MC0067 Database Management System Set-1

1. Write about:

ANS. Linear Search Linear search, also known as sequential search, means starting at the beginning of the data and checking each item in turn until either the desired item is found or the end of the data is reached. Linear search is a search algorithm, also known as sequential search that is suitable for searching a list of data for a particular value. It operates by checking every element of a list one at a time in sequence until a match is found. The Linear Search, or sequential search, is simply examining each element in a list one by one until the desired element is found. The Linear Search is not very efficient. If the item of data to be found is at the end of the list, then all previous items must be read and checked before the item that matches the search criteria is found. This is a very straightforward loop comparing every element in the array with the key. As soon as an equal value is found, it returns. If the loop finishes without finding a match, the search failed and -1 is returned. For small arrays, linear search is a good solution because it's so straightforward. In an array of a million elements linear search on average will take500, 000 comparisons to find the key. For a much faster search, take a look at binary search. Algorithm For each item in the database if the item matches the wanted info exit with this item Continue loop wanted item is not in database
Collision Chain: In computer science, a hash table or hash map is a data structure that uses a hash function to map identifying values, known as keys (e.g., a person's name), to their associated values (e.g., their telephone number). Thus, a hash table implements an associate array. The hash function is used to transform the key into the index (the hash) of an array element (the slot or bucket) where the corresponding value is to be sought. Ideally, the hash function should map each possible key to a unique slot index, but this ideal is rarely achievable in practice (unless the hash keys are fixed; i.e. new entries are never added to the table after it is created). Instead, most hash table designs assume that hast collisionsdifferent keys that map to the same hash valuewill occur and must be accommodated in some way. 2. Write about:

ANS.

2.1 Integrity Rules:

These are the rules which a relational database follows in order to stay accurate and accessible. These rules govern which operations can be performed on the data and on the structure of the database. There are three integrity rules defined for a relational databse,which are:-

Distinct Rows in a Table - this rule says that all the rows of a table should be distinct to avoid in ambiguity while accessing the rows of that table. Most of the modern database management systems can be configured to avoid duplicate rows. Entity Integrity (A Primary Key or part of it cannot be null) - this rule says that 'null' is special value in a relational database and it doesn't mean blank or zero. It means the unavailability of data and hence a 'null' primary key would not be a complete identifier. This integrity rule is also termed as entity integirty. Referential Integrity - this rule says that if a foreign key is defined on a table then a value matching that foreign key value must exist as th e primary key of a row in some other table. The following are the integrity rules to be satisfied by any relation. No Component of the Primary Key can be null. The Database must not contain any unmatched Foreign Key values. This is called the referential integrity rule. Unlike the case of Primary Keys, there is no integrity rule saying that no component of the foreign key can be null. This can be logically explained with the help of the following example: Consider the relations Employee and Account as given below.

2.2 Relational Operators: In the relational model, the database objects seen so far have specific names:
Name Relation Tuple Attribute Cardinality Degree(or Arity) View Meaning Table Record(Row) Field(Column) Number of Records(Rows) Number of Fields(Columns) Query/Answer table

On these objects, a set of operators (relational operators) is provided to manipulate them: 1. Restrict 2. Project 3. Union 4. Difference 5. Product 6. Intersection 7. Join 8. Divide Restrict: Restrict simply extract records from a table. it is also known as Select, but not the same SELECT as defined in SQL.

Project: Project selects zero or more fields from a table and generates a new table that contains all of the records and only the selected fields (with no duplications). Union: Union creates a new table by adding the records of one table to another tables, must be compatible: have the same number of fields and each of the field pairs has to have values in the same domain. Difference: The difference of two tables is a third table which contains the records which appear in the first BUT NOT in the second. Product: The product of two tables is a third which contains all of the records in the first one added to each of the records in the second. Intersection: The intersection of two tables is a third tables which contains the records which are common to both. Join: The join of two tables is a third which contains all of the records in the first and the second which are related. Divide: Dividing a table by another table gives all the records in the first which have values in their fields matching ALL the records in the second. The eight relational algebra operators are 1. SELECT To retrieve specific tuples/rows from a relation.

