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01 Tribology - A Systems Approach To The Science and Technology of Friction, Lubrication, and Wear - Horst Czichos
01 Tribology - A Systems Approach To The Science and Technology of Friction, Lubrication, and Wear - Horst Czichos
a systems approach to the science and technology of friction lubrication and wear
TRIBOLOGY SERIESJ
TRIBOLOGY
a systems approach to the science and technology of friction, lubrication and wear
HBRST CZICHOS
Bundesanstalt fur Materiaiprufung (BAMl (Federal institute for Testing Materials) Berlin - Dahlern and Technixhe Fachhochschule Berlin
ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY 336 Jan van Galenstraat P.O. Box 211,Amsterdam, The Netherlands Distributors for the United States and Canada: ELSEVIER NORTH-HOLLAND INC. 52, Vanderbilt Avenue New York, N.Y. 10017
Czichos , Horst. Tribology. (Tribology s e r i e s ; v. 1) Bibliographv: p. Includes indexes. 1. Tribology. 2. SyEitem analysis. 1 . Series. 1 mJ1075.C94 621.8'9 77-28510 ISBN 0-444-41676-5
T.
Title.
ISBN 0-444-41676-6 (Vol. 1) ISBN 0-444-41677-3 (Series) Eleevier Scientific Publishing Company, 1978 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permieoion of the publisher, Eleevier Scientific Publiahing Company, P.O. Box 380,Amsterdam, The Netherlands
0
Preface
T h i s volume g i v e s a s y s t e m a t i c u n i f i e d a p p r o a c h t o t r i b o l o g y : t h e fundamentals o f friction, l u b r i c a t i o n and wear and t h e i r i n f l u e n c e s o n t h e s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n o f dynamic m e c h a n i c a l s y s t e m s . S i n c e f r i c t i o n i s r e s p o n s i b l e f u r a m a j o r l o s s o f u s e f u l m e c h a n i c a l e n e r g y , and wear i s a m a j o r r e a s o n f o r r e p l a c i n g e q u i p m e n t , a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g and u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t r i b o l o g y i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important f o r t h e conservation o f energy and m a t e r i a l s i n e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n . The p l a n t o w r i t e t h i s book grew f r o m t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n co-operat i v e work o f t h e " I n t e r n a t i o n a l Research Group ( I R G ) o n Wear o f E n g i n e e r i n g M a t e r i a l s " o p e r a t i n g u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e " O r g a n i z a t i o n f o r Economic C o - o p e r a t i o n and Development" (OECD) i n w h i c h I have been t a k i n g p a r t s i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s . T h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e have shown t h a t t h e r e i s an u r g e n t need f o r a g e n e r a l , y e t p r a c t i c a l l y u s e f u l , framework i n o r d e r t o l i n k t h e many i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a s p e c t s o f t r i b o l o g y , r a n g i n g froiii c o n t a c t mechanics, s u r f a c e p h y s i c s and h y d r o d y n a m i c s t o b e a r i n g t e c h n o l o g y and q u e s t i o n s o f m a i n t e n a n c e and r e l i a b i l i t y o f m e c h a n i c a l e q u i p m e n t . Moreover, i t became o b v i o u s i n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h a t spec i f i c a n a l y t i c a l methods o f i s o l a t i n g and s t u d y i n g s i n g l e e v e n t s a n d t r e a t i n g f r i c t i o n and wear i n a n a l o g y t o o t h e r ( b u l k ) m e c h a n i c a l m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e o n l y p a r t l y u s e f u l t o t h e s t u d y o f complex t r i b o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s . I n d e e d , t h e o r i g i n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f t r i b o l o g y : " t h e s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y o f i n t e r a c t i n g s u r f a c e s i n r e l a t i v e m o t i o n and t h e p r a c t i c e s r e l a t e d t h e r e t o " i s obv i o u s l y t h a t o f a dynamic m e c h a n i c a l system. Thus, f r i c t i o n , wear and t h e many r e l a t e d pheeomena a r e e s s e n t i a l l y due t o dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e m o v i n g components o f s y s t e m s . ( A c o m p i l a t i o n o f m e c h a n i c a l systems i n
vi
I t was
concluded t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f systems t h i n k i n g and general systems t h e o r y a r e e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d f o r d e v e l o p i n g a c o n v e n i e n t framework o f t r i b o l o gy, b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r i t s many aspects c u r r e n t l y s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e . I t f o l l o w s t h a t a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system s h o u l d be analyzed and d e s c r i b e d i n terms o f i t s " s t r u c t u r e " (elements o f t h e system, p r o p e r t i e s o f elements, i n t e r r e l a t i o n s between elements) as w e l l as i n terms o f i t s " f u n c t i o n " ( i n p u t s , o u t p u t s , t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s ) . Whereas i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f e l e c t r i c a l systems t h e i n t e r e s t i s c o n c e n t r a t e d m a i n l y on t h e f u n c t i o n a l i n p u t - o u t p u t r e l a t i o n s , i n t r i b o l o g y t h e a n a l y s i s and d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e (dynamic) s y s t e m ' s s t r u c t u r e i s t h e c r u c i a l p o i n t . The o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e book i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d and i s o u t l i n e d i n S e c t i o n 1.4. I t i s suggested t h a t t h e reader who i s i n t e r e s t e d m a i n l y i n t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f systems techniques t o t r i b o l o g i c a l problems may t u r n t o Chapter 8 on " P r a c t i c a l Systems Methodology", a f t e r r e a d i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y Chapters 1 and 2, and may f o l l o w t h e n t h e sequence o f Chapters
3,4 and s o on. Because o f t h e immense scope o f t r i b o l o g y , t h i s volume conc e n t r a t e s m a i n l y on t h e b a s i c general p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n o r d e r t o f i t t h e huge amount o f m a t e r i a l i n t o t h e l e n g t h a v a i l a b l e . Thus, t h e book i s a i m i n g t o p r o v i d e u n i f i e d i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y background knowledge f o r engineers, p h y s i c i s t s , chemists and m a t e r i a l s c i e n t i s t s w o r k i n g i n t h e v a r i o u s s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d s o f t r i b o l o g y . When used as a t e x t b o o k , t h e t e x t i s s u i t e d t o t h e l e v e l o f s e n i o r undergraduate o r f i r s t - y e a r graduate courses i n e n g i n e e r i n g and t h e n a t u r a l sciences. Some p a r t o f t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h i s book has been p r e s e n t e d as l e c t u r e s a t t h e IRG-OECD Meetings h e l d a t ( a ) I m p e r i a l C o l l e g e , London, J u l y 1973, ( b ) BAM, Berlin-Dahlem, October 1974, ( c ) CNRS, P a r i s , A p r i l 1976. A t t h e s e Meetings h e l p f u l comments have been made by P r o f e s s o r R. C o u r t e l , CNRS, P a r i s , and P r o f e s s o r H. Chri stensen, SINTEF, Trondheim. F u r t h e r acknowledgements a r e due t o t h e f o r m e r Chairman o f IRG-OECD, P r o f e s s o r R.L. Johnson, Rensselaer P o l y t e c h n i c I n s t i t u t e , Troy, New York, f o r h i s c o n t i n u i n g i n t e r e s t i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f systems techniques t o t r i b o l o g i c a l problems and t o t h e p r e s e n t Chairman o f IRG-OECD, P r o f e s s o r G.W.
work i n t h i s f i e l d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , I l i k e t o express m s i n c e r e thanks t o y Rowe, U n i v e r s i t y o f Birmingham, who reviewed t h e complete d r a f t o f t h i s book making v a r i o u s v a l u a b l e suggestions. The c e n t r a l t h e o r e t i c a l p a r t o f t h i s book, namely Chapter 3, "General Theory o f T r i b o l o g y " has been worked o u t t o g e t h e r w i t h P r o f e s s o r J . Mfilgaard,
vii
Memorial U n i v e r s i t y o f Newfoundland, d u r i n g h i s s t a y a t BAM f r o m September 1975 t o June 1976 as F e l l o w o f t h e Alexander-von-Humboldt-Foundation o f t h e Federal R e p u b l i c o f Germany. I am v e r y g r a t e f u l t o P r o f e s s o r Mdlgaard f o r t h e e x c e l l e n t c o - o p e r a t i o n and h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h i s book. Thanks a r e due a l s o t o Ir. A.W.J. i n S e c t i o n s 8.5.3, de Gee and A. B e g e l i n g e r , M e t a a l i n s t i t u u t TNO, A p e l and 8.5.7. I n o r d e r t o make t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s doorn, f o r t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n o f p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n examples p r e s e n t e d 8.5.5, i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o i n t work e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community, t h e book has been w r i t t e n i n t h e E n g l i s h language.
y The e n t i r e m a n u s c r i p t has been g r a c i o u s l y r e a d by m c o l l e a g u e D r . K.-H.
Habig who a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d some u s e f u l comments. I n a d d i t i o n , m c o l l e a g u e y D r . H.-U. Mittmann reviewed Chapter 6 and D r . D.H. 4.5, P.M. Buckley and D r . L.D. Wedeven, NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, reviewed S e c t i o n s 4.4 and r e s p e c t i v e l y , making h e l p f u l remarks. The Appendix was checked by Ku, Southwest Research I n s t i t u t e , San Antonio, who a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d
c l u d i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l h e l p o f t h e e n g i n e e r s W. Evers, M. Gienau, W. Schrag and J . Schwenzien. I n s p i t e o f a l l t h e encouraging s u p p o r t , t h e book would n e v e r have been
y f i n i s h e d w i t h o u t t h e c o n t i n u o u s h e l p o f m w i f e Barbara who n o t o n l y t y p e d
t h e p r e l i m i n a r y d r a f t s b u t a l s o produced t h e e x c e l l e n t camera-ready manus c r i p t . I n small token f o r t h e i r patience during the time o f the preparation
y y o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t , t h e book i s d e d i c a t e d t o m f a m i l y , m w i f e Barbara and m son Carsten. y
H o r s t Czi chos
i x
Contents
1.
1.1
1.2
Dynamics o f p h y s i c a l systems and t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f f r i c t i o n and w e a r H i s t o r i c a l development o f t r i b o l o g y 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 F r i c t i o n studies Wear s t u d i e s Lubrication studies
1
3
3 6
8
1.3 1.4
11
12
2.
14 14
2.2
2.3 2.4 2.5
16
18
20
21
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f systems
3.
24 24 27 30 33 33 36 38 40 43
Conclusions
4.
TRIBOLOGICAL PROCESSES
45
4.1 4.2
45
47 47 56 69 69 73
81
4.2.1 4.2.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.4.5 4.4.6 4.5 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.5.4 4.5.5 4.5.6
C o n t a c t mechanics C o n t a c t p h y s i c s and c h e m i s t r y T a n g e n t i a l f o r c e s i n c o n t a c t processes Sliding friction Rolling f r i c t i o n Energy t r a n s m i s s i o n and d i s s i p a t i o n General d e s c r i p t i o n S u r f a c e f a t i g u e wear mechanisms A b r a s i v e wear mechanisms Adhesive wear mechanisms Tribo-chemical wear mechanisms The c o m p l e x i t y o f wear processes S t r i b e c k c u r v e and l u b r i c a t i o n modes Hydrodynamic 1u b r i c a t i o n
F r i c t i o n processes
a7
97 97 105 112 119 123 126 130 130 132 146 154 156 166
Wear processes
L u b r i c a t i o n modes
Xi
5.
176 176 178 179 186 191 195 199 200 202 204 205 207
5.1 5.2
6.
211
6.1
General c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
211
215 215 218 221 227
6.2 T r a n s m i s s i o n o f m o t i o n and s t i c k - s l i p e f f e c t s
6.2.1 6.3 6.4
Dynamics o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems
6.2.2 S i m u l a t i o n o f s t i c k - s l i p b e h a v i o u r
Mechanical e f f i c i e n c y Functional f a i l u r e s
Causes o f f a i l u r e
227
230 234 240 240 242 244 246
A case s t u d y : f a i l u r e modes o f g e a r s
xii
7.
TRIBOMETRY: TEST, SIMULATION AND CONTROL METHODS 7.1 7.2 Introduction F r i c t i o n and wear t e s t methods 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Tribometer t e s t system types Control o f operating variables T r ibometri c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
248 248 250 252 254 257 264 272 277 286
300 300 301 303 304 305 308 310 312 315 316 321 326 332 335 338 341 345
A t r i b o l o g i c a l systems d a t a s h e e t
8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.2.4 Technical f u n c t i o n o f t h e system Operating variables S t r u c t u r e o f t h e system T r ibological characteristics
The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g systems The p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f r i c t i o n and wear r e s e a r c h d a t a A p p l i c a t i o n o f systems m e t h o d o l o g y t o t h e s o l u t i o n o f t r i b o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s : some case s t u d i e s 8.5.1 8.5.2 8.5.3 8.5.4 8.5.5 8.5.6 8.5.7 8.5.8 Investigation of the validity o f " C o u l o m b - f r i c t i o n " f o r p o l y m e r l s t e e l s1 i d i n g p a i r s Characterization o f the t r i b o l o g i c a l behaviour o f wear-resistant d i f f u s i o n surface coatings M a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n f o r off-sh'ore bearing a p p l i c a t i o n Lubricant selection f o r instrument p i v o t bearing R e d u c t i o n o f s e v e r e wear o f c a m - t a p p e t d e s i g n Reduction o f f r i c t i o n - i n d u c e d n o i s e o f w h e e l / r a i l system F a i l u r e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f e l e c t r i c a l contacts Compi 1 a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m e t a l w o r k i n g processes
xiii
(A) (6)
(C)
To
B a r b a r a and C a r s t e n
OF
PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
OF
OCCURRENCE
-
FRICTION
AND
WEAR
machines, i n s t r u -
b a s i c p h y s i c a l d e f i n i t i o n , t h e t e r m m o t i o n denotes t h e change o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f an o b j e c t w i t h t i m e . I n a l a r g e r sense, t h e s t u d y o f how t h i n g s change w i t h time, and o f t h e f o r c e s t h a t cause them t o do so i s t h e o b j e c t i ve o f dynamic i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
A f e a t u r e common t o a l l processes o f m o t i o n i s t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f e f f e c t s o f "resistance t o motion", i . e . , t h e occurrence o f f r i c t i o n o f some k i n d o r a n o t h e r . The e f f e c t s o f f r i c t i o n a r e due t o p h y s i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n s between b o d i e s o r o b j e c t s moving r e l a t i v e l y t o each o t h e r . A s a consequence
o f f r i c t i o n , t h e process o f m o t i o n and t h e dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f t h e whole
system are influenced o r disturbed and some p a r t o f the energy o f motion i s dissipated. Further, i f i n a dynamic system one mo.ving component consists o f a s o l i d body, the e f f e c t o f f r i c t i o n i s accompanied i n general by wear: "the progressive l o s s o f substance from the operating surface o f a body occurring as a r e s u l t o f r e l a t i v e motion a t the surface" (Ref. 1.2). I n Figure 1.1, the basic types o f motion o f s o l i d bodies together w i t h r e l e v a n t engineering systems and types o f resistance t o motion and mechanisms o f damage are ill u s t r a t e d schematically. Resistance t o motion Mechanism of damage
FSgure 1.1
a i r friction
f l u i d erosion
solid friction
wear
Contemporary technology has developed t o a l e v e l where the problems o f movi n g surfaces r e q u i r e careful consideration and an i n t e g r a t i o n o f a l l the knowledge relevant t o the dynamics o f multicomponent systems. For example, i n an a i r c r a f t l i t e r a l l y thousands of p a r t s are subject t o f r i c t i o n and wear, f o r example brakes, bearings, seals, gears, actuators, pumps, f l i g h t c o n t r o l systems, instruments, s p l i n e s and even " s t a t i c " j o i n t s . Whereas, i n the past, i n the design o f dynamic mechanical systems the problems o f f r i c tion-induced energy losses and wear-induced m a t e r i a l s losses have been overlooked t o some extent, the f u t u r e w i l l be s e r i o u s l y concerned w i t h the conservation o f energy and m a t e r i a l s i n engineering design. I n order t o embrace a l l aspects o f moving surfaces and the transmission and d i s s i p a t i o n o f energy and materials i n mechanical systems, the word "Tribology" was coined by a B r i t i s h committee i n 1966 from t h e word " t r i b o s " , which means "rubbing" i n c l a s s i c Greek (Ref. 1.3). The phenomena o f t r i b o l o g y
c a l processes and i t s influences on the f u n c t i o n and s t r u c t u r e o f mechanical engineering systems are the subject o f t h i s book.
I'
I t i s q u i t e d i f f i c u l t t o do a c c u r a t e q u a n t i t a t i v e
e n o r m u s e n g i n e e r i n g v a l u e o f an a c c u r a t e a n a l y s i s " . R i c h a r d P . Feynrnan
Nobel l a u r e a t e
1963
Feynrnan l e c t u r e s ,
1.8.) I n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r , t h e r e -
t h a t o f t h e wheel. I n f a c t , by p r o p e r use o f t h i s i n v e n t i o n i t i s p o s s i b l e t o reduce t h e work needed t o overcome f r i c t i o n c o n s i d e r a b l y . From t h e r e s u l t s o f a r c h a e l o g i c a l s t u d i e s , i t m i g h t be concluded t h a t t h e m e r i t s o f r o l l i n g m o t i o n compared w i t h s l i d i n g had been r e c o g n i z e d some 5,000 y e a r s i n Mesopotamia.
The s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y o f t h e dynamics o f m o t i o n and o f f r i c t i o n phenomena i s , however, much more r e c e n t t h a n these e a r l y a p p l i c a t i o n s m i g h t suggest. I t s t a r t s , as i s known, w i t h t h e work done 360 y e a r s ago by G a l i l e o . G a l i l e o made a g r e a t advance i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m o t i o n when he d i s c o v e r e d t h e " p r i n c i p l e o f i n e r t i a " : i f a moving o b j e c t i s u n p e r t u r b e d i s n o t d i s t u r b e d by f r i c t i o n f o r c e s
if it
i t c o n t i n u e s t o move w i t h a c o n s t a n t
v e l o c i t y i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e . The n e x t s t e p i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c development o f dynamics was done by Newton i n f o r m u l a t i n g t h e c e l e b r a t e d b a s i c laws o f c l a s s i c a l mechanics. Supplementing t h e laws o f G a l i l e o and Newton on t h e mechanics o f i d e a l motion, Amontons i n 1699 and Coulomb i n 1785 f o r m u l a t e d some r u l e s o f s o l i d f r i c t i o n based on e x t e n s i v e experiments (Ref. 1.9, ment named a " t r i b o m e t e r " (see F i g u r e 1 . 2 ) .
1.10). F o r t h e purpose
/ / I/ / / / / / / / /
support
"8"
/// //
///A
/
/ / /
/
/ /
Fweight'
FF
/
/ A
F i g u r e 1.2
observed s t r o n g adhesion between l e a d spheres when t h e y a r e pressed t o g e t h e r and he c o n s i d e r e d t h a t s i m i l a r f o r c e s m i g h t be i n v o l v e d i n f r i c t i o n ( R e f . 1.11). Coulomb i n h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e f r i c t i o n process, however, r e j e c t e d t h i s adhesion h y p o t h e s i s . P r e c e d i n g t h e work o f Amontons and Coulomb, Leonard0 da V i n c i had a l r e a d y found, by t h e m i d d l e o f t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e was p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e l o a d ( R e f . 1 . 1 2 ) . From t h e r e s u l t s o f h i s experiments, he concluded t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e was one q u a r t e r o f t h e l o a d and c o n s t a n t f o r a l l m a t e r i a l s ( i . e . , stant). Although these f i n d i n g s seem t o answer some b a s i c q u e s t i o n s o f mechan i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g , f r o m a p h y s i c a l p o i n t o f view t h e o r i g i n o f f r i c t i o n cannot be e x p l a i n e d i n terms o f t h e c l a s s i c a l mechanics o f r i g i d b o d i e s .
I f t h e s u r f a c e a s p e r i t i e s a r e assumed t o be r i g i d , an energy b a l a n c e shows
f = 0.25 = con-
t h a t t h e process o f m e r e l y l i f t i n g one s l i d i n g s u r f a c e o v e r t h e bumps o f t h e c o u n t e r f a c e consumes no mechanical energy whereas i n r e a l i t y energy i s d i s s i p a t e d . I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e f i n d i n g s o f Amontons and Coulomb can be r e g a r d e d o n l y as rough e m p i r i c a l r u l e s o f l i m i t e d v a l i d i t y . However, s i n c e t h e s e r u l e s were f o r m u l a t e d a t a v e r y e a r l y s t a g e o f t h e s c i e n c e o f mechanics, t h e s e f i n d i n g s have been taken as "laws" o f f r i c t i o n . Moreover, t h e f r i c t i o n beh a v i o u r of mechanical systems had been t r e a t e d i n terms o f c o n s t a n t c o e f f i c i e n t s o f f r i c t i o n which a r e assumed t o be " i n t r i n s i c m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s " . As a consequence o f : (i) t h e development o f i d e a l i z e d t h e o r i e s o f mechanics i n which t h e e f f e c t s o f f r i c t i o n are neglected e n t i r e l y ,
( i i ) t h e m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n as " i n t r i n s i c mat e r ia 1 cons t a n t " , no a c t u a l p r o g r e s s beyond t h e roughness h y p o t h e s i s was made i n t h e f i e l d o f f r i c t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y and i n t o t h e t w e n t i e t h . As an a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n o f s o l i d f r i c t i o n , t h e "adhesion t h e o r y " o f f r i c t i o n was p u t f o r w a r d by Hardy (Ref. 1 . 1 3 ) and Toml i n s o n ( R e f . 1.14) i n t h e 1 9 2 0 ' s . I n t h i s t h e o r y i t i s assumed t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e i s needed t o overcome m o l e c u l a r adhesion f o r c e s a c t i n g between t h e c o n t a c t i n g s u r f a c e s . Although t h i s t h e o r y appears r a t h e r obvious, i t r e q u i r e s a f r i c t i o n f o r c e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e area o f c o n t a c t . T h i s , however,
i t was r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l o r i g i n s o f f r i c t i o n a r e a v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d
6
m a t t e r which can n o t be e x p l a i n e d by a s i m p l e t h e o r y b u t need b o t h a c c u r a t e experiments and d e t a i l e d p h y s i c a l analyses. Since, d u r i n g t h e 1920's and 1930's, p h y s i c i s t s were m a i n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t o p i c s l i k e a t o m i c p h y s i c s and quantum mechanics i t was n o t u n t i l about 1940 t h a t t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s des c r i b e d above were c l a r i f i e d . A t t h i s time, Holm (Ref. 1.15), E r n s t and Merchant (Ref. 1.16) and Bowden and Tabor (Ref. 1.17) found a g r e a t d i f f e r ence between t h e apparent g e o m e t r i c a l area o f c o n t a c t and t h e " r e a l " a r e a o f c o n t a c t formed b y t h e t o u c h i n g a s p e r i t i e s o f t h e two s u r f a c e s . I n u s i n g t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e assumption t h a t adhesive m o l e c u l a r f o r c e s a c t i n t h e a s p e r i t y j u n c t i o n s , Bowden and Tabor (Ref. 1.18) c o u l d e x p l a i n t h e e m p i r i c a l r u l e s o f Amontons and Coulomb. I t f o l l o w s t h a t f r i c t i o n has a " d u a l " n a t u r e i n t h a t b o t h d e f o r m a t i o n processes and adhesion processes a r e i n v o l v e d i n f r i c t i o n . T h i s dual molecular-mechanical concept has been genera l l y accepted as a " g e n e r a l i z e d " t h e o r y o f f r i c t i o n .
I)
on t h e wear o f s i m p l e s l i d i n g b e a r i n g s . He found t h a t wear i n c r e a s e s w i t h l o a d and t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n o f wear i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n a v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n b u t f o l l o w s t h e main v e c t o r o f t h e load. I n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e wear h e developed a s l i d i n g b e a r i n g , s u g g e s t i n g an a l l o y o f 30 p e r c e n t copper and 70 p e r c e n t t i n t o be used as b e a r i n g bush. A p a r t f r o m t h e work o f Leonardo, t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e s t u d y o f wear on a s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s i s f a r more r e c e n t . An e a r l y p e r i o d o f s y s t e m a t i c wear studies workers
metals as a process o f d e f o r m a t i o n f o l l o w e d by a process o f s e p a r a t i o n (German: " A b b l a t t e r n " ) o f t h e deformed metal p a r t s (Ref. 1 . 1 9 ) . T h i s t h e o r y has been extended b y F i n k , and M a i l a n d e r and D i e s (Ref. 1.20, 1.21). They found t h a t t h e deformed metal p a r t s may o x i d i z e d u r i n g t h e wear process, and emphasized t h e i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e o f t h e environmental atmosphere on t h e wear o f metals. The s t a t e o f t h e a r t o f t h e e a r l y p e r i o d o f s y s t e m a t i c wear r e s e a r c h had been reviewed by S i e b e l i n 1938 (Ref. 1.22). f o l l o w i n g d i f f e r e n t types o f wear: Depending on t h e n a t u r e o f e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s o f wear a t t a c k , h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d between t h e
7
1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
S i e b e l p o i n t e d o u t t h a t as a consequence o f t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t types o f wear i t seems t o be i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e wear b e h a v i o u r o f a m a t e r i a l by one s i n g l e t e s t and t o o b t a i n unique wear v a l u e s . I n a r a t h e r modern way o f t h i n k i n g , he suggested c l o s e j o i n t r e s e a r c h work t o be done by p h y s i c i s t s , chemists, metal l u r g i s t s , t h e o r i s t s o f e l a s t i c i t y and p l a s t i c i t y , d e s i g n e r s , and p l a n t e n g i n e e r s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n r e a l p r o g r e s s i n t h e most complex f i e l d o f wear. The f i r s t p e r i o d o f wear r e s e a r c h ended i n t h e y e a r s o f World War 11. T h e r e a f t e r , i n t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s a c e r t a i n r e p e t i t i o n and e x t e n s i o n o f t h i s work c o u l d be noted, performed m a i n l y i n USA and England. F o r t h e case o f m e t a l / metal wear, Feng, B u r w e l l and S t r a n g were p r o b a b l y t h e f i r s t t o r e c o g n i z e t h e d i f f e r e n c e between m e t a l t r a n s f e r f r o m one s u r f a c e t o a n o t h e r and t h e process o f a t t r i t i o n o f m e t a l ( R e f . 1 . 2 3 ) . K e r r i d g e showed t h a t t h e t r a n s f e r o f m e t a l may be f o l l o w e d b y o x i d a t i o n o f t h e t r a n s f e r r e d m e t a l and t h a t t h e l a s t s t a g e o f such a process o f " m i l d " wear i s g i v e n by t h e a t t r i t i o n
For c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s o f s l i d i n g d r y m e t a l s u r f a c e s i n a regime o f m i l d
wear, A r c h a r d found t h e e m p i r i c a l r u l e t h a t t h e wear volume i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e l o a d and t h e s l i d i n g d i s t a n c e and i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e hardness o f t h e s o f t e r o f t h e two i n t e r a c t i n g m e t a l s ( R e f .
1. 2. 3. 4.
t h a t time these subjects were p a i d i n c r e a s i n g l y more a t t e n t i o n by most o f the h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d nations, mainly f o r economic reasons. Before cont i n u i n g the chronological review, as a f u r t h e r aspect the science and technology o f l u b r i c a t i o n
- should be taken
i n t o consideration.
