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1Lxplaln Lhe followlng Lerm
a)WhaL ls varlable and Lhelr Lypes
b)WhaL are Lhe sources of sLaLlsLlcal daLa
c)

























WhaL ls varlable?
A varlable ls any enLlLy LhaL can Lake on dlfferenL values so whaL does
LhaL mean? AnyLhlng LhaL can vary can be consldered a varlable lor
lnsLance age can be consldered a varlable because age can Lake dlfferenL
values for dlfferenL people or for Lhe same person aL dlfferenL Llmes
Slmllarly counLry can be consldered a varlable because a persons
counLry can be asslgned a value
varlables arenL always quanLlLaLlve or numerlcal 1he varlable gender
conslsLs of Lwo LexL values male and female We can lf lL ls useful
asslgn quanLlLaLlve values lnsLead of (or ln place of) Lhe LexL values buL
we donL have Lo asslgn numbers ln order for someLhlng Lo be a varlable
lLs also lmporLanL Lo reallze LhaL varlables arenL only Lhlngs LhaL we
measure ln Lhe LradlLlonal sense lor lnsLance ln much soclal research
and ln program evaluaLlon we conslder Lhe LreaLmenL or program Lo be
made up of one or more varlables (le Lhe cause can be consldered a
varlable) An educaLlonal program can have varylng amounLs of Llme on
Lask classroom seLLlngs sLudenLLeacher raLlos and so on So even Lhe
program can be consldered a varlable (whlch can be made up of a
number of subvarlables


uependenL and lndependenL varlables
varlables are furLher dlsLlngulshed as belng elLher a dependenL varlable
or an lndependenL varlable lndependenL varlables are regarded as lnpuLs
Lo a sysLem and may Lake on dlfferenL values freely uependenL varlables
are Lhose values LhaL change as a consequence of changes ln oLher values
ln Lhe sysLem
When one value ls compleLely deLermlned by anoLher or several oLhers
Lhen lL ls called a funcLlon of Lhe oLher value or values ln Lhls case Lhe
value of Lhe funcLlon ls a dependenL varlable and Lhe oLher values are
lndependenL varlables 1he noLaLlon f(x) ls used for Lhe value of Lhe
funcLlon f wlLh x represenLlng Lhe lndependenL varlable Slmllarly
noLaLlon such as f(x y z) may be used when Lhere are several
lndependenL varlables


lnLerval scale varlables daLa
lnLerval scale daLa has order and equal lnLervals lnLerval scale
varlables are measured on a llnear scale and can Lake on poslLlve
or negaLlve values lL ls assumed LhaL Lhe lnLervals keep Lhe same
lmporLance LhroughouL Lhe scale 1hey allow us noL only Lo rank
order Lhe lLems LhaL are measured buL also Lo quanLlfy and
compare Lhe magnlLudes of dlfferences beLween Lhem We can
say LhaL Lhe LemperaLure of 40C ls hlgher Lhan 30C and an
lncrease from 20C Lo 40C ls Lwlce as much as Lhe lncrease from
30C Lo 40C CounLs are lnLerval scale measuremenLs such as
counLs of publlcaLlons or clLaLlons years of educaLlon eLc

ConLlnuous Crdlnal varlables daLa
1hey occur when Lhe measuremenLs are conLlnuous buL one ls
noL cerLaln wheLher Lhey are on a llnear scale Lhe only
LrusLworLhy lnformaLlon belng Lhe rank order of Lhe observaLlons
lor example lf a scale ls Lransformed by an exponenLlal
logarlLhmlc or any oLher nonllnear monoLonlc LransformaLlon lL
loses lLs lnLerval scale properLy Pere lL would be expedlenL Lo
replace Lhe observaLlons by Lhelr ranks
8aLlo scale varlables daLa
1hese are conLlnuous poslLlve measuremenLs on a nonllnear
scale A Lyplcal example ls Lhe growLh of bacLerlal populaLlon (say
wlLh a growLh funcLlon) ln Lhls model equal Llme lnLervals
mulLlply Lhe populaLlon by Lhe same raLlo (Pence Lhe name raLlo
scales)
8aLlo daLa are also lnLerval daLa buL Lhey are noL measured on a
llnear scale WlLh lnLerval daLa one can perform loglcal
operaLlons add and subLracL buL one cannoL mulLlply or dlvlde
lor lnsLance lf a llquld ls aL 40 degrees and we add 10 degrees lL
wlll be 30 degrees Powever a llquld aL 40 degrees does noL have
Lwlce Lhe LemperaLure of a llquld aL 20 degrees because 0 degrees
does noL represenL no LemperaLure Lo mulLlply or dlvlde ln
Lhls way we would have Lo use Lhe kelvln LemperaLure scale wlLh
a Lrue zero polnL (0 degrees kelvln 27313 degrees Celslus) ln
soclal sclences Lhe lssue of Lrue zero rarely arlses buL one
should be aware of Lhe sLaLlsLlcal lssues lnvolved




