Q1.

Functions of Management or Management Functions

Management consists of the functions given below. It is based on Henri Fayol's thinking on the functions of management. 1. Planning: generating plans of action for immediate, short term, medium term and long term periods. 2. Organizing: organizing the resources, particularly human resources, in the best possible manner. 3. Staffing: positioning right people right jobs at right time. 4. Directing (includes leading, motivating, communicating and coordinating): Communicate and coordinate with people to lead and enthuse them to work effectively together to achieve the plans of the organization. 5. Controlling (includes review and monitoring): evaluating the progress against the plans and making corrections either in plans or in execution. Each of these functions is explained in some detail below. 1. Planning

Planning is decision making process. It is making decisions on future course of actions. Planning involves taking decisions on vision, mission, values, objectives, strategies and policies of an organization. Planning is done for immediate, short term, medium term and long term periods. It is a guideline for execution/implementation.

It is a measure to check the effectiveness and efficiency of an organization. 2. Organizing

Organizing involves determination and grouping of the activities. Designing organization structures and departmentation based on this grouping. Defining the roles and responsibilities of the departments and of the job positions within these departments. Defining relationships between departments and job positions.

Defining authorities for departments and job positions. Staffing

It includes manpower or human resource planning. Staffing involves recruitment, selection, induction and positioning the people in theorganization. Decisions on remuneration packages are part of staffing.

Training, retraining, development, mentoring and counseling are important aspects of staffing.

It also includes performance appraisals and designing and administering the motivational packages. 4. Directing

It is one of the most important functions of management to translate company's plans into execution. It includes providing leadership to people so that they work willingly and enthusiastically. Directing people involves motivating them all the time to enthuse them to give their best. Communicating companies plans throughout the organization is an important directing activity. It also means coordinating various people and their activities.

Directing aims at achieving the best not just out of an individual but achieving the best through the groups or teams of people through team building efforts. 5. Controlling

It includes verifying the actual execution against the plans to ensure that execution is being done in accordance with the plans. It measures actual performance against the plans. It sets standards or norms of performance. It measures the effective and efficiency of execution against these standards and the plans. It periodically reviews, evaluates and monitors the performance. If the gaps are found between execution levels and the plans, controlling function involves suitable corrective actions to expedite the execution to match up with the plans or in certain circumstances deciding to make modifications in the plans.

Q2.

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i.e., making a new association between events in the environment. There are two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlovs experiments with dogs) and operant conditioning. Pavlovs Dogs In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prizewinning work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled psychic reflexes. While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlovs dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder. Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlovs dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the rest of his career further exploring this finding. In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dogs salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food.

Operant theory Another type of learning, very similar to that discussed above, is called Operant Conditioning. The term "Operant" refers to how an organism operates on the environment, and hence, operant conditioning comes from how we respond to what is presented to us in our environment. It can be thought of as learning due to the natural consequences of our actions. Let's explain that a little further. The classic study of Operant Conditioning involved a cat who was placed in a box with only one way out; a specific area of the box had to be pressed in order for the door to open. The cat initially tries to get out of the box because freedom is reinforcing. In its attempt to escape, the area of the box is triggered and the door opens. The cat is now free. Once placed in the box again, the cat will naturally try to remember what it did to escape the previous time and will once again find the area to press. The more the cat is placed back in the

box, the quicker it will press that area for its freedom. It has learned, through natural consequences, how to gain the reinforcing freedom. We learn this way every day in our lives. Imagine the last time you made a mistake; you most likely remember that mistake and do things differently when the situation comes up again. In that sense, youve learned to act differently based on the natural consequences of your previous actions. The same holds true for positive actions. If something you did results in a positive outcome, you are likely to do that same activity again. Reinforcement The term reinforce means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to anything stimulus which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response. For example, if you want your dog to sit on command, you may give him a treat every time he sits for you. The dog will eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will result in a treat. This treat is reinforcing because he likes it and will result in him sitting when instructed to do so. This is a simple description of a reinforcer (Skinner, 1938), the treat, which increases the response, sitting. We all apply reinforcers everyday, most of the time without even realizing we are doing it. You may tell your child "good job" after he or she cleans their room; perhaps you tell your partner how good he or she look when they dress up; or maybe you got a raise at work after doing a great job on a project. All of these things increase the probability that the same response will be repeated. There are four types of reinforcement: positive, negative, punishment, and extinction. Well discuss each of these and give examples. Positive Reinforcement. The examples above describe what is referred to as positive reinforcement. Think of it as adding something in order to increase a response. For example, adding a treat will increase the response of sitting; adding praise will increase the chances of your child cleaning his or her room. The most common types of positive reinforcement or praise and rewards, and most of us have experienced this as both the giver and receiver. Negative Reinforcement. Think of negative reinforcement as taking something negative away in order to increase a response. Imagine a teenager who is nagged by his mother to take out the garbage week after week. After complaining to his friends about the nagging, he finally one day performs the task and to his amazement, the nagging stops. The elimination of this negative stimulus is reinforcing and will likely increase the chances that he will take out the garbage next week.

