INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

CRIMINOLOGY defined

Criminology is a body of knowledge regarding delinquency and crime as a social phenomenon (Tradio, 1999). It may
also refer to the study of crimes and criminals and the attempt of analyzing scientifically their causes and control and the
treatment of criminals.

Criminology is a multidisciplinary study of crimes (Bartol, 1995). This means that many disciplines are involved in the
collection of knowledge about criminal action, including, psychology, sociology, anthropology, biology, neurology, political
science and economics. But over the years, sociology, psychology, and psychiatry have dominated the study of crime.

Sub-Fields of Criminology

Sociological Criminology – the study of crime focused on the group of people and society as a whole. It is primarily
based on the examination of the relationship of demographic and group variables to crime. Variables such as socioeconomic
status, interpersonal relationships, age, race, gender, and cultural groups of people are probed in relation to the environmental
factors that are most conducive to criminal action, such as time, place, and circumstances surrounding the crime.

Psychological Criminology – the science of behavior and mental processes of the criminal. It is focused on the
individual criminal behavior-how it is acquired, evoked, maintained, and modified. Both the environmental and personality
influences are considered, along with the mental processes that mediate the behavior.

Psychiatric Criminology – the science that deals with the study of crime through forensic psychiatry, the study of
criminal behavior in terms of motives and drives that strongly relies on the individual. (Psychoanalytic Theory - Sigmund Freud –
traditional view). It also explains that criminals are acting out of uncontrollable animalistic, unconscious, or biological urges
(modern view).

Scope of the Study of Criminology

1. Criminal Behavior or Criminal Etiology - the scientific analysis of the causes of crime;
2. Sociology of Law - the study of law and its application;
3. Penology or Correction - the study that deals with punishment and the treatment of criminals;
4. Criminalistics or Forensic Science - one more area of concern in crime detection and investigation.

Nature of Criminology

Understanding crime is as complex as other fields of interest. It requires therefore a systematic and balanced
knowledge in the examination of why they exist. In this sense, criminology is:

1. An Applied Science – Anthropology, psychology, sociology and other natural sciences may be applied in the study of
the causes of crime while chemistry, medicine, physics, mathematics, etc. maybe utilized in crime detection.
2. A Social Science – Inasmuch as crime is a societal creation and that it exists in a society, its study must be considered
a part of social science.
3. Dynamic – Criminology changes as social condition changes. That means the progress of criminology is concordant
with the advancement of other sciences that have been applied to it.
4. Nationalistic – The study of crime must always be in relation with the existing criminal law with in the territory.
OBJECT OF INTEREST IN CRIMINOLOGY

CRIME

In as much as the definition of crime is concerned, many field of study like law, sociology and psychology have their
respective emphasis on what crime is.

Crime may be defined as:

 An act or omission in violation of a criminal law in its legal point of view.

 An anti-social act; an act that is injurious, detrimental or harmful to the norms of society; they are the unacceptable acts
in its social definition.
 Psychologically, crime is an act, which is considered undesirable due to behavioral maladjustment of the offender; acts
that are caused by maladaptive or abnormal behaviors.

CRIME is also a generic name that refers to offense, felony and delinquency or misdemeanor.

 Offense – is an act or omission that is punishable by special laws ( a special law is a statute enacted by Congress,
penal in character, which is not an amendment to the Revised Penal Code) such as Republic Acts, Presidential
Decrees, Executive Orders, Memorandum Circulars, Ordinances and Rules and Regulations ( Reyes, 1960)
 Felony – is an act or mission that is punishable by the Revised Penal Code, the criminal law in the Philippines (Reyes,
1960).
 Delinquency/Misdemeanor – acts that are in violation of simple rules and regulations usually referring to acts
committed by minor offenders.

Criminological Classification of Crime

Crimes are classified in order to focus a better understanding on their existence. Criminologists consider the following
as criminological classification of crimes (Criminology Reviewer, 1996).