12 3
I
LUBRICATION STUD1 E S
The purpose o f l u b r i c a t i o n i s t o separate t w o surfaces moving r e l a t i v e t o each other by a f l u i d f i l m which can e a s i l y be sheared w i t h o u t causing any damage t o the surfaces.
about 5,000 years ago by the Assyrians and Egyptians i n f a c i l i t a t i n g the movement o f sledges c a r r y i n g l a r g e statues o r b u i l d i n g s blocks o f stone. Apart from t h i s ancient use o f the l u b r i c a n t s and the l u b r i c a t i o n stud-
In t h i s connection an
i n t e r e s t i n g remark o f the mathematician John v. Neumann should be quoted (Ref. 1.27). He pointed o u t t h a t during most o f the development o f hydromechanics u n t i l about 1900, the main i n t e r e s t was v i r t u a l l y the s o l v i n g o f b e a u t i f u l mathematical problems neglecting terms o f i n t e r n a l f l u i d f r i c t i o n . These approximations, however, had almost nothing t o do with r e a l f l u i d s . John v . Neumann characterized the t h e o r i s t making such analyses as a man who studied the flow o f "dry" water.
M o s t e a r l y work on the motion o f l u b r i c a t e d machine p a r t s was devoted t o j o u r n a l bearings. I n 1883 P e t r o f f proposed the f o l l o w i n g formula f o r the
f r i c t i o n a l force
where
mean e f f e c t i v e f i l m thickness. This was the f i r s t expression derived f o r t h e f u l l - f l u i d - t y p e o f l u b r i c a t i o n . (The work o f P e t r o f f i s discussed i n d e t a i l i n Ref. 1.7.)
9
The mathematical f o u n d a t i o n s o f a l l hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n t h e o r y were l a i d i n 1886 by Reynolds i n d e r i v i n g t h e famous e q u a t i o n s named a f t e r him which a r e t h e b a s i s on which a l l subsequent l u b r i c a t i o n t h e o r y has been based ( R e f . 1 . 2 8 ) . Fundamental e x p e r i m e n t a l work i n t h i s f i e l d was performed around t h e t u r n o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y by S t r i b e c k a t a predecessor i n s t i t u t e o f t h e B u n d e s a n s t a l t f u r M a t e r i a l p r u f u n g (BAM), Berlin-Dahlem. Stribeck studied i n d e t a i l the influence o f the d i f f e r e n t operating variables, l i k e l o a d and v e l o c i t y , on t h e l u b r i c a t i o n and f r i c t i o n o f s l i d i n g and r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s ( R e f . 1 . 2 9 ) . The e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s o f S t r i b e c k were compared by Sommerfeld w i t h h i s own t h e o r e t i c a l f r i c t i o n r e s u l t s which he had d e r i v e d i n i n t e g r a t i n g Reynolds e q u a t i o n u s i n g an i n g e n i o u s s u b s t i t u t i o n ( R e f . 1.30). B i e l i n 1920 was t h e f i r s t t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e t y p e o f f r i c t i o n c u r v e meas u r e d by S t r i b e c k
i s l i k e l y t o describe
t h e general b e h a v i o u r o f l u b r i c a t e d s u r f a c e s as a f u n c t i o n o f l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y , s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y and l o a d ( R e f . 1 . 3 1 ) . Based on these fundamentals o f l u b r i c a t i o n t h e o r y , c r i t e r i a f o r t h e e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n o f hydrodynamical l u b r i c a t e d b e a r i n g s have t h e n been developed ( R e f . 1.32). One i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n , however, which i s l e f t open by t h e hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n t h e o r y concerns t h e l i m i t s o f f u l l - f l u i d l u b r i c a t i o n . I f , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s p e c i f i c l o a d i s v e r y h i g h and t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y i s low,
i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o b u i l d up a s u f f i c i e n t l y t h i c k f i l m even w i t h v e r y v i s cous l u b r i c a n t s . I n t h i s l u b r i c a t i o n regime, some p a r t s o f t h e s l i d i n g s u r faces may be covered by l u b r i c a n t f i l m s o n l y one o r two m o l e c u l a r dimensions t h i c k . Hardy i n 1922 was t h e f i r s t t o s t u d y i n d e t a i l t h i s regime o f "bounda r y " l u b r i c a t i o n , where t h e l u b r i c a n t a c t i o n i s determined by t h e chemical c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t r a t h e r t h a n by i t s v i s c o s i t y ( R e f . 1 . 3 3 ) . S i n c e t h e work o f Hardy, t h e non-hydrodynamic regimes o f l u b r i c a t i o n have been s t u d i e d i n t e n s e l y under d i f f e r e n t aspects. F u r t h e r , d i f f e r e n t chemically active lubricant additives
l i k e extreme p r e s s u r e a d d i t i v e s o r a n t i -
wear a d d i t i v e s - were developed. The development o f l u b r i c a n t s w i t h chemic a l l y a c t i v e a d d i t i v e s a l l o w e d t h e e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n o f machine e l e ments under c o n d i t i o n s which had l e d t o c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e s i f l u b r i c a t e d w i t h pure mineral o i l s . (For instance, the technical a p p l i c a t i o n o f hypoid gears f o r r e a r - a x l e d r i v e , i n t r o d u c e d i n 1927 by t h e Packard M o t o r Car Company was p o s s i b l e o n l y by u s i n g l u b r i c a n t s w i t h chemical a d d i t i v e s . ) A f t e r World War 11, a general t r e n d i n mechanical e n g i n e e r i n g towards h i g h e r loads, h i g h e r v e l o c i t i e s and h i g h e r o p e r a t i n g temperatures was observed i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a t t e m p t s t o reduce t h e w e i g h t s o f t h e moving p a r t s i n machinery. S i n c e t h a t t i m e t h e r e has been a s t e a d y i n c r e a s e o f i n t e r e s t
10
i n t h e problems of f r i c t i o n , l u b r i c a t i o n and wear. Tokens o f t h i s i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t were, among o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e appearance o f t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l e n t i t l e d WEAR ( s i n c e 1957) e n t i r e l y devoted t o t h e s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y o f f r i c t i o n , wear and l u b r i c a t i o n . A f u r t h e r new j o u r n a l , t h e TRANSACTIONS o f ASLE, has been p u b l i s h e d ( s i n c e 1958) by t h e American S o c i e t y o f L u b r i c a t i o n Engineers. I n t h e Federal R e p u b l i c o f Germany a r e s e a r c h programme ("Schwerpunkt-Programm") had been 1 aunched i n 1961 sponsored by t h e Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft ( R e f . 1.34). About t h e same t i m e i n England, a Working Group was s e t up t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f l u b r i c a t i o n and r e s e a r c h and t o g i v e an o p i n i o n on t h e needs o f i n d u s t r y t h e r e o f . I n 1966 t h i s Working Group p u b l i s h e d a r e p o r t i n w h i c h f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h e t e r m " t r i b o l o g y " appeared ( R e f . 1 . 3 ) . The o r i g i n o f t r i b o l o g y was d e s c r i b e d i n t h e r e p o r t "The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a new technology" (1973) as f o l l o w s (Ref. 1 . 3 5 ) .
on b r a k e s , c l u t c h e s , conveyors
bearings, s l i d e s , e t c . )
o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y w i t h low f r i c t i o n , e.g.,
A f t e r c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e E d i t o r s of t h e Supplement o f t h e O x f o r d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y , t h e t e r m " T r i b o l o g y " ( T r i b o s c i e n c e o r T r i b o t e c h n o l o g y ) was recommended f o r d e s c r i b i n g t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . T r i b o l o g y i s d e f i n e d as: "The s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y o f i n t e r a c t i n g s u r f a c e s i n r e l a t i v e m o t i o n and o f r e l a t e d s u b j e c t s and p r a c t i c e s " .
1 , 3 THE M E A N I N G OF TRIBOLOGY
S i n c e i t s d e f i n i t i o n i n 1966, t h e t e r m t r i b o l o g y has been w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d as a new g e n e r a l concept embracing a l l aspects o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n and d i s s i p a t i o n o f energy and m a t e r i a l s i n mechanical equipment i n c l u d i n g t h e v a r i o u s t o p i c s o f f r i c t i o n , wear, l u b r i c a t i o n and r e l a t e d f i e l d s o f s c i e n c e and technology. I n o r d e r t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t r i b o l o g y , among o t h e r t h i n g s , t h r e e p o i n t s have been emphasized (Ref. 1.36): (i) The economic a s p e c t o f t r i b o l o g y :
$ 2,000 m i l l i o n p e r
annum a r e l o s t as a r e s u l t o f wear processes ( R e f . 1 . 3 7 ) . Even i f these f i g u r e s a r e t a k e n as rough e s t i m a t e s o n l y , ( R e f . 1 . 3 8 ) , t h e y c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e t h e importance o f t r i b o l o g y f o r t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f energy and m a t e r i a l s . (ii) The s c i e n t i f i c aspect o f t r i b o l o g y : I t i s w e l l known t h a t a l l macroscopic processes i n n a t u r e a r e i r r e v e r s i b l e . Science i n i t s "pure" t h e o r i e s has l a r g e l y o m i t t e d t h i s i r r e v e r s i b i l i t y s i n c e t h e laws o f " i d e a l " processes were much e a s i e r t o develop. T r i b o l o g y s h o u l d a t t e m p t t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e i r r e v e r s i b l e processes o f mechanics i n d e t a i l and t o e x p l a i n t h e complex e f f e c t s o f energy and m a t e r i a l s d i s s i p a t i o n . ( i i i ) The m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y a s p e c t o f t r i b o l o g y : S i n c e t r i b o l o g y i s d e f i n e d as "Science and t e c h n o l o g y o f i n t e r a c t i n g s u r f a c e s i n r e l a t i v e m o t i o n " , i t i n c l u d e s n o t o n l y t h e work o f p h y s i c i s t s , chemists and m a t e r i a l s s c i e n t i s t s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s u r f a c e
12
p r o p e r t i e s o f m a t e r i a l s b u t a l s o t h e work o f e n g i n e e r s who use " i n t e r a c t i n g s u r f a c e s " f o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f motion, f o r c e s , work, e t c . , i n v a r i o u s t y p e s o f machinery. T h e r e f o r e , t r i b o l o g y i s connected w i t h s e v e r a l branches of s c i e n c e and technology, l i k e p h y s i c s , c h e m i s t r y , m a t e r i a1 s science, mechanical e n g i n e e r i n g , 1u b r i c a t i o n e n g i n e e r i n g , etc. The v a r i e t y o f economic, s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l aspects o f t r i b o l o g y i s a l s o e v i d e n t when c o n s i d e r i n g t h e l i t e r a t u r e . I n t h e e l e v e n y e a r s t h a t have passed s i n c e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e term t r i b o l o g y i n 1966, t h e huge numb e r o f some 55,000 papers have been p u b l i s h e d i n t h e f i e l d o f t r i b o l o g y . According t o t h e BAM T r i b o l o g y Documentation S e r v i c e , which a n n u a l l y publ i s h e s a c o m p i l a t i o n ( t i t l e c o l l e c t i o n ) o f t r i b o l o g y papers appearing t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , a t p r e s e n t about 8,000 papers a r e p u b l i s h e d e v e r y y e a r i n t h i s f i e l d (Ref. 1.39). Due t o t h e m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y n a t u r e o f t r i b o l o g y , t h e papers s c a t t e r b r o a d l y i n purpose and c o n t e n t . T h e r e f o r e , a1 though some p r o g r e s s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t s p e c i a l i z e d s u b t o p i c s o f t r i b o l o g y were obtained, s u i t a b l e t o o l s a r e needed i n o r d e r t o l i n k t h e s e r e s u l t s and t o p r e p a r e t h e way f o r c o o p e r a t i o n between people o f w i d e l y d i f f e r i n g d i s c i p l ines.
THIS
VOLUME
The i n t r o d u c t o r y remarks have focussed a t t e n t i o n on t h e problem t h a t t r i b o l o g y , l i k e any m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y branch of s c i e n c e and technology, poses s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s of communication. The v e r y d e f i n i t i o n o f t r i b o l o g y " i n t e r a c t i n g s u r f a c e s i n r e l a t i v e motion"
i n d i c a t e s a l r e a d y t h a t t h e be-
h a v i o u r o f t r i b o - t e c h n i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s cannot be p r e d i c t e d f r o m a mere knowledge o f s i n g l e components and t h e i r f e a t u r e s . Whenever t h e i n t e r p l a y and interdependence between components i s s t r o n g e r and more c o m p l i c a t e d than t h e a c t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l components, a "systems approach" i s needed. An u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s new o u t l o o k i s r a p i d l y growing i n many areas o f contemporary s c i e n c e and technology. I n r e t r o s p e c t , i t appears t h a t t h e o v e r l o o k i n g of t h e systems aspects o f f r i c t i o n , l u b r i c a t i o n and wear problems has been o b v i o u s l y one o f t h e m a j o r reasons f o r t h e many m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and t h e slowness o f p r o g r e s s i n these f i e l d s i n t h e past.
13 I n t h i s volume, we a t t e m p t t o p r e s e n t a s y s t e m a t i c u n i f i e d approach t o t r i b o l o g y based on systems t h i n k i n g . The book has been w r i t t e n b e a r i n g i n mind b o t h t h e s p e c i a l i s t who seeks t o i n c o r p o r a t e h i s knowledge and p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e i n a g e n e r a l framework, and t h e g e n e r a l s c i e n t i s t who seeks a s y s t e m a t i c o v e r a l l view o f t h e whole s u b j e c t . As a r e s u l t o f t h e u n i f y i n g a t t e m p t , t h e s p e c i a l i s t may f i n d t h a t h i s s p e c i a l t o p i c i s t r e a t e d i n a somewhat unusual manner. I t must be borne i n mind, however, t h a t i n a u n i f y i n g i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y t r e a t i s e a u n i f o r m nomenclature and d e s c r i p t i o n i s necessary which i s e q u a l l y u s e f u l f o r t h e v a r i o u s s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e f i e l d , i.e., p h y s i c i s t s , chemists, m a t e r i a l s c i e n t i s t s , l u b r i c a t i o n e n g i n e e r s and mechanical e n g i n e e r s . I n o r d e r t o ease t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s aspects o f t r i b o l o g y i n t o a g e n e r a l framework, some o f t h e g e n e r a l systems d e f i n i t i o n s are repeated i n almost every chapter. As a s t a r t i n g p o i n t , i n Chapter 2, t h e b a s i c aspects o f t h e system concept a r e compiled. I n a p p l y i n g t h e system concept, a general t h e o r y o f t r i b o l o g y i n t h e f o r m o f a conceptual framework i s o u t l i n e d i n Chapter 3. The t h e o r y shows t h a t a complete d e s c r i p t i o n o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system r e q u i r e s t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e " s t r u c t u r e " o f t h e system ( s y s t e m e l e ments, p r o p e r t i e s o f elements, i n t e r a c t i o n s o f elements) as w e l l as t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e " f u n c t i o n " o f t h e system ( i n p u t s , o u t p u t s , t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s ) . The t h e o r e t i c a l framework o f t r i b o l o g y i s supplemented i n Chapt e r 4 by a d e t a i I e d t r e a t i s e o f t r i b o l o g i c a l processes, i . e . , contact, f r i c t i o n and wear processes and l u b r i c a t i o n modes. The system approach i s t h e n used i n s t u d y i n g i n Chapters 5 and 6 t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t r i b o l o g i c a l processes on t h e s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n o f mechanical systems i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t r i b o - i n d u c e d changes of t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e system elements and m a t e r i a l l o s s e s as w e l l as s t i c k - s l i p e f f e c t s , mechanical e f f i c i e n c y , f u n c t i o n a l f a i l u r e s and r e l i a b i l i t y . From these d i s c u s s i o n s , c o n c l u s i o n s f o r s o l u t i o n s o f no-wear c o n d i t i o n s and t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a p r o p e r f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f mechanical systems a r e drawn. I n Chapter 7, t h e v a r i o u s methods o f t r i b o metry, i . e . t h e t e s t , s i m u l a t i o n and c o n t r o l methods a r e d e s c r i b e d , r a n g i n g f r o m l a b o r a t o r y f r i c t i o n and wear t e s t s and s i m u l a t i v e t r i b o - t e s t i n g t o mac h i n e r y c o n d i t i o n m o n i t o r i n g . F i n a l l y , i n Chapter 8 a t r i b o l o g i c a l systems d a t a sheet s u i t e d f o r a comprehensive d a t a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s developed and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f "systems methodology" t o p r a c t i c a l f r i c t i o n and wear problems i s o u t l i n e d . The Appendix g i v e s a c o m p i l a t i o n o f b a s i c t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g systems and i t s components and r e f e r s t o b i b l i o g r a p h i c work i n t h e f i e l d o f t r i b o l o g y p r o v i d e d by t h e DOCUMENTATION TRIBOLOGY.
14
INTRODUCTION
The problem o f d e a l i n g w i t h complex m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y s u b j e c t s l i k e t r i b o l o g y appears t o b e e s s e n t i a l l y one o f t h e 1 i m i t a t i o n s o f " a n a l y t i c a l procedures" i n s c i e n c e and technology. The t h e o r e t i c a l b i o p h y s i c i s t Ludwig von B e r t a l a n f f y , t h e founder o f "General Systems Theory",
tity; i.e.,
has g i v e n t h e
f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n o f meaning o f a n a l y t i c a l procedure ( R e f . 2.1): An ent h e o b j e c t o f an i n v e s t i g a t i o n , s h o u l d be r e s o l v e d i n t o t h e P a r t s from which i t i s combined; hence i t c o u l d be c o n s t i t u t e d o r recons t i t u t e d from t h e same P a r t s . These procedures s h o u l d b e understood b o t h i n t h e i r m a t e r i a l and conceptual sense. T h i s b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f " c l a s s i c a l " s c i e n c e can be a p p l i e d a n a l y t i c a l l y i n a v a r i e t y o f d i r e c t i o n s , e.g., i n science o r f o r "material constants" i n engineering. A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e a n a l y t i c a l procedure t o any o f these areas depends on two c o n d i t i o n s (Ref. 2.1): (i) The i n t e r a c t i o n s between P a r t s must be n o n - e x i s t e n t o r , a t l e a s t , weak enough t o be n e g l e c t e d f o r c e r t a i n r e s e a r c h purposes. Only under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s can t h e P a r t s be f i r s t s i n g l e d o u t a c t u a l l y , l o g i c a l l y , and m a t h e m a t i c a l l y , and then reassembled. ( i i ) The r e l a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g t h e b e h a v i o u r o f P a r t s must be l i n e a r ; o n l y then i s the condition o f summativity given, i . e . , an e q u a t i o n d e s c r i b i n g t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e Whole has t h e same f o r m as t h e e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e P a r t s ; p a r t i a l processes can t h e n be superimposed t o o b t a i n t h e t o t a l process, and so on. resol u t i o n o f causal r e l a t i o n s i n t o s e p a r a t e P a r t s , s e a r c h i n g f o r " a t o m i c u n i t s "
15 These c o n d i t i o n s a r e n o t met i n t h e e n t i t i e s c a l l e d systems, t h e y cons i s t o f " P a r t s i n i n t e r a c t i o n " . A system o f " o r g a n i z e d c o m p l e x i t y " may be c i r c u m s c r i b e d as one i n which s t r o n g i n t e r a c t i o n s , which a r e " n o n - t r i v i a l " , i.e., non-linear, prevail. To deal w i t h complex, n o n - l i n e a r systems, a d d i t i o n a l r e s t r a i n i n g p r i n c i p l e s have t o be i n t r o d u c e d . The economist Kenneth B o u l d i n g has suggested a h i e r a r c h y o f systems based on t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e r u l e s ( R e f . 2 . 2 ) : (i) (ii) Systems b e l o n g t o c l a s s e s o f d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f c o m p l e x i t y . A l l l o g i c a l and e m p i r i c a l laws, v a l i d a t a low l e v e l (system) a r e a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o any o f t h e h i g h e r l e v e l systems. ( i i i ) The h i g h e r t h e l e v e l , t h e l a r g e r t h e number o f unknown elements and u n d i s c o v e r e d laws t h a t make a p a r t i c u l a r system work. To i l l u s t r a t e t h e system concept and t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r
b t 4 b + 3 b t 2 b + l b
Figure 2.1
Example o f a h i e r a r c h y o f systems.
Depending on t h e l o c a t i o n o f a s o - c a l l e d "systems envelope", s e p a r a t i n g h y p o t h e t i c a l l y t h e s u b j e c t s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n f r o m t h e i r "environment", d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f c o m p l e x i t y o r d i f f e r e n t " r a n k s " o f t h e system under c o n s i d e r a t i o n can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d ( R e f . 2 . 3 ) . The systems o f t h e l o w e s t rank a r e i n general g i v e n by t h e elementary s i n g l e t e c h n i c a l components. ( I f these elementary p a r t s o f t e c h n i c a l systems a r e r e s o l v e d f u r t h e r , t h e
16
m i c r o - p h y s i c a l and chemical c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e t e c h n i c a l systems components a r e o b t a i n e d . ) T e c h n i c a l systems o f t h e n e x t r a n k up a r e o b t a i n e d i n p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r systems o f a l o w e r rank by c e r t a i n t e c h n i c a l means o r t h r o u g h i n t e r a c t i o n s o f l o w e r r a n k i n g systems. I n t h e example shown i n F i g u r e 2.1, t h e elements o f t h e l o w e s t rank, denoted by t h e symbol " b " , are, f o r i n s t a n c e , t e c h n i c a l components l i k e gears, s h a f t s , e t c . Through t h e dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n s o f t h e s e c o i p o n e n t s , a gear t r a i n system o f rank b t 1 i s formed. T h i s system t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r systems o f t h e r a n k b t 1 ( i . e . , t h e engine system, t h e c l u t c h system and t h e power t r a n s m i s s i o n system) f o r m a system o f r a n k b t 2, t h e d r i v e system.
A t t h e n e x t rank up, b t 3, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e whole v e h i c l e , t h e topmost
l e v e l o f t h i s t e c h n i c a l system i s reached. A t t h e f o l l o w i n g l e v e l b
2,2
DESCRIPTIONOF
SYSTEM
A f t e r t h e general s u r v e y o f t h e systems concept, a b r i e f s i m p l i f i e d compil a t i o n o f r e l e v a n t systems d e f i n i t i o n s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s u i t e d f o r t h e purpose o f t h i s book i s g i v e n i n t h i s s e c t i o n . ( F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s see Refs. 2.4 t o 2 . 7 . ) The general d e f i n i t i o n o f a system i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e sentence: " A system i s a s e t o f elements i n t e r c o n n e c t e d b y s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n " . A system i s termed open when i n t e r c h a n g e s o f mass and energy w i t h t h e " o u t e r w o r l d " o c c u r , w h i l e such i n t e r c h a n g e s a r e assumed t o be n e g l i g i b l e i n a " c l o s e d " system. I n t h e f i r s t case, f o r example, t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f k i n e t i c energy i n t o h e a t o r o t h e r forms o f energy t h r o u g h i r r e v e r s i b l e p r o cesses l e a d s t o " d i s s i p a t i v e systems". The main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a system a r e summarized i n F i g u r e 2.2, symbols used have t h e f o l l o w i n g meaning. the
( I ) Structure
The s t r u c t u r e o f a system i s d e f i n e d by ( a ) t h e s e t o f i t s elements ( A ) , ( b ) t h e r e l e v a n t p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e elements ( P ) , ( c ) t h e c o u p l i n g o f elements, s p e c i f i e d as r e l a t i o n s between t h e elements ( R )
17
{A,P,R}
(11) Inputs , Outputs Each system can be separated schematically by a hypothetical system envelope (or control surface) from i t s "environment". The connections between the system and i t s environment, which are cut by the envelope may be classified as: ( a ) Inputs {X} and ( b ) Outputs (Y)
(111) Function
The function o f a system - utilized f o r a certain (technical) purpose - i s t o transform the inputs ( X ) i n t o the outputs \ Y ) . The transformation ( T ) of the inputs into the outputs may be described e i t h e r i n terms of mathematical equations or as a physical a n a l o g , o r as a verbal description, e t c .
Definition:
A system i s a s e t of elements
S = ( A , P , R)
( a ) Elements
A = ( a l Y a2,
...
, an}
( b ) Properties
IP(ai)l
( c ) Relations
R = IR(ai, aj)l
(11) Inputs ( x )
Inputs
(XI
(111) Function
Outputs(Y1
outputs
S =(A,
P, R )
systems envelope
(XI
Figure 2.2
4 Y )
18
XI
t h r o u g h an a l g e b r a i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
( c ) S t o c h a s t i c Processes, "Noise" I n r e a l systems t h e f u n c t i o n a l i n p u t - o u t p u t - r e l a t i o n s may be i n f l u e n c e d b y s t o c h a s t i c processes, i . e . , dynamic e f f e c t s o f u n c e r t a i n t y and r a n dom d i s t u r b a n c e s , " n o i s e " . I n such cases, an e s t i m a t e o f t h e l i m i t s o f p r o p e r f u n c t i o n b e h a v i o u r by means o f t h e t h e o r y o f p r o b a b i l i t i e s can be attempted. I n d e s c r i b i n g t h e b e h a v i o u r o f a system by t h e terms " s t r u c t u r e " and " f u n c t i o n " a fundamental d i f f e r e n c e s h o u l d be noted:
AE
I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r a n a l o g i e s between p h y s i c a l systems (Ref. 2.8), T a b l e 2.1. The p h y s i c a l v a r i a b l e s of a system ( i n p u t s and o u t p u t s ) may be c l a s s i f i e d c o n v e n i e n t l y a s e i t h e r " t h r o u g h " o r " a c r o s s " v a r i a b l e s . Through v a r i -
19
ables measure t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f something t h r o u g h an element, e i t h e r an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t t h r o u g h a r e s i s t o r o r a f o r c e t h r o u g h a dashpot. Across v a r i a b l e s measure a d i f f e r e n c e i n s t a t e between t h e ends o f an element, as t h e v o l t a g e drop across a r e s i s t o r o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n v e l o c i t y between t h e ends o f a dashpot. O f s p e c i a l importance i s t h e e l e c t r i c analogy o f mec h a n i c a l systems d e s c r i b e d by t h e two g e n e r a l i z e d K i r c h h o f f ' s laws:
K i r c h h o f f ' s node law. The sum o f a l l " t h r o u g h v a r i a b l e s " i n t o any node o f a system must be zero. ( I n t h e case o f mechanical systems t h i s i s r e p r e s e n t e d by f o r c e e q u i l i b r i u m r e l a t i o n s according t o D'Alembert).
D i s c i p l ine
Across v a r i a b l e (effort)
Electrotechnics
electric voltage u v
current force
i
F
velocity
torque
s
P
F1 u i d i cs
pressure
Table 2 . 1
A n a l o g i e s between v a r i a b l e s o f p h y s i c a l systems.
20
I t should be mentioned t h a t i n t h e bondgraph technique described below, i n s t e a d o f the f o r c e - f l o w , v e l o c i t y - e f f o r t analogy shown i n Table 2.1, reverse analogy, i . e . a
,a
force-effort,
v e l o c i t y - f l o w analogy i s o f t e n used.
2,4
The bond graph method, i n i t i a t e d by H. Paynter i s a f u r t h e r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e m o d e l l i n g o f engineering systems (Ref. 2.10). The o r i g i n a l concept c e n t r a l t o t h e bond graph method i s t h a t o f a multi-energy p o r t represent a t i o n associated w i t h a " r e t i c u l a t i o n " , i . e . , t h e making o f a network o f t h e system ( r e t i , L a t i n : f i s h n e t ) . Paynter considered t h a t p h y s i c a l o r e n g i n e e r i n g systems c o u l d be represented by a m u l t i - p o r t r e t i c u l a t i o n i n a g i v e n r e g i o n o f space, n o t u n l i k e t h a t used t o represent t h e bonding between atoms i n complex chemical molecules. The graphical symbolism o f t h e bond graph method i s economical and e f f i c i e n t . The bond graph elements can be represented i n i t i a l l y by words and t h e bonds f o r power exchange between them as simple l i n e s . For example, F i g u r e 2.3 c o n t a i n s a v a r i a b l e d r i v e , e.g., Diesel engine w i t h a pump t h a t s u p p l i e s f l u i d t o a consumer (Ref. 2.9). energy f l u x o r power i n a bond i s always t h e p r o d u c t o f two v a r i a b l e s r e f e r r e d t o as f l o w . Controller
a
The
the
p o t e n t i a l v a r i a b l e c a l l e d e f f o r t and t h e f l o w o r c u r r e n t v a r i a b l e , s i m p l y
-D r i v e
V W
Pump
V
Consumer
F i g u r e 2.3
21
a n a l y t i c a l and c o m p u t a t i o n a l r e s u l t s f o r complex systems i n v o l v i n g a v a r i e t y o f types o f energy f l o w .