Punishment. Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a behavior. The most common example of this is disciplining (e.g. spanking) a child for misbehaving. The reason we do this is because the child begins to associate being punished with the negative behavior. The punishment is not liked and therefore to avoid it, he or she will stop behaving in that manner. Extinction. When you remove something in order to decrease a behavior, this is called extinction. You are taking something away so that a response is decreased. Research has found positive reinforcement is the most powerful of any of these. Adding a positive to increase a response not only works better, but allows both parties to focus on the positive aspects of the situation. Punishment, when applied immediately following the negative behavior can be effective, but results in extinction when it is not applied consistently. Punishment can also invoke other negative responses such as anger and resentment.

Q3. Sheldon noted three personalities based on their physical make-up. Endomorph The Endomorph is physically quite 'round', and is typified as the 'barrel of fun' person. They tend to have:

Wide hips and narrow shoulders, which makes them rather pear-shaped. Quite a lot of fat spread across the body, including upper arms and thighs. They have quite slim ankles and wrists, which only serves to accentuate the fatter other parts.

Psychologically, the endomorph is:

Sociable Fun-loving Love of food Tolerant Even-tempered Good humored Relaxed With a love of comfort And has a need for affection

Ectomorph The Ectomorph is a form of opposite of the Endomorph. Physically, they tend to have:

Narrow shoulders and hips A thin and narrow face, with a high forehead A thin and narrow chest and abdomen Thin legs and arms Very little body fat

Even though they may eat as much as the endomorph, they never seem to put on weight (much to the endomorph's chagrin). Psychologically they are:

Self-conscious Private Introverted Inhibited Socially anxious Artistic Intense Emotionally restrained Thoughtful

Mesomorph The mesomorph is somewhere between the round endomorph and the thin ectomorph. Physically, they have the more 'desirable' body, and have:

Large head, broad shoulders and narrow waist (wedge-shaped). Muscular body, with strong forearms and and thighs Very little body fat

They are generally considered as 'well-proportioned'. Psychologically, they are:

Adventurous Courageous Indifferent to what others think or want Assertive/bold Zest for physical activity Competitive With a desire for power/dominance And a love of risk/chance

Sheldon's Somatotype

Character

Shape

Picture

Endomorph [viscerotonic]

relaxed, sociable, tolerant, comfortloving, peaceful

plump, buxom, developed visceral structure

Mesomorph [somatotonic]

active, assertive, vigorous, combative

muscular

Ectomorph [cerebrotonic]

quiet, fragile, restrained, nonassertive, sensitive

lean, delicate, poor muscles

Q4. Factors Influencing Perception: A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors can reside: 1) In the perceiver 2) In the object or target being perceived or 3) In the context of the situation in which the perception is made 1. Characteristics of the perceiver: Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she stands for, that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are: a) Attitudes: The perceivers attitudes affect perception. This attitude will doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews. b) Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. c) Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on their perceptions. d) Self-Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers self-concept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person. e) Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because our individual interest differs considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ from what others perceive. f) Cognitive Structure: Cognitive Structure, an individuals pattern of thinking, also affects perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight, and appearances more readily.

g) Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you expect to see. The research findings of the study conducted by Sheldon S Zalkind and Timothy W Costello on some specific characteristics of the perceiver reveal

