singh (1720–1723), guys with large hooked noses began to appear in the paintings.
Hunting scenes, Ragamalas, and portraits as topics were also popular in the 18th century.
Kishangarh
Painting in the Kishangarh style was essentially a blend of Mughal and local styles.
The portrayal of the love between Krishna and Radha was the style's most prevalent subject.
Other well-liked themes included Shahnama, court scenes, and Sawant Singh's poetry.
The paintings of Bani Thani indeed contribute to the fame of the Kishangarh School of Painting .
Marwar
The darbar scenes and portraits of aristocrats mounted on horses were the two most prevalent
topics in the 18th century.
The Mughals began to have an impact on Marwar Paintings with the entrance of artists like
Dalchand.
Paintings produced by the royal families of Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali, Ghaerao, Kishangarh, and Bikaner
are considered part of the Marwar School of Painting.
Malwa
Was influenced by the Chaurpanchasika style.
Bold lines and hues were strongly emphasised in the painting.
Additionally, there is a faint Mughal influence in the paintings.
Widespread use is made of dark backdrops like black and chocolate brown, rigidly flat
compositions, vibrantly coloured structures, etc.
31

3.7 PAHARI PAINTINGS

• Pahari Schools of Painting includes towns, such as Basohli, Guler, Kangra, Kullu, Chamba, Mankot,
Nurpur, Mandi, Bilaspur, Jammu and others in the hills of western Himalayas, which emerged as
centres of painting from seventeenth to nineteenth century.
• Beginning at Basohli with a coarsely flamboyant style, it blossomed into the most exquisite and
sophisticated style of Indian painting known as the Kangra School, through the Guler or pre-Kangra
phase.
• Themes that included recording the daily routine or important occasions from the lives of kings, creation
of new prototype for female form and an idealised face.
History: They were put into practise with the rise of the Bhakti movement. Argot poetry and Rama and Krishna
folk songs were added to the Shaiva-Shakta themes. The artworks' themes also included love and devotion at
the same time. Great epics, puranas, and other texts were illustrated as well.
• Devi Mahatmya manuscript's representation, which was painted in Kangra in 1552, has received
widespread praise.
3.7.1 DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF PAHARI PAINTINGS

Types of Pahari paintings Description
Basohli school The first and most dramatic example of work from the hill states is from
Basohli.
• It is characterised by a strong use of primary colours and warm yellow.
• Basohli painting use small, shiny green particles of beetle wings to
delineate jewellery and simulate the effect of emeralds.
• Bhagvata Purana and Ragamala were other popular themes.
Guler school The first quarter of the eighteenth century saw a complete transformation
in the Basohli style, initiating the Guler–Kangra phase.
• It referred to as the pre–Kangra or Guler–Kangra kalam.
• The treatment of the eyes and the modelling of the face were
different, giving the picture a more realistic appearance.
• Landscapes were frequently employed as themes. In addition, this
fashion highlighted the grace and refinement of Indian women.
Kangra School Painting in the Kangra region blossomed under the patronage of a
remarkable ruler, Raja Sansar Chand (1775–1823).
• The Kangra style is by far the most poetic and lyrical of Indian styles
marked with serene beauty and delicacy of execution.
• Features of the Kangra style are delicacy of line, brilliance of colour
and minuteness of decorative details.
• Most popular themes that were painted were the Bhagvata Purana,
Gita Govinda, Nala Damayanti, Bihari Satsai, Ragamala and
Baramasa.
• The series of Bhagvata Purana paintings is one of the greatest
achievements of Kangra artists.
32

3.8 PATTACHITRA PAINTINGS

• Pattachitra evolved from Sanskrit. When broken down into its two parts,
Patta means cloth, and Chitra means picture.
• Hence, Pattachitra is a picture painted on a piece of cloth.
• This form of art is closely related to the cult of Shri Jagannath and the
temple traditions in Puri.
- Believed to have originated as early as the 12th century.
- Ingredient: The main component is kaitha tree gum, which is used
as a basis to create other colours by combining it with readily available raw materials.
- Themes: The Badhia (a depiction of the temple of Jagannath); Krishna Lila (an enactment of
Jagannath as Lord Krishna displaying his powers as a child); Dasabatara Patti (the ten incarnations
of Lord Vishnu); and Panchamukhi (a depiction of Lord Ganesh as a five-headed deity).
- Border of painting: A floral border is a must around the paintings, and so is the use of natural colors.
- After Completion: Following completion of a painting, the canvas is held over a charcoal fire and
lacquer is applied to the surface.
3.9 IMPORTANCE OF PAINTINGS
Social Importance of Paintings: Governments utilise theatre, movies, music, sculptures, and murals as
propaganda to sway public opinion and create public awareness campaigns.
• Against Social Evils: The Government of India often uses murals and paintings to discourage open
defecation, foeticide, tree felling and other societal ills.
• Respect: Art was used to pay homage to and show respect for the educated class.
• Journey through different eras: Through the use of artistic and literary works, we are able to journey
through time, space, and culture, visiting eras and locations that are hundreds of years and kilometres
away.
• Religious myths: In the earlier period paintings were mostly concerned with religious myths though
society was also amply presented.
Economic Importance of Paintings
• Art in ancient India represented the prosperity of civilizations.
• Painters were seen as skilled artisans rather than creative geniuses.
- In the Far East and Renaissance Europe, fine artists emerged with the status of scholars and
courtiers.
- They signed their work, decided its designs, subjects, and imagery.
Political Importance of Paintings
• Generally, in 20th century, painters could reach an audience only through commercial galleries and
public museums, which eventually expanded his audience also.
• Mughal art peeped into the inner revelry of the harem, the magnificance of the court, the delightful
wild bouts, depicting elephants and camels fights that appealed to the emperor, scenes of hunting,
toilet dress and decoration of coquettish damsels.
Overall Developments of Paintings
• The "Life in Miniature" project showcases over 1,000 miniatures from India's National Museum. It
enhances viewing through immersive experiences, utilizing machine learning, augmented reality, and
high-definition robotic cameras.
• The National Museum has made hundreds of miniature paintings available on the Google Arts & Culture
app.
• 101 Collection: Delhi’s National Museum has lent 101 such paintings from its collection to the National
Gallery of Australia, Canberra, for a month-long exhibition, Called “Ram-Kath.
33

- The paintings, done between the 17th and 19th centuries by artists from various schools of art in
India, are themed on Lord Ram’s life.
- The paintings based on Ram katha come from north, central and east India.
• At the G20 summit, Prime Minister gifted the miniature Pahari painting to Biden which is based on the
theme of love as a means of devotion.
• In the traditional pithora art, one single wall of painting would depict series of scenes from a story, while
in Bhil art every scene became an individual piece of work retaining the dotted style.
- Bhuri Bai is the first tribal woman artist who dared to take the traditional Pithora paintings beyond
the walls of the huts in her village in Jhabua, Madhya Pradesh.
• A new museum being set up by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) at Qila Rai Pithora, considered
to be the first of the seven historical cities.
Rock Carvings (Ratnagiri)
Around 1,000 petroglyphs found in Ratnagiri and Rajapur districts, Maharashtra. Konkan petroglyph sites have
notable features:
• Diverse carvings: Range from humans and animals to a 50-ft elephant with smaller creatures.
• Oval stone rings: Surround carvings, including a human figure.
• Unique laterite carvings: Different from granite and sandstone carvings at other Indian sites.
• Similar findings in Goa: Similar petroglyphs found in Sindhudurg district and near Kushavati river.
Significance:
The petroglyphs in the Konkan region of India hold significant relevance for several reasons:
• Ecological: Depicting rhinoceroses and hippopotami suggests a different past ecological makeup of the region.
• Cultural: Detailed and life-sized carvings indicate a rich cultural and artistic tradition.
• Religious: Concentration of religious art during the medieval period implies a possible spiritual significance.
CONCLUSION
India's diverse art and craftsmanship showcase rich cultural heritage. Different painting styles symbolize
customs and ideologies, each with distinct beauty. Created with natural dyes, these artworks evoke awe and
respect, transporting viewers to the past.

