More QL Translations

More QL Translations
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Introduction
Translating English into QL
Translating from QL
Moving Quantiers
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Familiarizing with the Language of QL
Our goal here is to get familiarized with the the language of QL The best way to do so would be to tackle some translation exercises.
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Introduction
Translating from QL
Moving Quantiers
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Individual Variables and Predicate Letters

Interpretation of individual variable m means Maldwyn n means Nerys o means Owen Predicate Letters F means is a man G means is a woman L means ...loves ... M means ...is married to ... R means ...prefers ... to .. The domain of discourse: All people.
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Two stages of Translation I
Stage One Re-express the proposition in English itself using prexed-quantiers plus variable terminology.The quantiers used will be restricted quantiers. The the restricted quantiers would be either simple ones like some man x is such that, Every woman y is such that, etc or else ones involving relative clauses like Every one x who is a man is such that Some woman y who loves Owen is such that, etc.
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Stage Two Translate the simple restricted Quantiers into QL as follows: (Every man is such that) [...x ...x ...] x(Fx [...x...x...]) (Some woman y is such that) [...y ...y ...] y(Gy [...y...y...]) (No man z is such that) [...z ...z ...] z(Fz [...z...z...]) The arrow Can be read as translated as
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Translating quantiers with relative clauses: Every one x who is man is such that is equivalent to every man is such that. And so it gets translated the same way. Some woman y who loves Own is equivalent to someone y who-is-a woman-and-loves-Own. Thus we can translate this more complex quantication by using conjunctive restrictive clauses.
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Examples of Translations into QL I
Whoever is loved by Owen is loved by Maldwyn too x(Lox Lmx) Every woman who loves Maldwyn is loved by Owen x((Gx Lxm) Lox) Maldwyn loves some woman who loves owen x((Gx Lxo) Lmx)
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Translations ...
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No man who loves Nerys loves own or Maldwyn x((Fx Lxn) (Lxo Lxm)) Or alternatively x((Fx Lxn) (Lxo Lxm)) Every man loves someone x(FxyLxy) This can also be translated as xy(Fx Lxy) The other very much less natural, reading of the English can be rendered yx(Fx Lxy)
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Examples ... I
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Every one Owen loves is loved by someone Nerys Loves x(Lox y(Lny Lyx)) No woman loves every man x(Gx y(Fy Lxy)) 0r x(Gx y(Fy Lxy)) No woman loves any man x (Gx y(Fy Lxy)) or x(Gx y(Fy Lxy)) If everyone loves Nerys then Owen does. (xLxn Lon)
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Examples ... II
(xLxn Lon) is quite dierent from x(Lxn Lon). This w is true in dierent circumstances. Suppose that Maldwyn loves Nerys and Owen does not.Then xLxnand Lonare both false. So the conditional (xLxn Lon)is true. However, (Lmn Lon) is false. So its universal quantication x (Lxn Lon) is false too.
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Examples,...
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In most contexts, If anyone loves Nerys, then Owen does. This is the same as If theres some one or other who loves Nerys, then own loves her. If any one loves Nerys then Owen does. (x Lxn Lon) Someone who is married loves Nerys We have in our QL vocabulary the two-place predicate M meaning ... is married to... But how do we translate the one-place predicate ...is married ? To be married is to be married to someone. So x is married can be translated yMxy. so 10 can be translated as x(yMxy Lxn) Anyone who is married loves someone they arent married to.. x(zMxz y(Mxy Lxy))
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Examples...
It is a very good policy when introducing new variables into a w, always use letters that do not already appear in the w. But in the last step, it would have been permissible to use y again and write x(yMxy y(Mxy Lxy)) We can do this because these two existential quantication are isolated from each other, their scope do not overlap, and the local cross linking of variables and quaners is quite unambiguous. 12 A married man only loves women x((Fx zMxz) y(Lxy Gy)) 13 Not every married man loves any woman who loves him. x((Fx zMxz) y((Gy Lxy) Lxy)) 14 Nerys loves any married men who prefer her to whomever they are married to. x([Fx zMxz] y[Mxy Rxny] lnx).
Introduction
Translating from QL
Moving Quantiers
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Once we are familiar with the kind of devices that QL uses for expressing restricted quantication, it is easy to decode the message. Consider: x(y(Mxy Lxy) y(Lxy z(Mxz Rxyz))) It is of the form x(A(...x...) B(...x...)), So says No x which is A is such that x is B As a rst stage, then we have, No x who is such that y(Mxy Lxy) is such that y (Lxy z (Mxz Rxyz)) This is interpreted as No x who is married to someone who loves them is such that y(Lxy z(Mxz Rxyz))
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This in turn decodes as No one x, who is married to someone who loves them, is such that theres some one y they love who is such that y(Mxz Rxyz) That says No one x, who is married to someone who loves them, is such that theres someone y they love who is such that x prefers y to whoever x is married to. Or in augmented (though not quite unambiguous) English: No one who is married to some one who loves them loves someone they prefer to whoever they are married to.
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Introduction
Translating from QL
Moving Quantiers
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Alternative ways of translating I

