Biology is a natural science concerned with the study oI liIe and living organisms, including their structure,

Iunction, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.

|1|
Biology is a vast subject containing many
subdivisions, topics, and disciplines. Among the most important topics are Iive uniIying principles that can be
said to be the Iundamental axioms oI modern biology:
|2|

1. Cells are the basic unit oI liIe
2. New species and inherited traits are the product oI evolution
3. Genes are the basic unit oI heredity
4. An organism regulates its internal environment to maintain a stable and constant condition
5. Living organisms consume and transIorm energy.
Subdisciplines oI biology are recognized on the basis oI the scale at which organisms are studied and the
methods used to study them: biochemistry examines the rudimentary chemistry oI liIe; molecular biology
studies the complex interactions oI systems oI biological molecules; cellular biology examines the basic
building block oI all liIe, the cell; physiology examines the physical and chemical Iunctions oI the tissues,
organs, and organ systems oI an organism; and ecology examines how various organisms interact and associate
with their environment.

hys|ca| Sc|ence ls an encompasslng Lerm for Lhe branches of naLural sclence and sclence LhaL sLudy nonllvlng
sysLems ln conLrasL Lo Lhe llfe sclences Powever Lhe Lerm physlcal creaLes an unlnLended somewhaL
arblLrary dlsLlncLlon slnce many branches of physlcal sclence also sLudy blologlcal phenomena 1he
foundaLlons of Lhe physlcal sclences resLs upon key concepLs and Lheorles each of whlch explalns and/or
models a parLlcular aspecL of Lhe behavlor of naLure

7.ite.tu7e (Latin architectura, Irom the Greek pitcktev arkhitekton, Irom pi- "chieI" and tcktev
"builder, carpenter, mason") can mean:
O %he art and science oI designing and erecting buildings and other physical structures.
O %he practice oI an architect, where architecture means to oIIer or render proIessional services in
connection with the design and construction oI a building, or group oI buildings and the space within the
site surrounding the buildings, that have as their principal purpose human occupancy or use.
|1|

O A general term to describe buildings and other structures.
O A style and method oI design and construction oI buildings and other physical structures.
A wider deIinition may comprise all design activity, Irom the macro-level (urban design, landscape
architecture) to the micro-level (construction details and Iurniture). Architecture is both the process and product
oI planning, designing and constructing Iorm, space and ambience that reIlect Iunctional, technical, social,
environmental, and aesthetic considerations. It requires the creative manipulation and coordination oI material,
technology, light and shadow. Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects oI realizing buildings and
structures, including scheduling, cost estimating and construction administration. As documentation produced
by architects, typically drawings, plans and technical speciIications, architecture deIines the structure and/or
behavior oI a building or any other kind oI system that is to be or has been constructed.
Architectural works are oIten perceived as cultural and political symbols and as works oI art. Historical
civilizations are oIten identiIied with their surviving architectural achievements.
Architecture sometimes reIers to the activity oI designing any kind oI system and the term is common in the
inIormation technology world.

emist7y (the etymology oI the word has been much disputed)
|1|
is the science oI matter and the changes it
undergoes. %he science oI matter is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes a more general and
Iundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned with the composition, behavior (or
reaction), structure, and properties oI matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.
|2|
It
is a physical science which studies various substances, atoms, molecules, crystals and other aggregates oI matter
whether in isolation or combination, and which incorporates the concepts oI energy and entropy in relation to
the spontaneity oI chemical processes.
isciplines within chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type oI matter being studied or the kind oI study.
%hese include inorganic chemistry, the study oI inorganic matter; organic chemistry, the study oI organic
(carbon based) matter; biochemistry, the study oI substances Iound in biological organisms; physical chemistry,
the study oI chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and
analytical chemistry, the analysis oI material samples to gain an understanding oI their chemical composition
and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the
chemical study oI the nervous system (see subdisciplines).

Botany, plant s.ien.e(s), or plant biology is a branch oI biology that involves the scientiIic study oI plant liIe.
Botany covers a wide range oI scientiIic disciplines concerned with the study oI plants, algae and Iungi,
including structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, chemical properties, and
evolutionary relationships among taxonomic groups. Botany began with early human eIIorts to identiIy edible,
medicinal and poisonous plants, making it one oI the oldest sciences. %oday botanists study over 550,000
species oI living organisms.
%he term "botany" comes Irom Greek otuvq, meaning "pasture, grass, Iodder", perhaps via the idea oI a
livestock keeper needing to know which plants are saIe Ior livestock to eat.