Q5. Job satisfaction can be influenced by a variety of factors, e.g. the quality of one's relationshipwith their supervisor, the quality of the physical environment in which they work, degree offulfillment in their work, etc.. Numerous research results show that there are many factorsaffecting the job satisfaction. There are particular demographic traits (age, education level,tenure, position, marital status, years in service, and hours worked per week) of employees thatsignificantly affect their job satisfaction. Satisfying factors motivate workers while dissatisfying ones prevent. Motivating factors areachievement, recognition, the job conducted, responsibility, promotion and the factorsrelated to the job itself for personal development. Motivating factors in the workingenvironment result in the job satisfaction of the person while protective ones dissatisfy him/her. Maslow connects the creation of the existence of people's sense of satisfaction with themaintenance of the classified needs. These are: physiological needs (eating,

drinking,resting, etc.), security needs (pension, health insurance, etc.), the need to love (goodrelations with the environment, friendship, fellowship, to love and to be loved), need to self-esteem (self-confidence, recognition, adoration, to be given importance, status, etc.) need ofself-actualization (maximization of the latent[potential] power and capacity, development ofabilities, etc.) . Insufficient education, inability to select qualified workers for the job, lack of

communications,lack of job definitions, all affect job satisfaction negatively. It has been asserted thatparticipating in the management, having the decision making power, independence on thejob and the unit where the individual works, have positive impact upon the job satisfaction.The job itself (the work conducted), and achievement and recognition at work result

insatisfaction while the management policy, relations with the managers and colleagues resultin dissatisfaction. Factors related to the job itself such as using talents,

creativity, responsibility,recognition have influence on the job satisfaction. Age is one of the factors affecting job satisfaction. Studies conducted in five different countries prove that the elder workers are more satisfied . Kose has also found a meaningful relation between the age and job satisfaction. There is a strong connection between feeling secure and saying one is satisfied with a job.People who state their job is secure have a much larger probability of reporting themselves happy with their work. Similarly, by some researchers, sex is also found to have an influence on job satisfaction.Besides, Wahba has found out that male librarians give more importance to personaldevelopment and free decision making in their jobs than the female librarians, and thefemale librarians are more dissatisfied than the male librarians. Job satisfaction and devotion to the job, affected each other reciprocally, and they havegreat impact upon performance. The most significant of the factors affecting performanceare economical, technical, socio-political, cultural and demographical ones . However, most efforts to improve performance seem to center on improving the conditionssurrounding the work. These are worthwhile efforts, but they usually result only in short-termimprovements in attitudes and productivity, and the situation often returns quickly to normal . There is no strong acceptance among researchers, consultants, etc., that increased jobsatisfaction produces improve job performance -- in fact, improved job satisfaction cansometimes decrease job performance. For example, you could let workers sometime sitaround all day and do nothing. That may make them more satisfied with their "work" in theshort run, but their performance certainly doesn't improve. The individual's willingness to geta result, his/her endeavour and expectation of maintaining the result will push him/her to show the highest performance. Job satisfaction varies a lot. (Researches suggests, the higher the prestige of the job, thegreater the job satisfaction). But, many workers are satisfied in even the least prestigiousjobs. They simply like what they do. Most workers like their work if they have littlesupervision. The least

satisfied workers are those in service occupations and managers that work for others. Ethnic and religious orientation is associated to work attitudes, and job satisfaction is related to

education.
The difference between the results that the individual desire and those s/he maintained willaffect his/her satisfaction . There is a consistent relationship between the professional statusand the job satisfaction. High levels of job satisfaction are observed in those professions which are deemed of good standing in the society. The workers usually compare their working conditions with the conditions of the society,under the variable of social conditions. If the social conditions are worse than the individual'sworking conditions, then this will result in satisfaction of the individual, as the workers deem themselves relatively in good position. No meaningful relationship between the job satisfaction and age, professional

experience,education level, level of wage, sex and professional group was found. On the contrary,professional experience has been claimed to increase job satisfaction.

Q6. Maslow is a humanistic psychologist. Humanists do not believe that human beings arepushed and pulled by mechanical forces, either of stimuli and reinforcements