 Acquisitive and Extinctive Crimes - Acquisitive Crime is one which when committed, the offender acquires
something as a consequence of his criminal act. The crime is extinctive when the result of criminal act is destruction.
 Seasonal and Situational Crimes - Seasonal crimes are those that are committed only at certain period of the year
while situational crimes are those that are committed only when given a situation conducive to its commission.
 Episodic and Instant Crimes - Episodic crimes are serial crimes; they are committed by series of act within a lengthy
space of time. Instant crimes are those that are committed the shortest possible time.
 Static and Continuing Crimes - Static crimes are crimes that are committed only in one place. Continuing crime are
crimes that are committed in several places.
 Rational and Irrational Crimes - Rational crimes are those committed with intent; offender is in full possession of his
mental faculties /capabilities while Irrational crimes are committed without intent; offender does not know the nature of
his act.
 White Collar and Blue Collar Crimes - White Collar Crimes are those committed by a person of responsibility and of
upper socio-economic class in the course of their occupational activities. Blue Collar Crimes are those committed by
ordinary professionals to maintain their livelihood.
 Upper World and Underworld Crimes - Upper World Crimes are those committed by individuals belonging to the upper
class of society. Under World Crime are committed by members of the lower or under privilege class of society.
 Crimes by Imitation and Crimes by Passion - Crimes by Imitation are crimes committed by merely duplication of what
was done by others. Crimes by Passion are crimes committed because of the fit of great emotions.

 Service Crimes - Service Crime refers to crimes committed through rendition of a service to satisfy desire of another.

Legal Classification of Crimes

Under the law, crimes are classified as:

  Crimes against National Security and the Law of Nations -
Example – Treason, Espionage, Piracy
 Crimes against the Fundamental Law of the State.
Example – Arbitrary Detention, Violation of Domicile
 Crimes against Public Order.
Example – Rebellion, Sedition, Coup d’tat
 Crimes against Public Interest.
Example – Forgery, Falsification, Fraud
 Crimes against Public Morals
Example – Gambling and betting, offences against decency and good customs like scandals, obscenity,
vagrancy, and prostitution
 Crimes Committed by Public Officers
Example – Malfeasance and Misfeasance
 Crimes against Person
Example – Murder, Rape, Physical Injuries
 Crimes against Properties
Example – Robbery, Theft
 Crimes against Personal Liberty and Security
Example – Illegal Detention, Kidnapping, Trespass to Dwelling, Threat and Coercion
 Crimes against Chastity
Example – Concubinage, Adultery, Seduction, Abduction, Acts of Lasciviousness
 Crimes against Civil Status of Persons
Example – Bigamy and Other Illegal Marriages
 Crimes against Honor
Example – Libel, Oral Defamation
 Quasi-offenses or Criminal Negligence
Example – Imprudence and Negligence

THE CRIMINAL

On the basis of the definition of crime, a criminal may be defined in three ways:

 A person who committed a crime and has been convicted by a court of the violation of a criminal law. (legal definition)
 A person who violated a social norm or one who did an anti-social act. (social definition)
 A person who violated rules of conduct due to behavioral maladjustment. (psychological definition)

Criminological Classification of Criminals

Based on Etiology

 Acute Criminal is one who violates a criminal law because of the impulse or fit of passion. They commit passionate
crimes.
 Chronic Criminal is one who commits crime acted in consonance of deliberated thinking. He plans the crime ahead of
time. They are the targeted offenders.

Based on Behavioral System

 Ordinary Criminal is considered the lowest form of criminal in a criminal career. He doesn’t stick to crime as a
profession but rather pushed to commit crimes due to great opportunity.
 Organized Criminal is one who associates himself with other criminals to earn a high degree of organization to enable
them to commit crimes easily without being detected by authorities. They commit organized crimes.
  Professional Criminal is a person who is engaged in criminal activities with high degree of skill. He is usually one who
practices crime as a profession to maintain a living.

Based on Activities

 Professional Criminals are those who practice crime as a profession for a living. Criminal activity is constant in order to
earn skill and develop ability in their commission.
 Accidental Criminals are those who commit crimes when the situation is conducive to its commission.
 Habitual Criminals are those who continue to commit crime because of deficiency of intelligence and lack of self –
control.

Based on Mental Attitudes

 Active Criminals are those who commit crimes due to aggressiveness.

 Passive Inadequate Criminals are those who commit crimes because they are pushed to it by reward or promise.
 Socialized Delinquents are criminals who are normal in behavior but defective in their socialization process or
development.

Based on Legal Classification

 Habitual Delinquent is a person who, with in a period of ten years from the date of his release or last conviction of the
crimes of serious or less serious physical injuries, robbery, estafa, or falsification, is found guilty of any of the said
crimes or a third time oftener.

 Recidivist is one who, at the time of his trial for one crime, shall have been previously convicted by final judgment of
another crime embraced in the same title of the Revised Penal Code.

CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

Crime in its legal definition may constitute an intentional act in violation of the criminal law and penalized by the state a
felony, offense or misdemeanor. Criminal behavior, therefore, is an intentional behavior that violates a criminal code (Bartol,
1995).

Criminal behavior may also refer to the study of the human conduct focused on the mental processes of the criminal:
the way he behaves or acts including his activities and the causes and influences if his criminal behavior.

VICTIMS OF CRIME

Victimology is simply the study of victims of crimes and contributory role, if any, in crime causation. It is also the
scientific process of gaining substantial amounts of knowledge on offender characteristics by studying the nature of victims.
(Schmalleger, 1997).

PENOLOGY (CORRECTION)

This is another object of interest of criminology that deals with punishment of criminal offenders. Punishment is justified
by deterrence, retribution, atonement, societal protection, and reformation of criminals.

APPROACHES AND THEORIES OF CRIME

SUBJECTIVE APPROACHES - deals mainly on the biological explanation of crimes, focused on the forms of
abnormalities that exist in the individual criminal before, during and after the commission of the crime (Tradio, 1999). Included
under this approach are:
 1. Anthropological Approach – the study on the physical characteristics of an individual offender with non-offenders in the
attempt to discover differences covering criminal behavior (Hooton).
2. Medical Approach - the application of medical examinations on the individual criminal explain the mental and physical
condition of the individual prior and after the commission of the crime (Positivist).
3. Biological Approach –the evaluation of genetic influences to criminal behavior. It is noted that heredity is one force
pushing the criminal to crime (Positivist).
4. Physiological Approach – the study on the nature of human being concerning his physical needs in order to satisfy his
ants. It explains that the deprivation of the physical body on the basic needs is an important determiner of the
commission if crime (Maslow).
5. Psychological Approach – it is concerned about the deprivation of the psychological needs of man, which constitute the
development of deviations of normal behavior resulting to unpleasant emotions (Freud, Maslow).
6. Psychiatric Approach – the explanation of crime through diagnosis of mental diseases as a cause of the criminal
behavior (Positivist).
7. Psychoanalytical Approach – the explanation of crimes based on the Freudian Theory, which traces behavior as the
deviation of the repression of the basic drives (Freud).

OBJECTIVE APPROACHES - The objective approaches deal on the study of groups, social processes and institutions
as influences to behavior. They are primarily derived from social sciences (Tradio, 1999). Under this are:

1. Geographic Approach – this approach considers topography, natural resources, geographical location, and climate
lead an individual to commit crime (Quetelet).
2. Ecological Approach – it is concerned with the biotic grouping of men resulting to migration, competition, social
discrimination, division of labor and social conflict as factors of crime (Park).
3. Economic Approach – it deals with the explanation of crime concerning financial security of inadequacy and other
necessities to support life as factors to criminality (Merton).
4. Socio – Cultural Approach – those that focus on institutions, economic, financial, education, political, and religious
influences to crime (Cohen).

THEORIES OF CRIME AND THE PIONEERS

PRE-CLASSICAL ERA

The Demonological Theory - Before the development of more scientific theories of criminal behavior, one of the most
popular explanations was Demonology (Hagan, 1990). According to this explanation individuals were thought to be possessed
by good or evil spirits, which caused good or evil behavior. The theory maintains that criminal behavior was believed to be the
result of evil spirits and demons something of natural force that controls his/her behavior. Centuries ago, Guilt and innocence
were established by a variety of procedures that presumably called forth the supernatural allies of the accused. The accused
were innocent if they could survive an ordeal, or if miraculous signs appeared. They were guilty if they died at stake, or if omens
were associated with them (Bartol, 1995). Harsh punishments were also given.

PRE-TWENTIETH CENTURY THEORIES (18th C – 1738 - 1798)

In the eighteenth century, criminological literature, whether psychological, sociological, or psychiatric in bent, has
traditionally been divided into three broad schools of thought about the causes of crime: the classical, neo-classical and the
positivist schools of criminology.