2. PROJECT To retrieve specific attributes/columns from a relation.

3. PRODUCT To obtain all possible combination of tuples from two relations.

4. UNION To retrieve tuples appearing in either or both the relations participating in the UNION.

Eg: Consider the relation Ord_Jul as follows (Table: Ord_Jul) Note: The union operation shown above logically implies retrieval of records of Orders placed in July or in August 5. INTERSECT To retrieve tuples appearing in both the relations participating in the INTERSECT.

Eg: To retrieve Cust# of Customers whove placed orders in July and in August

Cust# 003 6. DIFFERENCE To retrieve tuples appearing in the first relation participating in the DIFFERENCE but not the second.

Eg: To retrieve Cust# of Customers whove placed orders in July but not in August Cust# 001 7. JOIN To retrieve combinations of tuples in two relations based on a common field in both the relations.

Eg: ORD_AUG join CUSTOMERS (here, the common column is Cust#)

2.3 Linear Search Linear search, also known as sequential search, means starting at the beginning of the data and checking each item in turn until either the desired item is found or the end of the data is reached. Linear search is a search algorithm, also known as sequential search that is suitable for searching a list of data for a particular value. It operates by checking every element of a list one at a time in sequence until a match is found. The Linear Search, or sequential search, is simply examining each element in a list one by one until the desired element is found. The Linear Search is not very efficient. If the item of data to be found is at the end of the list, then all previous items must be read and checked before the item that matches the search criteria is found. This is a very straightforward loop comparing every element in the array with the key. As soon as an equal value is found, it returns. If the loop finishes without finding a match, the search failed and -1 is returned. For small arrays, linear search is a good solution because it's so straightforward. In an array of a million elements linear search on average will take500, 000 comparisons to find the key. For a much faster search, take a look at binary search.

Algorithm For each item in the database if the item matches the wanted info exit with this item Continue loop wanted item is not in database
2.4 Collision Chain: In computer science, a hash table or hash map is a data structure that uses a hash function to map identifying values, known as keys (e.g., a person's name), to their associated values (e.g., their telephone number). Thus, a hash table implements an associate array. The hash function is used to transform the key into the index (the hash) of an array element (the slot or bucket) where the corresponding value is to be sought. Ideally, the hash function should map each possible key to a unique slot index, but this ideal is rarely achievable in practice (unless the hash keys are fixed; i.e. new entries are never added to the table after it is created). Instead, most hash table designs assume that hast collisionsdifferent keys that map to the same hash valuewill occur and must be accommodated in some way.

3. Discuss the correspondences between the ER model constructs and the relational model constructs. Show how each ER model construct can be mapped to the relational model, and discuss any alternative mappings.
Ans: Relational Data Model: The model uses the concept of a mathematical relation-which looks somewhat like a table of values-as its basic building block, and has its theoretical basis in set theory and first order predicate logic. The relational model represents the database a collection of relations. Each relation resembles a table of values or, to some extent, a flat file of records. When a relation is thought of as a table of values, each row in the table represents a collection of related data values. In the relation model, each row in the table represents a fact that typically corresponds to a real-world entity or relationship. The table name and column names are used to help in interpreting the meaning of the values in each row. In the formal relational model terminology, a row is called a tuple, a column header is called an attribute, and the table is called a relation. The data type describing the types of values that can appear in each column is represented by domain of possible values. ER Model: An entity-relationship model (ERM) is an abstract and conceptual representation of data. Entityrelationship modeling is a database modeling method, used to produce a type of conceptual schema or semantic data model of a system, often a relational database, and its requirements in a top-down fashion. Diagrams created by this process are called entity-relationship diagrams, ER diagrams, or ERDs. The first stage of information system design uses these models during the requirements analysis to describe information needs or the type of information that is to be stored in a database. In the case of the design of an information system that is based on a database, the conceptual data model is, at a later stage (usually called logical design), mapped to a logical data model, such as the relational model; this in turn is mapped to a physical model during physical design. We create a relational schema from an entityrelationship(ER) schema.