(behaviorism)or of unconscious instinctual impulses (psychoanalysis). Humanists focus upon potentials.They believe that humans strive for an upper level of capabilities. Humans seek the frontiersof creativity, the highest reaches of consciousness and wisdom. This has been labeled "fullyfunctioning person", "healthy personality", or as Maslow calls this level, "selfactualizingperson." Maslow has set up a hierarchic theory of needs. All of his basic needs are instinctoid,equivalent of instincts in animals. Humans start with a very weak disposition that is thenfashioned fully as the person grows. If the environment is right, people will grow straight andbeautiful, actualizing the potentials they have inherited. If the environment is not "right" (andmostly it is not) they will not grow tall and straight and beautiful. Maslow has set up a hierarchy of five levels of basic needs. Beyond these needs, higherlevels of needs exist. These include needs for understanding, esthetic appreciation andpurely spiritual

needs. In the levels of the five basic needs, the person does not feel thesecond need until the demands of the first have been satisfied, nor the third until the secondhas been satisfied, and so on. Maslow's basic needs are as follows: Master of Business Administration- MBA Semester 1 Reg No.: 511011932 No meaningful relationship between the job satisfaction and age, professional

experience,education level, level of wage, sex and professional group was found. On the contrary,professional experience has been claimed to increase job satisfaction. Q.6 Given below is the HR policy glimpse of iMagine, an advertising company 1. It offers cash rewards for staff members 2. It promotes the culture of employee referral and encourages people to refer people they know, maybe their friends, ex. colleagues, batch mates and relatives. 3. It recognizes good performances and gives fancy titles and jackets to the people who perform well and also felicitates them in the Annual Day of the company. What all aspects does it take care of, according to Maslows Need Hierarchy? Maslow is a humanistic psychologist. Humanists do not believe that human beings arepushed and pulled by mechanical forces, either of stimuli and reinforcements (behaviorism)or of unconscious instinctual impulses (psychoanalysis). Humanists focus upon potentials.They believe that humans strive for an upper level of capabilities. Humans seek the frontiersof creativity, the highest reaches of consciousness and wisdom. This has been labeled "fullyfunctioning person", "healthy personality", or as Maslow calls this level, "selfactualizingperson." Maslow has set up a hierarchic theory of needs. All of his basic needs are instinctoid,equivalent of instincts in animals. Humans start with a very weak disposition that is thenfashioned fully as the person grows. If the environment is right, people will grow straight andbeautiful, actualizing the potentials they have inherited. If the environment is not "right" (andmostly it is not) they will not grow tall and straight and beautiful. Maslow has set up a hierarchy of five levels of basic needs. Beyond these needs, higherlevels of needs exist. These include needs for understanding, esthetic appreciation andpurely spiritual needs. In the levels of the five basic needs, the person does not feel thesecond need until the demands of the first have been satisfied, nor the third until the secondhas been satisfied, and so on. Maslow's basic needs are as follows: Physiological Needs

These are biological needs. They consist of needs for oxygen, food, water, and arelatively constant body temperature. They are the strongest needs because if aperson were deprived of all needs, the physiological ones would come first in theperson's search for satisfaction. Safety Needs When all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer controlling thoughts andbehaviors, the needs for security can become active. Adults have little awareness oftheir security needs except in times of emergency or periods of disorganization in thesocial structure (such as widespread rioting). Children often display the signs ofinsecurity and the need to be safe. Needs of Love, Affection and Belongingness When the needs for safety and for physiological well-being are satisfied, the nextclass of needs for love, affection and belongingness can emerge. Maslow states thatpeople seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and alienation. This involves bothgiving and receiving love, affection and the sense of belonging. Needs for Esteem When the first three classes of needs are satisfied, the needs for esteem canbecome dominant. These involve needs for both self-esteem and for the esteem aperson gets from others. Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level ofself-respect, and respect from others. When these needs are satisfied, the personfeels self-confident and valuable as a person in the world. When these needs arefrustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless and worthless. Needs for Self-Actualization When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then are the needs forselfactualization activated. Maslow describes self-actualization as a person's needto be and do that which the person was "born to do." "A musician must make music,an artist must paint, and a poet must write." These needs make themselves felt insigns of restlessness. The person feels on edge, tense, lacking something, in short,restless. If a person is hungry, unsafe, not loved or accepted, or lacking self-esteem,it is very easy to know what the person is restless about. It is not always clear what aperson wants when there is a need for self-actualization.