Enginee7ing is the discipline, art, skill and proIession oI acquiring and applying scientiIic, mathematical,
economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems,
materials and processes that saIely realize improvements to the lives oI people.
%he American Engineers' Council Ior ProIessional evelopment (ECP, the predecessor oI ABE%)
|1|
has
deIined "engineering" as:
|%|he creative application oI scientiIic principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or
manuIacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same
with Iull cognizance oI their design; or to Iorecast their behavior under speciIic operating conditions; all as
respects an intended Iunction, economics oI operation and saIety to liIe and property.
|2||3||4|

One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more Iormal
designations such as ProIessional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur or European
Engineer. %he broad discipline oI engineering encompasses a range oI more specialized subdisciplines, each
with a more speciIic emphasis on certain Iields oI application and particular areas oI technology.

eo|ogy (from Lhe Creek y earLh and o sLudy) ls Lhe sclence LhaL comprlses Lhe sLudy of
Lhe solld LarLh and Lhe processes by whlch lL ls shaped and changed Ceology provldes prlmary evldence for
plaLe LecLonlcs Lhe hlsLory of llfe and evoluLlon and pasL cllmaLes ln modern Llmes geology ls commerclally
lmporLanL for mlneral and hydrocarbon exploraLlon and for evaluaLlng waLer resources ls publlcly lmporLanL
for Lhe predlcLlon and undersLandlng of naLural hazards Lhe remedlaLlon of envlronmenLal problems and for
provldlng lnslghLs lnLo pasL cllmaLe change plays an essenLlal role ln geoLechnlcal englneerlng and ls a ma[or
academlc dlsclpllne

eo|ogy (from Lhe Creek y earLh and o sLudy) ls Lhe sclence LhaL comprlses Lhe sLudy of
Lhe solld LarLh and Lhe processes by whlch lL ls shaped and changed Ceology provldes prlmary evldence for
plaLe LecLonlcs Lhe hlsLory of llfe and evoluLlon and pasL cllmaLes ln modern Llmes geology ls commerclally
lmporLanL for mlneral and hydrocarbon exploraLlon and for evaluaLlng waLer resources ls publlcly lmporLanL
for Lhe predlcLlon and undersLandlng of naLural hazards Lhe remedlaLlon of envlronmenLal problems and for
provldlng lnslghLs lnLo pasL cllmaLe change plays an essenLlal role ln geoLechnlcal englneerlng and ls a ma[or
academlc dlsclpllne

edi.ine is the science and art oI healing. It encompasses a variety oI health care practices evolved to maintain
and restore health by the prevention and treatment oI illness.
Contemporary medicine applies health science, biomedical research, and medical technology to diagnose and
treat injury and disease, typically through medication, surgery, or some other Iorm oI therapy. %he word
2edicine is derived Irom the Latin ars 2edicina, meaning the art of healing.
|1||2|

%hough medical technology and clinical expertise are pivotal to contemporary medicine, successIul Iace-to-Iace
relieI oI actual suIIering continues to require the application oI ordinary human Ieeling and compassion, known
in English as bedside 2anner.
i.7obiology (Irom Greek kpo, 2ros, "small"; io, bios, "liIe"; and -oiu, -logia) is the study oI
2icroorganis2s, which are microscopic, unicellular, and cell-cluster organisms.
|1|
%his includes eukaryotes
such as Iungi and protists, and prokaryotes. Viruses
|2|
and prions, though not strictly classed as living
organisms, are also studied. Microbiology typically includes the study oI the immune system, or Immunology.
Generally, immune systems interact with pathogenic microbes; these two disciplines oIten intersect which is
why many colleges oIIer a paired degree such as "Microbiology and Immunology".
Microbiology is a broad term which includes virology, mycology, parasitology, bacteriology and other
branches. A microbiologist is a specialist in microbiology and these other topics.
Microbiology is researched actively, and the Iield is advancing continually. It is estimated only about one
percent oI all oI the microbe species on Earth have been studied.
|3|
Although microbes were directly observed
over three hundred years ago, the Iield oI microbiology can be said to be in its inIancy relative to older
biological disciplines such as zoology and botany.
st7onomy is a natural science that deals with the study oI celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets,
nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the
cosmic background radiation). It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion
oI celestial objects, as well as the Iormation and development oI the universe.
Astronomy is one oI the oldest sciences. Prehistoric cultures leIt behind astronomical artiIacts such as the
Egyptian monuments, Nubian monuments and Stonehenge, and early civilizations such as the Babylonians,
Greeks, Chinese, Indians, and Maya perIormed methodical observations oI the night sky. However, the
invention oI the telescope was required beIore astronomy was able to develop into a modern science.
Historically, astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational
astronomy, the making oI calendars, and even astrology, but proIessional astronomy is nowadays oIten
considered to be synonymous with astrophysics.
uring the 20th century, the Iield oI proIessional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches.
Observational astronomy is Iocused on acquiring data Irom observations oI celestial objects, which is then
analyzed using basic principles oI physics. %heoretical astronomy is oriented towards the development oI
computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. %he two Iields complement
each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the observational results, and observations being used
to conIirm theoretical results.
Amateur astronomers have contributed to many important astronomical discoveries, and astronomy is one oI the
Iew sciences where amateurs can still play an active role, especially in the discovery and observation oI
transient phenomena.
Ancient astronomy is not to be conIused with astrology, the belieI system which claims that human aIIairs are
correlated with the positions oI celestial objects. Although the two Iields share a common origin and a part oI
their methods (namely, the use oI ephemerides), they are distinct.
|1|