2,5
CLASSIFICATION F SYSTEMS O
The a b s t r a c t f o r m a l i s m o f t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a system reviewed i n b r i e f i n t h e f o r e g o i n g s e c t i o n s s h o u l d be supplemented by a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme i n d i c a t i n g t h e " t y p e " o f system under s t u d y . C l e a r l y , p h y s i c a l o r e n g i n e e r i n g systems a r e composed o f m a t e r i a l s components whose p r o p e r t i e s , i n t e r r e l a t i o n s , e t c . , may change w i t h t i m e . T h e r e f o r e , parameter t i m e i s an i n d e pendent a t t r i b u t e o f any o f these systems. Systems can be c l a s s i f i e d f r o m many d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s o f view. No c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s complete and p e r f e c t f o r a l l purposes. The d i f f e r e n t methods o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n Ref. 2.5. Wiener, t h e f o u n d e r o f " c y b e r n e t i c s " , " i n f o r m a t i o n " ( R e f . 2.12). According t o Norbert "energy", and t h e i n p u t s and o u t p u t s o f systems may p. 99 f . ) W i t h o u t s p e c i -
System's f u n c t i o n :
(X)
f
matter
in f o rma t i on
(Y)
matter
*
c
S = ( A , P, R }
energy information
F i g u r e 2.4
I n u s i n g t h e b r o a d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i n p u t s and o u t p u t s o f a system, from a f u n c t i o n a l p o i n t o f view t h e e n t i t y o f p h y s i c a l and e n g i n e e r i n g systems can be f o r m a l l y d e s c r i b e d b y a m a t r i x r e p r e s e n t a t i o n as shown i n Table 2.2. I n t h i s scheme t h e t h r e e b a s i c c a t e g o r i e s o f i n p u t s and o u t p u t s Every p o i n t o f i n t e r a r e s u b - d i v i d e d i n t o some o f t h e i r s u b - q u a n t i t i e s .
22
information ( d i g i t a l )
information ( d i g i t a l )
(corresponding f i e l d s of science and technology are the many branches o f computer science)
outputs
Inputs
Table 2.2
23
I n r e f i n i n g t h e m a t r i x r e p r e s e n t a t i o n as i l l u s t r a t e d i n T a b l e 2.2 s t i l l f u r t h e r , i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n s u b - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n schemes f o r t h e v a r i o u s groups o f systems. The system concept as reviewed i n t h i s Chapter i s used i n t h e n e x t Chapter as b a s i s f o r t h e development o f a u n i f i e d g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f t r i b o l o g y
24
SYSTEMS CONCEPTS
TO
TRIBOLOGY
The review o f the system concept given i n Chapter 2 shows t h a t a system should be analyzed i n terms o f i t s " s t r u c t u r e " (elements, p r o p e r t i e s o f elements, i n t e r r e l a t i o n s between elements) as w e l l as i n terms o f i t s "function" (inputs, outputs, t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s ) . In developing f u r t h e r the methods o f the a p p l i c a t i o n of the system concept t o t r i b o l o g y (see Refs. 3.1 t o 3.4) we w i l l attempt i n the f o l l o w i n g t o o u t l i n e a s i m p l i f i e d general theory o f t r i b o l o g y (Ref. 3.5). The systems approach t o t r i b o l o g y i s n o t intended t o replace more t r a d i t i o n a l analyses o f f r i c t i o n and wear processes. Much o f the information required f o r the p o r t r a y a l of t r i b o l o g i c a l phenomena from a systems standp o i n t can be obtained through conventional procedures o f analysis. For i n stance, important variables such as force, v e l o c i t y , temperature, chemical p o t e n t i a l and the r e l a t e d variables stress, s t r a i n , work, power, heat f l o w and r e a c t i o n rates can o n l y be determined by standard methods. I n the a p p l i c a t i o n o f systemanalytical methods t o a c e r t a i n complex subject, systems analysis o f t e n takes the form o f "model b u i l d i n g " , i.e., the representation o f a system g r a p h i c a l l y o r a n a l y t i c a l l y i n a manner which may permit the model t o be used f o r a mathematical study o f the systems performance. This i s n o t i n t e n t e d here, nor generally possible a t the present l e v e l o f our understanding o f the t r i b o l o g y of mechanical systems. The purpose o f t h i s chapter i s the development o f a l o g i c a l systemanalytical framework, whereby c u r r e n t t r i b o l o g i c a l knowledge can be b e t t e r organized, t a k i n g i n t o account the various aspects and influencing factors. In t h i s general theory, a
26
d e t a i l e d mathematical a n a l y s i s i s n o t necessary f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p e r t i n e n t b a s i c concepts. Thus, i n t h e f o l l o w i n g , systems t h i n k i n g i s app l i e d r a t h e r t h a n a f o r m a l systems a n a l y s i s . I n a t t e m p t i n g t o a p p l y t h e system concept t o t h e s u b j e c t o f t r i b o l o g y , a fundamental d i f f e r e n c e between t h e b e h a v i o u r and t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f e l e c t r i c a l systems and mechanical systems i n which f r i c t i o n and wear processes o c c u r must f i r s t be emphasized. Consider, f o r example, an e l e c t r i c a l t r a n s f o r m e r and a mechanical gear box, i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 3 . 1 as b l o c k diagrams. The t e c h n i c a l d e s i g n o f b o t h systems i s t o t r a n s f o r m c e r t a i n i n p u t s tem r e s p e c t i v e l y
v o l t a g e u and c u r r e n t i i n t h e
M i n t h e mechanical sys-
c a l f u n c t i o n o f b o t h systems can be d e s c r i b e d f o r m a l l y as a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the inputs i n t o the outputs v i a a c e r t a i n t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n (T). The dynamic performance o f b o t h systems i s accompanied by p e r t u r b a t i o n s on t h e i r f u n c t i o n and s t r u c t u r e . I n b o t h systems, energy l o s s e s due t o e l e c t r o - m a g n e t i c o r f r i c t i o n r e s i s t a n c e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o c c u r . The fundament a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l and mechanical systems i s t h a t i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l case t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system g e n e r a l l y remains c o n s t a n t w i t h t i m e . I n t h i s case, t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n ( T ) can be worked o u t m a t h e m a t i c a l l y . T h i s has l e d t o v a r i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e p o w e r f u l systems e n g i n e e r i n g methods o f network t h e o r y and r e l a t e d methods c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f e l e c t r i c a l systems o r r e l a t e d models. I n t h e mechanic a l case, however, t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system g e n e r a l l y changes w i t h t i m e t h r o u g h t h e a c t i o n o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l processes o f f r i c t i o n and wear. Theref o r e , f o r mechanical systems a systems d e s c r i p t i o n i n mere terms o f i n p u t o u t p u t r e l a t i o n s i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t : t h e f u n c t i o n a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e system must be supplemented b y a d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system and t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f t r i b o - i n d u c e d s t r u c t u r a l changes on t h e f u n c t i o n a l behavi o u r o f t h e system. I n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p a c o n v e n i e n t framework f o r t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f systems w i t h b o t h a dynamic f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r and a dynamic s t r u c t u r e s t a t e , some s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s must be i n t r o d u c e d : a f i r s t s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s h o u l d b e made b y a p p l y i n g t h e methods o f "black-box c u t t i n g " o r "systems t e a r i n g " . Black-box c u t t i n g has worked e x c e e d i n g l y w e l l i n p h y s i c s and c h e m i s t r y : a model i s c u t down t o s m a l l e r boxes u n t i l f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s can be a p p l i e d . Systems t e a r i n g can be a c h i e v e d b y l o c a t i n g t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l systems envel o p e i n a c o n v e n i e n t manner. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g t r e a t m e n t t h e systems envelope i s l o c a t e d , as narrow as p o s s i b l e , around t h e c e n t r a l p a r t s o f t h e mechanical
26
Inputs
~
System's s t r u c t u r e
voltage ux current i
*.
71Il c
outputs
w
voltage u Y current i Y
(111)
Influences on f u n c t i o n and s t r u c t u r e
~~
F e r w losses due t o
I electro-magnetic
resistance
constant w i t h time
Inputs v e l o c i t y wx toque
System's s t r u c t u r e
outputs velocity
Mx
- % - >
w
torque system's s t r u c t u r e changes due t o wear processes
MY
Figure 3.1
27
system, forming the well-known " i n t e r a c t i n g surfaces i n r e l a t i v e motion". With these reservations i n mind, a d e t a i l e d systems d e s c r i p t i o n must i n v o l v e the f o l l o w i n g steps:
( I ) System's f u n c t i o n
(i) Separate the system from i t s environment by the choice of a system's envelope,
3 , 2 FUNCTION
OF
TRIBO-MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
of view, f o u r b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t groups o f techni-cal purposes can be d i s t i n guished as i l l u s t r a t e d by the examples shown i n Figure 3.2. The most general technical purpose o f a tribo-mechanical system i s the r e a l i z a t i o n o f motion through various types o f "bearings". The o t h e r basic groups are the transmission o f mechanical work, the transmission o f i n f o r mation f o r instance the c o n t r o l o f machine functions w i t h cams and the forming o f m a t e r i a l s . As a supplement t o the b a s i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t r i b o -
28
mechanical systems into four different groups, illustrated in Figure 3.2, a detailed function-oriented compilation of tribo-mechanical systems is given in the Appendix (A).
Guidance of mofion
I Jransmission
I
of work
ITransmission
Figure 3.2
of information
i Forming of materials
In an abstract and highly simplified description, the function of the different tribo-mechanical systems consists, basically, In converting the inputs for instance, motion, mechanical energy and materials into outputs, which are used technically, The functional cause-and-effect relations between inputs and outputs are accompanied by loss-outputs o f mechanical energy and of materials, denoted sumnarily by the terns friction and wear
29
losses. From a point of view external t o the system, the system may be treated as a black-box with inputs and outputs, as shown schematically i n Figure 3.3.
l r n 1
A
+
[USE-OUTPUTSI Motion Work {y) Information Materials
The technical function can often be expressed as a relationship between an input and a useful output. Not a l l the inputs may be considered desirable, some may be regarded as disturbances. Not a l l the outputs may be desired: such o u t p u t s may, from the practical point of view, be considered as losses. In general, part of a functional input may be l o s t , appearing as a loss output. However, the loss output need not be quite the same type of quantity as the input or useful outputs. In relating a system to i t s function, w are concerned with operational e variables which can be controlled by a designer or an operator, i . e . , variables which w can a l t e r before o r during the operation of a system without e altering the physical composition of the system in terms of the materials o r e shapes of the elements. Table 3.1 l i s t s some operational parameters t h a t w may be concerned with, and which w may also refer to as operational varie ables in the environment. The actual variables used to describe the relation-
30
s h i p between a system and i t s environment w i l l depend t o some e x t e n t on t h e system under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , b u t w i l l g e n e r a l l y be r e l a t e d t o , o r d e r i v e d from,
~~
the variables l i s t e d .
~
I n p u t and output quantities Work (Motion) Primary variables Re1a t e d and d e r i ved v a r i a b l e s
Fo rce/To r q ue
Position/Dimension
Therma 1
(Heat t r a n s f e r )
Heat t r a n s f e r r a t e Entropy t r a n s f e r r a t e
Table 3 . 1
I CAL
SYSTEMS
According t o systems t h e o r y , t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a system i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e elements o r components o f t h e system, t h e i r r e l e v a n t p r o p e r t i e s and t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s . The s i m p l e s t s t r u c t u r e o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system i s g i v e n by two s o l i d s (1) and ( 2 ) exchanging mechanical i n p u t s and o u t p u t s through t h e i r c o n t a c t i n t e r f a c e . A c o m p i l a t i o n o f examples o f t h e elements o r components o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems i s p r o v i d e d i n t h e Appendix ( 6 ) .
A few words may be a p p r o p r i a t e h e r e on t h e f l o w o f one o r more q u a n t i t i e s through a system, i m p l i e d b y t h e use o f t h e terms " i n p u t " and " o u t p u t " , e.g., work o r mass. A mass f l o w i s o b v i o u s l y a f l o w o f a m a t e r i a l q u a n t i t y . However, t h e " f l o w " o f o t h e r q u a n t i t i e s , such as work, can perhaps be r e garded more c o r r e c t l y as an i n f l u e n c e o f one element upon another. The not i o n t h a t a q u a n t i t y " f l o w s " i s t h e r e f o r e m e r e l y a u s e f u l convention, which
31
i n c i d e n t a l l y helps us t o d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f process which can occur i n a system. The most s e n s i b l e manner, i n which t o handle t h e d i f f e r e n t types o f q u a n t i t y i s t o t r e a t each f o r m a l l y on a plane o f i t s own, l i n k e d t o t h e o t h e r q u a n t i t i e s by transformations between the planes. T h i s leads t o a conceptual three-dimensional i n t e r n a l view o f a tribo-mechanical system, shown i n F i g u r e 3.4. The p i c t u r e can be understood as a r e s o l u t i o n o f the systems s t r u c t u r e ( t h e c e n t r a l box o f F i g u r e 3.3) i n t o g r e a t e r d e t a i l , see a l s o F i g u r e 2.4.
I t i s l i k e l y t h a t a l l the parameters, i d e n t i f i e d i n a study
o f the f u n c t i o n o f the system, w i l l be represented on planes f o r the, funct i o n , work and thermal processes. Separate planes may be used f o r each o f the chemical species t a k i n g p a r t i n t r i b o l o g i c a l processes. This i n c l u d e s chemical r e a c t i o n products. F i g u r e 3.4 might be taken t o represent a very "simple" system o f j u s t two s o l i d mechanical elements o f the same m a t e r i a l i n contact, so t h a t the i n t e r f a c i a l space a t the r e g i o n o f c o n t a c t i s t h e t h i r d element, i.e., Element (1) Element ( 2 ) Element ( 3 ) F i r s t machine element Second machine element The i n t e r f a c i a l volume
The p o s s i b l e t r a n s a c t i o n s and processes between three such elements are, i n f a c t , q u i t e complex even f o r t h i s elementary system (Ref. 3.6). W do n o t e but attempt here t o represent a l l the p o s s i b l e processes i n F i g u r e 3.4, occur. Consider f i r s t the t r a n s f e r of the t e c h n i c a l l y used i n p u t s ( X I and outputs ( Y ) o f the system. O each conceptual plane, the t r a n s f e r o f such n a q u a n t i t y from one element t o another may occur i n d i c a t e d by h o r i z o n t a l arrows. The term " t r a n s l a t i o n " i s chosen f o r these t r a n s f e r s . Consider now the processes o f t r a n s f e r s between d i f f e r e n t planes, r e f e r r e d t o as " t r a n s formations". The v e r t i c a l s o l i d arrows i n F i g u r e 3.4 represent a t r a n s f o r mation i n m a t e r i a l o r chemical species, occurring, f o r instance, as a r e s u l t o f wear processes w i t h i n the system. The v e r t i c a l d o t t e d arrows represent the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f work o r mechanical energy t o heat o r entropy, o c c u r r i n g as a r e s u l t o f f r i c t i o n processes w i t h i n t h e system. Both t r a n s l a t i o n s o f mass, e.g., the f l o w o f l u b r i c a n t through the system and t r a n s formations o f mass i n w e a r processes are l i k e l y t o i n v o l v e work, accompanied by the simultaneous t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the work i n t o heat o r entropy which appears on the thermal plane.
32
FUNCTIONAL PLANE
WORK PLANE
THERMAL PLANE
I
MATERIAL MATERIAL 1 (solid) PLANES
I AJ P
MATERIAL n (fluid)
demonstrate t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the systems approach t o t h e a n a l y s i s and d e s c r i p t i o n o f mechanical systems i n which f r i c t i o n and wear processes occur: The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f t r i b o l o g y i s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e d i f f e r e n t planes o f F i g u r e 3.4, w h i l e t h e conceptual a n a l y s i s o f s i n g l e sep a r a t e planes r e v e r t s t o more conventional a n a l y t i c a l s i m p l i f i c a t i o n .
A t t h i s p o i n t i t i s r e l e v a n t t o i n d i c a t e t h e aspect o f l u b r i c a t i o n i n
r e l a t i o n t o t h e general framework of t r i b o l o g y . L u b r i c a t i o n represents a d e l i b e r a t e attempt t o a v o i d o r reduce t h e e f f e c t o f f r i c t i o n and wear upon a mechanical system. A l u b r i c a n t can a l s o a c t , as i t f l o w s away, as a c o o l i n g agent removing h e a t from t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e f r i c t i o n process. I f t h e s l i d i n g o r r o l l i n g surfaces, i . e . , elements (1) and ( 2 ) i n F i g u r e 3.4, a r e completely separated by t h e a c t i o n o f the element ( 3 ) a t a l l times, t h e r e may be no wear process. I n t h i s event, t h e a n a l y s i s i s s i m p l i f i e d , s i n c e a m a t e r i a l s t r a n s f e r between t h e m a t e r i a l s planes shown i n F i g u r e 3.4 w i l l be o f no concern ("no-wear model"). However, i f i n a l u b r i c a t e d s t a t e t h e r e i s some c o n t a c t between t h e surfaces o f t h e elements (1) and ( 2 ) , o r between boundary l u b r i cants on t h e surfaces, t h e processes represented on and between t h e m a t e r i a l s planes a r e o f paramount concern. I n such cases, t h e presence o f a l u b r i c a n t may complicate t h e a n a l y s i s r e l a t i v e t o t h e u n l u b r i c a t e d system, p a r t l y because t h e r e a c t i o n products present may be complex and d i f f i c u l t t o charact e r i z e , and p a r t l y because t r a n s i e n t c o n d i t i o n s may be t h e major concern.
3 , 4 , 1 FUNCTIONALPLANE
The emphasis on t h e f u n c t i o n a l plane, " e x t r a c t e d " from F i g u r e 3.4 and shown i n F i g u r e 3.5, must be on a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e t e c h n i c a l purpose o f t h e system and t h e e v a l u t i o n and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e parameters which have most imnediate relevance t o t h i s t e c h n i c a l purpose.
34
W may w i s h t o c l a s s i f y mechanical systems a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r f u n c t i o n . e I n v a r i a b l y , m o t i o n i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system. T h i s m o t i o n may c o n s t i t u t e a t r a n s f e r o f work, m a t e r i a l s o r i n f o r m a t i o n . I n some i n s t a n c e s , t h e purpose o f a system may be t o change a r a t e o f m o t i o n o r t o e l i m i n a t e i t altogether. It i s also o f t e n desired t o r e s t r i c t motion, i.e., t o reduce t h e number o f degrees o f freedom a machine element may possess. I n o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , m a t e r i a l s a r e n o t m e r e l y moved, b u t a l s o changed i n s t a t e o r form. Mechanical d e v i c e s which produce o r t r a n s f e r i n f o r m a t i o n a r e s t i l l common, b u t a r e b e i n g s t e a d i l y r e p l a c e d by devices i n which t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no mechanical m o t i o n ( v i z . t h e replacement o f t h e mechanical c l o c k by d i g i t a l e l e c t r o n i c c l o c k s . ) These main aspects o f t h e f u n c t i o n o f mechan i c a l systems a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 3.2. I n o r d e r t o r e p r e s e n t t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e system i n terms of ( X ) - { Y ] i n p u t - o u t p u t r e l a t i o n s , e l e c t r i c a l network a n a l o g i e s have been a p p l i e d t o mechanical systems ( R e f . 3.7). As e x p l a i n e d i n Chapter 2, t h e s e approaches a r e based on a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s i n t o " t h r o u g h and across" v a r i a b l e s o r . " f l o w and e f f o r t " v a r i a b l e s and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e we1 1 known K i r c h h o f f ' s node and mesh laws. Recently, the. bondgraph methods have a l s o been a p p l i e d t o t r i b o l o g i c a l s u b j e c t s (Ref. 3.8). As i n d i c a t e d above, these appl i c a t i o n S o f t h e o r i e s o f e l e c t r i c a l a n a l o g i e s a r e r e s t r i c t e d , however, t o no-wear, steady s t a t e models. Therefore, f r o m a t r i b o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view, a d d i t i o n a l aspects must be t a k e n i n t o account. P a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n f r i c t i o n and wear a r e g e n e r a l l y be d e s i r able. These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be dependent on t h e o p e r a t i n g parameters.
i d e n t i f i e d f o r these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , o u t s i d e which l i m i t s the system w i l l n o t perform i t s f u n c t i o n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p r o p e r t i e s which a r e c r i t i c a l t o the f u n c t i o n o f each element concerned w i l l serve as a guide f o r the analyses c a r r i e d o u t on work, thermal and mass planes, t o ensure t h a t such analyses are r e l e v a n t t o t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e system. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e values o f these p r o p e r t i e s and the f u n c t i o n o f t h e system and t h e manner i n which the o p e r a t i o n o f t h e system a f f e c t s these p r o p e r t i e s , i s , from a p r a c t i c a l p o i n t o f view, t h e c r u x o f a t r i b o l o g i c a l study. I n p u t s and outputs needed f o r t e c h n i c a l Primary t e c h n i c a l function o f the system Examples
L
function Main i n p u t s
Main outputs
(XI
IY)
Motion Guidance o f motion Coupling o f motion A n n i h i l a t i o n o f motion Work Power transmission (mech., Information hydr., pneum. ) Clocks; Cams and f o l l o w e r s ffata transducer (audio, video; tape Bearings Clutches Brakes Gears
Motion
Generation o f
informa t ion
Work Reproduction o f information
br
record)
Motion
Materi a1 s
Transportation
Wheel/rai 1
P i pel ine
Forming o f m a t e r i a l s Table 3.2 Technical f u n c t i o n s o f mechanical systems. Wiredrawing
36
below the functional plane i n Figure 3.4, in order t o ascertain the physical and chemical relationship which determine the functional characteristics.
PLANE
In Figure 3.6, we concentrate our attention on the prL?esses involving mechanical work i n the system. I t may be that one function of the system i s , i n f a c t , t o transmit and transform work, in which case this analysis will duplicate to a large extent the analysis on the functional plane. Although this does occur quite often, i t i s nevertheless a special case. A system or element may perform mechanical work upon another system or element. Such mechanical work may be measured as the product of a force times a distance ( o r the product o f related variables). Work may also be transferred between elements by the transfer of material i n which work i s stored. The transfer of work i n either manner is referred t o as a translation work. Work may also be transmitted from an element or a system as mechanical vibration, or work m a y be transformed through the tribological interactions i n other forms of energy and elther storedr emitted or passed t o other conceptual planes of the system.
[LOSS-OUT PUTS^
+
Figure 3 6 .
The work plane of the Tribo-process diagram: Work transactions i n a tribo-machanical system.
conceptual planes o f t h e system. The r a t e o f performance o f mechanical work i s power. I n summarizing the various p o r t i o n s o f power, f o r a system as a whole, a power balance equation i s
where
i!
i n p u t power
i!
EZ
A Es : stored energy
EwT : thermal energy transformed from mechanical work
kWMt o
below i n t h e s e c t i o n on m a t e r i a l s planes. The transmission o f power k, ,!i i n a mechanical system i s u s u a l l y a r e l a t i v e l y simple a p p l i c a t i o n o f mechanics. The question which i s l e s s w e l l understood and which o f t e n c o n s t i t u t e s a basic problem i n mechanical systems i s the manner i n which mechanical power i s n o t transmitted, i.e., absorbed by f r i c t i o n o r v i b r a t i o n . Thus, the energy o r power balance cons i d e r a t i o n s should be supplemented by a discussion o f the t r i b o l o g i c a l processes involved i n the storage, transformation, emission and d i s s i p a t i o n o f mechanical work. Clearly, a1 1 these phenomena a r e c l o s e l y connected w i t h the contact, deformation and f r i c t i o n processes o c c u r r i n g a t t h e i n t e r f a c e be-
tween elements (1) and ( 2 ) o f a tribo-mechanical system. I n Table 3.3 some o f t h e b a s i c processes a r e l i s t e d . A d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e l e v a n t t r i b o l o g i c a l processes i s g i v e n i n Chapter 4. Work t r a n s a c t i o n s Trans1 a t i o n o f work Transformation o f work Processes E l a s t i c deformation F r i c t i o n mechanisms:
e l a s t i c hysteresis p l a s t i c deformation
I
Table 3.3
conceptual planes
F i g u r e 3.7 shows t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f an a n a l y s i s on a thermal p l a n e o f a tribo-mechanical system. W have a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d t o t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of e mechanical work t o entropy, i.e., mechanical power t o thermal power, which proceeds according t o t h e e q u a t i o n
where
i J. i s
t h e r a t e o f g e n e r a t i o n o f e n t r o p y i n element j and T . i s t h e
J
The thermal power g e n e r a t i o n w i l l u s u a l l y r e s u l t i n t h e temperature of locations o f entropy generation being appreciably higher than t h e i r surroundings, r e s u l t i n g i n t h e t r a n s f e r o f t h e thermal power, b y conduction o r r a d i a t i o n away f r o m t h e l o c a t i o n s o f f r i c t i o n . Heat and e n t r o p y can be t r a n s f e r r e d between systems elements. The t r a n s f e r o f thermal power down a temp e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t i s a unique work process i n t h a t t h e work i n v o l v e d appears as thermal power, i . e . , a f l o w o f t h e same t y p e o f q u a n t i t y as t h e one b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d . The n e t r e s u l t i s t h a t i n thermal conduction o r r a d i a t i o n , t h e
39
t o t a l t h e r m a l - p o w e r - f l o w r a t e remains c o n s t a n t , i. e . ,
where
irs i
t h e t o t a l f l o w r a t e o f e n t r o p y across a s u r f a c e a t a d i s t a n c e r
T-
surrounding a associated
6. i s ' t h e J
[LOSS- OUTPUT^
I
Thermal energy produced by processes on the materials planes
F i g u r e 3.7
Work may a l s o be performed when t h e p o t e n t i a l o f a system o r an element i s changed. T h i s concept can be a p p l i e d n o t o n l y t o mechanical work, b u t a l s o t o chemical work (change o f chemical p o t e n t i a l ) , e l e c t r i c a l work (change o f e l e c t r i c a l p o t e n t i a l ) and thermal work (change o f t e m p e r a t u r e ) . A1 1 t h e s e d i f f e r e n t forms o f work w i l l g e n e r a l l y l e a d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f e n t r o p y (Ref. 3 . 9 ) . Thermal power may be s t o r e d , i n w h i c h case t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e s t o r a g e i n c r e a s e s i n temperature. V i c e versa, t h e t e m p e r a t u r e drops when s t o r e d thermal power i s g i v e n up. I n g e n e r a l , thermal processes a r e o f i n t e r e s t i n t r i b o l o g y i n so f a r as t h e temperature changes i n v o l v e d a f f e c t f r i c t i o n and wear processes.
40
That i s , we are concerned w i t h the r e l a t i o n s h i p between temperature and the mechanical f u n c t i o n o f the system. This amounts t o a concern f o r the e f f e c t o f temperature on p r o p e r t i e s which determine the processes o f v i b r a t i o n , f r i c t i o n and wear. These aspects are also discussed i n some d e t a i l i n Chapter 4.
3 4 4 MATERIAL PLANES
I I
A p r i n c i p l e purpose o f a representation on t h e material planes as shown i n Figure 3.8 i s t o f a c i l i t a t e i n s i g h t i n t o the mass t r a n s f e r and mass transformation processes which are i n v a r i a b l y p a r t o f the wear o f a mechanical system.