The hierarchic theory is often represented as a pyramid, with the larger, lower levels representing the lower needs, and the upper point representing the need for self-actualization. Maslow believes that the only reason that people would not move well indirection of selfactualization is because of hindrances placed in their way by society. He states that education is one of these hindrances. He recommends ways education can switch from its usual personstunting tactics to person-growing approaches. Maslow states that educators should respond to the potential an individual has for growing into a self-actualizing person of his/her own kind. Ten points that educators should address are listed: We should teach people to be authentic, to be aware of their inner selves and to hear their inner-feeling voices. We should teach people to transcend their cultural conditioning and become world citizens. We should help people discover their vocation in life, their calling, fate or destiny. This is especially focused on finding the right career and the right mate. We should teach people that life is precious, that there is joy to be experienced in life, and if people are open to seeing the good and joyous in all kinds of situations, it makes life worth living. We must accept the person as he or she is and help the person learn their inner nature. From real knowledge of aptitudes and limitations we can know what to build upon, what potentials are really there. We must see that the person's basic needs are satisfied. This includes safety, belongingness, and esteem needs. We should refreshen consciousness, teaching the person to appreciate beauty and the other good things in nature and in living. We should teach people that controls are good, and complete abandon is bad. It takes control to improve the quality of life in all areas. We should teach people to transcend the trifling problems and grapple with the serious problems in life. These include the problems of injustice, of pain, suffering, and death. We must teach people to be good choosers. They must be given practice in making good choices

Set 2

Q4. It must be noted that stress factors are subjective and what one person may find stressful, others may not necessarily experience as negatively. The way in which we experience and react to stress is described as an emotional condition which triggers physical, psychological and emotional responses from the individual. Formally, a stressor is defined as an event or context that elevates adrenaline and triggers the stress response which results in the body being thrown out of balance as it is forced to respond. Examples of Stress Triggers: Environmental stressors (elevated sound levels, over-illumination, overcrowding) Daily stress events (e.g. traffic, lost keys) Life changes (e.g. divorce, bereavement) Workplace stressors (e.g. role strain, lack of control) Stressors usually fall into one of four categories: Internal stressors - these we carry around inside of us. They are self owned stressors. These stressors may range from the posture we adapt, to addictions and assessment of life/personal satisfaction or simply not getting enough sleep. External stressors - these are the stressors in the environments in which we operate and will range from parental pressure, to work pressure, to role pressure, to household pressure, traffic, crime etc. Hidden stressors - these are factors which cause stress but where the underlying cause is difficult to identify. It often results in conflicting feelings and a sense of an inappropriate reaction or response to a situation. For example underdeveloped emotional intelligence where selfawareness is not apparent. Obvious stressors - there are also those situations which obviously do or are intended to bring about stress. For example a work deadline would be an imposed obvious stressor where as the death of a loved one would be un-imposed but an obvious one. Types of Environmental Stressors Noise Research has demonstrated that high levels of background noise can severely impair ones ability to concentrate. It has been shown that excessive, intermittent or unpredictable noise can cause tension and headaches as well as raise people's blood pressure. It can impact concentration and reduce the ability to perform complex tasks. It can also undermine teamwork,

as people in a noisy environment tend to become more irritable and less willing to help one another. Lighting Poor lighting, such as insufficient light, light that is too bright or light that shines directly into ones eyes can cause eye strain and increase fatigue. In addition to lighting conditions, the quality of light is also important. Most people are happiest in bright daylight. Daylight which measures 10,000 lux (equivalent to a bright sunny day) is known to trigger a release of chemicals in the body that brings about a sense of psychological well-being. Unfortunately, most types of artificial light do not seem to have the same effect on mood. You will probably find that improving the quality of light will also improve the quality of your working environment. Solutions to poor light conditions at work may include: Arranging work spaces to be near a window. Whenever possible, allowing natural light to shine through open doors and windows. Trimming bushes that are in front of windows, painting walls with lighter colors, checking into the possibility of installing skylights. Installing brighter light bulbs in work areas or using full-spectrum bulbs in desk lamps Poor Air Quality Research has shown that poor air quality at work can trigger headaches and tiredness, aswell as impair ones ability to concentrate. A variety of factors can contribute to the problemof poor air quality, including a high concentration of pollutants in the air, poor air circulationor inadequate ventilation. Other sources of poor air quality include smoking, heating and air conditioning

systems,ionization by electrical equipment, overcrowding (too many people in a small space),pollution, solvents or other chemicals from carpets, furniture or paint, and excess humidity ordryness. Solutions to poor air quality at work may involve: Opening windows. Banning smoking indoors.