The Classical School of Criminology

This is the school of thought advocated by Cesare Beccaria whose real name is Cesare Bonesara Marchese de
Beccaria together with Jeremy Bentham (1823) who proposed “Utilitarian Hedonism”, the theory, which explains that a person
always acts in such a way as to seek pleasure and avoid pain. a

Cesare Beccaria in his “ESSAY on Crimes and Punishment” presented his key ideas on the abolition of torture as a
legitimate means of extracting confessions. The Classical theory maintains that man is essentially a moral creature with absolute
free will to choose between good and evil therefore tress is placed upon the criminal himself; that every man is responsible for
his act. Freewill (Beccaria) – a philosophy advocating punishment severe enough for people to choose, to avoid criminal acts. It
includes the belief that a certain criminal act warrants a certain punishment without any punishment without any variation.
Hedonism (Bentham) – the belief that people choose pleasure and avoid pain.

The Neo-Classical School of Criminology

The neo-classical school of criminology argued that situations or circumstances that

made it impossible to exercise freewill are reasons to exempt the accused from conviction. This
school of thought maintains that while the classical doctrine is correct in general, it should be
modified in certain details, that children and lunatics should not be regarded as criminals and
free from punishment, it must take into account certain mitigating circumstances.

The Positivist/Italian School (1838 – 1909)

It maintained that crime as any other act is a natural phenomenon and is comparable to disaster or
calamity. That crime as a social and moral phenomenon which cannot be treated and checked by the
imposition of punishment but rather rehabilitation or the enforcement of individual measures. Cesare N
Lombroso and his two students, Enrico Ferri and Rafaele Garofalo advocated this school. r

Cesare Lombroso (1836 – 1909) – The Italian leader of the positivist school of criminology, was
criticized for his methodology and his attention to the biological characteristics of offenders, but his
emphasis on the need to study offenders scientifically earned him the “father of modern criminology.”
His major contribution is the development of a scientific approach to the study of criminal behavior and
to reform the criminal law. He wrote the essay entitled “CRIME: Its Causes and Remedies” that contains
his key ideas and the classifications of criminals.

Classifications of Criminals by Lombroso

1. Born Criminals – there are born criminals according to Lombroso, the belief that being criminal
behavior is inherited.
2. Criminal by Passion – are individuals who are easily influenced by great emotions like fit of
anger.
3. Insane Criminals – are those who commit crime due to abnormalities or psychological disorders.
They should be exempted from criminal liability.
4. Criminoloid – a person who commits crime due to less physical stamina/self self control.
5. Occasional Criminal – are those who commit crime due to insignificant reasons that pushed
them to do at a given occasion.
6. Pseudo-criminals – are those who kill in self-defense.

Enrico Ferri (1856 – 1929) – He was the best-known Lombroso’s associate. His greatest contribution was his attack on
the classical doctrine of free will, which argued that criminals should be held morally responsible for their crimes because they
must have made a rational decision to commit the crime.
 Raffaele Garofalo ( 1852 – 1934) – Another follower of Lombroso, an Italian nobleman, magistrate, senator, and
professor of law. Like Lombroso and Ferri, he rejected the doctrine of free will and supported the position that the only way to
understand crime was to study it by scientific methods. Influenced on Lombroso’s theory of atavistic stigmata (man’s inferior/
animalistic behavior), he traced the roots of criminal behavior not to physical features but to their psychological equivalents,
which he called “moral anomalies”.

The Classical and Positivist School Compared

Classical School Positivist School

 Legal definition of crime  No to legal definition

 Punishment fit the crime  Punishment fit the criminal
 Doctrine of free will  Doctrine of determinism
 Death penalty allowed  Abolition of death penalty
 No imperical research  Inductive method
 Definite sentence  Indeterminate sentence

EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY THEORIES

1. David Emile Durkheim (French, 1858 - 1917) - He advocated the “Anomie Theory”, the theory that
focused on the sociological point of the positivist school, which explains that the absence of norms in a
society provides a setting conductive to crimes and other anti-social acts. According to him, the
explanation of human conduct lies not in the individual but in the group and the social organization.

2. Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1969) - Psychologists have considered a variety of possibilities to account for
individual differences – defective conscience, emotional immaturity, inadequate childhood socialization,
maternal deprivation, and poor moral development. The Freudian view on criminal behavior was based
on the use of Psychology in explaining an approach in understanding criminal behavior – the foundation
of the Psychoanalytical theory.

3. Robert Ezra Park (1864 - 1944) - Park is a strong advocate of the scientific method in explaining criminality
but he is a sociologist. He advocated the “Human Ecology Theory”. Human Ecology is the study of the
interrelationship of people and their environment. This theory maintains that crime is a function of social
change that occurs along with environmental change. It also maintains that the isolation, segregation,
competition, conflict, social contract, interaction and social hierarchy of people are the major influences
of criminal behavior and crimes.