PAINTINGS AS A SOURCE OF INFORMATION
• Society: Socialization process has been elaborated through paintings of community dances which became a
prominent theme with time.
- Social life is well-depicted with presence of children playing, women making food, community dancing.
For example, Bhimbetka painting.
- Pictures of men, women and children provide evidence of the presence of the family system.
- The paintings also show hunting scenes and war scenes with men carrying weapons like bows, arrows,
spears, shields and swords.
- In ritualistic paintings: Scenes portraying fishing, hunting, farming, dances, animals, trees and festivals.
• Economy: In ritualistic paintings: Scenes portraying fishing, hunting, farming, dances, animals, trees and
festivals. For example, Warli painting.
- Depictions of agriculture, marketplaces, and domestic life. For Example, Madhubani painting.
- Industry: Dyeing, weaving, and other textile-related crafts. For example, Kalamkari painting.
• Polity: The Mughal painting under Akbar’s patronage depicted a variety of subjects, including, detailed political
conquests, seminal court scenes, secular texts, portraits of important men along with Hindu mythologies, and
Persian and Islamic themes.
34

- Rajasthani miniature paintings frequently showed the legacies of current and previous rulers.
✓ Additionally, they illustrated societal norms and the modifications made by rulers to advance society.
• Religion:
- Religious Importance: Some paintings are located high up on rock shelters or close to the ceilings. They
hold religious significance and are intended to be seen by many.
- Secular Themes: In Sittanavasal Cave Paintings, depict animals, ducks, people collecting lotuses, and two
dancing figures.
- Ajanta Cave Paintings: Revolve around the life and teachings of Lord Buddha (Jataka stories). Aim to
promote a disciplined and harmonious life.
STONE AGE ROCK CUT PAINTING PROVIDE INFORMATION ABOUT SOCIO-CULTURE LIFE
• The Stone Age lasted from 30,000 BCE to about 3,000 BCE and is named after the main technological tool
developed at that time. It ended with the advent of the Bronze Age and Iron Age.
• The Stone Age is divided in three distinct periods: the Paleolithic Period or Old Stone Age (30,000 BCE–10,000
BCE), the Mesolithic Period or Middle Stone Age (10,000 BCE–8,000 BCE), and the Neolithic Period or New
Stone Age (8,000 BCE–3,000 BCE).
• Social- cultural life: Bhimbetka cave painting provide detail information about stone age people.
- Occupation: Hunting, honey collection.
- Use of animal: Horse and elephant riders, animal fighting.
- Art: Dancing and music.
- Socialisation: Hand-linked dancing human figures.
- Group hunting: The hunting scenes depict people hunting in groups, armed with barbed spears, pointed
sticks, arrows and bows.
- Equality: The young and the old equally find place in these paintings.
- Women work at home: Women grinding and preparing food.
COMPARISON BETWEEN RELIGIOUS PAINTING AND SECULAR PAINTING
Time Religious painting Secular painting
period
Ancient •
Ajanta: Depicted Jataka stories: Aim to promote a • Bhimbetka rock painting: Socio-
disciplined and harmonious life. economic condition: Hunting, dancing,
- Promote Social Harmony: Many Jataka stories music, horse and elephant riders.
emphasize social harmony, tolerance, and • Lakhudiyar painting: Hunting,
understanding among different communities. dancing, and social gatherings.
• Armamalai Cave (Tamil Nadu): The paintings depict
Jain themes, including Tirthankaras, particularly
Mahavira, in meditative poses.
Medieval • Pala Manuscript Paintings: Primarily Buddhist, • Mughal Miniatures: Political
Depicting scenes from the life of Buddha, Jataka Information: detailed political
tales, and various Bodhisattvas. conquests, seminal court scenes,
secular texts.
Modern • Tanjore Paintings: Depict Hindu gods and • Company Paintings: Social
goddesses, saints, and mythological scenes. information: Detailed depictions of
• Episodes from Hindu epics like Ramayana and Indian society, capturing the diversity
Mahabharata, and various Puranas. and richness of the culture.
========================================================================================
35
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4 INDIAN DANCE
Dance is a form of creative expression characterized by physical movement and rhythmic gestures .Dance has
held a significant place in human societies since ancient times and continues to evolve and flourish in
contemporary culture.
• Broadly classified into classical and folk dance, Indian dance forms have their roots in ancient traditions
and have evolved over centuries.
4.1 CLASSICAL DANCES

• Indian classical dancing emerged in India around 200 BCE, characterized by its joyful and celebratory
nature. It often serves as a form of devotion to Hindu deities, with performances intricately
choreographed to depict historical events and mythological tales.
• These dance performances are commonly showcased at festivals, colleges, cultural events, and other
venues, serving as a vibrant expression of India's rich cultural heritage.
• In India, there are eight officially recognized classical dance forms as identified by the Sangeet Natak
Akademi, the primary organization for the preservation of Indian arts.
• These include Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Kuchipudi, Odissi, Kathakali, Sattriya, Manipuri, and
Mohiniyattam. Additionally, the Indian Ministry of Culture recognizes Chhau as a classical dance form,
bringing the total to nine recognized styles.
• The three primary parts are:
- Natya, which is the dramatic aspect of the dance (character impersonation),
- Nritta, which is the fundamental form of the dance movements.
- Nritya (part of expressiveness; gestures or mudras).
4.1.1 DIFFERENT FORMS OF CLASSICAL DANCES IN INDIA

CLASSICAL DANCES DESCRIPTION
Chhau (Odisha) The Chhau is a synthesis of martial, tribal, and folk arts.
The name "Chhau" comes from the Sanskrit word "Chaaya," which means
"shadow," "image," or "mask."
Additionally, Sitakanta Mahapatra claims that the word "Chhau" is derived
from the Odia word "Chhauni" (Military Camp).
• Performed traditionally by male-only troupes.
• Themes: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, shaktism
In Baripada, Odisha, the Sangeet Natak Academy founded the National
Centre for Chhau Dance.
Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu) • Bharatanatyam has been practiced for more than 2000 years.
• The state of Tamil Nadu is where the dance genre first emerged.
• Bharatanatyam was originally the domain of female temple dancers.
• 'Bharatanatyam' is a type of dance that combines Bhav, Rag, Ras, and
Taal.
• Revival of Bharatnatyam: A Renaissance was brought about by
Rukmini Devi Arundale.
- She elevated the puritanical standards of this art form.
- Yamini Krishnamurthy, Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, and others
are well-known Bharatanatyam dancers.
36

Kathak (North India particularly Uttar • The word Katha, which signifies a story, is the origin of the name
Pradesh) Kathak.
• The dancers typically performed in religious or rural settings, narrating
stories from historic texts.
• The Ramayana, Mahabharat, and Krishna stories are central to
Kathak's themes.
• Braj's Raslila is quite similar to Kathak.
• Features:
- Nritya and Nritta divisions: Key aspects of Kathak dance.
- Group dance: Increasing popularity as a solo and group
performance.
- Active support: Nawab Wajidali Shah's patronage and artistic
talent.
- Raigarh Gharana: Finest contribution, created by Raja Chakradhar
Singh.
- Notable dancers: Sitara Devi, Rohini Bhate, Maya Rao, Mandvi
Singh etc.
Kathakali (Kerala) Kathakali dramatises stories, many of which are taken directly from Indian
epics. It combines dance, music, and acting.
• Makeup: The employment of heavy makeup and beautiful costumes
is common.
• Features: With specific makeup and costumes, the dancers play the
parts of the stories—kings, gods, demons, etc.—while the vocalists tell
the legend and the percussionists play the instruments.
• Facial colours: Different facial colours denote various mental states
and character traits, such as green for nobility, black for wickedness,
and red patches for a combination of royal nobility and evil.
• Kerala Kalamandalam: The primary hub for Kathakali artists is Kerala
Kalamandalam.
• Dance style similarities: Kathakali shares similarities with other dance
forms like the Japanese "Noh" and "Kabuki."
• Famous artists: Notable Kathakali artists include Ramankutty Nair and
Kalamandalam Gopi.
Mohiniyattam (Kerela) The traditional solo dancing style of Kerala is called Mohiniyattam, or the
dance of Mohini (a form of Lord Vishnu).
• References: Vyavaharamala (1709) by Mazhamagalam Narayanan
Namputiri and Ghoshayatra by poet Kunjan Nambiar mention
Mohiniyattam.
• Characteristics: Delicate, lyrical, and graceful dance style.
• Comparison: Shares grace and beauty with Bharatanatyam.
37

Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) The Kuchipudi is a well-known dance-drama style that has its roots in the
Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh, where it was first performed in the
third century BCE
• Presentation: Includes solo and group performances.
• Significance: Jewellery, accessories, and costumes play a role.
• Different Forms: Manduka Shabdam (frog maiden narrative),
Balgopala Taranga (dancing on the edges of a brass plate while holding
a pitcher of water on top of his head), and Tala Chitra Nritya (dancing
toes making pictures) are the solo performances.
• Famous Artists: Yamini Krishnamurthy and Raja Reddy.
Manipuri (Manipur) The Manipuri dance form is named after its region of origin, 'Manipur'.
This dance form is also known as ‘Jogai’.
• Manipuri typically portrays the love between Radha and Krishna
through Raaslila in the form of a dance-drama on devotional tunes.
• Manipuri is a synthesis of South-East Asian and Indian cultures.
• Tandav or Lasya are two categories for the Manipuri dance style.
• Costumes: The female dancers dress in elaborate barrel-shaped
drum-like long stiff skirts that are embellished from top to bottom.
• Famous Artists: Guru Bipin Sinha and Nirmala Meht
Odissi (Odisha) Odissi is a dance of love and passion touching on the divine and the
human, the sublime and the mundane.
• The Natya Shastra mentions many regional varieties, such as the south-
eastern style known as the Odhra Magadha which can be identified as
the earliest precursor of present day Odissi.
• This Bhakti-inspired dancing style was once performed at Jagannath
temples as a means of worship to God. Thus, inside the temple, one
discovers numerous sculptures in various dance poses.
• Feature: A gentle dance with calming lyrics that shares mudras and
facial gestures with Bharatanatyam.
• Famous Artists: Sonal Mansingh and Kelucharan Mohapatra.
Sattriya (Assam) This dance was created by Assamese Vaishnava saint and reformer
Sankaradeva for Vaishnava religion in 15th century A.D.
• Name and Affiliation: Name Sattriya due to its religious nature and
affiliation with the Sattras.
• Themes: Performances center around Radha-Krishna and mythology.
• Revival: Transitioned to contemporary stage in 20th century. It gained
support inside and outside India.
• Sattriya Kendra Guwahati, an affiliate of Sangeet Natak Academy:
Founded to support and preserve Sattriya.
4.2 FOLK DANCES

• Indian folk dances are traditional, celebratory, and expressive. They are performed globally for social
events like weddings, festivals, and seasons. Both genders participate, often with musicians playing as
dancers sing. Elaborate clothing is common. Some famous folk dances and respective states are: For
example. Bhamakalpam and Kolattam from Andhra Paredesh, Bihu From Assam, Jata-jatin from Bihar
and Gaur Maria and Kapalik from Chhatisgarh.
38


COMPARISON OF FOLK VS CLASSICAL DANCES:
Criteria Folk dance Classical dance
Origin Self-generated, developed with human According to the rules and regulations of Natya
development. Shastra
Movement and Easy body movements and music, not Bound by rules and limitations of foot, hand, and
Music bound by rules. body movements.
Beats and Easy beats and rhythm. Difficult beats and rhythm (e.g., teentaal,
Rhythm chautaal).
Performance Mostly performed solo.
Style In groups (Males and females).
Costumes Represents the region. According to the classical dance form.

Cultural Expression of tradition, culture, and Related to literary works, mythological stories.
Expression spiritual beliefs (Garba or Dandiya).
EVIDENCE OF DANCES THROUGH ARCHITECTURE, LITERATURE AND PAINTINGS
Source Examples Description

Architecture Khajuraho Temples Temples with intricate carvings depicting dance poses and scenes.
Brihadeeswarar Temple Features sculptures showing various classical dance postures.
Sun Temple, Konark Stone carvings illustrating dancers and musicians in action.
Literature Natya Shastra Ancient text detailing the principles and techniques of classical
dance.
Sangam Literature Tamil literature that references various forms of dance.
Gita Govinda by Jayadeva Describes the dance of Radha and Krishna, inspiring many classical
dance forms.
Paintings Ajanta Cave Paintings Murals depicting scenes of dance and music from ancient Indian life.
Mughal Miniatures Illustrate court dances, both classical and folk, performed during the
Mughal era.
Rajasthani Miniatures Show traditional dances like Ghoomar and other regional folk
dances.
TRADITIONAL VS MODERN DANCE

Criteria Traditional dance Modern dance
Origin Natyashastra. Uday Shankar has been credited as
the Father of Modern Indian dance.
Themes Mythological stories, religious themes, cultural heritage. Personal expression, social issues,
abstract themes.
Defined by strict rules and structured techniques, often More flexible and innovative,
Technique codified. incorporating diverse techniques.
Music Classical or folk music, traditional instruments. Contemporary music, including
electronic and fusion genres.
Examples Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kathakali, Folk dances. Hip-hop, Contemporary, Jazz, Ballet,
Fusion dance forms.
===================================================================================
39
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5 INDIAN MUSIC
Music is the soul of any culture, and India boasts a rich history of innovative music. According to legend, Narada
Muni introduced music to the world. Evidence of a seven-holed flute from the Indus Valley Civilization signifies
its ancient presence.
• The Sama Veda and Gandharva Veda, further emphasize music's spiritual significance and scientific
aspects. The Gandharva Veda, or the science of music, is an Upaveda of the Sama Veda.
History:
It is generally accepted that the religious practises of the Aryan people, who came in India around 3,000 years
ago, where the roots of Indian classical music may be found. The Vedas, which literally translates as
"knowledge," are the foundational writings of ancient Hindu scriptures that the Aryans brought with them.
• Their worship ceremonies essentially revolved upon the well planned and ordered recital of these
lines.
• Hindu temple recitation shaped music's genesis. The appearance of North Indian music was altered by
the introduction of Islamic and Persian components. For instance, by the 15th century, the Dhruvapad
or devotional style had evolved into the Dhrupad style.
• Indian music divided into two types classical and folk music.
5.1 CLASSICAL MUSIC

• Indian classical music is a rich tradition that originated in South Asia and can now be found in all corners
of the world.
• Its origins date back to sacred Vedic scriptures over 6,000 years ago where chants developed a system
of musical notes and rhythmic cycles.
• It is broadly divided into two major styles: Hindustani music from the North and Carnatic music from
the South.
5.1.1 HINDUSTANI MUSIC

The Hindustani school of music places more emphasis on the structure of the music as well as its improvisational
potential. Hindustani music has ten primary vocal genres, including the "Dhrupad," "Dhamar," "Hori," "Khayal,"
"Chaturang," "Ragasagar," "Tarana," "Sargam," and "Thumri."
• Dhrupad: One of Hindustani classical music's oldest and most opulent genres. It has reference in
Natyashastra (c. 200 BC–c. 200 AD). Reached its pinnacle in the court of Akbar, the Mughal emperor.
- Tansen, along with other renowned musicians like Swami Haridas and Baba Gopal Das, were
employed and supported by Akbar. Tansen is regarded as one of the Navaratna or nine diamonds
of the Mughal court.
• Khayal: This fashion industry's inception was credited to Amir Khusrau. It is used by artists because it
allows for more room for improvisation.
- Based on a collection of brief songs with two to eight lines, it is also known as a "Bandish."
- Khayal also features a brief narrative and is composed in a certain raga and tala.
- Major Gharanas: Bhendibazaar Gharana, Gwalior, Kirana, Patiala, Agra
• Tarana Style:The rhythm of this technique is highly important. The melody serves as the structure. It
has a lengthy vocabulary and is sung quickly.
40