Using dehumidifiers when humidity is a problem or humidifiers if it is too dry. Introducing plants not only do plants raise the amount of oxygen in the air andreduce stuffiness, they also help to absorb pollutants in the air; evaporation of waterfrom plant pots or the plants themselves will help to raise humidity when the air is too dry. Keeping yourself hydrated by drinking water. Clutter and Disorganization Another source of environmental stress can be a work environment that is dirty, messy, oruncomfortable. The distraction of working in an area that is disorganized, untidy and chaoticcan make it more difficult to achieve your goals. Solutions to disorganization can involve: Contracting with janitorial services to ensure the workplace is kept clean. Developing systems for organizing product, information, and equipment. Implementing on- or off-site storage systems. Storing or discarding unnecessary furniture, equipment and office products. Furniture and Ergonomics Poorly designed furniture, or the improper use of quality furniture, generally contributes to avariety of aches and pains. The most common of these is backache. Prolonged ergonomicproblems can produce serious injuries. Taking the time to arrange ones workingenvironment is key to working comfortably and avoiding injury. Solutions to ergonomic concerns at work may involve Ensuring that office chairs are properly adjusted to reduce the risk of injury to the body. Arranging computer work stations so that correct postures are used when working with the monitor, keyboard, mouse, and documents. Organizing work materials and accessories to improve efficiency and reduce the distance and frequency of reaches. Organizing your workday to include tasks, breaks and exercises that allow you to vary your posture, rest your muscles and prevent muscle tension or soreness. Consulting with a professional who can give you expert advice, as often the ideal solution may not be immediately obvious. Stress and performance

For the most part, people view stress as a negative factor. Stress however is only negative when it is excessive, unmanaged and results in adverse symptoms and experiences. Some of the negative consequences include: Feeling anxious, irritable, or depressed Apathy, loss of interest in work or other activities Problems sleeping Fatigue, Trouble concentrating Muscle tension or headaches Stomach problems Social withdrawal Loss of sex drive Using alcohol or drugs to cope It is clear that with these symptoms the individual's performance at work, home and in socialsettings will be adversely affected. Negative stress also seems to have a self-building facetwhere once stressed, additional factors just keep contributing to the stress and increase the stress levels while decreasing performance and functioning Q.6 Typically, the concept of organizational change is in regard to organization-wide change, asopposed to smaller changes such as adding a new person, modifying a program, etc.Examples of organization-wide change might include a change in mission,restructuring operations (e.g., restructuring to self-managed teams, layoffs, etc.), newtechnologies, mergers, major collaborations, "rightsizing", new programs such asTotal Quality Management, reengineering, etc. Some experts refer to organizationaltransformation. Often this term designates a fundamental and radical reorientation inthe way the organization operates. The levels of organizational change Perhaps the most difficult decision to make is at what "level" to start. There are four levels of organizational change: First let's describe these levels, and then under what circumstances a business should use them. Level 1- shaping and anticipating the future At this level, organizations start out with few assumptions about the business itself, what it is "good" at, and what the future will be like. Management generates alternate "scenarios" of the future, defines opportunities based onthese possible futures, assesses its strengths and weaknesses in these scenarios changesits mission, measurement system etc. More information on this is in the next article, "Movingfrom the Future to your Strategy." Level 2 - defining what business(es) to be in and their "Core Competencies

Many attempts at strategic planning start at this level, either assuming that 1) the future willbe like the past or at least predictable; 2) the future is embodied in the CEO's "vision for thefuture"; or 3) management doesn't know where else to start; 4) management is too afraid tostart at level 1 because of the changes needed to really meet future requirements; or 5) theonly mandate they have is to refine what mission already exists. After a mission has been defined and a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis is completed, an organization can then define its measures, goals, strategies, etc. More information on this is in the next article, "Moving from the Future to your Strategy." Level 3 - Reengineering (Structurally Changing) Your Processes Either as an aftermath or consequence of level one or two work or as an independent action,level three work focuses on fundamentally changinghow work is accomplished. Rather thanfocus on modest improvements, reengineering focuses on making major structural changesto everyday with the goal of substantially improving productivity, efficiency, quality orcustomer satisfaction. To read more about level 3 organizational changes, please see "ATale of Three Villages." Level 4 - Incrementally Changing your Processes Level 4 organizational changes are focusing in making many small changes to existing workprocesses. Oftentimes organizations put in considerable effort into getting every employeefocused on making these small changes, often with considerable effect.