MIDDLE TWENTIETH CENTURY

1. Ernest Kretschmer (1888 – 1964) - The idea of somatotyping was originated from the work of a German
Psychiatrist, Ernest Kretschmer, who distinguished three principal types of physique as:
1. Asthenic – lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders
2. Athletic – medium to tall, strong, muscular, course bones
 3. Pyknic – medium height, rounded figure, massive neck, broad face

Kretschmer related these body physique to various pychotic behavioral patterns: Pyknic to manic
depression, asthenics and athletics to schizophrenia.

2. William H. Sheldon (1898 – 1977) - Sheldon is an influenced of the Somatotype School of Criminology, which
related body built to behavior. He became popular of his own Somatotyping Theory. His key ideas are
concentrated on the principle of “Survival of the Fittest” as a behavioral science. He combines the biological and
psychological explanation to understand deviant behavior. Sheldon’s “Somatotyping Theory” maintains the
belief of inheritance as the primary determinants of behavior and the physique is a reliable indicator of
personality.

Classification of Body Physique by Sheldon

Estafa/any
deception
crime a. Endomorphy – a type with relatively predominance of soft, roundness through out the regions of the body. They
have low specific gravity. Persons with typically relaxed and comfortable disposition.
t/physical b. Mesomorphy – athletic type, predominance of muscle, bone and connective tissue, normally heavy, hard and
olence
firm, sting and tough. They are the people who are routinely active and aggressive, and they are the most likely
to commit crimes.
eft/robbery c. Ectomorphy – thin physique, flat chest, delicacy through the body, slender, poorly muscled. They tend to look
more fatigue and withdrawn.

3. Edwin Sutherland (1883 - 1950) - Sutherland has been referred to as “the most important criminologist of the twentieth
century” because his explanation about crime and criminal behavior can be seen as a corrected extension of social
perspective. For this reason, he was considered as the “Dean of Modern Criminology.” He said that crime is learned
and not inherited.

He advocated the DAT – Differential Association Theory, which maintain that the society is composed of different
group organization, the societies consist of a group of people having criminalistic tradition and anti-criminalistic
tradition. And that criminal behavior is learned and not inherited. It is learned through the process of communication,
and learning process includes technique of committing the crime, motive and attitude.

4. The Containment Theory assumes that for every individual

Walter Reckless (1899 - 1988) -
there exists a containing external structure and a protective internal structure, both of
which provide defense, protection or insulation against crime or delinquency. According
to Reckless, the outer structure of an individual are the external pressures such as
poverty, unemployment, and blocked opportunities while the inner containment refers
to the person’s self-control ensured by strong ego, good self-image, well developed
conscience, high frustration tolerance and high sense of responsibility. (Adler, 1995)

5. Karl Marx, Frederick Engel, Willem Bonger (1818 -1940) -They are the proponents of the Social Class Conflict and
Capitalism Theory. Marx and Engel claim that the ruling class in a capitalist society is responsible for the creation of
criminal law and their ideological bases in the interpretation and enforcement of the laws. All are reflected in the ruling
class, thus crime and delinquency are reflected on the demoralized surplus of population, which is made up of the
underprivileged usually the unemployed and underemployed. Willem Bonger, a Marxist-Socialist, on the other hand,
placed more emphasis on working bout crimes of economic gain. He believes that profit -motive of capitalism
generates an egoistic personality. Hence, crime is an inevitable outcome.
LATE 20TH CENTURY: THE CONTEMPORARY PIONEERS

1. Robert King Merton (1910) - Robert Merton is the premier sociologist of the modern days who, after
Durkheim, also related the crime problem to anomie. He advocated the Strain Theory, which maintains
that the failure of man to achieve a higher status of life caused them to commit crimes in order for that
status/goal to be attained. He argued that crime is a means to achieve goals and the social structure is the
root of the crime problem. Merton’s explanation to criminal behavior assumes that people are law
abiding but when under great pressure will result to crime.

2. Albert Cohen (1918) - He advocated the Sub-Culture Theory of Delinquency. Cohen claims that the lower class cannot
socialize effectively as the middle class in what is considered appropriate middle class behavior. Thus, the lower class
gathered together share their common problems, forming a subculture that rejects middle class values. Cohen called
this process as reaction formation. Much of this behavior comes to be called delinquent behavior; the subculture is
called a gang and the kids are called delinquents. He put emphasis on the explanation of prevalence, origins, process
and purposes as factors to crime.