Figure 3.8
41
k t o a l l elements t o w h i c h t h e m a t e r i a l i s t r a n s l a t e d f r o m j , c a l l t h e
chemical s p e c i e s which i n chemical r e a c t i o n become p a r t o f m a t e r i a l a, and b r e p r e s e n t s a l l t h e chemical s p e c i e s t o w h i c h t h e m a t e r i a l i s t r a n s f o r m e d . ( I n o r d e r t o a l s o d i s t i n g u i s h g r a p h i c a l l y between t h e d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l species, i t may be a p p r o p r i a t e i n c e r t a i n cases t o s p l i t up t h e m a t e r i a l planes shown i n F i g u r e 3.8 i n t o m a t e r i a l sub-planes.) I n a t t r i t i o n , we w i l l e x p e c t ma t o be n e g a t i v e f o r elements which l o s e J mass b y a t t r i t i o n . However, t h e e q u a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t c e r t a i n elements .a may r e t a i n a more o r l e s s s t e a d y mass, i . e . , mj = 0, w h i l e s i g n i f i c a n t t r a n s l a t i o n and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n processes o c c u r on t h e element. T h i s i s o f t e n t h e case i n p r a c t i c e .
42
r e f e r t o i n p u t s and o u t p u t s r e s p e c t i v e l y .
The processes on and between t h e m a t e r i a l planes a r e l i k e l y t o i n v o l v e e n t r o p y changes, g e n e r a l l y t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f e n t r o p y which w i l l appear as sources o f e n t r o p y i n t h e thermal p l a n e o f t h e same element. I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t work may be performed i n c e r t a i n aspects o f m a s s - t r a n s l a t i o n processes, n o t a b l y t h e f o r m a t i o n o f new f r e e s u r f a c e s as i n f r a c t u r e o r o t h e r forms o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l . The o p p o s i t e process, t h e j o i n i n g o f two s u r faces, e l i m i n a t i n g some f r e e s u r f a c e , i s l i k e l y t o be accompanied by t h e f o r m a t i o n o f e n t r o p y . Thus, a r e p e a t e d sequence o f s e p a r a t i o n - j o i n i n g s e p a r a t i o n and so on w i l l , i n e f f e c t , c o n v e r t mechanical power i n t o thermal power and appear as a mechanisms o f f r i c t i o n . L i m i t i n g o u r concern t o t h e m a t e r i a l planes, we can l i s t some p e r t i n e n t processes i n T a b l e 3.4. The wear mechanisms a r e d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n S e c t i o n 4.4.
Wear mechanism W i t h i n element and p l a n e Surface f a t i g u e Cycl ic de f o rma t ion Abrasion Adhesion t fracture T r i bochemical reactions Deforma t ion Deformation Deformation
Fracture
Chemical reactions
Table 3.4
43
3 , 5 CONCLUSIONS
The a n a l y s i s o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system f r o m t h e systems v i e w p o i n t as i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e t r i b o - p r o c e s s diagram, F i g u r e 3.4, c l e a r l y shows t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f t r i b o l o g y i s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e d i f f e r e n t conceptual p l a n e s o f F i g u r e 3.4. Concluding t h e d i s c u s s i o n on t h e processes w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d i f f e r e n t p l a n e s o f t h e conceptual framework o f F i g u r e 3.4, some remarks on t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s o f p r o p e r t i e s s h o u l d be made. W have a l r e a d y n o t e d above t h a t each o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f concern on e t h e work p l a n e i s l i k e l y t o be a f f e c t e d by t e m p e r a t u r e and a l s o p o s s i b l e by mechanical s t r e s s o r s t r a i n . The same a p p l i e s t o t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f concern
on t h e m a t e r i a l planes. As a general p r i n c i p l e , c e r t a i n p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e
elements may be regarded as dependent p r o p e r t i e s on c e r t a i n p l a n e s and independent p r o p e r t i e s on o t h e r p l a n e s . F o r example, temperatures a r e c l e a r l y dependent on t h e processes r e p r e s e n t e d on t h e thermal p l a n e , b u t may be regarded as independent p r o p e r t i e s i n f l u e n c i n g processes on o t h e r planes. A complete a n a l y s i s must t h e r e f o r e i n c l u d e a c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s on t h e d i f f e r e n t planes f o r each l o c a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e system. Temperatures c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e process on t h e thermal p l a n e must e n t e r i n t o o u r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e processes on t h e o t h e r p l a n e s . L i k e w i s e , s t r e s s e s , s t r a i n s and v e l o c i t i e s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e processes on t h e mec h a n i c a l work p l a n e must e n t e r i n t o o u r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t h e processes on t h e thermal and m a t e r i a l s p l a n e s . This analysis n o t o n l y i l l u s t r a t e s the complexity o f the t r i b o l o g y o f mechanical systems, b u t a l s o t h e i n e v i t a b l e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y n a t u r e o f e f f o r t s made t o deal w i t h such systems. Thus t h e work o f a mechanical d e s i g n e r o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n e n g i n e e r takes p l a c e , s o t o speak, on t h e " f u n c t i o n a l p l a n e " o f F i g u r e 3.4. The mechanical e n g i n e e r w i l l a l s o be concerned w i t h t h e analyses on t h e work and thermal p l a n e s . These analyses a r e a l s o i n t h e p r o v i n c e o f t h e p h y s i c i s t . P h y s i c i s t s , a l o n g w i t h m a t e r i a l s s c i e n t i s t s , w i l l be q u a l i f i e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e processes on t h e m a t e r i a l planes, w h i l e chemists and chem i c a l e n g i n e e r s w i l l be c l o s e l y concerned w i t h t h e i n t e r p l a y between t h e m a t e r i a l planes, i.e., of material. The s p e c i a l i s t s , however, i n e v i t a b l e seeks t o i n c o r p o r a t e h i s knowl e d g e and p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e i n some k i n d o f conceptual framework. Given t h e chemical r e a c t i o n s c a u s i n g t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
44
t h e complexity o f t r i b o l o g i c a l processes, a t h e o r y o f t r i b o l o g y based on systems t h i n k i n g i s l i k e l y t o p r o v i d e the b e s t type o f framework a v a i l a b l e . The a n a l y s i s shows t h a t a s a t i s f a c t o r y d e s c r i p t i o n o f a tribo-mechanic a l system would be one which c l e a r l y r e l a t e s t h e elements o f a system, t h e
I
processes between t h e elements and t h e i r r e l e v a n t p r o p e r t i e s , t o t h e operat i o n a l v a r i a b l e s and t h e i n p u t s and outputs, i n p a r t i c u l a r i n r e l a t i o n t o a p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n f o r t h e system. The i n f o r m a t i o n compiled i n t h e various Figures and Tables o f t h i s chapter w i l l be used as a convenient g u i d e - l i n e f o r t h e discussions o f these aspects i n the f o l l o w i n g chapters.
45
4 Tr ibological processes
4 , l ROLE
OF
The general theory o f t r i b o l o g y as o u t l i n e d i n Chapter 3 can be regarded as a general framework l i n k i n g t h e v a r i o u s processes and v a r i a b l e s connected w i t h f r i c t i o n and wear o f mechanical systems. I t has been shown t h a t i n an a b s t r a c t manner a tribo-mechanical device can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a system i n which c e r t a i n i n t e r f a c i a l processes o f " t r a n s l a t i o n " and " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n " o f f u n c t i o n a l q u a n t i t i e s , e.g., motion, work, m a t e r i a l s , occur. The i n t e r f a c i a l processes connected w i t h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l surfaces i n r e l a t i v e motion a r e termed " t r i b o l o g i c a l processes" o r , b r i e f l y , " t r i b o processes': I n t h i s connection t h e f o l l o w i n g questions a r i s e : ( a ) What a r e t h e mechanisms by which t h e u s e - q u a n t i t i e s o f a mechanical system a r e t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e system, i.e., what a r e t h e a c t u a l p h y s i c a l processes by which, f o r instance, work i s t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e system as described on t h e conceptual f u n c t i o n a l plane (see F i g u r e
3.5)?
( b ) What a r e t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l processes which l e a d t o t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f loss-outputs, i.e., what a r e t h e a c t u a l p h y s i c a l mechanisms o f power d i s s i p a t i o n due t o f r i c t i o n (see F i g u r e 3.6) and t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f wear products (see F i g u r e 3.8)? ( c ) How can t h e d i s s i p a t i v e loss-mechanisms ( b ) be i n f l u e n c e d o r minimized? Since t h e general t h e o r y o f t r i b o l o g y as developed i n Chapter 3 i s a conceptual framework o n l y , t h e answers o r s o l u t i o n s t o these questions must be worked o u t by conventional methods o f a n a l y s i s . These d e t a i l s must then be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e framework of t h e general theory.
46
Obviously, t h e answers t o t h e above q u e s t i o n s ( a ) , ( b ) , ( c ) depend on t h e t y p e o f system under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . I t has been shown above t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems can be c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n t o d i f f e r e n t groups (see T a b l e 3 . 2 ) . F o r any o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t groups, d i f f e r e n t mechanisms o f t r a n s l a t i o n and t r a n s f o r m a t on o f t h e systems q u a n t i t i e s a r e r e l e v a n t , f o r i n s t a n c e : (I)
I f t h e t e c h n i c a l f u n c t i o n o f a mechanical system cons s t s i n t h e
o r "support-losses"
( b ) . These l o s s e s can be
I f t h e t e c h n i c a l f u n c t i o n o f a mechanical system c o n s i s t s i n t h e
i n t e r f a c i a l t r a n s m i s s i o n o f mechanical power, as i n a gear t r a i n f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f mechanical work ( a ) i s o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h c o n t a c t d e f o r m a t i o n processes. The c o n t a c t d e f o r m a t i o n i n e v i t a b l y i n v o l v e s some f r i c t i o n processes ( b ) which can be i n f l u e n c e d ( c ) by l u b r i c a t i o n o f an elastohydrodynamic o r boundary l u b r i c a t i o n mode.
(111) I f t h e t e c h n i c a l f u n c t i o n o f a mechanical system c o n s i s t s o f f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s , as i n w i r e d r a w i n g f o r i n s t a n c e , an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e m a t e r i a l s t r a n s m i s s i o n mechanism ( a ) c o n s i s t s o f p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n processes. I n t h i s case, some energy-loss-processes c o n s i d e r a b l y by p r o p e r l u b r i c a t i o n ( c ) . The i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e p o s s i b l e t r i b o l o g i c a l processes o f " t r a n s l a t i o n " and " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n " o f q u a n t i t i e s w i t h i n a mechanical system i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g main e f f e c t s s h o u l d be s t u d i e d : (i) (ii) b u l k e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n and i n t e r f a c i a l c o n t a c t d e f o r m a t i o n p r o cesses, t h e mechanisms o f energy and m a t e r i a l d i s s i p a t i o n t h r o u g h i n t e r f a c i a l f r i c t i o n and wear processes,
( b ) may r e s u l t
( i i i ) t h e processes and modes o f l u b r i c a t i o n as t h e most e f f e c t i v e means o f i n f l u e n c i n g t h e d i s s i p a t i o n mechanisms. I n o r d e r t o complete t h e general framework d e r i v e d i n Chapter 3, a s u r v e y o f t h e main t r i b o l o g i c a l processes g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d as b e i n g r e l e v a n t
47
t o mechanical systems i s g i v e n i n t h i s c h a p t e r . The t r e a t m e n t does n o t attempt t o e n t e r i n t o s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s o f the t r i b o l o g i c a l behaviour o f materials b u t t r i e s t o present a u n i f i e d p i c t u r e o f t h e important basic phenomena. Since t h e t r e a t m e n t i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s based on c o n v e n t i o n a l analyses, t h e s u r v e y can be regarded
b e s i d e s t h e systems a s p e c t s
as
a r e v i e w o f t h e p r e s e n t knowledge o f t h e mechanisms o f f r i c t i o n , l u b r i c a t i o n and wear f r o m a p h y s i c a l p o i n t o f view. The i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s c h a p t e r t o t h e general systems concepts i s g i v e n i n Chapter 5 and 6.
4,2
CONTACT PROCESSES
I n a g r e a t deal o f t r i b o l o g i c a l systems, t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e r e l e v a n t i n p u t s and o u t p u t s o c c u r t h r o u g h t h e c o n t a c t i n t e r f a c e between t r i b o element (1) and t r i b o - e l e m e n t ( 2 ) . I n t h e s e i n t e r f a c i a l c o n t a c t processes, t h e f o r c e s and displacements o f t h e i n t e r a c t i n g b o d i e s , i . e . , mechanics", as w e l l as t h e m a t e r i a l s i n t e r a c t i o n s i . e . , the "contact the "contact physics
4 2 , 1 CONTACT
pending on:
MECHAN I c s
( a ) t h e number o f b o d i e s t a k i n g p a r t i n t h e c o n t a c t process, ( b ) t h e macro-geometry o f t h e b o d i e s ( t w o - o r t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l p r o b l e m s ) , ( c ) t h e s u r f a c e topography (smooth o r rough s u r f a c e s ) , ( d ) t h e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e b o d i e s (modules, hardness, e t c . ) , ( e ) t h e d e f o r m a t i o n mode ( e l a s t i c , p l a s t i c , e l a s t o - p l a s t i c ) , ( f ) t h e c o n t a c t f o r c e s (normal f o r c e s FN, t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e s F T ) , (9) the type o f r e l a t i v e motion ( s t a t i c contact, r o l l i n g , s l i d i n g , spinning, r o l l i n g with slip, etc.), ( h ) the v e l o c i t y o f r e l a t i v e motion.
I t i s n o t t h e i n t e n t i o n here, n o r i s i t p o s s i b l e w i t h i n t h e scope o f t h i s
volume, t o d e a l w i t h a l l these s i t u a t i o n s . ( E x c e l l e n t r e v i e w a r t i c l e s on
various aspects o f contact mechanics can be found i n the proceedings o f a symposium on "The mechanics o f the contact between deformable bodies", see Ref. 4.1.) The purpose o f t h i s section i s t o gain a general physical p i c t u r e o f the contact-deformation process and t h e mechanisms o f the t r a n s f e r o f mechanical work through a contacting i n t e r f a c e . Obviously, a work transf e r can be obtained only through e l a s t i c contact-deformation processes. I t t h e r e f o r e seems appropriate t o consider f i r s t the e l a s t i c contact o f smooth s o l i d bodies under the a p p l i c a t i o n of a pure normal load s i v e loading and e l a s t o - p l a s t i c conditions. Consider as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t a s e m i - i n f i n i t e e l a s t i c s o l i d under an a r b i t r a r y load d i s t r i b u t i o n p (xl,
i s given by
FN ( e l a s t o s t a t i c s )
The c l a s s i c a l problem o f e l a s t o s t a t i c s , shown i n Figure 4.1, which was f i r s t solved by Boussinesq, can be t r e a t e d by the Fourier-transform method. ( F o r d e t a i l s , see Ref. 4.2.)
Figure 4.1
Load d i s t r i b u t i o n a c t i n g on a s e m i - i n f i n i t e body.
I n t r i b o l o g y , i n a great many contact problems we are concerned w i t h the contact o f curved bodies such as cylinders, spheres, as i n rolling-elementtype bearings, gear-teeth contacts, etc. The c l a s s i c basis f o r a l l o f these
49
c o n t a c t problems o f " c o n t r a f o r m a l s u r f a c e s " i s g i v e n by t h e famous H e r t z theory (Ref. 4.3). T h i s t h e o r y t r e a t s t h e c o n t a c t o f e l a s t i c b o d i e s as an e l a s t o - s t a t i c a l problem under t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s : (i) perfectly e l a s t i c materials, b o t h b o d i e s have t h e same e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s , t h e two s u r f a c e s a r e n o t c l o s e l y conforming i n t h e c o n t a c t r e g i o n , no r e l a t i v e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y o f " s p i n " about t h e common normal t o the contact surface, (vi) no t a n g e n t i a l ( t r a c t i v e ) f o r c e i s t r a n s m i t t e d .
However, t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e H e r t z i a n t h e o r y have a l s o been w i d e l y a p p l i e d s u c c e s s f u l l y t o many s i t u a t i o n s i n which t h e b o d i e s under q u e s t i o n a r e moving. Owing t o t h e g r e a t importance o f t h e H e r t z e q u a t i o n s i n t r i b o l o g y , some o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e H e r t z t h e o r y w i l l be reproduced h e r e . F o r t h e purpose o f t h i s t r e a t m e n t , i t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o r e s t r i c t o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e case o f t h e e l a s t i c c o n t a c t of two s p h e r i c a l b o d i e s under a p u r e normal l o a d FN. The c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.2, where rl and r 2 a r e t h e r a d i i o f c u r v a t u r e o f t h e two b o d i e s and E l , E2 and vl, v i a t ions :
v2 t h e i r
r: e q u i v a l e n t r a d i u s
o f curvature
E:
L
composite e l a s t i c modulus
i s g i v e n by
F o r t h e c o n t a c t area AH, i t f o l l o w s t h a t
50
AH
= n a Z H = TC
[ g] FI3:
2/3 pressure distribution, P
FN = 0
area, A , FN = 0
F i g u r e 4.2
Hertzi
az
the p o t e n t i a l i s
51
I f t h e c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n i s e n t i r e l y e l a s t i c , t h e p o t e n t i a l energy can
be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o k i n e t i c energy i n r e l e a s i n g t h e c o n t a c t . I n t h i s case, t h e system o f t h e e l a s t i c b o d i e s p e r f o r m s work a g a i n s t i t s environment. I n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e whole process o f c o n t a c t f o r m a t i o n and c o n t a c t r e l e a s e , i t t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c H e r t z i a n c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n can be r e g a r d e d as model o f t h e i n t e r f a c i a l t r a n s f e r o f mechanical energy t h r o u g h a system o f contacting bodies. A l t h o u g h t h e main f e a t u r e s o f an " i d e a l " t r a n s m i s s i o n o f mechanical energy t h r o u g h an e l a s t i c c o n t a c t i n t e r f a c e can be understood on t h e b a s i s o f H e r t z i a n t h e o r y , i n any c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n o f " r e a l s u r f a c e s " t h e e f f e c t o f s u r f a c e topography must be t a k e n i n t o account ( R e f s . 4.4, 4 . 5 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e German s t a n d a r d D I N 4760, t h e d e v i a t i o n s f r o m an i d e a l smooth s u r f a c e can be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o d i f f e r e n t groups: ( a ) d e v i a t i o n s i n shape ( b ) waviness ( l a r g e - s c a l e s u r f a c e d e v i a t i o n s ) ( c ) roughness ( s m a l l - s c a l e d e v i a t i o n s ) (d) l a t t i c e structure I n o r d e r t o d e s c r i b e t h e roughness o f s u r f a c e , a c o u p l e o f parameters have been d e f i n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e , see F i g u r e 4.3.
surface p r o f i l e (2-dim.)
(a)
(b)
w
/
100 %
F i g u r e 4.3
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s u r f a c e roughness.
62
and
4.7).
Another approach t o d e s c r i b e t h e topography o f s u r f a c e s i s t o r e g a r d t h e p r o f i l e , as d e t e c t e d by a p r o f i l e m e t e r , as an e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l and t o a n a l y z e i t s t a t i s t i c a l l y (Ref. 4.8). I t i s t h e n p o s s i b l e t o c l a s s i f y t h e p r o f i l e i n terms o f t h e f o l l o w i n g f u n c t i o n s :
( I ) The p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o r d i n a t e h e i g h t s . F o r many e n g i n e e r i n g
surfaces f i n i s h e d b y g r i n d i n g o r a b r a s i o n processes i t was found t h a t t h e h e i g h t s o f t h e p r o f i l e s were d i s t r i b u t e d i n a Gaussian manner. (11) The a u t o - c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r o f i l e d e f i n e d as:
+y1
Z (A)
=
limT
1-00
'i*
y(x)
y ( x + A ) dx
-% 7
where y ( x ) i s t h e h e i g h t o f t h e p r o f i l e a t a g i v e n c o - o r d i n a t e x and y ( x t A ) i s t h e h e i g h t a t an a d j a c e n t c o - o r d i n a t e ( x
+ A ) . Peklenik
has analyzed t h e s u r f a c e s produced by many d i f f e r e n t techniques and has proposed a system o f c l a s s i f y i n g s u r f a c e s based upon t h e n a t u r e of t h e a u t o - c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t i o n s o f t h e i r p r o f i l e (Ref. 4.9).
4 / rI
A ,
= a-b> A >
A :
i=1
(n: number o f c o n t a c t s )
F i g u r e 4.4
Nominal and r e a l a r e a o f c o n t a c t .
53
Now, r e t u r n i n g t o c o n t a c t mechanics, i n o r d e r t o a v o i d a m b i g u i t y , f o r t h e c o n t a c t o f rough s u r f a c e s two terms must be d i s t i n g u i s h e d , as i l l u s t r a t ed i n F i g u r e 4.4:
i .e.,
t h e apparent area o f o v e r l a p o f
i.e.,
t h e sum o f t h e s e p a r a t e m i c r o s c o p i c
areas a t which t h e a s p e r i t i e s a r e i n c o n t a c t . S i n c e i t i s obvious t h a t t h e r e a l area o f c o n t a c t , r a t h e r t h a n t h e nominal area, i s c r u c i a l f o r t h e i n t e r f a c i a l t r a n s m i s s i o n o f work, a g r e a t many s t u d i e s have been devoted t o t h e e s t i m a t i o n and e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e r e a l area o f c o n t a c t Ar ( R e f s . 4.10, 4.11).
A comprehensive s t u d y o f e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n u s i n g model arrangements
4.13).
A l t h o u g h t h e s e models a r e o v e r -
t h e y i l l u s t r a t e t h a t m u l t i p l e - p o i n t c o n t a c t under e l a s t i c
d e f o r m a t i o n can g i v e a r e a l a r e a o f c o n t a c t almost l i n e a r l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
Ar
constant
[]:
C
4/5 s C s 44/45 (depending on t h e model )
Another e x t e n s i o n o f t h e H e r t z i a n t h e o r y o f e l a s t i c c o n t a c t between spheres t o t h e case o f rough s u r f a c e s w i t h a Gaussian h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n was made by Greenwood and T r i p p ( R e f . 4 . 1 4 ) . T h e i r model i s d e f i n e d by t h r e e parameters
U*
: :
p
n
They showed m a t h e m a t i c a l l y : (i1 (ii) t h e t o t a l number o f m i c r o c o n t a c t s i s a l m o s t p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e l o a d FN, t h e average s i z e o f a m i c r o c o n t a c t i s almost l o a d independent, contacts, thus t h e r e a l area o f c o n t a c t Ar, i.e., t h e sum o f t h e m i c r o - c o n t a c t areas, ( i i i ) t h e r e a l a r e a o f c o n t a c t Ar i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e number o f
64
the rough surfaces contact s i t u a t i o n an e f f e c t i v e radius can be defined which approaches the H e r t r i a n radius and l i k e i t varies as the one-third power o f the load. I n the discussion so far, mainly r e v e r s i b l e q u a s i - s t a t i c e l a s t i c cont a c t deformations have been considered which can be regarded as models f o r the transmission of work i n a tribo-mechanical system. However, i n contact s i t u a t i o n s under pure normal loads some i r r e v e r s i b l e i n t e r f a c i a l processes already e x i s t which lead t o a d i s s i p a t i o n o f mechanical energy. Unfortunatel y , f o r the i r r e v e r s i b l e processes i n contact deformation t h e r e e x i s t s no
theory as there i s f o r the r e v e r s i b l e e l a s t i c case. Therefore, i n the f o l lowing o n l y some s h o r t remarks on d i s s i p a t i v e processes i n contact mechanics w i l l be made (a physical t r e a t i s e on the o r i g i n s o f energy d i s s i p a t i o n i s given i n Section 4.3). The f o l l o w i n g processes may c o n t r i b u t e t o an energy d i s s i p a t i o n i n contact mechanics: (a) INTERFACIAL SLIP, I.E., PARTIAL MOTION OF THE CONTACTING SURFACES
properties, an i n t e r f a c i a l shear s t r e s s r e s u l t s which i n t u r n influences the pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n . Depending on the physical nature o f the surfaces, the i n t e r f a c i a l t a n g e n t i a l shear may cancel o u t through l o c a l micro-sl i p processes, thus d i s s i p a t i n g energy (see also Section 4.3.4). Also i f the tang e n t i a l stresses are "frozen i n " d u r i n g the d u r a t i o n o f the contact as a consequence o f i n t e r f a c i a l adhesion forces (see Section 4.2.2),
l y t h a t i n the release o f contact, energy i s dissipated.
i t i s like-
(b)
IN THE INTERFACE
I n any contact s i t u a t i o n a t l e a s t two t r a n s i e n t s t a t e s are involved: the formation o f the contact and the separation o f the contact. I n these t r a n s i e n t states due t o changes i n t h e load o r t h e pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e r e may be a pronounced e f f e c t o f m i c r o - s l i p and a generation o f e l a s t i c waves.
I t has been shown experimentally t h a t under impulsive loading o f Hertzian
55
(c)
VISCOELASTIC DAMPING
The above d i s c u s s i o n s o f c o n t a c t - d e f o r m a t i o n processes on t h e b a s i s o f t h e H e r t z i a n t h e o r y r e f e r t o e l a s t i c s o l i d s as g i v e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y by hardened b a l l - b e a r i n g s t e e l . There a r e , however, o t h e r groups o f t e c h n i c a l l y import a n t m a t e r i a l s , f o r i n s t a n c e e l a s t o m e r s , which cannot be t r e a t e d i n t h i s manner. U n l i k e a h a r d m a t e r i a l l i k e s t e e l , t h e e l a s t o m e r s t r u c t u r e i s composed o f f l e x i b l e c h a i n s which a r e i n a c o n s t a n t s t a t e o f thermal motion. The t e r m " v i s c o e l a s t i c i t y " i s commonly a p p l i e d t o m a t e r i a l s which a r e n e i t h e r but i n fact i d e a l e l a s t i c s o l i d s n o r v i s c o u s l i q u i d s ( s e e S e c t i o n 4.5.2),
possess c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which a r e t y p i c a l o f b o t h . The e l a s t i c b e h a v i o u r may be r e p r e s e n t e d by an i d e a l s p r i n g and v i s c o s i t y by an i d e a l dashpot. Combini n g two b a s i c mechanical models, known as t h e V o i g t and Maxwell models cons i s t i n g s i m p l y o f s p r i n g and dashpot i n p a r a l l e l and s e r i e s r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e c o n t a c t - d e f o r m a t i o n b e h a v i o u r o f v i s c o e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s may be modelled. As a general feature, i n t h e sequence o f c o n t a c t f o r m a t i o n and s e p a r a t i o n o f such m a t e r i a l s , mechanical work i s d i s s i p a t e d t h r o u g h h y s t e r e s i s damping e f f e c t s (Ref. 4 . 1 6 ) . (d) PLASTIC CONTACT PROCESSES
+ is
E
H
: composite e l a s t i c modulus
: hardness
p
( F o r a comparison o f b o t h models see Ref. 4.20.) s h o u l d be e l a s t i c under a l l p r a c t i c a l l o a d s . I f
+ i n excess
t h e r e w i l l be some p l a s t i c c o n t a c t d e f o r m a t i o n o f a s p e r i t i e s i n a l m o s t any c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n . T h i s i s i n l i n e w i t h t h e view o f Bowden and Tabor (Ref. 1 . 4 ) who argued t h a t , because s u r f a c e s c o n t a i n a s p e r i t i e s o f s m a l l - r a d i u s of-curvature, p l a s t i c f l o w would o c c u r a t t h e t r u e areas o f c o n t a c t even
66
where p i s t h e y i e l d p r e s s u r e f o r t h e weaker m a t e r i a l . I t i s t h e r e f o r e Y l i k e l y t h a t i n a l m o s t any c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n t h e r e i s some d i s s i p a t i o n o f mechanical energy due t o p l a s t i c a s p e r i t y - d e f o r m a t i o n processes. A c c o r d i n g t o N i c h o l a s (Ref. 4.21), i n g e n e r a l , f o u r main mechanisms o f energy d i s s i p a t i o n i n p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n can be named: (i) (ii) The moving d i s l o c a t i o n s r e q u i r e a h i g h k i n e t i c energy, which i s s e t f r e e i f t h e d i s l o c a t i o n s a r e locked. The d i s l o c a t i o n s d i s s i p a t e energy c o n t i n u o u s l y t h r o u g h t h e thermoe l a s t i c damping and s c a t t e r i n g o f a c o u s t i c waves. P o i n t d e f e c t s a r e generated and a n n i h i l a t e d d u r i n g t h e d e f o r m a t i o n .