Unfortunately,making improvements on how a buggy whip for horse-drawn carriages is made will rarelycome up with the idea that buggy whips are no longer necessary because cars have beeninvented. To read more about level 4 organizational changes and how it compares to level 3,please see "A Tale of Three Villages." Some General Guidelines to Organization-Wide Change 1. Consider using a consultant. Ensure the consultant is highly experienced in organizationwide change. Ask to see references and check the references. 2. Widely communicate the potential need for change. Communicate what you're doing

about it. Communicate what was done and how it worked out. 3. Get as much feedback as practical from employees, including what they think are theproblems and what should be done to resolve them. If possible, work with a team ofemployees to manage the c hange.4. Don't get wrapped up in doing change for the sake of change. Know why you're making the Pl an the change. How do you plan to reach the goals, what will you need to reach thegoals, how long might it take and how will you know when you've reached your goals or not?Focus on the coordination of the departments/programs in your organization, not on each part by itself. Have someone in charge of the p lan.7. End up having every employee ultimately reporting to one person, if possible, and theyshould know who that person is. Job descriptions are often complained about, but they areuseful in specifying who reports

to whom. 8. Delegate decisions to employees as much as possible. This includes granting them the SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION 34 Master of Business Administration- MBA Semester 1 Reg No.: 511011932 authority and responsibility to get the job done. As much as possible, let them decide how to do the project. 9. The process won't be an "aha!" It will take longer than you think.10. Keep perspective. Keep focused on meeting the needs of your customer or clients.11. Take care of yourself first. Organization-wide change can be highly stressful.12. Don't seek to control change, but rather to expect it, understand it and manage it.13. Include closure in the plan. Acknowledge and celebrate your accomplishments.14. Read some resources about organizational change, including new forms and structures

Q2.
Types of Groups 1. Primary & Secondary Groups:A primary group has intimate, face to face association & co-operation e.g. family, neighbourhood groups, friendship groups

A secondary group is formal, may not have any interest in the problems & pleasure of others. 2. Membership & Reference Groups: A membership group is one to which an individual really belongs.

A reference group is one with which the individual identifies. The attractiveness of the reference group makes the norms of that group more attractive to the individual who aspires for it. 3. Command & Task Groups: A command group is composed of subordinates who report directly to a common supervisor e.g. a production manager & his subordinates in his department. A task group is usually formed to solve a problem. It is comprised of the employees who work together to complete a particular task. 4. In-groups & Out-groups: In-groups are a cluster of individuals that have a dominant place in social functioning. The out-groups are marginal in the society and referred as minority groups. 5. Formal & Informal groups: Formal groups are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs related to the overall organizational mission: a. Designed by Top management for achieving organizational goals b. Concentrates more on the performance of job c. People are placed in hierarchy and their status determined accordingly d. Co-ordination of members are controlled through process, procedures etc Informal Groups are created in the organization because of social and psychological forces operating at the workplace. a. A natural outcome at the work place & not designed and planned b. Organization is coordinated by group norms and not by norms of the formal organization c. Such group associations are not specified in the blue-print of the formal organization

Q3. Conflict Management Techniques

Conflict situations are an important aspect of the workplace. A conflict is a situation when the interests, needs, goals or values of involved parties interfere with one another. A conflict phenomenon in the workplace. Different stakeholders may have different priorities; conflicts may involve team members, departments, projects, organization and client, boss and

subordinate, organization needs vs. personal needs. Often, a conflict is a result of perception. bad thing? Not necessarily. Often, a conflict presents opportunities for improvement. Therefore, it is important to understand (and apply) various conflict resolution techniques.

Forcing
Also known as competing. An individual firmly pursues his or her own concerns despite the resistance of the other person. This may involve pushing one viewpoint at the expense of

another or maintaining firm resistance to another persons actions. Examples of when forcing may be appropriate

In certain situations when all other, less forceful methods, dont work or are ineffective When you need to stand up for your own rights, resist aggression and pressure When a quick resolution is required and using force is justified (e.g. in a lifethreatening situation, to stop an aggression) As a last resort to resolve a long-lasting conflict

Possible advantages of forcing:

May provide a quick resolution to a conflict Increases self-esteem and draws respect when firm resistance or actions were a response to an aggression or hostility

Some caveats of forcing:

May negatively affect your relationship with the opponent in the long run May cause the opponent to react in the same way, even if the opponent did not intend originally Cannot take advantage of the strong sides of the other sides position Taking this approach may require a lot of energy and be exhausting to some individual