3. Gresham Sykes (1922) - He advocated the Neutralization Theory. It maintains that an individual will obey or disobey
societal rules depending upon his or her ability to rationalize whether he is protected from hurt or destruction. People
become law abiding if they feel they are benefited by it and they violate it if these laws are not favorable to them.

4. Lloyd Ohlin (1928) - He advocated the DOT – Differential Opportunity Theory. This
theory explained that society leads the lower class to want things and society does
things to people. He claimed that there is differential opportunity, or access, to success
goals by both legitimate and illegitimate means depending on the specific location of
the individual with in the social structure. Thus, lower class groups are provided with
greater opportunities for the acquisition of deviant acts.

5. Frank Tennenbaum, Edwin Lemert, Howard Becker (1822 - 1982) - They are the advocates of the Labeling Theory –
the theory that explains about social reaction to behavior. The theory maintains that the original cause of
crime cannot be known, no behavior is intrinsically criminal, behavior becomes criminal if it is labeled as
such.

6. Earl Richard Quinney (1934) – He was a Marxist criminologist who advocated the Instrumentalist Theory of capitalist
rule. He argued that the state exist as a device for controlling the exploited class – the class that labors for the benefit
of the ruling class. He claims that upper classes create laws that protect their interest and t the same time the
unwanted behavior of all other members of society. Quinney major contribution is that he proposed the shift in focus
from looking for the causes of crime from the individual to the examination of the Criminal Justice System for clues.

OTHER THEORISTS

1. Charles Darwin’s Theory (1809 - 1882) - In the theory of evolution, he claimed that humans, like other animals, are
parasite. Man is an organism having an animalistic behavior that is dependent on other animals for survival. Thus, man
kills and steal to live.

2. Charles Goring’s Theory (1870 - 1919) - The medical officer in prison in England who accepted the Lombroso’s
challenge that body physique is a determinant to behavior. Goring concluded that there is no such thing a physical
chemical type. He contradicted the Lombroso’s idea that criminality can be seen through features alone. Nevertheless,
 Goring accepted that criminals are physically inferior to normal individuals in the sense that criminals tend to be shorter
and have less weight than non-criminals.

3. Earnest Hooton’s Theory (1887 - 1954) - An Anthropologist who reexamined the work of Goring and found out that
“Tall thin men tend to commit forgery and fraud, undersized men are thieves and burglars, short heavy person commit
assault, rape and other sex crimes; where as mediocre (average) physique flounder around among other crimes.” He
also contended that criminals are originally inferior; and that crime is the result of the impact of environment.

4. Adolphe Quetelet (1796 - 1874) - Quetelet was a Belgian Statistician who pioneered Cartography and the
Carthographical School of Criminology that placed emphasis on social statistics. He discovered, basing on his
research, that crimes against persons increased during summer and crimes against property tends to increase during
winter.

HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF THE THEORIES

The history of criminology dates back from the works of criminological thinkers or theorists in criminology. The origins
of criminology are usually located in the late-eighteenth-century writings of those who sought to reform criminal justice and penal
systems that they perceived as cruel, inhumane, and arbitrary. These old systems applied the law unequally, were subject to
great corruption, and often used torture and the death penalty indiscriminately.