Correspondence between ER and Relational Models:

ER Model Entity type 1:1 or 1:N relationship type M:N relationship type n ary relationship type Simple attributes Composite attributes Multivalued attributes Value set Key attribute

Relational Model Entity relation Foregin key Relationship relation and two foreign keys Relationship relation and n foreign keys Attributes Set of simple component attributes Relation and foreign key Domain Primary key or secondary key

Mapping of regular entity types:

For each regular entity type E in the ER schema, create a relation R that includes all the simple attributes of E. Include only the simple component attributes of a composite attribute. Choose one of the key attributes of E as primary key for R. If the chosen key of E is composite, the set of simple attributes that form it will together the primary key of R. If multiple keys were identified for E during the conceptual design, the information describing the attributes that form each additional key is kept in order to specify secondary (unique) keys of relation R. Knowledge about keys is also kept for indexing purpose and other types of analyses. We create the relations EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT, and PROJECT in to correspond to the regular entity types EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT, and PROJECT. The foreign key and relationship attributes, if any, are not include yet; they will be added during subsequent steps. These, include the attributes SUPERENO and DNO of EMPLOYEE, MGRNO and MGRSTARTDATE of DEPARTMENT, and DNUM of PROJECT. We choose ENO, DNUMBER, and PNUMBER as primary keys for the relations EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT, and PROJECT, respectively. Knowledge that DNAME of DEPARTMENT and PNAME of PROJCET are secondary keys is kept for possible use later in the design. The relation that is created from the mapping of entity types are sometimes called entity relations because each tuyple represents an entity instance.

4 Define the following terms: disk, disk pack, track, block, cylinder, sector, interblock gap, read/write head.
Ans: Disk: Disk s are used for storing large amounts of data. The most basic unit of data on the disk is a single bit of information. By magnetizing a area on disk in certain ways, one can make it represent a bit value of either 0 or 1. To code information, bits are grouped into bytes. Byte sizes are typically 4 to 8 bits, depending on the computer and the device. We assume that one character is stored in a single byte, and we use the terms byte and character interchangeably. The capacity of a disk is the number of bytes it can store, which is usually very large. Small floppy disks used with microcomputers typically hold from 400 kbytes to 1.5 Mbytes; hard disks for micros typically hold from several hundred Mbytes up to a few Gbytes. Whatever their capacity, disks are all made of magnetic material shaped as a thin circular disk and protected by a plastic or acrylic cover. A disk is single-sided if it stores information on only one of its surface and double-sided if both surfaces are used.

Disk Packs: To increase storage capacity, disks are assembled into a disk pack, which may include many disks and hence many surfaces. A Disk pack is a layered grouping of hard disk platters (circular, rigid discs coated with a magnetic data storage surface). Disk pack is the core component of a hard disk drive. In modern hard disks, the disk pack is permanently sealed inside the drive. In many early hard disks, the disk pack was a removable unit, and would be supplied with a protective canister featuring a lifting handle.