Win-Win (Collaborating)
Also known as problem confronting or problem solving. Collaboration involves an attempt to work with the other person to find a win-win solution to the problem in hand - the one that most satisfies

the concerns of both parties. The win-win approach sees conflict resolution as an opportunity mutually beneficial result. It includes identifying the underlying concerns of the opponents and finding an alternative which meets each party's concerns. Examples of when collaborating may be appropriate:

When consensus and commitment of other parties is important In a collaborative environment When it is required to address the interests of multiple stakeholders

When When When When

a high level of trust is present a long-term relationship is important you need to work through hard feelings, animosity, etc you don't want to have full responsibility

Possible advantages of collaborating:

Leads to solving the actual problem Leads to a win-win outcome Reinforces mutual trust and respect Builds a foundation for effective collaboration in the future Shared responsibility of the outcome You earn the reputation of a good negotiator For parties involved, the outcome of the conflict resolution is less stressful (however, the process of finding and establishing a win-win solution may be very involed see the caveats below)

Some caveats of collaborating:

Requires a commitment from all parties to look for a mutually acceptable solution May require more effort and more time than some other methods. A win-win solution may not be evident For the same reason, collaborating may not be practical when timing is crucial and a quick solution or fast response is required Once one or more parties lose their trust in an opponent, the relationship falls back to methods of conflict resolution. Therefore, all involved parties must continue collaborative efforts to maintain a collaborative relationship

Compromising

Compromising looks for an expedient and mutually acceptable solution which partially satisfie parties. Examples of when compromise may be appropriate:

When the goals are moderately important and not worth the use of more assertive or more involving approaches, such as forcing or collaborating To reach temporary settlement on complex issues To reach expedient solutions on important issues As a first step when the involved parties do not know each other well or havent yet developed a high level of mutual trust When collaboration or forcing do not work

Possible advantages of compromise:

Faster issue resolution. Compromising may be more practical when time is a factor Can provide a temporary solution while still looking for a win-win solution Lowers the levels of tension and stress resulting from the conflict

Some caveats of using compromise:

May result in a situation when both parties are not satisfied with the outcome (a lose-lo Does not contribute to building trust in the long run May require close monitoring and control to ensure the agreements are met

Withdrawing
Also known as avoiding. This is when a person does not pursue her/his own concerns or those of the opponent. He/she does not address the conflict, sidesteps, postpones or simply withdraws. Examples of when withdrawing may be appropriate:

When the issue is trivial and not worth the effort When more important issues are pressing, and you don't have time to deal with it In situations where postponing the response is beneficial to you, for example When it is not the right time or place to confront the issue When you need time to think and collect information before you act (e.g. if you are unprepared or taken by surprise)

When you see no chance of getting your concerns met or you would have to put forth unreasonable efforts When you would have to deal with ostility When you are unable to handle the conflict (e.g. if you are too emotionally involved or handle it better)

Possible advantages of withdrawing:

When the opponent is forcing / attempts aggression, you may choose to withdraw and your response until you are in a more favourable circumstance for you to push back Withdrawing is a low stress approach when the conflict is short Gives the ability/time to focus on more important or more urgent issues instead Gives you time to better prepare and collect information before you act

Some caveats of withdrawing:

May lead to weakening or losing your position; not acting may be interpreted as an agreement. Using withdrawing strategies without negatively affecting your own position requires certain skill and experience When multiple parties are involved, withdrawing may negatively affect your relationship with a party that expects your action

Smoothing
Also known as accommodating. Smoothing is accommodating the concerns of other people first of all, rather than one's own concerns. Examples of when smoothing may be appropriate:

When it is important to provide a temporary relief from the conflict or buy time until you are in a better position to respond/push back When the issue is not as important to you as it is to the other person When you accept that you are wrong When you have no choice or when continued competition would be detrimental

Possible advantages of smoothing:

In some cases smoothing will help to protect more important interests while giving up on some less important ones Gives an opportunity to reassess the situation from a different angle

Some caveats of smoothing:

There is a risk to be abused, i.e. the opponent may constantly try to take advantage of your tendency toward smoothing/accommodating. Therefore it is important to keep the right balance and this requires some skill. May negatively affect your confidence in your ability to respond to an aggressive opponent It makes it more difficult to transition to a win-win solution in the future Some of your supporters may not like your smoothing response and be turned off

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