- The singers must have particular training and expertise in manipulating rhythms because it
concentrates on producing rhythmic concerns.
- Amir Khusro (13th–14th century) created it, and Guru Gobind Singh (10th Sikh Guru) incorporated
it into his works.
5.1.2 CARNATIC MUSIC

• The Sanskrit word Karnâtaka Sangîtam, which refers to "traditional" or "codified" music, is whence
Carnatic music gets its name.
• It has a long history and tradition and is made up of a system of Ragam (Raga) and Thalam (Tala).
• Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka are south Indian states where Carnatic Sangeet
has flourished.
• These states are renowned for giving the Dravidian culture a powerful portrayal.
5.1.3 SUB CLASSICAL STYLES OF CLASSICAL MUSIC

• Thumri: "The lyric of Indian classical music" is another name for this sensual and erotic singing style.
- The majority of the poems deal with love, loss, and dedication.
- Unique feature: Erotic content that is picturesquely portrayed from the many events in Lord
Krishna and Radha's life.
• Thappa: It gained legitimacy as it was presented to the Mughal court of Emperor Muhammad Shah.
- Originated from the folk songs of the North-West Indian camel riders.
• Ghazal: Used as a lyrical phrase to portray the pain of separation and loss as well as the beauty of love
despite suffering. Its beginnings in Iran in the 10th century.
- Reached its pinnacle under the Mughal era.
- Prominent poets who wrote ghazals during the 13th century include Rumi and Amir Khusro
- Other famous personalities: Muhammad Iqbal and Mirza Ghalib.
5.2 FOLK MUSIC

Every State has a distinct musical style that is built on the cultural affirmation of its residents. The folk tradition
has no set rules; it is the music of the people. For example, Baul From Bengal, Wanawan from Jammu and
Kashmir, Panihari from Rajasthan and Ovi from Maharashtra anf Goa.
CURRENT CONNECT
• KK Gopalakrishnan has released new book, “Kathakali Dance Theatre: A Visual Narrative of Sacred Indian
Mime”. The book, takes the reader behind the scenes, into the green room of artists, their struggles and unique
bonds built over long make-up hours.
• Recently, a documentary on Dance of Liberation of the Lamas was released, that captures the spiritual
experience of the Cham.
• Bihu dancers perform attempting to set a Guinness World Record during an event celebrating Rongali Bihu
festival. Over 11,000 Bihu dancers are participating in the performance.
• Kerala Kalamandalam, the iconic institution of the state’s traditional arts launched a radical initiative by
admitting girls for Kathakali training for the first time in its more than 90-year-long history.
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5.3 IMPORTANCE OF DANCE AND MUSIC

• Cultural Expression: Both dance and music are essential mediums for expressing cultural heritage and
traditions. They preserve and pass down stories, myths, and folklore from generation to generation.
• Religious Significance: They facilitate spiritual experiences and serve as offerings to deities, symbolizing
devotion and reverence.
• Social Cohesion: Dance and music bring communities together during festivals, celebrations, and social
gatherings. They foster a sense of unity and shared identity among participants.
• Emotional Expression: They provide a powerful outlet for emotions, allowing individuals to express joy,
sorrow, love, and other feelings.
• Historical Documentation: Traditional dances and musical compositions often document historical
events and cultural changes. They serve as living records of a society’s evolution and collective
memory.
• Communication: Dance and music can convey complex ideas and stories without the need for words.
• Education and Learning: They play a role in educational settings, teaching rhythm, coordination, and
discipline.
• Entertainment: Dance and music provide enjoyment and entertainment, enriching leisure time.
• Economic Impact: They support industries such as entertainment, tourism, and cultural heritage.
5.4 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS BY GOVERNMENT

• The development of the classical dances was aided by the founding of the Sangeet Natak Akademi in
Delhi and its affiliated centres.
• Prestigious festivals like Khajuraho, Konark, Dhauli Kalinga, Kalidas, Mukteshwar, Soorya, Ellora, and
Nishagandhi showcase the exquisite portrayal of Indian classical dances.
• With the establishment of Music and Dance Universities like Indira Kala Sangeet Vishwavidyalaya in
• Odissi dancer-Guru Jaya Mehta pens her new book Nritya Katha Dance Stories for Children after her
debut as an author with The Poetic Saree, a collection of dance poems.
- The 80-page picture book published by the National Book Trust of India narrates the stories of
nine Indian dance forms. “A child discovers an Indian classical dance form through every story,”.
- Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Kathakali, Kathak, Chhau, Mohiniyattam and Sattriya are the
dance forms featured. Jaya has also added a bit of the Bihu dance form, in the Sattriya story.
• For the past 11 years, the National Centre for the Performing Arts (NCPA) has steadfastly been trying
to familiarise people with culture from different regions of the country via the medium of local folk
traditions.
• Ghoomar from Rajasthan, Dandiya and Garba are among the list of the world’s top 10 most amazing
local dances from India.
• Lavani became well known outside Maharashtra — throughout India and even outside the country —
following its use in popular media such as cinema.
5.5 PROMOTION OF INDIAN ARTS, CULTURE AND HERITAGE

• Centre for Cultural Resources and Training (CCRT) organizes various training programmes on regular
basis towards sensitizing in-service teachers for promotion and preservation of Indian Arts, Culture and
Heritage.
• In each Training Programme regular sessions are held on various Classical Dances, Carnatic Classical
Music and Hindustani Classical Music.
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• The CCRT also organizes programmes for govt. & non-govt. (NGOs) school students under its Extension
and Community Feedback programme in which sessions on Performing Arts are organized.
• In addition to this, CCRT paid a token honorarium and conveyance to the Experts and his/her
accompanists to promote and encourage the Art and Artists.
• CCRT is also implementing following scholarship/fellowship schemes in various performing, visual &
literary art fields:
- Cultural Talent Search Scholarship Scheme, Award of Scholarships to Young Artists (SYA) , The
Fellowship Scheme for the Award of Fellowship to outstanding persons in the Field of Culture.
CONCLUSION
Classical music is undeniably complex, but it is not the only one. Classical music cannot become ‘mass’ but it
needs to reflect the diversity in Indian society. Today, when corporations insist on diversity in recruitment, it is
time social diversity becomes an active action plan in classical music.

COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL VS FOLK MUSIC
Criteria Classical music Folk music
Rules and regulation Classical music follows the rules as laid in the The folk tradition is the music of the
Natyashastra and cultivate a guru-shishya people and has no hard and fast rules.
(student mentor) tradition.
Instrument Sitar, sarod, tabla, and harmonium. Uses a variety of instruments such as
the dhol, tambourine, and shehnai.
Musical structure Based on a complex system of rules and Free-form and focuses on the
improvisation. expression of emotion.
Type Hindustani and Carnatic music. Region specific.
Example Hindustani and Carnatic music, Dhrupad, Baul, Pandavani.
Khayal, Bhajan.
TRADITIONAL VS MODERN MUSIC

Criteria Traditional Music Modern Music
Origin The root of music in ancient India are Developed in the 20th and 21st centuries,
found in the Vedic literature. often influenced by global trends.
Instrument Sitar, sarod, tabla, and harmonium. Modern instruments (e.g., electric guitar,
synthesizer, drum set), as well as digital
technology.
Themes Mythological stories, religious themes, Diverse themes including personal
cultural heritage. expression, social issues, love, and
contemporary life.
Example Classical music (e.g., Hindustani, Pop, rock, hip-hop, electronic, indie, fusion
Carnatic), folk music (e.g., Bihu, Lavani) genres.
MUSIC PROVIDES SOCIO-ECONOMIC INFORMATION ABOUT HISTORY