4 2,2 CONTACT
I
PHYS I cs
AND CHEMI
STRY
I n t h e c o n t a c t o f p h y s i c a l bodies, besides t h e c o n t a c t nmechanicsn, i n t e r f a c i a l m o l e c u l a r m a t e r i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s and " s u r f a c e f o r c e s " must be t a k e n i n t o account. S i n c e these processes depend on t h e p h y s i c a l and chemical nature o f the surfaces i n contact, a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the surface characteri s t i c s i s needed. From t h e view o f s o l i d s t a t e p h y s i c s , s u r f a c e s o f c r y s t a l l i n e b o d i e s r e p r e s e n t an a b r u p t t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p e r i o d i c i t y o f t h e c r y s t a l l i n e l a t t i c e . Compared w i t h t h e b u l k p r o p e r t i e s o f a c r y s t a l l i n e s o l i d , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f such an a b r u p t t e r m i n a t i o n o f l a t t i c e a r e (Ref. 4.22): ( a ) s t r u c t u r a l r e o r i e n t a t i o n s ( c r y s t a l 1i n i t y and e n e r g e t i c s ) ( b ) surface/environment i n t e r a c t i o n s (physical adsorption, chemisorption, o x i d a t i o n o r f i l m formation) ( c ) changes i n p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s F o r t e c h n i c a l s u r f a c e s , due t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g process, a d d i t i o n a l aspects must be t a k e n i n t o account l i k e : ( d ) a work-hardened l a y e r
57
( e ) t e x t u r i n g o f t h e surface ( f ) local internal stress f i e l d s I n o r d e r t o d e s c r i b e t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f r e a l s u r f a c e s , Schmaltz as e a r l y as
b u l k m a t e r i a l and
worked l a y e r , and an " o u t e r s u r f a c e l a y e r " , contaminants, adsorbed l a y e r s , The c o m p o s i t i o n o f a s u r f a c e i n a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l view i s shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 4 . 5 . C l e a r l y , t h e a c t u a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f a g i v e n s u r f a c e and t h e s t r u c t u r e and t h i c k n e s s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t s u r f a c e l a y e r s , as shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 4.5, depends on t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e and on t h e environment, a p a r t f r o m t h e b u l k m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s .
>5
pm
work-hardened 1a y e r
metal s u b s t r a t e
F i g u r e 4.5
Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e l a y e r e d c o m p o s i t i o n of a m e t a l l i c surface.
Adhesion mechanism
Bonding through:
Val idi ty
solid
(*)
z > atomic
dime ns ions
electrostatic fields
1 metallic J
mobile interfacial electrons
l
z E atomic
overlap o f electron distributions dimensions (dangl ing bonds)
Fiaure 4.6 -
59
T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h e a t t r a c t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n f o r c e s between two c o n t a c t i n g s o l i d s include, a t l e a s t i n p r i n c i p l e , a l l those types o f i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e cohesion o f s o l i d s , such as m e t a l l i c , c o v a l e n t and i o n i c , i.e., p r i m a r y chemical bonds ( s h o r t - r a n g e f o r c e s ) , as w e l l as secondary van d e r Waals bonds ( l o n g - r a n g e f o r c e s ) . F o r example, two p i e c e s o f c l e a n g o l d p l a c e d i n c o n t a c t w i l l f o r m m e t a l l i c bonds o v e r t h e r e g i o n s o f a t o m i c cont a c t and t h e i n t e r f a c e w i l l have t h e s t r e n g t h o f b u l k g o l d . W i t h c l e a n d i a mond, t h e s u r f a c e f o r c e s w i l l resemble v a l e n c y f o r c e s ; w i t h r o c k s a l t t h e s u r f a c e f o r c e s w i l l be p a r t l y i o n i c . A l l these a r e e s s e n t i a l l y s h o r t - r a n g e f o r c e s . Long-range van d e r Waals f o r c e s a c t i n t h e adhesion between s o f t r u b b e r - l i k e m a t e r i a l s and between p o l y m e r i c s o l i d s . I n F i g u r e 4.6 some char a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e adhesion bonding mechanisms a r e shown. Due t o t h e g r e a t importance o f adhesion i n t r i b o l o g i c a l processes, some f e a t u r e s o f t h e a c t i o n o f van d e r Waals f o r c e s and m e t a l l i c bonds reasons f o r an adhesion o f polymers and m e t a l s detail.
t h e main
w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n some
I f two s o l i d s a r e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r t h e y w i l l f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e s due t o van d e r Waals i n t e r a c t i o n s . These f o r c e s a r i s e f r o m t h e f l u c t u a t i n g charge d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n t h e atoms o r molecules o f t h e two b o d i e s , c r e a t i n g momentary and c o n t i n u o u s l y s h i f t i n g d i p o l e s and c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y induced d i p o l e s i n n e i g h b o u r i n g atoms o r molecules. As a f i r s t approximat i o n f o r a s o l i d body, i t may be assumed t h a t t h e van d e r Waals f o r c e between any p a i r o f atoms o r molecules i s a d d i t i v e so t h a t t h e t o t a l f o r c e may be c a l c u l a t e d by summation f o r a l l p a i r s o f atoms i n t h e two b o d i e s . On t h e b a s i s o f t h i s assumption, C a s i m i r was t h e f i r s t t o d e r i v e t h e f o l l o w i n g formula f o r t h e f o r c e o f adhesion FA i n t h e i n t e r f a c e A o f two m i r r o r p l a n e s (Ref. 4.24):
h
FA
(h c
:
:
240
t l
cr2
i n phase,
60
(b) retarded forces occurring i f the i n i t i a l d i p o l e and t h e induced d i p o l e are no longer i n phase. For these two cases the f o l l o w i n g expressions f o r the adhesion f o r c e FA between a sphere o f radius r a t a distance o f nearest approach z from a f l a t surface can be derived (a) non-retarded forces
( b ) retarded forces
J
L
where kl and k2, a r e the Hamaker constants f o r non-retarded and retarded forces respectively. The v a l i d i t y o f these formulae has been proved i n experiments w i t h clean smooth mica surfaces. It was found t h a t a t
z>
100 nm,
the formulae f o r t h e retarded forces i s v a l i d whereas a t z < 20 nm the measured van der Waals a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e FA agrees w e l l w i t h t h e theory f o r nonretarded i n t e r a c t i o n s (Ref. 4.25). I f the van der Waals surface forces are described i n terms o f surface e n e r g y y , t y p i c a l values o f about 0.02 t o 0.04
Jm"
are found.
These r e s u l t s lead t o an important generalization: since van der Waals i n t e r a c t i o n s occur between any type o f atoms o r molecules, i t can be assumed t h a t the van der Waals adhesion forces a c t between a l l m a t e r i a l s t h a t are brought i n t o contact down t o distances o f a few nm. Below 1 nm, a t atomic dimensions, s h o r t range surface forces o f d i f f e r e n t type come i n t o a c t i o n which depend on t h e nature o f t h e m a t e r i a l s i n contact. As an important example o f the a c t i o n o f short-range surface forces, the adhesion o f clean metals w i l l be discussed. I n order t o estimate the strength o f m e t a l l i c adhesion bonding, cons i d e r f i r s t the b u l k cohesion o f metals. Due t o the complicated e l e c t r o n i c s t r u c t u r e o f most metals, a t present i t i s n o t y e t possible t o c a l c u l a t e the cohesion strength o f metals from f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s . Estimations o f the cohesion bond strength o f simple metals can be attempted using the so-called " j e l l i u m model". According t o Ziman (Ref. 4.26), i t can be seen t h a t i n t h e simple p i c t u r e o f a j e l l i u m model cohesion depends, b a s i c a l l y , on having an " e l e c t r o n gas" o f f a i r l y high density, n o t on t h e d e t a i l s o f the c r y s t a l structure. The e l e c t r o n gas behaves l i k e a ,ubiquitous l i q u i d glue t h a t w i l l b i n d together more o r l e s s any arrangement o f ions t h a t i s s u f f i c i e n t l y densely packed.
61
The a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e j e l l i u m model t o t h e case o f adhesion a t a b i m e t a l l i c i n t e r f a c e i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.7. I n t h i s model, j u s t t h e o v e r l a p o f t h e metal-vacuum electron-number d e n s i t i e s nl and n 2 o f t h e two c o n t a c t i n g p a r t n e r s w i t h i n t h e t r u e a r e a o f c o n t a c t i s considered.
metal 1
?.?
.A
-.--F i g u r e 4.7
*\
. I
A f i r s t p r e l i m i n a r y c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e adhesive i n t e r a c t i o n o f a b i m e t a l l i c
r e c e n t l y been extended (Ref. 4.28). The t h e o r y proceeds f r o m an e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e t o t a l energy o f t h e system i n terms o f e l e c t r o n number d e n s i t y , i n c l u d i n g exchange and c o r r e l a t i o n e n e r g i e s , and i s a p p l i e d t o t h e c l o s e packed planes o f s i m p l e m e t a l s . I n t h i s t h e o r y t h e s t r e n g t h o f adhesion bonding depends, b a s i c a l l y , on t h e f r e e - e l e c t r o n d e n s i t y . As i n t e r f a c i a l f r e e - e l e c t r o n d e n s i t y i n t u r n depends on how s t r o n g l y t h e e l e c t r o n s a r e l o c a l i z e d i n s i d e the contacting partners, i n a d d i t i o n t o the free-electron j e l l i u m formalism, t h e e l e c t r o n i c s t r u c t u r e o f m e t a l s and t h e c h a r a c t e r
( s , p, d) o f e l e c t r o n s f r e e f o r i n t e r f a c i a l adhesion bonding must be cons i d e r e d . T h i s has l e d t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t f o r l i k e m e t a l s t h e s t r e n g t h o f adhesion bonding s h o u l d i n c r e a s e w i t h i n t h e p e r i o d i c t a b l e f r o m l e f t t o r i g h t i n t h e o r d e r o f t r a n s i t i o n m e t a l s , n o b l e metals, 6-subgroup m e t a l s (Ref. 4.29). F o r t h e adhesion bonding o f u n l i k e m e t a l s , f u r t h e r a s p e c t s such as t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n Fermi l e v e l s , e l e c t r o n work f u n c t i o n s and s t r u c t u r e and d e n s i t y o f e l e c t r o n s t a t e s o f b o t h p a r t n e r s must be c o n s i d e r e d . Here, t h e d e n s i t y o f s t a t e s i n t h e metal on one s i d e o f t h e i n t e r f a c e may determine t h e t o t a l number o f e l e c t r o n s i m p i n g i n g on t h e j u n c t i o n , and t h e d e n s i t y o f s t a t e s i n t h e o t h e r metal may determine t h e number o f f i n a l s t a t e s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e passed adhesive bonding e l e c t r o n s . I t may be h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t s t r o n g adhesion bonds w i l l o c c u r i f one p a r t n e r can a c t
62
as an "electron donor'' and the other as an "electron acceptor" (Refs. 4.29, 4.30). These considerations are, however, rather speculative because a t present there i s no d i r e c t way of studying the actual interfacial electron densities o r determining the interfacial bond strength. Although adhesion i s essentially the r e s u l t of interfacial molecular bonding forces, i t should be borne i n mind t h a t the net adhesion e f f e c t between solids i s influenced by a t l e a s t three further important factors: (i) The elasto-plastic contact behaviour of the partners, determining the size of the real area of contact in which the actual surface forces are able t o act. ( i i ) The influence of e l a s t i c stresses in contact separation, eventually peeling junctions apart, particularly i f the contacting partners a r e lacking in d u c t i l i t y . ( i i i ) The presence of surface films and surface asperities which may reduce the adhesion forces.
20
Figure 4.8
63
Experimentally, t h e o n l y way o f s t u d y i n g adhesive i n t e r a c t i o n s between two s o l i d bodies which contact under a pure normal l o a d FN i s t o destroy the bonding and t o measure the f o r c e FA necessary f o r the separation o f t h e surfaces. According t o Bowden the r a t i o
under p l a s t i c c o n t a c t c o n d i t i o n s combined w i t h a d i s r u p t i o n o f surface contaminant l a y e r s , S i k o r s k i s t u d i e d t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f adhesion w i t h various b u l k p r o p e r t i e s o f metals i n a p p l y i n g the twist-compression bonding method under normal atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s (Ref. 4.32). c i e n t o f various metals as a f u n c t i o n o f i t s Vickers hardness. These r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e two b a s i c features: (i) The adhesion c o e f f i c i e n t decreases w i t h i n c r e a s i n g hardness (and a l s o w i t h i n c r e a s i n g e l a s t i c moduli and surface energy). types o f c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e ; t h e adhesion i s lowest f o r hexagonal close-packed metals. This general feature o f the adhesion o f metals has a l s o been observed f o r clean pure metals under c o n d i t i o n s o f u l t r a h i g h vacuum i n extensive e x p e r i ments by D. Buckley (Refs. 4.33, 4.34).
I t was a l s o found t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o
In
a p r e v i o u s l y h e l d view, s t r o n g adhesion c o u l d be obtained between u n l i k e metals which had no mutual s o l u b i l i t y (Refs. 4.35, served t o t r a n s f e r t o the cohesively stronger. 4.36). F u r t h e r , on separ a t i o n of the surfaces the cohesively weaker metal has g e n e r a l l y been ob-
64
fcc bcc
x
tl
0
.I-
VI
01
4-
+ tetragonal
+ 0
E
U 4
3-
c ,
: 2. YLc
.r
a J
a J 0 u
s ..Q
W z
I0 I 1
1
Pt
0.01
0.03 0.05
0.1
0.3
0.5
1
(GN/m2)
V i c k e r s hardness
F i g u r e 4.9
I n t r y i n g t o e x p l a i n t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t a l o b s e r v a t i o n s i n terms of p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f metals, two aspects have been emphasized: ( a ) The a b i l i t y o f s u r f a c e s t o deform p l a s t i c a l l y o b v i o u s l y e x h i b i t s a marked i n f l u e n c e on adhesion s i n c e i t i n f l u e n c e s t h e t r u e area o f cont a c t . As i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.10 w i t h f a c e - c e n t r e d - c u b i c ( f c c ) met a l s t h e r e a r e 12 p o s s i b l e s l i p systems. Body-centred-cubic ( b c c ) met a l s have 12 main o p e r a b l e s l i p systems and 36 secondary s l i p systems which r e q u i r e h i g h e r shear s t r e s s e s t o produce s l i p . W i t h hexagonal m e t a l s ( h c p ) , however, a t room temperature t h e r e a r e o n l y 3 o p e r a b l e basal s l i p systems. The l i m i t e d s l i p b e h a v i o u r i n t h e hexagonal m e t a l s , t h e r e f o r e , seems t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e hexagonal m e t a l s m i g h t w e l l exh i b i t l o w e r adhesion b e h a v i o u r than e i t h e r bcc (Refs. 4.37, 4.38).
o r fcc
- metals
66
f o r a couple o f u n l i k e fcc metals using the e l e c t r o n theory o f m e t a l l i c binding, an ordering of b i n d i n g energies was obtained as shown i n Table 4.1. As i n d i c a t e d i n Table 4 . 1 the t h e o r e t i c a l f i n d i n g s have been exp e r i m e n t a l l y v e r i f i e d (Ref. 4.39). Besides the extensive experimental work on the adhesion o f metals, r e l a t i v e l y few studies have been reported o f adhesion between o t h e r types o f s o l i d such as covalent o r i o n i c m a t e r i a l s o r van der Waals bonded s o l i d s . I n addit i o n , l i t t l e work appears t o have been c a r r i e d o u t between such s o l i d s and clean metals. (Examples o f polymer-metal adhesion as studied by o p t i c a l microscopy and f i e l d i o n microscopy can be found i n Section 7.6.) type performed i n a vacuum o f 13 nPa (lO-loTorr) (Ref. 4.40). Tabor and co-workers described a study o f the adhesion between s o l i d s o f d i f f e r e n t They found t h a t adhesion o f s o f t metals t o a hard s o l i d such as t i t a n i u m carbide can be high and when the surfaces are separated fragments o f metal are found a t tached t o the harder surface. With o t h e r hard s o l i d s such as saphire o r diamond the adhesion o f copper i s appreciably less, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t the bonding between copper and these covalent m a t e r i a l s i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y weak. From the study o f the adhesion bonding mechanisms an important general conclusion can be drawn: Since both partners c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e adhesion bonding, the bond strength i s e s s e n t i a l l y an i n t e r a c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . Therefore, any measure o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f adhesion cannot be handled i n engineering a p p l i c a t i o n s l i k e a m a t e r i a l s property (as f o r instance the e l a s t i c modulus) b u t r a t h e r as a q u a n t i t y r e l a t e d t o the whole system o f contacting partners under consideration. I n c o n t r a s t t o m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s l i k e the e l a s t i c modulus which can be regarded as a "system-independent" parameter, the adhesion behaviour o f a material p a i r i s a s t r o n g l y "system-dependent" characteristic. I n the discussion o f contact processes so f a r , the contact mechanics as based on Hertzian theory and the i n t e r f a c i a l adhesion surface forces have been t r e a t e d separately. An analysis o f the e l a s t i c contact between a smooth e l a s t i c sphere and a smooth f l a t surface t a k i n g i n t o account the e f f e c t o f i n t e r f a c i a l a t t r a c t i v e adhesion forces was made by Johnson, Kendall and Roberts (Ref. 4.41). They showed t h a t the area o f contact i s always greater than t h a t given by c l a s s i c a l Hertzian theory. This i s obviously due t o a n e t release o f surface energy r e s u l t i n g from the replacement o f two surfaces by one s o l i d / s o l i d i n t e r f a c e o f lower surface energy. The change i n surface
66
Structure
Slip plane
Slip direction
Number o f s l i p systems
...
p brass,.
..
HCP
...
(basal s l i p )
Figure 4.10
Observed s l i p systems i n c r y s t a l s .
Theoretical
Ordering binding energy, ergs/cm21 525 465 455 385 375 345 335 290
Experimental ordering
A1 A1 A1 A1 cu
AU CU
A1
- CU
Ag cu
AU
Ag
- AU
Ag Ag
Table 4.1
67
energy p e r u n i t area of c o n t a c t , A y
may be w r i t t e n as
where
y1 i s t h e s u r f a c e energy o f t h e sphere,
y 2 o f t h e f l a t and y12 o f
t h e i n t e r f a c e . The a n a l y s i s shows t h a t t h e r e i s a f i n i t e t e n s i l e f o r c e F*N r e q u i r e d t o p u l l t h e sphere o f f t h e f l a t . The v a l u e o f F*N i s t h e same whether o r n o t t h e s u r f a c e s a r e i n i t i a l l y pressed t o g e t h e r w i t h an e x t e r n a l f o r c e , and i s g i v e n by
F * ,
=
IT
ray
The r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f Johnson, K e n d a l l and Roberts f o r t h e case o f a r u b b e r / r u b b e r c o n t a c t a r e shown i n F i g u r e 4.11. F o r s o f t e l a s t i c van d e r Waals s o l i d s , ( r = 22 mm,
= 30 mJm-2)
1.5
v
m
.r
I
. .-
He rt z t h e o ry , w i t h adhesion
s!
V
1.0
-0
m L
+J
rc(
+J
0.5
0
V
"aH
-1
/ 0 1 2 3 4
Load FN
(10-2N)
Figure 4.11
68
The a n a l y s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.11 i s v a l i d f o r o p t i c a l l y smooth r u b b e r - l i k e m a t e r i a l s where o v e r a l l d e f o r m a t i o n s a r e l a r g e and l o c a l m i c r o a s p e r i t i e s a r e e a s i l y accommodated. As a c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s u r f a c e roughness on t h e adhesion o f e l a s t i c s o l i d s , F u l l e r and Tabor (Ref. 4.42) have d e f i n e d an "adhesion parameter" g i v e n by
where
i s t h e average r a d i u s o f c u r v a t u r e o f i n d i v i d u a l a s p e r i t i e s , z t h e is a
z3/'
pl/'
a measure o f t h e
f o r c e e x e r t e d b y t h e a s p e r i t i e s i n pushing t h e s u r f a c e s a p a r t . I f 0 i s s m a l l , t h i s i m p l i e s t h a t t h e adhesion i s ' d o m i n a n t , i f 0 i s l a r g e t h e asperi t i e s dominate and t h e adhesion i s s m a l l . I t i s assumed t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m s t r o n g t o weak adhesion accurs i f i r r e g u l a r i t i e s o f dimensions z and z
E
0 > l o . T h i s corresponds t o s u r f a c e
w i t h h a r d e l a s t i c s o l i d s , v e r y small s u r f a c e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t
t o reduce adhesion t o a v e r y l o w value. I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e j u n c t i o n s can deform p l a s t i c a l l y , then adhesion d o m i n a t i n g o v e r roughness i s more
1i k e l y t o occur.
I n summary, i n any c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o y t h e combined i n f l u e n c e s of c o n t a c t mechanics and c o n t a c t p h y s i c s and c h e m i s t r y must be t a k e n i n t o account. The analyses, performed f o r t h e case o f two s o l i d bodies c o n t a c t i n g under t h e a c t i o n o f a pure normal l o a d FN, show t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and processes must be considered: (I) Surface c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( a ) S u r f a c e topography
( b ) Surface composition
69
- oxide l a y e r s - worked l a y e r s
(11) Contact formation ( a ) Contact mechanics - Hertz theory apparent and real area of contact - deformation mode ( p l a s t i c i t y index) - e l a s t i c - a s p e r i ty-contact deformation plastic-asperity-contact deformation ( b ) Contact physics and chemistry - van d e r Waals forces m e t a l l i c bonding e f f e c t of o t h e r short-range forces - e f f e c t of surface films (111) Contact separation - interfacial s l i p - generation of e l a s t i c waves e l a s t i c recovery - t r a n s f e r of adherent material - fracture
4,3 FRICTIONPROCESSES
4,3,1 TANGENTIAL FORCES
I N CONTACT PROCESSES
In t h i s s e c t i o n , t h e o r i g i n s and mechanisms of dry f r i c t i o n w i l l be considered i n order t o explain the d i s s i p a t i o n processes t h a t occur on the conceptual work plane i n a t r i b o l o g i c a l system a s i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 3.6. Consider as a s t a r t i n g point the s t a t i c contact o f two bodies under a pure normal force FN on which a tangential f o r c e FT i s superimposed without causing a macroscopic r e l a t i v e motion between the two bodies. In t h i s case, the addition o f FT t o FN modifies the i n t e r f a c i a l e l a s t i c - and p l a s t i c contact-deformation s i t u a t i o n as described in the foregoing s e c t i o n . There a r e four main aspects t h a t must now be considered:
( a ) ELASTIC STRESSES AND DISPLACEMENTS Mindlin made a detailed study of the idealized case of e l a s t i c Hertzian contact under the additional action of a small tangential force (Ref. 4.43). In the case of a tangential force across a c i r c u l a r Hertzian contact area, i . e . , the case of two spherical bodies in contact, the tangential traction i s everywhere parallel to the direction of the applied force. The contours of constant tangential traction are concentric circles. The magnitude o f the traction rises from one-half the average a t the centre to i n f i n i t y a t the edge. Obviously, the high traction stresses in some way cause micros l i p between the two contacting materials depending on the shear strength o f adhesion bonding between the materials in contact. If the resistance against motion i s expressed formally'by the coefficient of f r i c t i o n f, presumably the tangential component of traction cannot exceed the product of the coefficient of f r i c t i o n and the normal component of traction. If aH denotes the radius of the Hertzian contact c i r c l e , i t follows that no s l i p occurs within a c i r c l e of radius
I/ 3
a'
aH ]I :[ -
whereas i n t h a t p a r t o'f the Hertzian contact zone i n which the radius i s between a ' and a,, s l i p occurs. The situation i s i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 4.12.
Figure 4.12
S l i p and no-slip regions o f a Hertzian contact under combined normal and tangential forces.
71
( b ) JUNCTION GROWTH Consider now t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n o f a s t a t i c c o n t a c t under t h e a c t i o n o f a normal f o r c e FN and a superimposed s m a l l t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e FT. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e p l a s t i c i t y t h e o r y o f b u l k m a t e r i a l s , i n t h e twodimensional case t h e von Mises y i e l d c r i t e r i o n i s g i v e n by p p2 t 3 T 2
=
py 2
: I
:
:
py
I t has been shown i n S e c t i o n 4.2 t h a t i n t h e c o n t a c t o f c l e a n rough m e t a l l i c s u r f a c e s under a p u r e normal load, p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e t o u c h i n g asp e r i t i e s o c c u r s and adhesive j u n c t i o n s a r e formed. F o r an i d e a l two-dimens i o n a l model o f an i n t e r m e t a l l i c j u n c t i o n , by analogy t h e y i e l d c r i t e r i o n may be expected t o have t h e f o r m ( R e f . 4 . 4 4 ) : p 2
t C T 2
Po 2
it follows that
which l e a d s t o
Ar
[$
.T
2
PO
12
or
A p l o t of t h i s e x p r e s s i o n i s shown i n F i g u r e 4.13.
12
Ratio
0.1
0.2
R a t i o FT/FN
0.3
F i g u r e 4.13
area due t o t h e combined a c t i o n o f FN and FT. The v a l i d i t y o f t h i s r e s u l t s has been proved e x p e r i m e n t a l l y f o r c l e a n m e t a l s , i . e . , high interfacial adhesion bonding. I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t i n t h i s case t h e r e a l area o f c o n t a c t
Ar i n c r e a s e s u n t i l i t i s equal t o t h e nominal geometric a r e a o f c o n t a c t A,.
I f t h e i n t e r f a c i a l adhesion bonding i s lowered, f o r i n s t a n c e t h r o u g h l u b r i -
c a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e s , s i m i l a r j u n c t i o n growth i s observed u n t i l gross t a n g e n t i a l s l i d i n g occurs as i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.13. ( c ) DISPERSAL OF CONTAMINANTS Most s u r f a c e s under normal atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s possess a s u r f a c e compos i t i o n as shown i n F i g u r e 4.5. The topmost, i.e., the "outer" surface l a y e r s a r e formed by contaminants, l i k e o x i d e s and m o i s t u r e . Through these contaminants, t h e s h o r t - r a n g e s u r f a c e f o r c e s e x i s t i n g a t a s o l i d s u r f a c e a r e sat u r a t e d under atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s . I f two s u r f a c e s a r e b r o u g h t i n t o cont a c t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n normal t o t h e i r i n t e r f a c e , i n general o n l y (week) long-range f o r c e s o f t h e van d e r Waals t y p e can a c t a d h e s i v e l y , s i n c e t h e ( s t r o n g ) s h o r t - r a n g e f o r c e s a r e a l r e a d y s a t u r a t e d and t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e contaminant l a y e r s o f b o t h s u r f a c e s i s i n g e n e r a l l a r g e r t h a n t h e range o f t h e s h o r t - r a n g e s u r f a c e f o r c e s . I f , however, a t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e i s superimposed t h e r e may be a d i s p e r s a l o f t h e contaminant f i l m s t h r o u g h t h e comb i n e d a c t i o n o f j u n c t i o n growth and m i c r o s c o p i c s h e a r i n g o f contaminants. Consequently, s h o r t - r a n g e f o r c e s come i n t o a c t i o n and l e a d t o s t r o n g l o c a l
73
adhesive bonds. F o r m e t a l s i t has been proved e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h a t t h r o u g h t h e s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n o f t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e s and a r e l a t i v e m o t i o n a t t h e i n t e r face, adhesion may i n c r e a s e more than t e n f o l d . ( d ) MICRODISPLACEMENTS BEFORE SLIDING
I t has been observed t h a t when a t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e FT i s a p p l i e d t o a s t a t i c
c o n t a c t , a s m a l l r e l a t i v e displacement o f about 0.1 t o 1 pm between t h e components i n c o n t a c t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f FT occurs almost i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y (Ref. 4.45). These m i c r o d i s p l a c e m e n t s b e f o r e g r o s s s l i d i n g a r e i n some cases r e v e r s i b l e and i n o t h e r s i r r e v e r s i b l e . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t e l a s t i c o r p l a s t i c processes on a s m a l l s c a l e t a k e p l a c e b e f o r e gross s l i d i n g occurs.