Track and cylinder:

The (circular) area on a disk platter which can be accessed without moving the access arm of the drive is called track. Information is stored on a disk surface in concentric circles of small width, for each having a distinct diameter. Each circle is called a track. For disk packs, the tracks with the same diameter on the various surfaces are called cylinder because of the shape they would form if connected in space. The set of tracks of a disk drive which can be accessed without changing the position of the access arm are called cylinder.
The number of tracks on a disk range from a few hundred to a few thousand, and the capacity of each track typically range from tens of Kbytes to 150 Kbytes. Sector: A fixed size physical data block on a disk drive. A track usually contains a large amount of information; it is divided into smaller blocks or sectors. The division of a track into sectors is hard-coded on the disk surface and cannot be changed. One type of sector organization calls a portion of a track that subtends a fixed angle at the center as a sector. Several other sector organizations are possible, one of which is to have the sectors subtend smaller angles at the center as one moves away, thus maintaining a uniform density of recording. Block and Interblock Gaps: A physical data record, separated on the medium from other blocks by inter-block gaps is called block. The division of a track into equal sized disk blocks is set by the operating system during disk formatting. Block size is fixed during initialization and cannot be changed dynamically. Typical disk block sizes range from 512 to 4096 bytes. A disk with hard coded sectors often has the sectors subdivided into blocks during initialization. An area between data blocks which contains no data and which separates the blocks is called interblock gap. Blocks are separated by fixed size interblock gaps, which include specially coded control information written during disk initialization. This information is used to determine which block on the track follows each interblock gap. Read/write Head: A tape drive is required to read the data from or to write the data to a tape reel. Usually, each group of bits that forms a byte is stored across the tape, and the bytes themselves are stored consecutively on the tape. A read/write head is used to read or write data on tape. Data records on tape are also stored in blocks-although the blocks may be substantially larger than those for disks, and interblock gaps are also quite large. With typical tape densities of 1600 to 6250 bytes per inch, a typical interblock gap of 0.6 inches corresponds to 960 to 3750 bytes of wasted storage space.

Set-2
1. Explain the purpose of Data Modeling. What are the basic constructs of E-R Diagrams?

Ans:1 Data modeling in is the process of creating a data model by applying formal data model descriptions using data modeling techniques.
Data modeling is the act of exploring data-oriented structures. Like other modeling artifacts data models can be used for a variety of purposes, from high-level conceptual models to physical data models.

Data modeling is the formalization and documentation of existing processes and events that occur during application software design and development. Data modeling techniques and tools capture and translate complex system designs into easily understood representations of the data flows and processes, creating a blueprint for construction and/or re-engineering. Basic Constructs of E-R Modeling: The ER model views the real world as a construct of entities and association between entities. The basic constructs of ER modeling are entities, attributes, and relationships. Entity: An entity may be defined as a thing which is recognized as being capable of an independent existence and which can be uniquely identified. An entity is an abstraction from the complexities of some domain. When we speak of an entity we normally speak of some aspect of the real world which can be distinguished from other aspects of the real world. An entity may be a physical object such as a house or a car, an event such as a house sale or a car service, or a concept such as a customer transaction or order. Although the term entity is the one most commonly used, following Chen we should really distinguish between an entity and an entity-type. An entity-type is a category. An entity, strictly speaking, is an instance of a given entity-type. There are usually many instances of an entity-type. Because the term entity-type is somewhat cumbersome, most people tend to use the term entity as a synonym for this term. Entities can be thought of as nouns. Examples: a computer, an employee, a song, a mathematical theorem. Relationship: A relationship captures how two or more entities are related to one another. Relationships can be thought of as verbs, linking two or more nouns. Examples: an owns relationship between a company and a computer, a supervises relationship between an employee and a department, a performs relationship between an artist and a song, a proved relationship between a mathematician and a theorem. Attributes: Entities and relationships can both have attributes. Examples: an employee entity might have a Social Security Number (SSN) attribute; the proved relationship may have a date attribute.