• Social structure:
- Traditional music can reveal information about social hierarchies and cultural practices.
- The bhakti and Sufi movements in medieval India used music to express devotional themes,
challenging established religious and social norms.
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• Economy:
- Folk songs reflect the daily lives of common people, including their work, struggles, and celebrations.
- For example, agricultural songs from different regions of India highlight the agrarian economy and
seasonal cycles.
• Polity:
- The presence of court musicians in Mughal court indicates a structured and hierarchical political
system where arts were supported and flourished under royal patronage.
- The patronage of temple music by kings and local rulers indicates the intertwining of religion and
politics. For example, the Bhakti and Carnatic music traditions were supported by Kingdom of Mysore,
Kingdom of Travancore.
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44

6 HANDICRAFTS: SIGNIFICANCE AND CHALLENGES

Handicrafts are crafted entirely by hand, reflecting the skill and artistry of various Indian states. These items can
be decorative or functional and are unique due to their handmade nature.
6.1 EVOLUTION OF HANDICRAFTS IN INDIA
• Ancient Origins: Handicrafts in India date back to 5,000 BC, initially focusing on religious themes, with
artifacts from the Indus-Valley civilization (3000 BC) still evident today.
• Vedic and Classical Developments: During the Vedic Age, Indian crafts advanced in textiles, stone, metal,
painting, pottery, and wood, with the Mauryan era (3rd century BC) excelling in sculpting and jewellery-
making.
• Gupta and Later Eras: The Gupta era (320–647 AD) showcased expertise in stone carving, weaving, and
woodcarving. Later, British influence shaped textiles, leather goods, and metalworking, eventually
merging with traditional Indian arts and crafts.
6.2 IMPORTANCE OF HANDICRAFTS INDUSTRY

• Cultural Significance: It serves as a vital medium for preserving cultural heritage, traditions, and artistic
skills, reflecting the rich diversity of nations and regions.
• Market Potential and Growth: India has been a major global producer and exporter of handicrafts for
centuries.
- The largest carpet export destinations
for India were the USA, the UAE, the UK,
and Germany with a share of about 37%,
6%, 6% and 5%, respectively.
- The USA was the top importer of Indian
handicrafts with a share of 37% of the
total exports during 2022-23.
• Creative and Adaptive Industry: The
handicraft sector is highly creative, producing
a wide array of crafts that cater to both
domestic and international markets.
• Environmental Sustainability: They help reduce the environmental impact of mass production and
foster sustainable development.
6.3 REASON FOR THE DECLINE OF HANDICRAFT INDUSTRY

• Historical factors: During British rule, India's raw materials like cotton, silk, and jute were freely exported
to Britain, benefiting the British textile industry while increasing costs for Indian handicraft production.
- The imposition of heavy duties on Indian handicraft exports to Britain reduced their competitiveness
in the British market, leading to a decline in demand and industry setbacks.
• Western education: Newly educated Indians blindly follow british standards and fashion, ultimately
reduced demand for handicraft.
45

• Decline of Indian courts: The demand for fine articles, for display in durbars,courts and other ceremonial
occasions disappeared.
• Competition of Machine-Made Goods: The rise of machine-made goods offered cheaper alternatives,
leading to reduced demand for handmade products like pottery, weaving, and embroidery.
6.4 CHALLENGES IN MODERN TIMES

• Low Productivity: The sector’s informal nature and artisans' limited education contribute to low
productivity, hindering efficient production of various crafts.
• Unorganized Production: Lack of professional infrastructure like work sheds, storage, and packing
facilities in the unorganized sector leads to operational inefficiencies and challenges in scaling
production.
• Outdated Production Methods: Artisans often lack resources to upgrade technology or receive regular
training, impacting product quality and increasing production costs.
• Lack of Funding: Craft producers face obstacles in securing working capital and credit due to poor
recovery rates and limited marketing infrastructure for finished products.
WAY FORWARD
• Skill Development Initiatives: Implementing comprehensive skill development programs to enhance
craftsmanship and adaptability to contemporary market demands.
- The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship implements Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas
Yojana (PMKVY), providing short-duration skill development training to youth, including artisans
and craftsmen.
• Technology Integration: Facilitating the integration of modern technology to streamline production
processes and improve product quality.
• Financial Inclusion: Promoting financial inclusion by providing easier access to credit and microfinance
for artisans.
• Policy Support: Formulating and implementing supportive policies that address regulatory hurdles and
promote sustainable growth in the handicraft sector.
• Promotion of Geographical Indications: Increasing the recognition and protection of geographical
indications to safeguard traditional handicrafts and boost export competitiveness.
- Basohli Pashmina & Painting, Tweed fabric, Loi blankets from Kishtwar, and Chikri craft have been
granted Geographical Indication (GI) tags.
KEY GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
• National Handicraft Development Programme (NHDP): Enhance sector knowledge of new design trends and
color forecasts to boost India's export through design-led products.
- Key Components: Includes surveys, design and technology upgrades, human resource development,
insurance and credit for artisans, R&D, infrastructure, and marketing support.
• Comprehensive Handicrafts Cluster Development Scheme (CHCDS): It Supports artisans and entrepreneurs in
setting up world-class units with modern infrastructure, technology, training, market linkages, and product
diversification.
• Mega Cluster Scheme: Aimed at generating employment and improving artisans' living standards, this scheme
scales infrastructure and production chains in remote handicraft centres.
• Ambedkar Hastshilp Vikas Yojana: Infrastructure and Technology Support: This scheme supports artisans with
their infrastructure, technology, and human resource development needs.
========================================================================================
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7 INDIAN LITERATURE
Indian literature is a complex mixture of religious, cultural, and spiritual beliefs that reflect the country’s multi-
dimensional social fabric. It spans over 3,000 years encompassing a vast variety of thoughts, philosophies,
emotions, and aspirations of the Indians.
7.1 CATEGORIZATION OF INDIAN LITERATURE
7.1.1 BY RELIGION
HINDU LITERATURE
• Vedas: The Vedas are the original written records of ancient India which contain hymns or chants and
various ritualistic details that are important for Hinduism. For example, Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda,
Atharvaveda
• Upanishads: They are philosophical texts about reality or truth (brahman), self (atman), universe, etc.,
which form the base for Hinduism. For example, Chandogya Upanishad, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
• Ramayana: This epic by Valmiki is an account portraying how Rama rescues his wife Sita from Ravana
who is a demon king.
• Bhakti Literature: This literature reflects the Bhakti movement's emphasis on personal devotion to a
deity and the egalitarian message that devotion is accessible to all.
- Devotional poetry and songs by saints like Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas), Surdas (Sur Sagar), and
Mirabai (devotional poems to Krishna).
• Philosophical Texts: These texts provide in-depth analyses of Hindu philosophy, like the concepts of
Advaita (non-dualism) and Dvaita (Dualism).
- Works by philosophers like Adi Shankaracharya (Vivekachudamani, Brahmasutra Bhasya) and
Ramanuja (Sri Bhasya).
ISLAMIC LITERATURE
• Sufi Poetry: Sufi poetry emphasizes divine love and the soul's journey toward union with the divine,
transcending the material world. For example, Mystical verses by poets such as Amir Khusrau, Rumi, and
Bulleh Shah.
• Urdu Literature: Urdu literature is renowned for its lyrical beauty and depth, often exploring themes of
love, loss, and social justice. For example, Poetry and prose, including ghazals and nazms by Ghalib
(Diwan-e-Ghalib), Faiz Ahmed Faiz (Naqsh-e-Faryadi), and Allama Iqbal (Bang-e-Dra).
• Historical Texts: These texts provide detailed accounts of the Mughal emperors' reigns, their conquests,
and administrative practices.For example, Chronicles like Baburnama (autobiography of Babur) and
Akbarnama (by Abul Fazl).
SIKH LITERATURE
• Guru Granth Sahib: A composition, holy book of the Sikhs, which contains the hymns and poems, which
were composed by the Sikh Gurus.
• Janamsakhis: Historical accounts that have information about Guru Nanak and other Gurus of Sikh
religion.
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
• Pali Canon: These are the texts that expound the doctrines of the Buddha as well as the rules and
regulations for the monks and nuns apart from doing philosophical discourses.For example, The sacred
books of Theravada Buddhism such as the Tripitaka.
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• Mahayana Sutras: Mahayana Buddhism itself is focused on these sutras which reveal further teachings
of the Buddha and stress on compassion and the path of the bodhisattva.
• Jataka Tales: Accounts of deeds of the Buddha done in his previous incarnations. Some of the features
include moral lessons and virtues concerning the Buddha’s previous births.
• Mahavamsa: The Buddhist account of Sri Lanka
• Milindapanha: It is a text containing a conversation between the Indo-Greek king Menander (known as
Milinda) and the Buddhist monk Nagasena.
JAIN LITERATURE
• Agamas: Text Documents constituting the collection of sacred scriptures of Jainism. They contain the
precepts of Mahavira as well as other Tirtankaras explaining the concepts and teachings like ahimsa
and satya.
• Twelve Angas: A group of texts, which provides information about Jainism, the ethical requirements,
rituals, and stages of spiritual development.
• Tattvartha Sutra: A canonical sacred script of Jainism, recognized by all the sects as the sources of
doctrinal teachings; it contains an explanation of Jainism, the worldview, the souls, and Moksha.
• Samayasara: Written by Acharya Kundakunda, the main subject is based on the soul’s inherent
characteristics and the process of realization of them in the course of an individual’s life according to
the principles of Jainism
• Mahapurana: Major Jain literary work, composed by Acharya Jinasena is a narration of the glorious life
history of sixty-three great Jains.
CHRISTIAN LITERATURE
• Biblical Translations: Books in the local Indian languages including Tamil, Hindi, and Malayalam
translations of the Holy Bible.
• Christian Poetry and Prose: Religious and spiritual subjects of Indian writers such as the Christianity that
is exemplified by “The Serpent and the Rope, ” written by Raja Rao.
7.1.2 BY HISTORICAL PERIODS