4 , 3 , 2 SLIDING
FRICTION
t o t h e normal f o r c e FN
' FN
( i i i ) The f r i c t i o n f o r c e i s independent o f t h e apparent g e o m e t r i c a r e a of contact. These r u l e s , known as t h e "Amontons-Coulomb laws" o f d r y s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n have been used so f a r as g u i d i n g r u l e s i n e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s .
74
d i r e c t i o n o f motion
_cc
/ / / / I / / /// /
F i g u r e 4.14
A s o l i d body i n s l i d i n g motion.
e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n ( p l a s t i c i t y i n d e x JIe0.6) FN
E : composite e l a s t i c modulus
p l a s t i c deformation ( p l a s t i c i t y index $ 4 1 )
A ,
oc
FN PY
py
: y i e l d pressure
75
(d) I n the micro-contacts, adhesive j u n c t i o n s a r e formed t h r o u g h t h e
a c t i o n o f surface forces:
on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e m a t e r i a l s i n c o n t a c t , a c t i n g a t s e p a r a t i o n s
.c lnm.
F o r t h e case o f a s l i d i n g c o n t a c t , based on t h e e x i s t i n g knowledge o f t h e topography and c o m p o s i t i o n o f s o l i d s u r f a c e s , we may p o s t u l a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g m i c r o s c o p i c view o f s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n : f r i c t i o n occurs t h r o u g h a s p e r i t y i n t e r a c t i o n s , i.e., t h r o u g h d i s s i p a t i v e processes i n v o l v e d i n t h e j o i n i n g and s e p a r a t i o n o f m i c r o c o n t a c t s .
s t a g e 11: adhesion b o n d i n g
F i g u r e 4.15
Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a u n i t e v e n t i n t h e f r i c t i o n process.
I n t h i s model
, the
sum o f m i c r o s c o p i c f r i c t i o n f o r c e s a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l m i c r o - c o n t a c t s , and t h e energy d i s s i p a t e d may be expressed as t h e sum o f c o r r e s p o n d i n g element a r y d i s s i p a t i o n processes. The elementary processes t h a t o c c u r d u r i n g t h e j o i n i n g and s e p a r a t i o n o f a m i c r o - c o n t a c t formed between two a s p e r i t i e s i n t e r p e n e t r a t i n g t o a c e r t a i n depth are i l l u s t r a t e d schematically i n F i gure 4.15. Obviously, i n t h e d i f f e r e n t stages o f t h e f o r m a t i o n and s e p a r a t i o n o f a m i c r o - c o n t a c t , t h e f o l l o w i n g main processes a r e i n v o l v e d : (i) (ii) (iv) e l a s t i c a s p e r i t y deformation, p l a s t i c a s p e r i t y deformation, s h e a r i n g o f adhesive j u n c t i o n s .
( i i i ) ploughing,
Each o f t h e p a r t i a l processes i n v o l v e s a t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e necessary t o m a i n t a i n t h e r e l a t i v e m o t i o n as w e l l as a p a r t i a l process o f energy d i s s i p a t i o n . K r a g e l s k i (Ref. 1.6) i n a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s s t u d i e d t h e d i f f e r e n t causes o f f r i c t i o n t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e m i c r o - c o n t a c t s and expressed t h e t o t a l macroscopic f r i c t i o n f o r c e FF as
where
F1 : r e s i s t a n c e caused by e l a s t i c displacement o f t h e m a t e r i a l
F2 Fg F4
: r e s i s t a n c e caused by p l a s t i c displacement
:
r e s i s t a n c e due t o s h e a r i n g ( p l o u g h i n g ) o f t h e m a t e r i a l r e s i s t a n c e due t o s h e a r i n g o f t h e ( a d h e s i v e ) f i l m
A q u a n t i t a t i v e calcu-
l a t i o n o f f r i c t i o n f o r c e s or f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s i s , however, o n l y p o s s i b l e t o v e r y rough approximations under s p e c i a l s i m p l i f i e d c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s i s due m a i n l y t o o u r i n c o m p l e t e knowledge o f t h e s u r f a c e p r o p e r t i e s o f s o l i d s . I n o r d e r t o compare t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e m i c r o s c o p i c model o f f r i c t i o n w i t h macroscopic e x p e r i m e n t a l besul t s , some e s t i m a t i o n s o f t h e magnitude o f t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r m e t a l s i n s l i d i n g c o n t a c t w i l l be made i n t h e f o l l o w i n g based on t h e t h e o r y o f Bowden and Tabor (Ref. 1.4).
I t s h o u l d be emphasized t h a t these can be regarded o n l y as rough a p p r o x i -
mations.
According t o t h e m i c r o s c o p i c model o f f r i c t i o n , t h e d i f f e r e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o f r i c t i o n may be c l a s s i f i e d b r o a d l y i n t o two groups: ( a ) deformat i o n processes and ( b ) adhesion processes. I n g e n e r a l , t h e processes bel o n g i n g t o t h e s e two groups a r e n o t independent o f each o t h e r (Ref. 4 . 4 7 ) . Under c e r t a i n s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , however, one process may dominate so t h a t t h e o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s a r e comparative s m a l l and may be n e g l e c t e d t o a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n . Consider, f o r example, two s p e c i a l cases o f t h e f r i c t i o n o f metals: ( a ) PLOUGHING COMPONENT OF FRICTION T h i s case may be a p p r o x i m a t e l y g i v e n i f a v e r y h a r d rough s u r f a c e s l i d e s o v e r a s o f t one. The f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e i s t h e n m a i n l y caused by t h e a s p e r i t i e s o f t h e h a r d e r s u r f a c e p l o u g h i n g t h r o u g h t h e s o f t e r , and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n may be e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e f o r c e s r e q u i r e d f o r p l a s t i c f l o w o f t h e s o f t e r m e t a l . The normal l o a d FN i s balanced by t h e y i e l d o f t h e metal a c t i n g v i a t h e r e a l a r e a o f c o n t a c t Ar: pressure p YN
pyN = pyT,
= -cot9
TI;
9 : semiapex a n g l e o f
the conical identer
__t
A g ,
\
-t
lo
F i g u r e 4.16
P l o u g h i n g component f o r a h a r d c o n i c a l i d e n t e r s l i d i n g o v e r a s o f t metal.
q) = 85' o r 84').
It follows that f
0.05
l i m i t f o r t h e d e f o r m a t i o n component o f f r i c t i o n due t o t h e n e g l e c t i o n s
d e s c r i b e d above and t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l l y observed f a c t t h a t a p i l e - u p of m a t e r i a l ahead o f t h e g r o o v i n g p a t h ( " b o u r r e l e t f r o n t a l " ) occurs i n most cases o f p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n s d u r i n g s l i d i n g ( R e f . 4.48). ( b ) ADHESION COMPONENT OF FRICTION T h i s case may be a p p r o x i m a t e l y g i v e n f o r a s l i d i n g c o n t a c t o f two r e l a t i v e l y s o f t c l e a n metals. Depending on t h e degree o f i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f a s p e r i t i e s and on t h e s u r f a c e composition, adhesion bonding i n t h e m i c r o c o n t a c t s occurs. I f s l i d i n g i s t o t a k e p l a c e , t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e i s needed t o shear t h e weakest t a n g e n t i a l p l a n e s a t t h e areas o f a c t u a l c o n t a c t . I f t h e mean shear s t r e n g t h o f t h e weakest planes a t t h e c o n t a c t areas i s den o t e d by z s (assumed t o be o f equal v a l u e i n a l l m i c r o - c o n t a c t s ) and t h e i r t o t a l a r e a i s assumed t o be a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal t o t h e r e a l area o f c o n t a c t ,
I9
n e g l e c t i n g t h e e f f e c t o f j u n c t i o n growth, we may w r i t e
py : y i e l d p r e s s u r e
i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n i s g i v e n by
= - FF - _
ts
py
FN
F o r m e t a l s which a r e n o t work-hardened,
t h e shear s t r e n g t h
t S o f the i n t e r -
0.2
F u r t h e r , t h i s v a l u e can o n l y be regarded as a l o w e r f r i c t i o n - c o e f f i c i e n t
l i m i t f o r t h e adhesion component o f f r i c t i o n o f ( t e c h n i c a l l y ) c l e a n m e t a l s ,
s i n c e f o r r e a l l y c l e a n m e t a l s w i t h t h e h e l p o f j u n c t i o n growth, f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s as h i g h as f z 40 t o 100 have been measured. On t h e o t h e r hand, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o l o w e r t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t down t o v a l u e s o f
f
0.02 w i t h boundary l u b r i c a n t s .
From t h e m i c r o s c o p i c model o f f r i c t i o n and t h e s i m p l e e s t i m a t i o n s
based on t h i s model, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o v e r i f y t h e f o r m o f t h e e m p i r i c a l Amontons-Coulomb l a w o f s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n . I t has been d e s c r i b e d t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n processes o c c u r w i t h i n t h e r e a l a r e a o f c o n t a c t Ar, b o t h t h e d e f o r m a t i o n component and t h e adhesion component and t h a t f o r
FF
oc
Ar.
80
Thus, the f r i c t i o n f o r c e i s proportional t o t h e load and independent o f t h e geometric contact area, i n agreement w i t h the empirical Amontons-Coulomb law of sliding friction. However, t h e microscopic model o f f r i c t i o n as i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 4.15 i n d i c a t e s t h a t f r i c t i o n i s n o t o n l y a composite process b u t i s also s e n s i t i v e t o changes i n the deformation and adhesion c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the contacting surfaces. Depending on the operating conditions and t h e a t mospheric environment, i.e., t h e " t h i r d body", i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h t h e two s l i d i n g partners , i n general, changes i n the surface topography as w e l l as i n the surface composition and the surface strength p r o p e r t i e s w i l l take place, see Section 5.2. These changes may i n f l u e n c e the f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t markedly, see Section 8.5.2. Thus, as discussed already i n Section 4.2 f o r the s t a t i c contact s i t u ation, there are many properties o f m a t e r i a l s which i n f l u e n c e t h e nature o f the i n t e r f a c e i n s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n . For example, f o r metals these include surface o r i e n t a t i o n , l a t t i c e spacing, g r a i n boundaries, c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e , nature o f adhesion bond character and a l l o y i n g elements. The e f f e c t o f a l l o y i n g elements can a1 t e r i n t e r f a c i a l behaviour by segregation t o the surface o f metals o r by a l t e r i n g b u l k p r o p e r t i e s through c r y s t a l t r a n s f o r mation k i n e t i c s (Ref. 4.50). Since i t i s n o t possible t o deal w i t h the f r i c t i o n behaviour o f the various m a t e r i a l s w i t h i n the scope o f t h i s volume, t h i s section may be closed b e s t i n quoting t h e summarizing remarks from t h e recent e x c e l l e n t review o f D. Tabor on the general mechanisms o f s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n (Ref. 4.51): "The f r i c t i o n between unlubricated s o l i d s i s due t o two main factors. The f i r s t i s the adhesion occurring a t the regions o f r e a l contact. The second a r i s e s i f t h e a s p e r i t i e s on a hard surface produce grooving o r c u t t i n g i n the other. With metals t h e ploughing a c t i o n involves p l a s t i c d i s -
81
placement, w i t h b r i t t l e s o l i d s some c r a c k i n g o r f r a g m e n t a t i o n , w i t h r u b b e r s and polymers h y s t e r e s i s l o s s e s . O t h e r f a c t o r s may a l s o p l a y a p a r t i n t h e f r i c t i o n a l process, b u t e x c e p t i n s p e c i a l circumstances t h e s e a r e g e n e r a l l y o f only t e r t i a r y significance. S o l i d s t h a t deform e a s i l y and i s o t r o p i c a l l y w i l l t e n d t o g i v e v e r y h i g h c o e f f i c i e n t s o f f r i c t i o n , On t h e o t h e r hand, b r i t t l e s o l i d s w i l l g i v e r e s t r i c t e d j u n c t i o n growth and l o w e r c o e f f i c i e n t s o f f r i c t i o n . Again, s o l i d s
A l t h o u g h d e f o r m a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s a r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e f a c t o r t h a t has t h e l a r g e s t o v e r a l l i n f l u e n c e on f r i c t i o n i s t h e c l e a n l i n e s s o f t h e s u r f a c e s .
4 , 3 , 3 ROLLING
FRICTION
R o l l i n g f r i c t i o n , a l t h o u g h i n general much s m a l l e r t h a n s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n , i s a l s o a v e r y complex phenomenon because o f i t s dependence upon so many f a c t o r s (Ref. 4.52). C l e a r l y , t h e c o n t a c t processes, i . e . , t h e c o n t a c t mechanics and c o n t a c t p h y s i c s and c h e m i s t r y , as d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4.2, a r e adequately v a l i d i n r o l l i n g - c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n s . The c o n t a c t d e f o r m a t i o n i n steady r o l l i n g i s c o n v e n i e n t l y approached f r o m t h e E u l e r i a n p o i n t o f view.
82
The nominal p o i n t o f c o n t a c t i s taken as t h e o r i g i n o f c o o r d i n a t e s ; m a t e r i a l o f b o t h s o l i d s " f l o w s " s t e a d i l y through a t i m e - i n v a r i a n t s t r a i n f i e l d i n the contact region. Comparing t h e i n t e r f a c i a l k i n e m a t i c s and s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s o f s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n , i t i s obvious t h a t t h e main reasons f o r s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n p l o u g h i n g and s h e a r i n g o f adhesive j u n c t i o n s
like
a r e n o t met i n a r o l l i n g
s i t u a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , t h e m i c r o s c o p i c model o f s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n cannot be a p p l i e d i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n t h e occurrence o f r e s i s t a n c e t o r o l l i n g , so t h a t o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e needed. As i n t h e case o f s l i d i n g , any model of r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n must e x p l a i n b o t h t h e r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n f o r c e and t h e r o l l i n g - f r i c t i o n energy d i s s i p a t i o n . R o l l i n g f r i c t i o n may be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o a type, where l a r g e t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e s a r e t r a n s m i t t e d , e.g., t h e d r i v i n g wheels o f a l o c o m o t i v e , o r i n a n o t h e r t y p e where s m a l l t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e s a r e t r a n s m i t t e d , o f t e n c a l l e d " f r e e r o l l i n g " . Consider, as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t a H e r t z i a n c o n t a c t . I f a t o r q u e i s i n t r o d u c e d which causes a r o l l i f l g motion, t h e n i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e H e r t z i a n normal s t r e s s e s , t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s e s occur, see M i n d l i n ' s t h e o r y , S e c t i o n 4.3.1. T h i s r e s u l t s i n t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e c o n t a c t area i n t o a r e g i o n o f m i c r o - s l i d i n g , and r e g i o n s o f adhesion w i t h i n which t h e surfaces r o l l w i t h o u t r e l a t i v e ( s l i d i n g ) motion. As main c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o r o l l i n g r e s j s t a n c e , t h e f o l l o w i n g e f f e c t s can be l i s t e d : (a) (b) (c) (d) micro-slip (i-e., micro-sliding) e l a s t i c hysteresis p l a s t i c deformation adhesion e f f e c t s these d i f f e r e n t components o f f r e e - r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n w i l l
I n the following,
be discussed i n b r i e f . ( a ) MICRO-SLIP EFFECTS I n t h e t h e o r i e s o f m i c r o - s l i p , d i f f e r e n t cases a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , t h e most i m p o r t a n t o f which a r e : (i) Reynolds s l i p (Ref. 4.53) Consider a H e r t z i a n c o n t a c t o f two b o d i e s h a v i n g d i f f e r e n t e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s . I f t h e two bodies r o l l f r e e l y t o g e t h e r t h e p r e s s u r e which a c t s on each g i v e s r i s e , i n g e n e r a l , t o unequal t a n g e n t i a l d i s p l a c e ments o f t h e s u r f a c e s l e a d i n g t o i n t e r f a c i a l s l i p processes.
83
(ii) Heathcote s l i p ( R e f . 4.54) Consider a r o l l i n g c o n t a c t where t h e r o l l i n g element i s a b a l l which r o l l s i n s i d e a grooved t r a c k . I n t h i s case t h e p r o f i l e s may conform c l o s e l y i n t h e t r a n s v e r s e d i r e c t i o n t o t h e t r a c k on which t h e y r o l l . Due t o s u r f a c e p o i n t s l y i n g a t a p p r e c i a b l y d i f f e r e n t d i s t a n c e s f r o m t h e a x i s o f r o t a t i o n , t a n g e n t i a l t r a c t i o n s a r e i n t r o d u c e d and m i c r o s l i p e f f e c t s occur. ( i i i ) Carter-Poritsky-Foppl s l i p (Refs. 4.55. 4.56, 4.57) F o r t h e two-dimensional case (e.g., two c y l i n d e r s r o l l i n g on each
o t h e r ) w i t h a tangential force i n the d i r e c t i o n o f r o l l i n g , the m i c r o - s l i p a r e a c o u l d be c a l c u l a t e d . T h i s work l e d t o t h e i m p o r t a n t conclusion that, i n r o l l i n g , t h e adhesion zone i s a d j a c e n t t o t h e l e a d i n g edge o f t h e c o n t a c t area; i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t a t i c problem where t h e adhesion zone i s c e n t r a l l y p l a c e d , see F i g u r e 4.17.
-driving torque
sl
. s l ip
F i g u r e 4.17
S l i p and n o - s l i p r e g i o n s i n a r o l l i n g c o n t a c t .
Tabor s t u d i e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h e s l i p e f f e c t s o f t h e Reynolds and Heathcote t y p e u s i n g s t e e l b a l l s r o l l i n g i n grooved r u b b e r t r a c k s ( R e f . 4.58). He showed t h a t u n l e s s t h e r e i s a h i g h degree o f g e o m e t r i c a l c o n f o r m i t y , b o t h m i c r o - s l i p e f f e c t s c o n t r i b u t e o n l y v e r y l i t t l e t o t h e observed r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n f o r c e . R e c e n t l y i t was shown e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h a t above a c r i t i c a l v a l u e o f t h e r a t i o b a l l r a d i u s rg t o groove r a d i u s rG( r g / r G
> 0.8 s a y ) ,
In
84
f o r t h e s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . These experiments i n d i c a t e t h a t m i c r o - s l i p may c o n t r i b u t e o n l y v e r y l i t t l e t o t h e r o l l i n g - f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . On t h e o t h e r hand, i t i s g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f f r i c t i o n f o r c e s a t t h e i n t e r f a c e between r o l l i n g e l a s t i c b o d i e s r e s u l t s i n t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e c o n t a c t area i n t o r e g i o n s o f m i c r o - s l i p , and r e g i o n s w i t h i n t h e s u r f a c e s r o l l w i t h o u t r e l a t i v e m o t i o n . Obviously, these e f f e c t s have i m p o r t a n t e n g i n e e r i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f mechanical work through a r o l l i n g c o n t a c t , as i n a f r i c t i o n d r i v e f o r example. ( b ) ELASTIC HYSTERESIS The e l a s t i c h y s t e r e s i s t h e o r y o f r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n , proposed i n 1952 by Tabor (Ref. 4.60), assumes t h a t t h e r o l l i n g r e s i s t a n c e i s due t o t h e e l a s t i c h y s t e r e s i s l o s s e s i n t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h e t r a c k . I n S e c t i o n 4.2.1 i t has been shown t h a t i n t h e case o f an i d e a l H e r t z i a n c o n t a c t , a c e r t a i n amount o f energy i s needed t o b u i l d up t h e c o n t a c t zone. F o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f an e l a s t i c a l l y deformed r o l l i n g t r a c k a c e r t a i n mechanical power i s needed. I n t h e d e f o r m a t i o n process t h e s u r f a c e s undergo c o m p l i c a t e d combined compress i o n s and t o r s i o n s . The e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n energy i s r e c o v e r e d m a i n l y i n t h e c o n t a c t r e l e a s e . As a consequence o f r e l a x a t i o n e f f e c t s , however, t h e r e l e a s e d f o r c e s may be s m a l l e r t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s ones; t h e d i f f e r e n c e may be i n t e r p r e t e d as r o l l i n g - f r i c t i o n loss. The e l a s t i c h y s t e r e s i s l o s s e s o f m a t e r i a l s , b e i n g r e l a t e d t o t h e damping and r e l a x a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m a t e r i a l s , a r e o b v i o u s l y more pronounced f o r v i s c o e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s t h a n f o r m e t a l s .
I t has been found f o r v i s c o e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s t h a t t h e r o l l i n g - f r i c t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t can be r e l a t e d t o t h e r e l a x a t i o n t i m e ( o r t h e r e l a x a t i o n spectrum) o f t h e m a t e r i a l . Representing a v i s c o e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l by a s e r i e s o f para1 l e l l i n e a r Maxwell elements which undergo compression and r e c o v e r y d u r i n g r o l l i n g , i t f o l l o w s t h a t i n a s i m p l e model a t a c e r t a i n r o l l i n g vel o c i t y , which corresponds t o t h e r e t a r d a t i o n t i m e , t h e r o l l i n g - f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t e x h i b i t s a maximum ( R e f . 4.61).
A t low r o l l i n g v e l o c i t i e s t h e v i s c o e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l w i l l r e c o v e r a t
the t r a i l i n g side o f the contact s u f f i c i e n t l y q u i c k l y t o maintain a f a i r l y symmetrical p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , so t h a t t h e r o l l i n g r e s i s t a n c e w i l l be small. A t high r o l l i n g v e l o c i t i e s the material w i l l n o t recover s u f f i c i e n t l y q u i c k l y t o even make c o n t a c t on t h e t r a i l i n g s i d e . The i n c r e a s e o f p r e s -
85
(c)
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
I t i s w e l l known t h a t i f i n a r o l l i n g c o n t a c t o f m e t a l l i c b o d i e s t h e con-
where pH i s t h e maximum H e r t z p r e s s u r e and p i s t h e y i e l d s t r e s s o f t h e Y m a t e r i a l i n s i m p l e shear. I n t h i s case energy i s needed t o f o r m p l a s t i c deformed r o l l i n g t r a c k . An e x a c t a n a l y s i s o f t h e p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n processes i n t h e r o l l i n g o f a b a l l o v e r a p l a n e i s v e r y complicated. An approximate s o l u t i o n i s due t o Eldredge and Tabor (Ref, 4.63). They observed t h a t i n t h e f i r s t t r a v e r s a l a p l a s t i c deformed r o l l i n g t r a c k i s formed, and f o u n d f o r t h e r o l l i n g - f r i c t i o n f o r c e an e m p i r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e f o r m
FFoc
FN
2/ 3
FN : normal l o a d
: b a l l radius
They e x p l a i n e d t h i s r e l a t i o n by assuming t h a t r o l l i n g r e s i s t a n c e i s m a i n l y due t o t h e p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n i n f r o n t o f t h e r o l l i n g b a l l . Under w e l l defined metallographic conditions, i.e., i n t h e case o f r o l l i n g d e f o r m a t i o n o f metal s i n g l e c r y s t a l s , t h e p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n s can be e x p l a i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c data, such as c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c o r i e n t a t i o n and s l i p systems ( R e f . 4 . 6 4 ) . I n r e p e a t e d r o l l i n g - c o n t a c t c y c l e s , however, t h e above y i e l d c r i t e r i o n does n o t h o l d (Ref. 4.65). D u r i n g t h e f i r s t c o n t a c t c y c l e t h e s u r f a c e mat e r i a l i s p l a s t i c a l l y compressed and r e s i d u a l compressive s t r e s s e s a c t i n g p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e a r e i n t r o d u c e d . D u r i n g subsequent r o l l i n g c y c l e s t h e m a t e r i a l i s s u b j e c t t o t h e combined a c t i o n o f r e s i d u a l and c o n t a c t s t r e s s e s , F u r t h e r y i e l d i n g i s l e s s l i k e l y and a s t e a d y - s t a t e may be reached i n which t h e m a t e r i a l i s no l o n g e r s t r e s s e d beyond i t s e l a s t i c l i m i t . T h i s process i s known as "shakedown" and t h e maximum l o a d f o r which i t occurs
w i l l be c a l l e d t h e shakedown l i m i t , g i v e n i n p u r e r o l l i n g by
4Py
86
l i m i t a new type o f p l a s t i c deformation occurs. This mode o f p l a s t i c deformation i n r o l l i n g contact was f i r s t observed by Crook (Ref. 4.66) and studJohnson (Ref. 4.68). i e d experimentally by Hamilton (Ref. 4.61) and t h e o r e t i c a l l y by Merwin and I t consists o f forward shearing o f the surface o f each
c y l i n d e r r e l a t i v e t o i t s core. The deformation i s cumulative i n the sense t h a t an equal increment o f p l a s t i c s t r a i n i s acquired w i t h each r e v o l u t i o n ,
I t f o l l o w s that, a t loads above the shakedown l i m i t , continuous and cumula-
t i v e p l a s t i c deformation i s observed, whereas a t loads below i t , even though some y i e l d i n g i s caused i n i t j a l l y , a f t e r a few t r a v e r s a l s the system shakes down t o an e l a s t i c cycle o f stress. Accordingly, the f r i c t i o n mechanism i s changed. (d) ADHESION EFFECTS According t o Section 4.2.2, i n r o l l i n g - c o n t a c t conditions surface forces may a c t i n the i n t e r f a c e between t h e r o l l i n g bodies. Comparing the j o i n i n g and separation o f surface elements i n r o l l i n g contacts and s l i d i n g contacts some important d i f f e r e n c e s should be noted. Due t o the d i f f e r e n c e s i n kinematics, i n r o l l i n g contact the surface elements approach and separate i n a d i r e c t i o n "normal" t o the i n t e r f a c e r a t h e r than i n a tangential d i r e c t i o n . Therefore, as described i n Section 4.3.1, j u n c t i o n growth and dispersal o f surface contaminants i s u n l i k e l y i n the main p a r t o f the contact area. Consequently, a t the regions w i t h i n the r o l l i n g - c o n t a c t i n t e r f a c e where no r e l a t i v e motion i n a tangential d i r e c t i o n occurs, adhesion forces may be mainl y o f the (weak) van der Waals type. Short-range forces such as strong me-
t a l l i c bonds may a c t o n l y i n micro-contacts w i t h i n the m i c r o - s l i p area. I f adhesion bonds are formed they are separated a t the t r a i l i n g end o f the r o l l i n g contact i n tension r a t h e r than i n shear as i n a s l i d i n g contact. Therefore, i n general the adhesion component o f r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n may be only a small p o r t i o n o f the f r i c t i o n resis;tance. For t h e r o l l i n g o f metals under s p e c i f i c experimental s i t u a t i o n s , however (e.g., d i f f e r e n t t h i n met a l l i c layers on hard b a l l s ) an adhesion component can nevertheless be the dominant f a c t o r i n determining t h e order o f r o l l i n g - f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r d i f f e r e n t metal p a i r s (Ref. 4.69). A l s o the r o l l i n g contact between a glass c y l i n d e r and a smooth rubber f l a t has been successfully t r e a t e d as an adhesive j o i n t through which two cracks propagate a t the same speed, one crack continuously opening t o break the i n t e r f a c i a l j o i n t and the o t h e r c l o s i n g t o reform i t (4.70). see Figure
87
4.18.
esis bond.