THEORY MOTIVE
Demonology (5,000 BC-1692 AD) Demonic Influence
Astrology (3500 BC-1630 AD) Zodiac/Planetary Influence
Theology (1215 BC-present) God's will
Medicine (3000 BC -present) Natural illness
Education (1642-present) Academic underachievement/bad teachers
Psychiatry (1795-present) Mental illness
Psychoanalysis (1895-present) Subconscious guilt/defense mechanisms
Classical School of Criminology (1690--) Free will/reason/hedonism
Positive School of Criminology (1840--) Determinism/beyond control of individual
Phrenology (1770-1875) Bumps on head
Cartography (1800-present) Geographic location/climate
Mental Testing (1895-present) Feeble-mindedness/retardation/low IQ
Osteopathy (1892-present) Abnormalities of bones or joints
Chiropractics (1895-present) Misalignment of spine/nerves
Imitation (1843-1905) Mind on mind crowd influences
Economics (1818-present) Poverty/economic need/consumerism
Case Study Approach (1909-present) Emotional/social development
Social Work (1903-present) Community/individual relations
Sociology (1908-present) Social/environmental factors
Castration (1907-1947) Secretion of androgen from testes
Ecology (1927-present) Relation of person with environment
Transexualism (1937-1969) Trapped in body of wrong sex
Psychosurgery (1935-1959) Frontal lobe dysfunction/need lobotomy
Culture Conflict (1938-1980) Conflict of customs from “old” country
Differential Association (1939-present) Learning from bad companions
Anomie (1938-present) State of normlessness/goal-means gap
Differential Opportunity (1961-present) Absence of legitimate opportunities
 Alienation (1938-1975)
Identity (1942-1980)
Identification (1950-1955)
Containment (1961-1971)
Prisonization (1940-1970)
Gang Formation (1927-present)
Behavior Modification (1938-1959)
Social Defense (1947-1971)
Guided Group Interaction (1958-1971)
Interpersonal Maturity (1965-1983)
Sociometry (1958-1969)
Dysfunctional Families (1958-present)
White-collar Crime (1945-present)
Control Theory (1961-present)
Strain Theory (1954-present)
Subcultures (1955-present)
Labeling Theory (1963-1976)
Neutralization (1957-1990)
Drift (1964-1984)
Reference Groups (1953-1978)
Operant Conditioning (1953-1980)
Reality Therapy (1965-1975)
Gestalt Therapy (1969-1975)
Transactional Analysis (1961-1974)
Learning Disabilities (1952-1984)
Biodynamics (1955-1962)
Nutrition and Diet (1979-present)
Metabolism (1950-1970)
Biofeedback (1974-1981)
Biosocial Criminology (1977-1989)
The "New Criminology" (1973-1983)
Conflict Criminology (1969-present)
Critical Criminology (1973-present)
Radical Criminology (1976-present)
Left Realism (1984-present)
Criminal Personality (1976-1980)
Criminal Pathways Theory (1979-present)
Feminism (1980-present)
Low Self Control Theory (1993-present)
General Strain Theory (1994-present)
CRIMES OF THE MODERN WORLD
The crimes in the modern world represent the latest and the most dangerous manifestations of the something-for-
nothing-complex problems of society. This includes Organized Crimes, White-Collar Crimes, Conventional Cries, Victimless
Crimes and the so-called Transnational Crimes. The transnational character of many crimes in this modern world, although not
new, has not been fully recognized until recently. Crime was traditionally viewed as a purely domestic law enforcement issue
Frustration/feeling cut off from others
Hostile attitude/crisis/sense of sameness
Making heroes out of legendary criminals
Outer temptation/inner resistance balance
Customs and folkways of prison culture
Need for acceptance, status, belonging
Reward/Punishment Programming
Soft targets/absence of crime prevention
Absence of self-responsibility/discussion
Unsocialized, subcultural responses
One’s place in group network system
Members “feed off” other’s neurosis
Cutting corners/bordering on illegal
Weak social bonds/natural predispositions
Anger, relative deprivation, inequality
Criminal values as normal within group
Self-fulfilling prophecies/name-calling
Self-talk, excuses before behavior
Sense of limbo/living in two worlds
Imaginary support groups
Stimuli-to-stimuli contingencies
Failure to face reality
Perception of small part of "big picture"
No communication between inner parent-adult-child
School failure/relying on "crutch"
Lack of harmony with environment
Imbalances in mineral/vitamin content
Imbalance in metabolic system
Involuntary reactions to stress
Environment triggers inherited "markers"
Ruling class oppression
Structural barriers to class interests
Segmented group formations
Inarticulation of theory/praxis
Working class prey on one another
Errors of thinking
Critical turning/tipping points in life events
Patriarchial power structures
Impulsiveness, Sensation-seeking
Stress, Hassles, Interpersonal Relations
and, therefore, treated and addressed as an exclusive concern of individual states. As such crimes, being a new threat to
domestic and international interest and security, has given recognition to be known as Transnational Crimes.

Transnational crime is an offense that has an international dimension and implies crossing at least one national border before,
during or after the fact. This include but not limited to illegal drug trafficking, money laundering, terrorism, arm smuggling, piracy,
kidnapping, trafficking in persons, and cyber crimes. Most of these crimes falling under this category reflect connection with
organized and white-collar criminals