ANCIENT LITERATURE
• Vedic Literature: These texts are the very foundation of Hinduism religious practices and are a record of
early Indian thought. The four Vedas which are Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, Upanishads
and Brahmanas.
• Epic Literature: These epics are great pieces of literature and form a part of the-Indian and moral
personality. For example, Mahabharata and Ramayana.
• Classical Sanskrit Literature: Examples include Shakuntala by Kalidasa; plays by Bhasa and others.
MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
• Bhakti and Sufi Literature: This period is characterized by an increase in the production of man’s
informal devotional literature concretized in mystic literature.
- Some examples are dharmic devotional songs and poems of the north Indian Sants – Kabir,
Tulsidas, Mirabai, and Sufi poets like Rumi.
• Courtly Literature: Some of the following characteristics clearly support the fact that these works depict
the cultural and intellectual essence of medieval Indian courts.
- Religious texts and works of literature were composed in royal courts such as Farsi and Urdu
composed by Amir Khusrau.
48

MODERN LITERATURE
• Colonial Period: Every so often, this literature dwelled on two main themes which included nationalism,
and the fight against colonization.
• Post-Independence Literature: Themes of the nation and its formation, identity, and social
transformation, R.K Narayan’s Malgudi Days, Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable, Kamala Das’ My Story.
- Literature written after India’s independence movement has a new theme that portrays the
incipient struggle and dream of the new-born India.
• Contemporary Literature: Post–modern concerns and post-modern structures by some of the
contemporaries like Arundhati Roy – The God of Small Things, Salman Rushdie – Midnight’s Children,
Jhumpa Lahiri – The Interpreter of Maladies, etc.
7.1.3 BY LINGUISTIC TRADITIONS

• Sanskrit Literature: Sanskrit works constitute the writing tradition of India that is considered as the
classical literature of the country.
- Literature in the form of poetry of Shakuntala, epics of Mahabharata by Vyasa, and other plays
and literature of Kalidasa.
• Tamil Literature: Tamil has one of the most ancient writing system traditions in the world, and literature
is mainly focused on moral and ethical lessons.
- Sangam literature, is the literature that contains the Thiruvalluvar’s Thirukkural and other poets'
works.
SANGAM LITERATURE:
• Sangam literature is considered as the first classical Tamil literature and the works were written between the 3rd
century BCE and the 3rd century CE.
• It is generally regarded to include the oldest literature of South India that has been discovered.
• Sangam translates to ‘assembly’ or ‘congregation’ and is feared to have been the literary academies or
assemblies of the Tamil people held in Madurai.
MAJOR WORKS:
• Tolkappiyam: It is the oldest surviving Tamil grammar written by the oldest Tamil scholar – Tolkappiyar.
• Ettuttokai: An anthology consisting of eight significant literary pieces in the form of a poem.
• Pathupattu: Ever yearning – ten long poems
• Pathinenkilkanakku: An assortment of 18 minor pieces
• Hindi Literature: Starting from the Bhakti movement of medieval India represented by poets like Kabir
to the novels of the modern age such as by Premchand-‘Godaan’.
- Through Hindi literature, Indian society has found expression in various forms of themes and genres
in an attempt to exhibit its plurality of linguistic endowments.
• Bengali Literature: Bengali literature is characterized by its deep humanism and an aestheticism that
will be evident in the text.
- Poetry of Rabindranath Tagore–Gitanjali, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay – Anandamath and
works of other contemporary authors.
• Urdu Literature: Urdu literature is well known for being poetic as well as communicative.
• Regional Literature: All such as Marathi, Gujarati, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam etc. Which has its own
rich traditional literature and is famous for its writers like Dnyaneshwar (Dnyaneshwari),
Krishnadevaraya (Amuktamalyada), Basava (Vachanas). Thus, these literatures represent the multi-
lingual and multi-cultural face of India.
49

7.1.4 BY GENRES
• Poetry: Verse has always received a warm welcome among the literary pieces in India and it has been
chiefly familiarized for its power to express feelings and aesthetics.
- Epic, lyric, cerebral, sensuous, and modern poems penned down in various languages.For example,
"Ramcharitmanas" by Tulsidas.
• Prose: Prose, both fiction and non-fiction, provides the essence of India’s life and its philosophy. For
example, "Panchatantra" by Vishnu Sharma.
• Drama: They decided to create a catalog of Indian drama to classify the stage material that was
performed from ancient times to modern performances that indicate social transformations. For
example, "Abhijnanasakuntalam" (The Recognition of Shakuntala) by Kalidasa
• Philosophical and Religious Texts: These texts offer valuable information about India's philosophical
and religious creeds.
- The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and various other philosophical and religious commentaries
including those of Shankaracharya’s commentaries on the Brahma Sutra.
• Folk Literature: Indeed, storytelling includes oral traditions, folk tales, and many features of pre/modern
Indigenous cultures the Panchatantra and Jataka tales to name but two examples.
7.2 LITERATURE OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA ON DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS
SOCIAL SYSTEM:
• Varna System: Manu Smriti and other books of DharmaShastras talk of the Varna, the fourfold division
of the society based on Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra castes plus their responsibilities.
• Ashramas: Dharmashastras also provide the details of the four ashramas or the stages of life that include
the Brahmacharya or the student life, Grihastha or householder Vanaprastha life or the hermit, and the
last one being the Sannyasa or the renunciate life.
• Women's Roles: Manusmriti and Mahabharata present information about the status of women in
society; at the same time, many women were respected, but they were also subordinate.
• Marriage Practices: The old monumental literature still remembers Vedic literature and epic tales
society where Swayamvara, Gandharva, and Rakshasa marriages are aware.
• Education Systems: Old Indian scriptures, particularly the Upanishads and Buddhist texts explain the
existence and running of what we now call the ‘gurukul’ system to study and reside with your teacher.
POLITICAL SYSTEM:
• Kingship and Governance: According to the Arthashastra, the nature of a king, the characteristics of the
administration, and the techniques of ruling with a focus on the consolidation of the monarchy.
• Mauryan Administration: The Ashokan Edicts give instructions about administrative organizations,
public benevolences, and Dhamma, (righteousness).
• Gupta Empire: From the Gupta inscriptions, one can deduce information concerning the decentralized
administration and the local government systems.
• Chola Administration: Information regarding the village assemblies and their administrative capacities
in Sangam literature and later inscriptions.
• Mughal Governance: The Ain-i-Akbari is a historical record that furnishes information regarding the
administrative division, agricultural and annul collections, and military personnel of Akbar’s empire.
ECONOMIC SYSTEM:
• Trade and Commerce: The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as well as the Tamil Sangam Literature clearly
defines very rich trade, including the sea trade with the Romans.
50