Histo7y (Irom Greek o:ooio - historia, meaning "inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation"
|2|
) is the
discovery, collection, organization, and presentation oI inIormation about past events. History can also mean the
period oI time aIter writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians. It is a Iield oI
research which uses a narrative to examine and analyse the sequence oI events, and it sometimes attempts to
investigate objectively the patterns oI cause and eIIect that determine events.
|3||4|
Historians debate the nature oI
history and its useIulness. %his includes discussing the study oI the discipline as an end in itselI and as a way oI
providing "perspective" on the problems oI the present.
|3||5||6||7|
%he stories common to a particular culture, but
not supported by external sources (such as the legends surrounding King Arthur) are usually classiIied as
cultural heritage rather than the "disinterested investigation" needed by the discipline oI history.
|8||9|
Events oI
the past prior to written record are considered prehistory.
Amongst scholars, the IiIth century BC Greek historian Herodotus is considered to be the "Iather oI history",
and, along with his contemporary %hucydides, Iorms the Ioundations Ior the modern study oI history. %heir
inIluence, along with other historical traditions in other parts oI their world, have spawned many diIIerent
interpretations oI the nature oI history which has evolved over the centuries and are continuing to change. %he
modern study oI history has many diIIerent Iields including those that Iocus on certain regions and those which
Iocus on certain topical or thematical elements oI historical investigation. OIten history is taught as part oI
primary and secondary education, and the academic study oI history is a major discipline in University studies.

eteo7ology is the interdisciplinary scientiIic study oI the atmosphere. Studies in the Iield stretch back
millennia, though signiIicant progress in meteorology did not occur until the eighteenth century. %he nineteenth
century saw breakthroughs occur aIter observing networks developed across several countries. Breakthroughs in
weather Iorecasting were achieved in the latter halI oI the twentieth century, aIter the development oI the
computer.
Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events which illuminate and are explained by the science oI
meteorology. %hose events are bound by the variables that exist in Earth's atmosphere; temperature, air
pressure, water vapor, and the gradients and interactions oI each variable, and how they change in time. %he
majority oI Earth's observed weather is located in the troposphere.
|1||2|
iIIerent spatial scales are studied to
determine how systems on local, region, and global levels impact weather and climatology. Meteorology,
climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines oI the atmospheric sciences.
Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary Iield oI hydrometeorology. Interactions between
Earth's atmosphere and the oceans are part oI coupled ocean-atmosphere studies. Meteorology has application
in many diverse Iields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture and construction.
%he word "meteorology" is Irom Greek ctcepo 2eteros "loIty; high (in the sky)" (Irom ctu- 2eta- "above"
and ep er "to liIt up") and -oiu -logia "-(o)logy".

oo|ogy (pronounced /zoldl/ Lhough Lhe nonsLandard pronunclaLlon /zuldl/
1
ls also common)
occaslonally also spelL ls Lhe branch of blology whlch relaLes Lo Lhe anlmal klngdom lncludlng Lhe
sLrucLure embryology evoluLlon classlflcaLlon hablLs and dlsLrlbuLlon of all anlmals boLh llvlng and exLlncL
1he Lerm ls derlved from AnclenL Creek ( (zon anlmal") + o (logos knowledge")
E.onomi.s is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption oI goods and
services. %he term econo2ics comes Irom the Ancient Greek oovonio (oiono2ia, "management oI a
household, administration") Irom oo (oios, "house") vono (no2os, "custom" or "law"), hence "rules oI
the house(hold)".
|1|
Current economic models emerged Irom the broader Iield oI political economy in the late
19th century. A primary stimulus Ior the development oI modern economics was the desire to use an empirical
approach more akin to the physical sciences.
|2|

Economics aims to explain how economies work and how economic agents interact. Economic analysis is
applied throughout society, in business, Iinance and government, but also in crime,
|3|
education,
|4|
the Iamily,
health, law, politics, religion,
|5|
social institutions, war,
|6|
and science.
|7|
%he expanding domain oI economics in
the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism.
|8|

Common distinctions are drawn between various dimensions oI economics. %he primary textbook distinction is
between microeconomics, which examines the behavior oI basic elements in the economy, including individual
markets and agents (such as consumers and Iirms, buyers and sellers), and macroeconomics, which addresses
issues aIIecting an entire economy, including unemployment, inIlation, economic growth, and monetary and
Iiscal policy. Other distinctions include: between positive economics (describing "what is") and normative
economics (advocating "what ought to be"); between economic theory and applied economics; between
mainstream economics (more "orthodox" dealing with the "rationality-individualism-equilibrium nexus") and
heterodox economics (more "radical" dealing with the "institutions-history-social structure nexus");
|9|
and
between rational and behavioral economics.