R o l l i n g f r i c t i o n on t h i s b a s i s i s t h e consequence o f adhesive h y s t e r -
adhesive j o i n t
F i g u r e 4.18
Another t y p e o f adhesion t h e o r y f o r r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n was proposed b y D e r j a g u i n and Smilga (Ref. 4.71). According t o t h i s theory, contact partners o f d i f f e r e n t e l e c t r o n i c a f f i n i t y undergo an e l e c t r o - s t a t i c c h a r g i n g . D u r i n g r o l l i n g t h e r e i s a f l o w a charge l e a d i n g t o energy d i s s i p a t i o n . The d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e cause o f t h e r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n r e s i s t a n c e shows t h a t r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n i s a l s o a complex composite process d e t e r m i n e d b y a c o u p l e o f p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e r o l l i n g - c o n t a c t p a r t n e r s and o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s . I n s p e c i a l cases, i . e . , under s p e c i f i c e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n s , i t i s poss i b l e f o r one mechanism t o predominate. I t may t h e n be p e r m i t t e d t o r e l a t e the r o l l i n g - f r i c t i o n data with s p e c i f i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e r o l l i n g partners. I n t h e g e n e r a l case, however, t h e d i f f e r e n t mechanisms a r e superimposed. Therefore, a l l i n f l u e n c i n g parameters must be t a k e n i n t o account s y s t e m a t i c a l l y on c o n s i d e r i n g t h e whole process o f energy t r a n s m i s s i o n s and energy dissipations.
4 , 3 , 4 ENERGYTRANSMISSION
Having d i s c u s s e d t h e main f r i c t i o n processes, i t i s now p o s s i b l e t o complete t h e g e n e r a l framework o f t h e processes on t h e conceptual "work p l a n e " o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system ( s e e S e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 3.6, t h e
88
i n p u t work o f a tribo-mechanical system can o n l y be p a r t l y used as useoutput; some p a r t o f the work i s e i t h e r stored w i t h i n the system o r emitted as l o s s i n t o the environment o r t r a n s f e r r e d t o the thermal plane.
I t was explained above (see Section 4.1) t h a t a transmission o f work
througH a mechanical system can be obtained o n l y through processes o f e l a s t i c deformation e i t h e r o f a bulk machine element, l i k e the s h a f t o f a s l i d i n g bearing, o r through the i n t e r f a c e o f two contacting machine elements, as i n the case o f contacting gear-teeth. These e l a s t i c deformation processes a r e r e v e r s i b l e . I n i d e a l i z e d cases, the transmission o f work through a mechanical system can be c a l c u l a t e d o r estimated using conventional techniques o f the mechanics o f s o l i d bodies. The processes by which mechanical work i s n o t transmitted through a mechanical system are, o f course, e s s e n t i a l l y i r r e v e r s i b l e . Since they are the u l t i m a t e o r i g i n o f f r i c t i o n , these processes w i l l be discussed i n the f o l l o w i n g i n order t o gain a physical p i c t u r e o f the e f f e c t s t h a t take p a r t i n the d i s s i p a t i o n o f mechanical energy i n a tribo-mechanical system. Owing t o the great complexity o f these i r r e v e r s i b l e processes i t i s only possible
I.
11.
I n t r o d u c t i o n o f work i n t o t h e contact zone -formation o f r e a l area o f contact Transformation o f work w i t h i n the contact zone - c e l as t ic de f o rma t ion -plastic -adhesion deformation
111. D i s s i p a t i o n o f energy
(a) Storage -generation -strain (b) Emission -phonons
- c photons -
o f p o i n t defects and d i s l o c a t i o n s energy storage (acoustic waves, sound) ( t r ibo-1 umi nescence)
-electrons (exo-electrons, Kramer e f f e c t ) (c) Transformation t o thermal plane -generation o f heat and entropy
89
Phases ( I ) and ( 1 1 ) have been d e s c r i b e d i n some d e t a i l i n t h e f o r e going section i n connection w i t h the discussion o f f r i c t i o n forces. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , t h e main processes o f t h e d i s s i p a t i o n phase (111) w i l l be considered. ( a ) STORAGE OF ENERGY I n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s i t became p o s s i b l e t o s t u d y t h e m o l e c u l a r a r r a y o f c r y s t a l l i n e b o d i e s and t h e d i s l o c a t i o n s and i m p e r f e c t i o n s i n t h i s a r r a y by u s i n g o f t h e M o i r e t e c h n i q u e i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h an e l e c t r o n microscope. Since on one hand, t h e p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n and s h e a r i n g o f s o l i d s i s governed by i m p e r f e c t i o n s and d i s l o c a t i o n s and, on t h e o t h e r hand, most f r i c t i o n p r o cesses i n v o l v e p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n processes, i t appeared obvious t o r e l a t e t h e f r i c t i o n process d i r e c t l y t o t h e d i s l o c a t i o n e f f e c t s ( 4 . 7 2 ) . I n 1965 K o s t e t s k i and Nazarenko t r i e d t o e x p l a i n t h e Coulomb-Amontons l a w o f s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n t h r o u g h a r e l a t i o n between normal f o r c e s , f r i c t i o n f o r c e s and t h e d i s l o c a t i o n s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s o l i d s (Ref. 4.73). They o b t a i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y f o r t h e s l i d i n g o f armco i r o n p a r a l l e l curves f o r t h e i n c r e a s e o f f r i c t i o n f o r c e and t h e l o g a r i t h m o f d i s l o c a t i o n d e n s i t y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g normal l o a d as shown i n F i g u r e 4.19. I t has now been w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h d i r e c t obs e r v a t i o n s w i t h t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n e l e c t r o n microscope t h a t i n s l i d i n g c o n t a c t o f m e t a l s d i s l o c a t i o n s a r e generated ( R e f . 4.74).
200
100 60 20
'\N
I
I
= f ( FN )
I
I
8
I
Load FN (kN)
F i g u r e 4.19
F r i c t i o n f o r c e and d i s l o c a t i o n d e n s i t y ( R e f . 4.73).
90
(edge d i s l o c a t i o n )
Gb2
AES
==
In
rl rO
(screw d i s l o c a t i o n )
where
b rl
: Burgers v e c t o r
:
ro : :
As an example, w i t h t h e d a t a o f copper
(G = 4 * 1010N/m 2.,
i t follows that
V = 0.34;
b = 2.5
- 10-lom;
r = lO-m;
0
rl = lO-m)
A Ee
I f t h i s v a l u e i s compared w i t h t h e f r i c t i o n a l energy measured under e x p e r i mental c o n d i t i o n s which a r e comparable w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e estimat i o n o f AEe, i t was found t h a t t h e s t o r e d e l a s t i c energy i n a c o n d i t i o n o f i n c i p i e n t p l a s t i c i t y can o n l y account f o r l e s s t h a n 1%o f t h e energy expended i n f r i c t i o n (Ref. 4.76). A s i m i l a r r e s u l t was a l s o found i n c o n d i t i o n s o f more severe p l a s t i c - d e f o r m a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s o f s l i d i n g (Ref. 4.77). T h i s may be due t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e p l a s t i c - d e f o r m a t i o n mode t h e d i s l o c a t i o n s generated would n o t have remained i n t h e s u r f a c e a f t e r t h e passage o f t h e s l i d i n g c o u n t e r f a c e and t h e energy would appear as h e a t ( i . e . , t r a n s f o r m e d t o t h e thermal p l a n e o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l system). These r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t some p a r t o f t h e f r i c t i o n a l energy i s indeed s t o r e d w i t h i n t h e s l i d i n g p a r t n e r v i a a d i s l o c a t i o n mechanism. Since t h i s s t o r e d energy i s o b v i o u s l y o n l y a small p a r t o f t h e whole f r i c t i o n a l energy, i n general o t h e r d i s s i p a t i o n mechanisms must a l s o be considered.
91
(b)
I n the microscopic model of f r i c t i o n i t has been explained t h a t during s l i d i n g o r r o l l i n g , micro-contacts are formed and destroyed. These processes are s t a t i s t i c a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n time and l o c a t i o n w i t h i n the geometric area o f contact. I t i s l i k e l y t h a t i n the process o f j u n c t i o n formation some o f the a s p e r i t i e s o r some p a r t o f them are deformed e l a s t i c a l l y . I f then the j u n c t i o n s are destroyed and the adhesion bonds are broken, the e l a s t i c deformed p a r t s of the a s p e r i t i e s snap a p a r t thus generating v i b r a t i o n s and o t h e r l a t t i c e s t i m u l a t i o n s which lead t o the emission o f energy i n d i f f e r e n t forms. I n s o l i d s t a t e physics, d i f f e r e n t processes o f the transformation o f energy i n t o apparently o t h e r forms are known (e.g., the p h o t o e l e c t r i c e f f e c t o r thermoionic emission). I n analogy, the main " t r i b o induced" energy emission e f f e c t s which have been observed experimentally are sketched i n b r i e f ( t h e effect o f heat generation i s t r e a t e d separately be1ow). ( i ) Emission o f phonons (acoustic waves, sound) The generation of f r i c t i o n - i n d u c e d acoustic waves ( c o n s i s t i n g o f phonons) and the emission of sound i s a common f e a t u r e o f most t r i b o l o g i c a l processes. Since noise i s considered as an "acoustic p o l l u t a n t " the reduction o f noise emission i s an important task i n today's i n d u s t r y (Ref. 4.78). Physically, the generation of sound i n tribo-mechanical systems i s connected w i t h processes o f e l a s t i c deformation and release o f a s p e r i t i e s . A theory o f n a t u r a l normal micro-vibrations i n s l i d i n g c o n t a c t was p u t forward by T o l s t o i (Ref. 4.79). He showed t h a t the s e l f - e x c i t e d micro-vibrations d u r i n g s l i d i n g are i n v a r i a b l y accompanied by simultaneous upward jumps o f asperit i e s . The frequency o f the n a t u r a l micro-vibrations i s determined by the contact s t i f f n e s s and the mass o f the s l i d i n g surface. These micro-vibrations vanish o n l y when the normal v i b r a t i o n s are damped by external means o r when the v e l o c i t y i s lower than a c e r t a i n l i m i t . The value o f the c r i t i c a l veloc i t y , vcr, may be roughly estimated i n terms o f the creep v i s c o s i t y , q , of the rubbing s o l i d s , t h e i r y i e l d strength, d and both the height, y, and spacing 1, the f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , f, Y' o f the surface a s p e r i t i e s :
'cm/s.
92
s l i d i n g s i t u a t i o n a c e r t a i n amount o f t h e mechanical energy i s d i s s i p a t e d through t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f v i b r a t i o n and t h e f o l l o w i n g e m i s s i o n o f a c o u s t i c waves. The a b s o l u t e amount o f energy e m i t t e d i s , however, u s u a l l y o n l y a v e r y small p a r t o f t h e whole f r i c t i o n a l energy. ( i i ) Emission o f photons ( t r i b o - l u m i n e s c e n c e ) The e f f e c t o f tribolurninescence i s w e l l known i n p h y s i c s . I t occurs i f c e r t a i n s o l i d bodies, such as u r a n - n i t r a t e o r ZnSMn, a r e rubbed a g a i n s t each o t h e r . I n t h i s case, t h e mechanical work which separates adhesion bonds a c t i v a t e s photons which a r e e m i t t e d as v i s i b l e l i g h t . T h i s e f f e c t i s n o t r a r e : so f a r i t has been observed i n more t h a n a thousand m a t e r i a l s (Ref.
4.80). A complete t h e o r e t i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s e f f e c t i s s t i l l needed.
Some o b s e r v a t i o n s s u p p o r t t h e assumption t h a t i n t h e s u r f a c e c r a c k s o f t h e c r y s t a l s , e l e c t r o s t a t i c d o u b l e - l a y e r s e x i s t w h i c h cause a k i n d o f spark d i s c h a r g i n g i f t h e s u r f a c e c r a c k s a r e c l e a v e d d u r i n g t h e f r i c t i o n process. O b v i o u s l y some p a r t o f t h e f r i c t i o n a l mechanical energy a c t s as a c t i v a t i o n energy and i s
v i a a m e c h a n o - e l e c t r o - o p t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n mechani sin
s t a l t (PTB) observed t h a t e l e c t r o n s a r e e m i t t e d f r o m f r e s h l y abraded met a l l i c s u r f a c e s . Kramer i n i t i a l l y t h o u g h t t h a t these e l e c t r o n s were due t o e x o t h e r m i c processes o c c u r r i n g a t t h e s u r f a c e . I t i s assumed t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n process a c t s as an a c t i v a t i o n process f o r t h e emission o f e x o - e l e c t r o n s and t h a t some a n a l o g i e s between EEE and o t h e r emission e f f e c t s l i k e l u m i nescence, f i e l d emission and photoemission e x i s t . However, owing t o t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e sequence o f events i n v o l v e d i n t h e whole process, a comp l e t e t h e o r y o f t h e EEE e f f e c t i s n o t y e t a v a i l a b l e . Recent e x p e r i m e n t a l work on t h e EEE o f a clean, annealed magnesium s i n g l e c r y s t a l s u r f a c e , p e r formed i n UHV, v e r i f i e s t h a t e l e c t r o n e m i s s i o n occurs a l r e a d y f r o m a s t r a i n f r e e surface s i m p l y upon a d s o r p t i o n o f oxygen (Ref. 4.81). On t h e o t h e r hand, measurements o f EEE r a t e s d u r i n g f r i c t i o n experiments on aluminium s u r f a c e s show t h a t t h e r e a r e c l o s e connections between t h e e m i s s i o n r a t e o f e x o - e l e c t r o n s , t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e topmost s u r f a c e l a y e r s and t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ( R e f . 4.82)..An aluminium i s shown i n F i g u r e 4.20. example o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e EEE Although i n t h e whole energy b a l a n c e of r a t e and t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e s l i d i n g o f aluminium a g a i n s t a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system t h e energy " l o s s " due t o t h e e m i s s i o n o f exo-
93
e l e c t r o n s i s o n l y a very small p a r t , i t i s obvious t h a t i f exo-electrons are generated they may p l a y an important r o l e f o r the tribo-chemical processes o c c u r r i n g i n the system.
Revolution o f d i s c
c s
CI
40
80
120
160
(mn)
I n summary, discussion of the e f f e c t s (i), f ) , (iii) (i shows t h a t t h e r e are some t r i b o - i n d u c e d emission processes t h a t must be i n c l u d e d i n t h e whole p i c t u r e o f the d i s s i p a t i o n o f energy i n a t r i b o l o g i c a l system. Although these t r i b o - i n d u c e d processes are p h y s i c a l l y very i n t e r e s t i n g and may i n c e r t a i n cases be very important f o r t h e t r i b o - c h e m i c a l processes o c c u r r i n g i n t h e system,in general, they account f o r o n l y a very small p a r t
94
( c ) TRANSFORMATION
TO THERMAL PLANE
The discussion o f energy d i s s i p a t i o n mechanisms h i t h e r t o has shown t h a t there are some processes o f storage and emission o f energy ( o t h e r than thermal) t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o the consumption o f energy i n f r i c t i o n . Since these c o n t r i b u t i o n s , i n general, are very small, t h i s r a t h e r d e t a i l e d cons i d e r a t i o n o f the various processes also leads t o the conclusion t h a t nearl y a l l the energy dissipated by f r i c t i o n appears as heat. Indeed, t h i s has
been known from ancient times and i s the basis o f the mechanical equivalent o f heat. From the microscopic model o f f r i c t i o n i t i s obvious t h a t a l l t h e processes involved i n the formation and separation o f a s p e r i t y micro-cont a c t s lead t o l a t t i c e d i s t o r s i o n s and v i b r a t i o n s which manifest as heat. I n the general theory o f t r i b o l o g y the generation o f heat i n f r i c t i o n i s expressed as a transformation o f work t o the conceptual thermal plane o f the system (see Section 3.4.3). Clearly, the h e a t generated i n f r i c t i o n may e i t h e r remain w i t h i n the system ( a c t i n g perhaps as a c t i v a t i o n energy f o r material changes or chemical reactions) or leave t h e system through convection, conduction o r r a d i a t i o n .
n a2, which
moves w i t h a v e l o c i t y v over the f l a t surface o f body ( 2 ) . The temperatures are c a l c u l a t e d on t h e assumption t h a t t h e heat i s generated a t the t r u e area o f contact and t h a t t h i s heat i s conducted away i n t o t h e b u l k o f the rubbing members.
95
F i g u r e 4.21
Model o f a s l i d i n g a s p e r i t y
t h e thermal p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m a t e r i a l . Secondly, t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e t o t a l h e a t f l o w i n g i n t o each body i s t h e n determined by t h e c r i t e r i o n t h a t t h e e q u a t i o n o f h e a t f l o w f o r b o t h bodies s h a l l g i v e t h e same average t e m p e r a t u r e o v e r t h e c o n t a c t area. Depending on t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f l o a d FN and speed v, t h e n a t u r e o f m a t e r i a l s and t h e d e f o r m a t i o n mode, d i f f e r e n t f o r m u l a e have been d e r i v e d . F o r t h e case o f p l a s t i c a s p e r i t y d e f o r m a t i o n o f b o d i e s o f t h e same m a t e r i a l u s i n g t h e a b b r e v a t i o n s
f :
f r i c t ion c o e f f ic i e n t
a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y f l o w o r y i e l d pressure mechanical e q u i v a l e n t o f h e a t density s p e c i f i c heat thermal d i f f u s i v i t y thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y
Tw3Ppy
N =
J P C
PY :
P :
c k : :
X :
(x= k -)
PC
i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e maximum f r i c t i o n - i n d u c e d temperature r i s e A T i s g i v e n by
the f o l l o w i n g expressions:
A Tmax
A Tmax
= =
0.25 NL 0.25
for L
-= 0 . 1
= =
CINL
for 0 . 1 L< 5 ~
(C1
C1
96
A Tmax
f o r 5 c L c 100 (C2 = 1/ [l
0.87 L-])
A Tmax
0.435 NL
S
f o r L > 100
0
he example o f a s l i d i n g p a i r o f p i i n
lo4
T/ f
F i g u r e 4.22
Maximum a t t a i n a b l e f l a s h temperatures f o r s l i d i n g contacts o f s t e e l , ( a ) : V.P.N., 150. ( b ) : V.P.N., 250. 850. (Ref. 4.86) ( c ) : V.P.N.,
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e temperature r i s e w i t h i n a f r i c t i o n a l i n t e r f a c e , the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f h e a t t o t h e two i n t e r a c t i n g bodies i s important. C l e a r l y , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n depends n o t o n l y on t h e o p e r a t i n g parameters and the m a t e r i a l s p r o p e r t i e s b u t a l s o on t h e geometry o f both bodies (Ref. 4.87). For a system c o n s i s t i n g of two bodies o f equal kinematics and geometry i t has been proposed t h a t the f r i c t i o n a l heat i s d i s t r i b u t e d between t h e two bodies according t o the f a c t o r (thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y x s p e c i f i c heat x density)I2 of b o t h bodies (Ref. 4.88).
97
The d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e whole c y c l e o f introduction-transformationd i s s i p a t i o n o f work i n a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system shows t h e m a n i f o l d o f processes and e f f e c t s i n v o l v e d i n f r i c t i o n . A l t h o u g h w i t h t h e contemporary techniques o f e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s t u d y a s i n g l e i s o l a t e d e f f e c t , i n g e n e r a l t h e r e i s an o v e r l a p and an i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t processes. The d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n as performed i n t h e l a s t s e c t i o n s has provided a basis f o r the compilation o f the p r o p e r t i e s o f m a t e r i a l s r e l e v a n t t o t h e d i f f e r e n t s t e p s o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n and d i s s i p a t i o n o f energy. These p r o p e r t i e s b e l o n g t o d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r r e l e v a n c e t o the d i f f e r e n t interactions occurring a t the interface i n a t r i b o l o g i c a l
sys tem:
( a ) P r o p e r t i e s " p e r se"
( b ) Properties r e l e v a n t t o tribo-mechanical i n t e r a c t i o n s
DESCRIPTION
I n t h e f o r e g o i n g s e c t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h f r i c t i o n processes, t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s on t h e work p l a n e and t h e thermal p l a n e o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i a l system have been d i s c u s s e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t r i b o - p r o c e s s diagram, F i g u r e 3.4. I n order t o complete t h e conceptual framework o f t h e t r i b o l o g y o f mechanical systems as o u t l i n e d i n F i g u r e 3.4 f u r t h e r , t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s on t h e m a t e r i a l s p l a n e s must be s t u d i e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e r e l e v a n t wear processes. Comparing f r i c t i o n w i t h wear, depending on t h e t e c h n i c a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e tribo-mechan i c a l system under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e s between f r i c t i o n and wear processes must be n o t i c e d . According t o Table 3.2, t h e v a r i o u s t r i b o mechanical systems can be c l a s s i f i e d b r o a d l y i n t o two d i f f e r e n t groups:
98
(a)
(b)
According t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f wear as " t h e p r o g r e s s i v e l o s s o f substance from t h e o p e r a t i n g s u r f a c e o f a body o c c u r r i n g as a r e s u l t o f r e l a t i v e m o t i o n a t t h e s u r f a c e " i t f o l l o w s t h a t i n case ( b ) wear may be seen as a process which l e a d s t o a l o s s o f a m a t e r i a l i n p u t q u a n t i t y o f t h e system. I n these cases, m a t e r i a l l o s s e s due t o wear may be t r e a t e d f o r m a l l y i n analogy t o energy l o s s e s due t o f r i c t i o n . On t h e c o n t r a r y , f o r systems o f group ( a ) , which w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d m a i n l y i n t h i s s e c t i o n , t h e t e c h n i c a l l y r e l e v a n t i n p u t and use-output q u a n t i t i e s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y n o n - m a t e r i a l . Therefore, i n t h i s case wear l e a d s t o p r o p e r t y changes and l o s s e s from t h e elements o f t h e system. To r e p e a t t h i s e v i d e n t b u t i m p o r t a n t p o i n t : f r o m a systems p o i n t o f view, f r i c t i o n i s a process which l e a d s t o l o s s e s from t h e i n p u t q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e system whereas wear i s a process which l e a d s t o l o s s e s f r o m t h e elements o f t h e system. Therefore, f r i c t i o n i n f l u e n c e s p r i m a r i l y t h e i n p u t - o u t p u t r e l a t i o n s ( i .e., elements o f t h e system ( i . e . , ( a ) w i 11 be discussed. Consider, as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t , t h e d r y wear o f metals o c c u r r i n g i n a s i m p l e t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e p a r t n e r s the function of the system) whereas wear p r i m a r i l y i n f l u e n c e s o r changes t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system). I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , t h e main wear processes r e l e v a n t t o t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems o f group
F o r example, such a system may be g i v e n by t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n shown schemat i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 4.23 i n which t h e s u r f a c e s o f (1) and ( 2 ) s l i d e a g a i n s t each o t h e r i n a i r ( 3 ) under a normal l o a d FN w i t h a s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y v. Consider now t h e wear processes t h a t t a k e p l a c e on one o f t h e two p a r t n e r s , say on element (1). A c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 3.8 t h e m a t e r i a l l o s s e s due t o t h e wear processes may be d e s c r i b e d as: (i) (ii) m a t e r i a l t r a n s f e r f r o m (1) t o ( 2 ) m a t e r i a l loss f r o m (1) t o ( 3 )
99
(l), ( 2 ) , ( 3 ) ;
systems envelope
F i g u r e 4.23
A s i m p l e t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system.
Depending on t h e amount o f m a t e r i a l which i s l o s t f r o m element ( l ) , t h e wear may be b r o a d l y c l a s s i f i e d as " m i l d wear" o r " s e v e r e wear". O b v i o u s l y t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n can be r e l a t e d t o t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e , ( F i g u r e 4.5). I n m i l d wear, t h e wear processes o c c u r a t t h e " o u t e r " s u r f a c e l a y e r s . The s u r f a c e s remain r e l a t i v e l y smooth and a r e u s u a l l y p r o t e c t e d by s u r f a c e o x i d e l a y e r s generated i n r u b b i n g . The worn d e b r i s c o n s i s t s o f s m a l l p a r t i c l e s down t o some nm. I n severe wear, t h e c o n t a c t i s m e t a l l i c , t h e s u r f a c e s a r e deeply t o r n , and t h e worn d e b r i s c o n s i s t s o f m e t a l l i c p a r t i c l e s up t o some 100 pm. C l e a r l y , t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f wear i n t o " m i l d " and " s e v e r e " i s primarily a d i s t i n c t i o n i n the scale o f size.
I.
100
I n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n these macroscopic r u l e s , a microscopic model o f t h e wearing process s i m i l a r t o t h a t used i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e f r i c t i o n process ( F i g u r e 4.15) may be considered. C l e a r l y , t h e processes o c c u r r i n g between i n t e r a c t i n g a s p e r i t i e s
so on
F i g u r e 4.24
expre s s ing t h e macroscopic obseryed wear r u l e s mentioned above. The essent i a l concept as summarized by Archard (Ref. 4.89) i s t h a t t h e worn volume V , produced i n s l i d i n g a d i s t a n c e 1, can be r e l a t e d t o t h e t r u e
area o f c o nt a c t , Ar.
o f a wear p a r t i c l e . I n t r o d u c i n g a f a c t o r K which r e p r e s e n t s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
t h a t any g i v e n e v e n t w i l l produce a worn p a r t i c l e and summing f o r a l l m i c r o c o n t a c t s , t h e t o t a l wear r a t e i s
! !
1
?KAr 1
I t has been shown above t h a t , depending on t h e d e f o r m a t i o n mode, t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s between t h e r e a l area o f c o n t a c t , Ar, exist: and t h e normal l o a d FN
FN -
composite e l a s t i c modulus
p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n ( p l a s t i c i t y index $ >1)
Ar
DC
tN PY
py : y i e l d p r e s s u r e
From these r e l a t i o n s i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y
e x i s t s , as observed e x p e r i m e n t a l l y i n many s i t u a t i o n s o f t h e d r y wear o f m e t a l s 'under s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s . I n t r y i n g t o d e s c r i b e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t h e v a r i o u s wear processes t h a t may o c c u r i n a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system a c o u p l e o f severe d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e These a r e n o t o n l y due t o t h e g r e a t c o m p l e x i t y o f wear processes b u t a l s o t o t h e i m p r e c i s e and ambiguous use o f t h e t e r m wear. F o r example, t h e t y p e
102
of wear o f an u n l u b r i c a t e d metal p a i r s l i d i n g i n a d u s t y atmosphere may be termed d r y wear o r m e t a l l i c wear o r s l i d i n g wear o r s c r a t c h i n g wear o r a b r a s i v e wear depending on t h e emphasis intended. Since most o f t h e i m p r e c i s e wear terms i n common use a r e connected w i t h p r a c t i c a l wear problems, a wear c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme i s needed which m a i n t a i n s t h e known terms b u t a v o i d s ambig u i t y . I n t h e r e v i e w o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l development o f wear s t u d i e s , S e c t i o n
1.2.2,
(a) (b)
two wear c l a s s i f i c a t i o n schemes have been a l r e a d y mentioned: C l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e t y p e o f r e l a t i v e motion, suggested i n 1938 by S i e b e l (Ref. 1.22). C l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e t y p e o f wear mechanism, suggested i n 1957 by B u r w e l l ( R e f . 1.26).