• Agriculture: The Arthashastra and Buddhist Jatakas have also made references on farming, kinds of
crops, and techniques of using water for farming.
• Guilds (Shrenis): In the ancient period, it is recorded that various trade associations of artisans and
merchants were prevalent which were deeply involved in the economic processes.
• Taxation Systems: The Arthashastra and inscription of the Gupta empire explains the taxes and way of
its collections.
• Monetary Systems: Special mentions related to the issues of coins and currency in the texts of Jatakas
and inscriptions of different periods speak of the emergence of the monetary system.
CULTURAL SYSTEM:
• Religious Practices: The religious characteristics of Hinduism a based on the Vedas, and Puranas, and
reading legends Ramayana and Mahabharata mention various religious ceremonies, festivals, and
ceremonies.
• Art and Architecture: Using the information derived from literature and inscriptions it is possible to track
the formation of the new types of temple construction, sculpture, and painting traditions, mainly the
Gupta and Chola dynasties.
• Music and Dance: Natya Shastra is the oldest extensive writing on performing arts including music,
dance, and drama written by Bharata Muni.
• Literary Traditions: Sanskrit composition and Tamil literature, early and advanced Bhakti, and Sufi
literature remain a minority but periods of luxury and various cultures in literature.
• Philosophy: The Upanishads are the sacred texts of Hinduism that present philosophical concepts of
karma, dharma, and moksha In Buddhism, there are Buddhist scriptures and the Jain Agamas which
contain philosophical thoughts.
INFORMATION/INTELLIGENCE SYSTEM:
• Espionage: Arthashastra is the treatise where the details of espionage and its use in a state’s internal as
well as external security have been elaborated at length.
• Medical Knowledge: Most of the texts of ancient Indian medicine and surgery can be well traced in the
Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita.
• Astronomy and Mathematics: Aryabhatiya by Aryabhata and Surya Siddhanta two popular works that
convey ideas related to astronomy and mathematics.
• Geographical Knowledge: Another early account of India is Al-Beruni’s Tahqiq ma li-l-Hind, which gives
geographical details and indigenous scientific systems.
• Military Strategies: From the Arthashastra and other epic narratives the authors of the Arthashastra
derive their ideas on the military strategies, weapons, and asttlements.
ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM:
• Mauryan Bureaucracy: Charaka Samhita has classified the departments in the administration and
several schemes of Arthashastra present the structure of the administration depicting the roles of
several officials and departments in Ashokan Edicts as well.
• Gupta Administration: Reading Gupta period inscriptions one can get information about the
decentralized administration and the status of local governance bodies.
• Chola Village Assemblies: Through the inscriptions in Tamil, it is possible to follow the separation of
powers in local self-government through controlling sabhas and their discretionary tasks.
• Revenue System: Mention of the land revenue system, crop assessments, and collection of taxes during
the Mughal province as explained in the Ain-i-Akbari can be explained.
51

• Judicial System: Manusmruti along with several later writings and the writings on walls and pillars in the
form of inscriptions give its account of legal procedures of the early medieval India.
LANGUAGE:
• Sanskrit Grammar: Panini’s AshtadhyayI was written exclusively on the grammar of the Indian language
Sanskrit and is considered to be the high light of linguistic works of early India.
• Prakrit and Pali: Agamas and other texts of Jainism and more so Tripitaka of Buddhism are written in
Prakrit and Pali, which was the spoken language of the people of the time.
LIVING CONDITIONS:
• Daily Life: From texts like the Gathasaptashati and the works of Sangam literature, one can get clear
and colorful pictures of day-to-day life, business, and society.
• Housing and Urban Planning: From the Arthashastra many references to the types of living
accommodations, city layouts, and public works can be determined as well as from various inscriptions.
• Clothing and Cuisine: Furthermore, articles of clothing or accessories and types of food and cooking
suggested by literary works and inscriptions inform societies in ancient and medieval India.
7.3 SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA AND ITS MODERN ADOPTION
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE MODERN ADOPTION
MATHEMATICS
Aryabhatiya by Aryabhata: It includes arithmetic Aryabhata’s creative conclusions concerning π and
and algebra, plane and spherical trigonometry, trigonometric functions can help improve contemporary
continued fractions, and quadratic equations. etc. calculation algorithms and educational programs.
Lilavati by Bhaskara II: Arithmetik, Bijaganita or All the techniques in spherical astronomy are beneficial in the
Algebra, Grahaganita or Astronomy, and current astrophysics and space science.
Goladhyaya or Spherical Astronomy.
Panchasiddhantika by Varahamihira: Comprises Through its systematic way of observing astronomical
the summary of five prior works on astronomy and activities, it can help in enhancing existing models on
comprehensive planetary tables. astronomy.
MEDICINE
Charaka Samhita: A large-scale work containing a Concepts and practices concerning the holistic approach to be
detailed description of diseases, their diagnosis and healthy and fit, nutritional standards, and ethical practices for
treatment, measures for prevention, and the code professionals in healthy and disease-free lifestyles can be
of medical ethics. incorporated into modern medicine and wellness programs.
Sushruta Samhita: Concerns surgery, and the It is seen that the surgeries and principles based on Sushruta
provision of details of the types of surgical Samhita can still be useful in understanding the
instruments used, and the processes involved when understanding of modern surgical procedures as well as
carrying out a surgery. education.
METALLURGY
Brihat Samhita by Varahamihira: Includes sections Information about the material properties can be useful in the
on the basics of minerals such as physical properties development of contemporary materials science and
of minerals, types of gems, etc. engineering.
ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Vastu Shastra: Historical Vedas and Shastras of Several aspects of sustainable architectural practices and the
India concerning architectural science and town principles of spatial order can be used in contemporary urban
planning such as Santana, vibhrama, Vistara, and design and green building.
Vyashti.
52

Arthashastra by Kautilya: Comprises sub-topics It could be seen that there are many useful techniques in
such as infrastructure development, irrigation, and water management and irrigation that can be applied to
water resources. contemporary farming methods and approaches.
PHILOSOPHY AND LOGIC
Nyaya Sutras by Gautama: Indological text Modern philosophy, artificial intelligence, cognitive sciences
belonging to the field of logic and empirical can be enriched with the experience that stems from pattern
knowledge. logical thinking and analysis.
7.4 FOREIGN LITERARY SOURCES