2. Write about: Types of Discretionary Privileges Propagation of Privileges using Grant Option Physical Storage Structure of DBMS Indexing

Ans:2 Types of Discretionary Privileges: The concept of an authorization identifier is used to refer, to a user account. The DBMS must provide selective access to each relation in the database based on specific accounts. There are two levels for assigning privileges to use use the database system: The account level: At this level, the DBA specifies the particular privileges that each account holds independently of the relations in the database. The relation (or table level): At this level, the DBA can control the privilege to access each individual relation or view in the database. The privileges at the account level apply to the capabilities provided to the account itself and can include the CREATE SCHEMA or CREATE TABLE privilege, to create a schema or base relation; the CREATE VIEW privilege; the ALTER privilege, to apply schema changes such adding or removing attributes from relations; the DROP privilege, to delete relations or views; the MODIFY privilege, to insert, delete, or update tuples; and the SELECT privilege, to retrieve information from the database by using a SELECT query. The second level of privileges applies to the relation level, whether they are base relations or virtual (view) relations. The granting and revoking of privileges generally follow an authorization model for discretionary privileges known as the access matrix model, where the rows of a matrix M represents subjects (users, accounts, programs) and the columns represent objects (relations, records, columns, views, operations). Each position M(i,j) in the matrix represents the types of privileges (read, write, update) that subject i holds on object j. To control the granting and revoking of relation privileges, each relation R in a database is assigned and owner account, which is typically the account that was used when the relation was created in the first place. The owner of a relation is given all privileges on that relation. The owner account holder can pass privileges on R to other users by granting privileges to their accounts. In SQL the following types of privileges can be granted on each individual relation R: SELECT (retrieval or read) privilege on R: Gives the account retrieval privilege. In SQL this gives the account the privilege to use the SELECT statement to retrieve tuples from R. MODIFY privileges on R: This gives the account the capability to modify tuples of R. In SQL this privilege is further divided into UPDATE, DELETE, and INSERT privileges to apply the corresponding SQL command to R. In addition, both the INSERT and UPDATE privileges can specify that only certain attributes can be updated or inserted by the account. REFERENCES privilege on R: This gives the account the capability to reference relation R when specifying integrity constraints. The privilege can also be restricted to specific attributes of R. Propagation of Privileges using the GRANT OPTION: Whenever the owner A of a relation R grants a privilege on R to another account B, privilege can be given to B with or without the GRANT OPTION. If the GRANT OPTION is given, this means that B can also grant that privilege on R to other accounts. Suppose that B is given the GRANT OPTION by A and that B then grants the privilege on R to a third account C, also with

GRANT OPTION. In this way, privileges on R can propagate to other accounts without the knowledge of the owner of R. If the owner account A now revokes the privilege granted to B, all the privileges that B propagated based on that privilege should automatically be revoked by the system. Physical Storage Structure of DBMS: The physical design of the database specifies the physical configuration of the database on the storage media. This includes detailed specification of data elements, data types, indexing options and other parameters residing in the DBMS data dictionary. It is the detailed design of a system that includes modules & the database's hardware & software specifications of the system. Physical structures are those that can be seen and operated on from the operating system, such as the physical files that store data on a disk. Basic Storage Concepts (Hard Disk) disk access time = seek time + rotational delay disk access times are much slower than access to main memory. overriding DBMS performance objective is to minimise the number of disk accesses (disk I/Os)

Indexing:

Data structure allowing a DBMS to locate particular records more quickly and hence speed up queries.Book index has index term (stored in alphabetic order) with a page number.Database index (on a particular attribute) has attribute value (stored in order) with a memory address.An index gives direct access to a record and prevents having to scan every record sequentially to find the one required.

Using SUPPLIER(Supp# , SName, SCity)

Consider the query Get all the suppliers in a certain city ( e.g. London) 2 possible strategies: a. Search the entire supplier file for records with city 'London' b. Create an index on cities, access it for 'London entries and follow the pointer to the corresponding records SCity Index Supp# SName SCity Dublin S1 Smith London London S2 Jones Paris London S3 Brown Paris Paris S4 Clark London Paris S5 Ellis Dublin

3. What is a relationship type? Explain the differences among a relationship instance, a relationship type, and a relationship set