There are number of cases where there are distinct but equally good translations: For translating no sentence we have two good options. For example, the sentence No humans are perfect can be translated as either x(Hx Px) or as x(Hx Px). Alphabetical choice of variables is arbitrary. So everyone is wise for example can be translated as either xFx or yFy While translating Someone loves someone, there is nothing to choose between x yLxy and y xLxy
Alternative ways of translating II
Similarly there is nothing to choose between xyLxy and y xLxy We can unrestrictedly swap quantiers around. Indeed the whole rationale of our notation is that it allows us unambiguously mark the dierence between messages expressed by eg.xyLxy and yxLxy. However, immediately adjacent quantiers of the same can be interchanged.
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Neighbouring Quantiers I
Consider the case where we have neighboring existential quantiers: yLnxy attributes Nerys the property of loving someone. When we quantify in we get xyLxy, which says that someone has the property that yLny attributes Nerys, .i.e., the property of loving someone. So xyLxy holds just if there is a pair of people in the domain (not necessarily distinct) such that the rst loves the second. Like wise xLxn attributes to Nerys the property of being loved by someone. Quantifying in we get yxLxy which says that someone has the property that xLxn attributes to Nerys, i.e. the property of being loved by someone.
Neighbouring Quantiers II
So yxLxy holds if there is a pair of people in the domain (not necessarily distinct.) such that the rst loves the second. That is the same truth-condition for xyLxy And the point generalizes to any pair of ws of the form vw C(...v ...W...) and wvC(...v...w...). Similarly for pairs of universal quantiers.
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Another sort of alternative translation I

Suppose we want to translate Nerys is a woman everyone loves There are alternative translations: 1 (Gn xLxn) 2 x(Gn Lxn) The second holds just in case every one x is such as to make it true that (Nerys is a woman and x loves her). This holds in case Nerys is a woman loved by every one which is what the rst says. More generally speaking following equivalences hold: 1 (A vB(...v...)) v(A B(...v...)) if the variable v doesnt occur in A. The order of conjuncts does not matter. 2 (A vB(...v...)) v (A B(...v...)) if the variable v does not occur in A.
Another sort of alternative translation II

Someone who is married loves Nerys can be translated as x(yMxy Lxn) as we have done earlier. It would have been equally legitimate to write xy(Mxy Lxn) given the variable y does not occur in the second conjunct. We can do similar manipulations with disjunctions: Suppose we want to translate Either Owen loves Nerys or nobody does. We could equally well write (Lon xLxn) Or x(Lon Lxn) More generally we have:
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(A vB(...v)) v(A B (...v...)) where v does not occur in A and order of disjuncts does not matter.
Another sort of alternative translation III
(A vB(...v...))
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Conditionals and Moving of Quantiers I

The case where we really have to be careful involves conditionals We have as you might expect,
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(A vB(...v...)) v(A B(... v...)) (A vB(...v...)) v(A B(...v...)) v(A B (...v...))
However, note very carefully the following:

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(v(B ... v...) A) v(...v...) A) (vB(...v...) A) v(B(...v...) A) Extracting universal quantication from antecedent of a conditional (when the variable does not occur in the consequent)turns it into an existential quantication. This is so because antecedent of conditionals are like negated disjuncts - remember (A B) is equivalent to (A B)
Conditionals and Moving of Quantiers II
Remeber also that when quantiers tangle with negation they ip into the other quantier. Consider for example, the following chain of equivalences.
(x Fx Fn) (xFx Fn) (x Fx Fn) x(Fx Fn) x (Fx Fn)
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More QL Translations

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More QL Translations

Translating English into QL

Familiarizing with the Language of QL

Translating English into QL

Individual Variables and Predicate Letters

Two stages of Translation I

Examples of Translations into QL I

Translating English into QL

Translating English into QL

Alternative ways of translating I

Alternative ways of translating II

Another sort of alternative translation I

Another sort of alternative translation II

Another sort of alternative translation III

Conditionals and Moving of Quantiers I

(A vB(...v...)) v(A B(... v...)) (A vB(...v...)) v(A B(...v...)) v(A B (...v...))

However, note very carefully the following:

Conditionals and Moving of Quantiers II

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