nomlnal level daLa
lor Lhe nomlnal level of measuremenL observaLlon of a quallLaLlve
varlable can only be classlfled and counLed 1here ls no parLlcular
order Lo Lhe level Lhe classlflcaLlon of slx color of MMs candles
ls an example of nomlnal level of measuremenL We slmply
classlfled Lhe candles by Lhe color 1here ls no naLure order 1haL
ls we could reporL Lhe brown candles flrsL Lhe orange flrsL or any
of Lhe color flrsL Cender ls anoLher example of nomlnal level of
measuremenL Suppose we counL a number of sLudenL enLerlng a
fooLball game wlLh a sLudenL lu and reporL how many are women
we could reporL elLher Lhe men or women flrsL lor Lhe nomlnal
level Lhe only lnvolve conslsL of counLs 1able 11 show Lhe
breakdown of uS long dlsLance Lelephone usage 1hls ls nomlnal
level varlable because we recorded whlch carrler each cusLomer
used uo noL be dlsLracLed by facL LhaL we Lhen summarlzed Lhe
varlable by reporLlng how many Llmes each carrler was used

uaLa can be classlfled accordlng Lo levels of measuremenL 1he level of
measuremenL of Lhe daLa ofLen dlcLaLes Lhe calculaLlons LhaL can be done Lo
summarlze and presenL Lhe daLa lL wlll also deLermlne Lhe sLaLlsLlcal LesLs LhaL
should be performed 1here are acLually four levels of measuremenL whlch are
4 nomlnal level daLa
4 Crdlnal level daLa
4 lnLerval level daLa
4 8aLlo level daLa

''1he lowesL or Lhe mosL prlmlLlve measuremenL ls Lhe nomlnal level 1he
hlghesL or Lhe level LhaL glves us Lhe mosL lnformaLlon abouL Lhe observaLlon ls
Lhe raLlo level of measuremenL''

Nom|na| Leve| Data

lor Lhe nomlnal level of measuremenL observaLlons of a quallLaLlve varlable can
only be classlfled and counLed 1hls level of measuremenL does noL have a
parLlcular order Lo Lhe labels and Lhe only measuremenL lnvolved conslsLs of
accounLs lor example ln Lhe Lable below shows a breakdown of 1anzanla long
dlsLance Lelephone usage 1hls ls a nomlnal level varlable because we recorded
whlch carrler each cusLomer used uo noL be dlsLracLed by Lhe facL LhaL we Lhen
summarlzed Lhe varlable by reporLlng how many Llmes each carrler was used

Long D|stance 1e|ephone Usage by Carr|er

Carrler number of calls ercenLage()
A1 1 108113800 73
MCl 20377310 14
SprlnL 8238740 6
CLher 7130620 3
1ota| 144062470 100

1he arrangemenL of Lhe carrles ln Lhe above Lable could noL have been
changed1haL ls we could have reporLed MCl flrsL SprlnL second and so on
1hls essenLlally lndlcaLes Lhe ma[or feaLure of Lhe nomlnal level of
measuremenL Lhere ls no parLlcular order Lo Lhe caLegorles 1hese caLegorles
are muLually excluslve meanlng for example LhaL a parLlcular phone call
cannoL orlglnaLe wlLh boLh A1 1 and MCl

rd|na| Leve| data

1hls ls nexL Lhe hlghesL level of daLa of measuremenL lL ls when Lhe values have
a relaLlon of order buL lnLervals beLween ad[acenL value s are noL equal 1he
varlable ls sald Lo be on an ordlnal level/scale 1hls ls one Lype of numerlcal
daLa example coln grades falr good very good very flne exLra flne and oLher
many allke




nterva| Leve| Data

1hls ls anoLher Lype of measuremenL whlsh lLs values have a relaLlon of order
and lnLervals beLween ad[acenL values are equal buL a value of zero ls arblLrary
Lhe varlable ls sald Lo be on an lnLerval scale/level example lahrenhelL
LemperaLure shoe slze and lC scores 1he lnLerval level of measuremenL ls Lhe
nexL hlghesL level lL lncludes all Lhe characLerlsLlcs of Lhe ordlnal level buL ln
addlLlon Lhe dlfferenL beLween values ls a consLanL slze 1he followlng are Lhe
properLles of Lhe lnLerval level daLa
4 uaLa classlflcaLlons are muLually excluslve and exhausLlve
4 uaLa classlflcaLlons are ordered accordlng Lo Lhe amounL of
Lhe characLerlsLlc Lhey posses
4 Lqual dlfferences ln Lhe characLerlsLlc are represenLed by
equal dlfferences ln Lhe measuremenLs

at|o Leve| Data

1hls Lhe hlghesL level of measuremenL lL ls when Lhe values have a relaLlon of
order Lhe lnLervals beLween ad[acenL values are equal and Lhe value of zero ls
meanlngful and Lhe raLlo beLween Lwo numbers ls meanlngful Lxamples of raLlo
level/scale of measuremenL lnclude wages unlLs of producLlon welghL
changes ln sLock prlces dlsLance beLween branch offlces and helghL
Money ls a good lllusLraLlon lf for example you have zero shllllngs Lhen you
have no money WelghL ls anoLher example lf Lhe dlal on Lhe scale ls aL zero
Lhen Lhere ls a compleLe absence of welghL
1he followlngs are Lhe properLles of Lhe raLlo level daLa
4 uaLa classlflcaLlons are muLually excluslve and exhausLlve
4 uaLa classlflcaLlons are ordered accordlng Lo Lhe amounL of
Lhe characLerlsLlc Lhey posses
4 Lqual dlfferences ln Lhe characLerlsLlcs are represenLed by
equal dlfferences ln Lhe numbers asslgned Lo Lhe
classlflcaLlon
4 1he zero polnL ls Lhe absence of Lhe characLerlsLlc