Ans:3

There are three type of relationships 1) One to one 2) One to many 3) Many to many Say we have table1 and table2 For one to one relationship, a record(row) in table1 will have at most one matching record or row in table2 I.e. it mustnt have two matching records or no matching records in table2. For one to many, a record in table1 can have more than one record in table2 but not vice versa Lets take an example, Say we have a database which saves information about Guys and whom they are dating. We have two tables in our database Guys and Girls Guy id Guy name 1 Andrew 2 Bob 3 Craig Girl id Girl name 1 Girl1 2 Girl2 3 Girl3 Here in above example Guy ID and Girl ID are primary keys of their respective table. Say Andrew is dating Girl1, Bob Girl2 and Craig is dating Girl3. So we are having a one to one relationship over there. So in this case we need to modify the Girls table to have a Guy id foreign key in it. Girl id Girl name Guy id 1 Girl1 1 2 Girl2 2 3 Girl3 3 Now let say one guy has started dating more than one girl. i.e. Andrew has started dating Girl1 and say a new Girl4 That takes us to one to many relationships from Guys to Girls table. Now to accommodate this change we can modify our Girls table like this Girl Id Girl Name Guy Id 1 Girl1 1 2 Girl2 2 3 Girl3 3 4 Girl4 1 Now say after few days, comes a time where girls have also started dating more than one boy i.e. many to many relationships So the thing to do over here is to add another table which is called Junction Table, Associate Table or linking Table which will contain primary key columns of both girls and guys table. Let see it with an example Guy id Guy name 1 Andrew 2 Bob 3 Craig

Girl id Girl name 1 Girl1 2 Girl2 3 Girl3 Andrew is now dating Girl1 and Girl2 and Now Girl3 has started dating Bob and Craig so our junction table will look like this Guy ID Girl ID 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 It will contain primary key of both the Girls and Boys table. A relationship type R among n entity types E1, E2, , En is a set of associations among entities from these types. Actually, R is a set of relationship instances ri where each ri is an n-tuple of entities (e1, e2, , en), and each entity ej in ri is a member of entity type Ej, 1jn. Hence, a relationship type is a mathematical relation on E1, E2, , En, or alternatively it can be defined as a subset of the Cartesian product E1x E2x xEn . Here, entity types E1, E2, , En defines a set of relationship, called relationship sets. Relationship instance: Each relationship instance ri in R is an association of entities, where the association includes exactly one entity from each participating entity type. Each such relationship instance ri represent the fact that the entities participating in ri are related in some way in the corresponding miniworld situation. For example, in relationship type WORKS_FOR associates one EMPLOYEE and DEPARTMENT, which associates each employee with the department for which the employee works. Each relationship instance in the relationship set WORKS_FOR associates one EMPLOYEE and one DEPARTMENT.

4. Write about:

Ans:4 Database model A database model is a theory or specification describing how a database is structured and used. Several such models have been suggested. Common models include:

Flat model

Hierarchical model

Network model

Relational model

Flat model: This may not strictly qualify as a data model. The flat (or table) model consists of a single, two-dimensional array of data elements, where all members of a given column are assumed to be similar values, and all members of a row are assumed to be related to one another. Hierarchical model: In this model data is organized into a tree-like structure, implying a single upward link in each record to describe the nesting, and a sort field to keep the records in a particular order in each same-level list. Network model: This model organizes data using two fundamental constructs, called records and sets. Records contain fields, and sets define one-to-many relationships between records: one owner, many members. Relational model: is a database model based on first-order predicate logic. Its core idea is to describe a database as a collection of predicates over a finite set of predicate variables, describing constraints on the possible values and combinations of values.

Concept-oriented model

Star schema

Object-relational model: Similar to a relational database model, but objects, classes and inheritance are directly supported in database schemas and in the query language. Star schema is the simplest style of data warehouse schema. The star schema consists of a few "fact tables" (possibly only one, justifying the name) referencing any number of "dimension tables". The star schema is considered an important special case of the snowflake schema.