PERSIAN SOURCES:
• Al-Biruni (973-1048) - Kitab-Ul-Hind (Researches on India): Al-Biruni took great interest in religion and
philosophies, sciences, customs, and the caste system of the Indians. Also, He was very detailed in his
work.
• Amir Khusrau (1253-1325)- The Treasures of Victory and Tughlaqnama: Records the history of some of
the Delhi Sultans and also gives a comprehensive idea of medieval India in terms of the political, social,
and cultural system.
- He has a great deal of documentary evidence on the profession of the sultanate, the administrative
structure, various wars and conflicts, and relations between Hindus and Muslims.
• Ibn Battuta (1304-1369)- Rihla (The Travels): Gives an account of the places he visited in India during
the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s rule, and the court, governance, cities, and manners.
- Sheds light on the intricacies of the society and coming of age of the Tughlaq empire in medieval
India along with the spread of Islam.
EUROPEAN SOURCES:
• Megasthenes (350-290 BCE)- Indica: This is a history of India during the time of the Mauryan Empire
with a focus on the Chandragupta Maurya.
- Gives information on the physical characteristics, inhabitants of the area, cultural practices, political
structures, and the economic activity that takes place in the given area.
• Marco Polo (1254-1324) - The Travels of Marco Polo by Marco Polo: Gives an account of the regions
he visited in the southern part of India with information concerning the people’s economic activities,
social behavior, and beliefs.
- Presents Europe’s view of medieval India as rich, trading, and inhabited by diverse people.
• Niccolò de' Conti (1395-1469)- chronicles of his travels: Traces the route through the Vijayanagara
Empire, which indicates the appearance of the imperial capital and governing and social structures.
- Gives the finer details of the standard of living, trade, and the arts of south India during the 15th
century.
• Duarte Barbosa (1480-1521)- Barbosa Manuscript in English: Gives an account of the geographical
location of the western part of India and some of the cities, seaports, commerce, and manners of the
Indian populace.
- Presents a factual and informative narrative regarding the trading systems of the first half of the
sixteenth century in the Indian Ocean and the sociocultural exchanges between people from India
and Europe.
• Abdul Razzaq (1413-1482)- Matla-us-Sadain wa Majma-ul-Bahrain: Gives an account of his stay in the
empire and gives out details of the royal court, its governance and social organizations.
- Emphasizes the economic development and ethnic activity of the Vijayanagara Empire – useful for
knowing the history.
53

7.4.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF THESE ACCOUNTS

• Cross-Cultural Insights: These provide useful insight into the attitudes of foreign people towards Indian
society, which provides further insight into India’s history of foreign relations.
• Documentation of Customs and Practices: Probably this is why they were able to capture some aspects
of daily lives, beliefs, and customs tttt may not well documented by the indigenes.
• Economic and Trade Information: Most of these sources give aspects on trade corridors, business
traditions, and the standards of living among Indian kings depicting the trade of India in the international
market.
• Political and Administrative Observations: Such accounts also provide volatile information regarding
the political system, administrative settings, and governance and thus aid in the comprehension of the
Indian Polity.
• Influence on European Perception: These travelers’ accounts changed Europeans’ view of India and
provided other useful information during the Age of Exploration.
7.4.2 ISSUES WITH FOREIGN LITERARY SOURCES

• Bias and Subjectivity: Most of the colonial texts that depict Indian societies can be seen to provide
representations that are based on European colonialist’s perspective and a specific set of interests; these
representations are distorted.
• Linguistic Barriers: To translate an ancient Greek, Persian or Chinese text literally, one should have not
only great knowledge of the languages but also a great historical and cultural background of this work.
• Cultural Misinterpretation: Early travelers would have been likely to misrepresent the importance and
the social structures of India in terms of its festivals or its religion or even the caste system.
• Incomplete Information: Chinese traveler Xuanzang offered specific details of some places in India and
certain Buddhist activities, but entirely lacked information on other contemporary religions and other
associated practices in other parts of India.
• Political and Ideological Agendas: The power of colonizing Britain wrote her accounts of the Indian
society portraying it as one that was out of order and thus having to rely on Britain’s help in the way of
colonialism.
• Ethnocentrism: The European travelers and writers during the colonial period rated themselves superior
to the Indians in almost all the angles of life hence their writings were biased and ethnocentric.
7.5 LITERARY WORKS ABOUT COLONIAL RULE IN INDIA

SOCIETY:
• Rabindranath Tagore's Works: Literature in poetry, prose fictional and essayistic works that engage with
questions of Indian culture and identity as well as colonialism’s consequences.
- It Contains a critique of colonialism and lays down an agenda for the cultural regeneration of India.
• Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s Anandamath.
• James Mill’s ‘The History of British India’ (1817): About the history of India and its society and culture
over colonialism view of India. It Had an impact on Britain’s bureaucratic policies and perception of the
Indian society.
• Rudyard Kipling's Kim (1901): Concerns a childhood in British India and hence is informative about the
context of the social setting of the age. It Illustrates the social relations of Britain and its imperialism and
the conception of the colonial self.
54

ECONOMY:
• Dadabhai Naoroji, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901): Discusses British imperialism and
colonialism in India focusing on the factors that provided profits to the colonizers and deprived the
colonized of any benefits.
• Economic history of India R.C. Dutta of 1902: Records the economic strategies of the British much to
the disadvantage of the Indian economy. It Includes a nationalist outlook on colonial economic
imperialism.
POLITY AND ADMINISTARTION:

• Constitutional Reforms: Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms in 1919, Government of India Act 1935 and all
other legislative measures: Illustrate how Britain has progressed from one constitutional form to the
other with political transformations.
• Simon Commission Report: A historical, constitutional, and political analysis of the development of
India and suggestions for future administration.
• James Mills’s“The History of British India”: It speaks about the bureaucratic and political systems that
the British set up and overviews Indian social and political system pre and during British colonization.
IDEOLOGY:
• M. K. Gandhi’s Hind Swaraj: Themes that include criticism of modern civilization as well as colonization
and urging people to fight for self-governance and resist using violence.
• Jawaharlal Nehru’s The Discovery of India: Covers historical aspects of India, the civilization, and the
effect of colonialism.
EVENTS:
• Revolt of 1857: Begins British rule in India; famous uprisings recorded in writing, such as in ‘The First
War of Indian Independence’ by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919): Found in historical chronicles, official documents, and nationalist
histories as the English repression is described as unusually harsh.
• Quit India Movement (1942): Described in various nationalist narratives and governmental annals,
which directly refers to the phenomenon of the population’s rebellion against British rule.
PERSONALITIES:
• Mahatma Gandhi: Biographies and essays written by Gandhi: the individual was implementing his ideas
on nonviolence and actively participating in the fight for India’s independence.
• Jawaharlal Nehru: Key works and texts in the form of writings and speeches, encompassing An
Autobiography to know more about his political thinking and his leadership.
• Subhas Chandra Bose: Newspaper articles and autobiographies for example The Indian Struggle for
Freedom depicted him as an uncompromising fighter for India’s freedom. E.g. "The Indian Struggle" by
Subhas Chandra Bose
• Bhagat Singh: Arising from documents in the form of writings and letters, ambitious biographies that
depict him as a revolutionary and an ideological figure.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: Two biographies and speeches compiled, which give his views regarding the
integration of princely states and political leadership.
NATIONAL MOVEMENT:
• Bipan Chandra’s India’s Struggle for Independence in 1988: Encyclopedia of the Indian independence
movement.
55

• “India Wins Freedom” by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad: It is an autobiographical account of the eminent
freedom fighter of India. It focuses on how its leaders viewed the British, the tactics employed when
dealing with the colonial power, and the internal politics of the Indian National Congress.
• Congress Session Reports: Published reports of the meetings of the Indian National Congress which
contained resolutions, debates, and propositions of action.
• Works by Nationalist Leaders: Literature from agendas such as B. R. Ambedkar’s Annihilation of Caste,
which gave minority/minority intersectional points of view of the social and political.
• Newspapers and Journals: Regarding the movements, you could pick up contemporary journals such as
Young India, Harijan, and The Hindu written by leaders belonging to the Congress Party.
CONCLUSION
Indian literature is proof of the fact that India is culturally diverse. Indian literature encompasses the knowledge
and artistry of the devotee’s deep spirituality of the ancient era to the dynamic narrative styles of today’s world.

1. Evaluate the nature of the Bhakti literature and its contribution to Indian culture (2021, 10 Marks)
2. Persian Literary sources of medieval India reflect the spirit of the age. Comment (2020, 15 Marks)
3. Assess the importance of the accounts of the Chinese and Arab travellers in the reconstruction of the history of
India (2018, 10 Marks)
4. Krishnadeva Raya, the king of Vijayanagar, was not only an accomplished scholar himself but was also a great
patron of learning and literature. Discuss. (2016, 12.5 Marks)
========================================================================================
56
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1.6 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

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1.9 MODERN/ COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE

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