Comparing these wear t e r m i n o l o g i e s w i t h t h e t e r m i n o l o g y used i n t h e f i e l d o f t h e b u l k s t r e n g t h o f m a t e r i a l s , t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ( a ) can be seen i n analogy t o t h e t y p e o f " e x t e r n a l s t r e s s " (e.g., t h e mechanism o f " i n t e r n a l damage" (e.g., ture, etc.). From a system's p o i n t o f view, t h e wear l o s s - o u t p u t o f a g i v e n t r i b o mechanical system should be r e l a t e d t o t h e i n p u t s o f t h e system (e.g., type o f motion, work) as w e l l as t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system ( s y s t e m ' s e l e ments, p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e elements, i n t e r r e l a t i o n s between t h e elements). Combining these requirements w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s ( a ) and ( b ) , f o r an unequivocal c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f wear, t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s should be s p e c i f i e d : (i) (ii) t h e t y p e o f r e l a t i v e motion, t h e i n t e r a c t i n g elements, compression, t e n s i o n , bending, e t c . ) and t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ( b ) can be seen i n analogy t o t h e t y p e o f d u c t i l e fracture, b r i t t l e frac-
( i i i ) t h e dominant wear mechanism. Obviously, t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e t h r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s p e c i f i e s t h e " t y p e " of wear. F o r a more q u a n t i t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , i n a d d i t i o n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s h o u l d be s p e c i f i e d : (iv) t h e i n p u t work: normal l o a d , f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , d i s t a n c e o f motion ( a t s t a t e d v e l o c i t y ) ,
stress interactions
c
material
r e 1 a t ive motion
v 3 lum v- .7
LC,
z+lu m4-
aJw
0
7
v)
n
lu
m L
G -c
lu
0 .?
lu
-a
82 .-aJ
C,v
LT
A p 1
0
sliding
s l i d i n g wear
I
rolling
I
I
r o l l i n g wear
I
impact
I I
i m p a c t wear
I
o s c i 11a t i o n f r e t t i n g wear
2 %
L
I
flow c a v i t a t i o n wear
I
flow
particles
f l u i d erosion
I/ I \
Table 4.2
C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f wear.
I
I
I
I
I
I
Table 4.3
Appearances o f worn s u r f a c e s .
( v i i ) t h e appearance o f t h e worn s u r f a c e s . I n Table 4.2 a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme which t r i e s t o combine t h e above c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( i ) , ( i i ) , ( i i i ) i s shown. I n t h i s t a b l e , t h e t y p e s of wear a r e termed a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t y p e o f r e l a t i v e m o t i o n i n analogy t o t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f f r i c t i o n modes. ( T h i s i s t h e most e v i d e n t way o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between d i f f e r e n t types o f wear s i n c e i n p r a c t i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g s i t u a t i o n s t h e a c t u a l i n t e r f a c i a l wear processes a r e seldom easy t o d e t e c t . )
As i n d i c a t e d i n Table 4.2 i n any o f t h e d i f f e r e n t types o f r e l a t i v e m o t i o n one o r more o f t h e f o u r b a s i c wear mechanisms may a c t . I n p r a c t i c e i t i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o determine what t y p e o f i n t e r f a c i a l wear mechanism ( o r what combination) a c t s i n a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n . F o r example, i n p u r e s l i d i n g o f a metal/metal p a i r t h e a b r a s i o n o r t h e adhesion wear mechanism may domin a t e , whereas d u r i n g o s c i l l a t i o n o f a m e t a l / m e t a l c o u p l e f r e t t i n g occurs e s s e n t i a l l y through t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f a l l f o u r b a s i c wear mechanisms (see S e c t i o n 4.4.6).
wear mechanism i s met o n l y under s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s and t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , a c o m b i n a t i o n o f wear mechanisms occurs. T h i s i s discussed below i n S e c t i o n 4.4.6.
105
shown i n Figure 4.25 e x h i b i t the t y p i c a l appearance o f the surface fatigue damage a f t e r repeated u n i d i r e c t i o n a l s l i d i n g o f a p i n over a d i s c .
pm
t - - - l4 - - - -
pm
Since surface f a t i g u e i s the c l a s s i c f a i l u r e mode o f r o l l i n g contact, as i n b a l l and r o l l e r bearings, the mechanisms o f surface f a t i g u e i n r o l l i n g cont a c t w i l l be considered f i r s t . Comparing the surface f a t i g u e o f r o l l i n g contacts w i t h the o r d i n a r y f a t i g u e o f b u l k m a t e r i a l , there are two d i f f e r e n c e s t o be noted. F i r s t , the f l u c t u a t i o n s i n the time t o f a i l u r e , the " l i f e t i m e " , are much more severe i n r o l l i n g contact. Second, there i s the important phenomena o f f a t i g u e
106
l i m i t s t r e s s which i s observed i n o r d i n a r y b u l k t e s t i n g , i . e . ,
there
e x i s t s a c e r t a i n s t r e s s l i m i t f o r a g i v e n m a t e r i a l below w h i c h t h e m a t e r i a l enjoys an i n f i n i t e f a t i g u e l i f e . Such l i m i t has n o t been d e t e c t e d i n t h e s u r f a c e f a t i g u e case (Ref. 4.93). E m p i r i c a l l y , i t has been f o u n d i n a s e r i e s o f experiments t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n f o r t h e t i m e t o f a i l u r e e x i s t s :
t
= - const
0m9
where
s a r y t o c o n s i d e r t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s t r e s s f i e l d s which e x i s t beneath t h e s u r f a c e . The H e r t z i a n t h e o r y o f s t a t i c e l a s t i c c o n t a c t shows t h a t t h e maximum compressive s t r e s s occurs a t t h e s u r f a c e and t h e maximum u n i d i r e c t i o n a l shear s t r e s s i s some d i s t a n c e , y, below i t (e.g., i n t h e case o f two c o n t a c t i n g c y l i n d e r s w i t h a c o n t a c t w i d t h o f 2aH a t y = 0.78aH). Under r o l l i n g c o n t a c t c o n d i t i o n s t h e i m p o r t a n t s t r e s s parameter i s t h e maximum r e versed shear s t r e s s and t h i s can be shown t o l i e c l o s e r t o t h e s u r f a c e t h a n t h e maximum u n i d i r e c t i o n a l shear s t r e s s . If t h e c o n t a c t i s s u b j e c t e d t o c o n s i d e r a b l e s u r f a c e t r a c t i o n forces t h e n t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s e shear s t r e s s maxima change and move towards t h e s u r f a c e r e g i o n . The two s i t u a t i o n s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e s 4.26 and 4.27 which r e p r e s e n t combined s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e case o f a c y l i n d e r l f l a t c o n t a c t by f i n i t e element methods (Ref. 4.94). A l t h o u g h t h e r e has been c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o g r e s s i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s o f r o l l i n g stress d i s t r i b u t i o n s , a couple o f a d d i t i o n a l i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s must b e considered. L i t t m a n n (Ref. 4.95) has compiled t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t o f those f a c t o r s which m o d i f y t h e nominal c o n t a c t s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f r o m t h a t computed f o r homogeneous, i s o t r o p i c , e l a s t i c , smooth-surface m a t e r i a l s i n dry r o l l i n g contact: Subsurface s t r e s s r a i s e r s Oxides and o t h e r hard, b r i t t l e i n c l u s i o n s , S u l f i d e s , c a r b i d e s , and o t h e r second phase p a r t i c l e s , G r a i n boundaries, sub-boundaries, Surface character S u r f a c e topography and t e x t u r e , Residual s t r e s s e s , S u r f a c e energy l e v e l , Microstructure, Contaminants. t w i n s , and o t h e r d i s l o c a t i o n a r r a y s .
107
F i g u r e 4.26
F i g u r e 4.27
Surface flaws I n c l u s i o n s and second phase p a r t i c l e s , N i c k s and dents i n c l u d i n g t r u e and f a l s e b r i n e l l i n g , Grooves and s c r a t c h e s , Corrosion p i t s , rust, water etch, F r e t t i n g damage, S k i d d i n g damage. D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n c o n t a c t geometry End o f " 1 i n e " c o n t a c t geometry, D e b r i s p a r t i c l e s i n t h e c o n t a c t area. Load d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e b e a r i n g E l as t ic de f 1e c t ions , Misalignment o f b e a r i n g p a r t s , I n t e r n a l clearance
b e a r i n g adjustment.
E l astohydrodynamics
Tangenti a1 f o r c e s W i t h o u t gross s l i d i n g , Rolling plus sliding. This compilation o f i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s indicates the complexity o f surf a c e f a t i g u e e f f e c t s i n r o l l i n g c o n t a c t . An e n g i n e e r i n g model of f a t i g u e f a i l u r e i n r o l l i n g c o n t a c t which takes i n t o account t h e i n f l u e n c e o f many f a c t o r s has been proposed by T a l l i a n and co-workers (Ref. 4.96).
fundamental e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y o f t h e c o n t a c t - f a t i g u e processes
under c y c l i c v a r i a t i o n (26 kHz) o f t h e normal l o a d a p p l i e d t o t h e c o n t a c t between a b a l l and a f l a t specimen (52,100 s t e e l ) was made by T y l e r , B u r t o n and Ku (Ref. 4.97). I n t h i s case t h e a p p l i e d c o n t a c t s t r e s s was beyond t h e t h e r e a r e two d i s t i n c t cone l a s t i c range. As i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.28,
t a c t c i r c l e s formed on b o t h specimens c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e minimum and maximum loads. As a consequence o f t h e o s c i l l a t o r y l o a d i n g t h r e e d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e types o f s u r f a c e damage were observed: (a)
In t h e t o r o i d a l r e g i o n between t h e i n n e r and t h e o u t e r c o n t a c t c i r c l e s
" f r e t t i n g " o c c u r r e d as a consequence o f shear t r a c t i o n s induced d u r i n g t h e l o a d i n g and u n l o a d i n g c y c l e s and i n f l u e n c e d by t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e e l a s t i c moduli o f t h e specimens. (The f r e t t i n g mode o f wear p r o cesses i s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4.4.6.)
(b)
The c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e c o n t a c t area underwent a d e p r e s s i o n due t o p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n which was found t o accumulate w i t h repeated loading.
109
(c) The u l t i m a t e f a i l u r e o f the contact progressed as the f o l l o w i n g succession o f events generated i n the t o r o i d a l area: crack formation, crack growth and interweaving and f l a k i n g o u t o f the crack-surrounded areas. The f a t i g u e cracks d i d n o t i n i t i a t e i n the most hardened mat e r i a l b u t i n the material adjacent t o i t . I t was found t h a t a r a p i d temperature r i s e occurred i n the i n i t i a l stage o f crack formation. The propagation o f micro-cracks tended t o f o l l o w the boundary o f the hardened region along carbide s t r i n g e r s and influenced by the p r i o r austeni t i c g r a i n boundaries.
static
1oad
I
time
'
I
Figure 4.28
- from a
o f s t r e s s concentration e f f e c t s t h a t govern f a t i g u e crack i n i t i a t i o n coupled w i t h crack propagation behaviour. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , the physical mechanisms o f ( i ) crack i n i t i a t i o n and (ii) crack propagation w i l l be discussed. The models described may be of s i g n i f i c a n c e n o t o n l y f o r t h e ( c l a s s i c ) surface f a t i g u e mode o f wear b u t a l s o i n a broader sense f o r the discussion o f
On the basis o f d i s l o c a t i o n theory, there are several p o s s i b l e mechanisms f o r crack i n i t i a t i o n . These mechanisms were o r i g i n a l l y proposed i n
110
reference t o bulk-material behaviour b u t they can be applied equally well to near-surface phenomena (Ref. 4.36). The main forms of crack i n i t i a t i o n are (Ref. 4.98): ( a ) Pile-up o f dislocations in s l i p band against grain boundary (C1. Zener). (b) Coalescence of two s l i p dislocations t o form a crack along a cleavage plane ( A . H . C o t t r e l l ) . ( c ) Crack formed a t t i l t boundary (A.N. Stroh). These mechanisms are presented schematically in Figure 4.29.
:/"
1
Figure 4.29
Mechanisms o f crack i n i t i a t i o n .
Another mechanism t h a t can i n i t i a t e subsurface cracks i s based on the eff e c t of inclusions. The mechanism o f crack i n i t i a t i o n can be started by such obstacles as oxide inclusions which are very prevalent i n the nearsurface layers of relatively s o f t metals such as copper. Further, w i t h bearing and gear s t e e l s , carbide inclusions are always present. The presence of such obstacles can give rise to dislocation coalescence and the i n i t i a t i o n o f subsurface crack nuclei. Although the described mechanisms o f crack i n i t i a t i o n a r e mostly used as s t a r t i n g points for a discussion of metal fatigue, there are some other d e t a i l s of dislocation behaviour t h a t should be considered which are beyond the scope of t h i s volume (Ref. 4.99).
111
Once an atomic crack has been formed by one o f t h e mechanisms d i s cussed above, t h e processes t h a t govern t h e crack propagation must be considered. For b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s the w e l l known c l a s s i c continuum theory o f a t e n s i l e s t r e s s G . The s u r f a c e energy o f t h e crack i s equal t o 2 y C r E a G r i f f i t h may be a p p l i c a b l e . Consider an e l l i p t i c a l crack o f l e n g t h 2a under 2
The d i s t o r s i o n s i n f r o n t o f the crack t i p are o f t h e o r d e r o f G / E and extend over dimensions o f the order o f a. Thus an opening o f the crack i n t h e d i s t o r e d m a t e r i a l leads t o an energy change
AU
2ycrna2
and
, ycr
= 1200 erg/cm2) i t f o l l o w s t h a t
dcr a 1/2
112
( i i i ) f o r m a t i o n o f voids,
I n r e f i n i n g t h i s t h e o r y , some i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c r y s t a l p l a s t i c i t y e f f e c t s have been d i s c u s s e d i n c l u d i n g a s p e c i f i c d i s l o c a t i o n model f o r hexagonal close-packed (h.c.p.) m e t a l s under wear c o n d i t i o n s and a c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h m e t a l s ( R e f . 4.102). s t a c k i n g f a u l t energy f o r f a c e - c e n t r e d c u b i c and h.c.p.
t o e x p l a i n t h e occurrence o f s h e e t - l i k e wear p a r t i c l e s , observed as e a r l y as 1929 by Fuchsel (Ref. 1.19) and i n t e r p r e t e d through a process o f m a t e r i a l separation.
4,4,3
ABRASIVE W E A R
MECHANISMS
As i n s u r f a c e f a t i g u e processes, t h e a t t r i t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s p a r t i c l e s i n
t h e a b r a s i v e wear mechanism i s a l s o caused m a i n l y by c o n t a c t d e f o r m a t i o n processes. The e f f e c t o f a b r a s i o n occurs i n c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n s i n which d i r e c t p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t between two s u r f a c e s i s g i v e n where one o f t h e s u r f a c e s i s c o n s i d e r a b l y h a r d e r t h a n t h e o t h e r . The h a r d e r s u r f a c e a s p e r i t i e s press i n t o the s o f t e r surface w i t h p l a s t i c flow o f t h e s o f t e r surface occurring around t h e a s p e r i t i e s f r o m t h e h a r d e r s u r f a c e . When a t a n g e n t i a l m o t i o n i s imposed t h e h a r d e r s u r f a c e w i l l move, p l o u g h i n g and removing t h e s o f t e r m a t e r i a l . The e f f e c t o f a b r a s i o n i s comparable w i t h a " m i c r o - c u t t i n g p r o cess", as can be seen i n t h e scanning e l e c t r o n micrograph, F i g u r e 4.30, showing an A1 s u r f a c e . I n i n d u s t r i a l s i t u a t i o n s , a b r a s i v e wear processes a r e v e r y widespread; i n f a c t , i t has been e s t i m a t e d t h a t about 50% o f wear encountered i n i n d u s t r y i s due t o a b r a s i o n mechanisms (Ref. 4.103). wear a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n p r a c t i c e .
As i l l u s t r a t e d s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 4.31,
As a consequence o f t h e
g r e a t v a r i e t i e s o f a b r a s i v e wear s i t u a t i o n s , d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f a b r a s i v e f i r s t l y we d i s t i n g u i s h
between "two-body a b r a s i o n " and "three-body a b r a s i o n " . F o r example, t h e two-body s i t u a t i o n i s most f r e q u e n t l y encountered i n t h e t r a n s p o r t o f l o o s e
113
Figure 4.30
Two-body abrasion
Three-body abrasion
Figure 4.31
114
m i n e r a l s and t h e three-body i n m i n e r a l t r e a t m e n t and on t h e i n g r e s s o f f o r e i g n p a r t i c l e s i n t o bearings. Secondly we d i s t i n g u i s h between: (a) (b) (c) Gouging a b r a s i o n Examples: Shovel d i p p e r t e e t h , Hammers i n impact p u l v e r i z e r s , e t c . Grinding abrasion Examples: G r i n d i n g b a l l s , e t c . Erosion abrasion Examples: A g i t a t o r i m p e l l e r s , Sandblast n o z z l e s , e t c . Research i n t o t h e mechanism o f a b r a s i o n i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y t a k e s t h e f o r m o f examining t h e wear of s o l i d s s l i d i n g on a b r a s i v e paper. E x t e n s i v e s t u d i e s i n t h i s f i e l d have been performed by W e l l i n g e r and Uetz (Ref. 4.104, t h e s e s t u d i e s may be summarized as f o l l o w s : I n a g i v e n wear regime, t h e abraded wear volume V o f m e t a l s i n c r e a s e s i n most cases l i n e a r l y w i t h l o a d FN and s l i d i n g d i s t a n c e 1 4.105), Khruschov (Ref. 4.106, 4.107) and Richardson (Ref. 4.108). The r e s u l t s o f
I f d e v i a t i o n s o c c u r , t h e y a r e u s u a l l y due t o a r e d u c t i o n i n p a r t i c l e s i z e
I n o r d e r t o compare t h e a b r a s i o n b e h a v i o u r o f d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s , t h e f o l l o w i n g measures
- wear volume
(c)
t h e r e l a t i v e wear r e s i s t a n c e
E E
'W
(specimen (standard;
leading
-=
Hm
a t r a n s i t i o n regime, i f
Ha z
Hm
a high-wear regime, i f Ha
Hm
I
7
c ,
W
R i
+ 0
W
c
5
L
0 >
C u a , 3
Hardness o f a b r a s i v e
F i g u r e 4.32
may be used as a c r i t e r i o n f o r a low-wear a b r a s i o n r a t e . ( I t i s n o t necess a r y t o i n c r e a s e t h e hardness o f t h e m a t e r i a l beyond 1.3 t i m e s t h a t o f t h e a b r a s i v e because no f u r t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t improvement i s o b t a i n e d , Ref. 4.103.)
I n o r d e r t o determine t h e r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s t h a t govern t h e
a b r a s i v e wear b e h a v i o u r i n t h e high-wear regime (111) o f F i g u r e 4.32, a g r e a t
116
v a r i e t y o f m a t e r i a l s has been t e s t e d . I n F i g u r e 4.33 t h e wear r e s i s t a n c e
c W o f v a r i o u s groups o f m a t e r i a l s as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e hardness o f t h e mat e r i a l s , Hm, measured under c o n d i t i o n s o f regime (111) o f F i g u r e 4.32, i s shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y (Ref. 4.107).
40
3
W
9
v)
aJ u c
30 cor u n d y0
.r
v)
2
L
: 20
3
7
IX aJ
10
10 Hardness H ,
15
20
(GN/m2)
F i g u r e 4.33
w
where
metal metal
Hm =
13.8
N-
mm2
117
(b) F o r n o n - m e t a l l i c h a r d m a t e r i a l s and m i n e r a l s , a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between wear r e s i s t a n c e and hardness i s s i m i l a r l y found:
E
W
mineral s
Hm
=
where
minerals
1.3
N - ~mm
(c)
(d)
(Ref. 4.109). The l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between a b r a s i v e wear r e s i s t a n c e and t h e mat e r i a l hardness can be v e r i f i e d u s i n g t h e s i m p l e model o f p l o u g h i n g shown i n F i g u r e 4.16. I n t h i s model an a b r a s i v e a s p e r i t y i s approximated by a cone t h a t ploughs o u t and removes m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e c o u n t e r f a c e . I f t h e l o a d , 5 F N , on t h e i n d e n t e r i s o n l y s u p p o r t e d o v e r t h e l e a d i n g h a l f o f t h e c o n t a c t , h FN i s balanced by t h e y i e l d pressure, py, o f t h e c o u n t e r f a c e a c t i n g v i a t h e c o n t a c t a r e a A:
A FN
A py
AV
Thus, s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r d f r o m above
= -Al.cottp
d2 4
118
T h i s e x pre s s ion shows t h a t t h e wear volume i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e l o a d and t h e s l i d i n g dis t a nc e , and t h a t t h e o n l y m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y i n v o l v e d i s t h e y i e l d pressure. I f t h e y i e l d p r e s s u r e i s assumed t o be equal t o t h e indent a t i o n hardness, H, f o r g i v e n values o f FN and 1, t h e l a s t e q u a t i o n can be simp1 i f i e d t o
V
=
1 c o n s t -A
Abrasive wear r e s i s t a n c e
c o n s t . x hardness
T his s imp le d e r i v a t i o n and t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s shown i n F i g u r e 4.33 i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e a b r a s i v e wear r e s i s t a n c e i s o n l y dependent on t h e m a t e r i a l hardness. T here f o r e , t h e a b r a s i v e wear r e s i s t a n c e may be i n t e r p r e t e d v i a t h e m a t e r i a l hardness, as a k i n d o f ' t r i b o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y " , i . e . as an appa re nt ly system-independent p r o p e r t y . I t s h o u ld be borne i n mind, however, t h a t t h e a b r a s i v e wear r e s i s t a n c e , t h a t the l i n e a r
E E ~ i, s
d e f i n e d as a r e l a t i v e measure and
H r e l a t i o n s h i p i s v a l i d o n l y f o r c o n d i t i o n s o f regime
i.e., f o r t h e cases i n which t h e a b r a s i o n process a c t s
(111) o f F i g u r e 4.32,
m a i n l y i n t h e b u l k o f t h e m a t e r i a l under s t u d y . I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, an a b r a s i v e wear process a c t s i n t h e " o u t e r " s u r f a c e l a y e r s , t hen t h e i n f l u e n c e of s u r f a c e contaminants and t h e a c t i o n o f t h e environmental atmosphere must a d d i t i o n a l l y be t a k e n i n t o account (Ref. 4.110).
119
4 4,4 ADHESIVE
I
Whereas t h e wear mechanisms o f s u r f a c e f a t i g u e and a b r a s i o n can be exp l a i n e d m a i n l y i n terms o f f o r c e s , s t r e s s e s and d e f o r m a t i o n processes, i n t h e adhesive wear mechanism, m a t e r i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e .
I t was d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 4.2.2 t h a t i f two s o l i d b o d i e s a r e b r o u g h t i n t o
c o n t a c t t h e y w i l l f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e l o n g - r a n g e van d e r Waals f o r c e s . A t d i s tances o f a b o u t lnm s t r o n g s h o r t - r a n g e s u r f a c e s f o r c e s come i n t o a c t i o n a t t h e r e a l areas o f c o n t a c t , t h e t y p e o f which depends on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s u r f a c e s i n c o n t a c t . Thus, s t r o n g adhesive j u n c t i o n s may be formed w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e d i s p e r s a l o f s u r f a c e contaminants and j u n c t i o n g r o w t h (see S e c t i o n 4.3.1). I n o r d e r t h a t adhesive wear s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e , f r a c t u r e must o c c u r i n t h e s u b s u r f a c e o f one o r b o t h m a t e r i a l s . The s i t u a t i o n i s ill u s t r a t e d s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 4.34.
motion
____L
adhe
fracture
F i g u r e 4.34
Adhesive wear s i t u a t i o n .
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e o t h e r wear mechanisms which g e n e r a l l y t a k e some t i m e t o develop o r t o reach a c r i t i c a l d e s t r u c t i v e magnitude, adhesive wear e f f e c t s o c c u r q u i t e p r e c i p i t o u s l y l e a d i n g i n t h e i r severe forms t o dangerous f a i l u r e i n t h e f o r m o f " s c u f f i n g " o r " s e i z u r e " o f moving p a r t s i n mec h a n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g systems. I n F i g u r e 4.35 t h e t y p i c a l appearance o f t h e s u r f a c e s o f a s l i d i n g s t e e l / s t e e l p a i r a f t e r f a i l u r e due t o adhesive wear processes i s shown. I t can be seen t h a t l a r g e m a t e r i a l lumps were t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e c o u n t e r p a r t n e r and adhere s t r o n g l y on one s u r f a c e i n " c o l d we1 ded" j u n c t i o n s .
120
F i g u r e 4.35
Concerning t h e p h y s i c a l mechanisms o f adhebive wear, o b v i o u s l y t h e processes and parameters o f adhesion ( S e c t i o n 4.2.2) ( S e c t i o n 4.4.2) as w e l l as t h o s e o f f r a c t u r e must be t a k e n i n t o account. S i n c e b o t h adhesion and f r a c t u r e
a r e i n f l u e n c e d by s u r f a c e contaminants and t h e e f f e c t o f t h e environment, i t i s q u i t e d i f f i c u l t t o r e l a t e adhesion wear r a t e s w i t h elementary b u l k p r o p e r t i e s o f m a t e r i a l s . I n vacuum where these i n f l u e n c e s a r e e l i m i n a t e d , t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s have been observed t o be g e n e r a l l y v a l i d f o r t h e adhesive wear processes o f m e t a l / m e t a l p a i r s (Ref. 4.111): (i) I n t e r f a c i a l m e t a l l i c adhesion bonding o c c u r s between any p a i r o f metals; t h e r e i s no d i r e c t r e l a t i o n between t h e (volume) s o l u b i l i t y o f metal p a i r s and t h e i r ( s u r f a c e ) adhesion bonding. (ii) C r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e e x e r t s an i n f l u e n c e on adhesive wear. Hexagonal m e t a l s i n general e x h i b i t l o w e r adhesive wear c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a n e i t h e r body-centred c u b i c o r f a c e - c e n t r e d c u b i c m e t a l s . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s assumed t o be r e l a t e d t o d i f f e r e n t p l a s t i c a s p e r i t y cont a c t d e f o r m a t i o n modes and t h e number o f o p e r a b l e s l i p systems i n t h e c r y s t a l systems.
121
( i i i ) C r y s t a l o r i e n t a t i o n i n f l u e n c e s t h e adhesive wear behaviour. I n general h i g h atomic d e n s i t y , low surface energy g r a i n o r i e n t a t i o n s e x h i b i t l o w e r adhesion and l e s s adhesive wear than do o t h e r o r i e n t a t i o n s . (iv) When d i s s i m i l a r metals are i n c o n t a c t the adhesive wear process w i l l g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t i n t h e t r a n s f e r o f p a r t i c l e s o f t h e cohesively weaker
o f the two m a t e r i a l s t o the cohesively stronger.
(v)
Small amounts o f a l l o y i n g elements ( a few p a r t s p e r m i l l i o n ) such as carbon and s u l f u r are s u f f i c i e n t t o i n h i b i t appreciably the adhesion o f m e t a l l i c a l l o y s thereby m i n i m i z i n g t h e i r adhesive wear. ( S u l f u r and carbon w i l l , a c t i v a t e d by f r i c t i o n a l heating, d i f f u s e t o a surface and occupy a c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t the surface f a r i n excess o f t h e i r concent r a t i o n i n the bulk material. )
These r e s u l t s c l e a r l y show t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f the various c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c o n t a c t adhesion and c o n t a c t deformation processes, as dicussed above, on adhesive wear. The combined e f f e c t s o f adhesion and f r a c t u r e a l s o a c t i n t h e formation o f loose adhesive wear p a r t i c l e s . I n s t u d y i n g t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e adhesive wear mechanism, Cocks (Ref. 4.112) and A n t l e r (Ref. 4.113) considered the process o f "prow" formation by which c o n t a c t i s maintained f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d w h i l e t h e j u n c t i o n i s growing and the j u n c t i o n base i s moving along one o r both o f the running surfaces. I n r e f i n i n g t h i s model, Landheer and Zaat (Ref. 4.114) emphasized t h e f o l lowing phenomena i n the severe adhesive wear process: ( a ) a j u n c t i o n development, where under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f shear r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e i n t e r f a c e , a f i e l d o f i s o - s t r a i n l i n e s ( p l a s t i c s t r a i n ) moves through the metal o f the wearing surface i n a d i r e c t i o n opposite t o t h e s l i d i n g d i r e c t i o n , so t h a t metal accumulates i n the j u n c t i o n s and the d i s t a n c e between t h e running surfaces i s enlarged,
(b)
detaches f o r t r a n s f e r . An i n s t r u c t i v e experimental example o f t h e generation o f an adhesive wear p a r t i c l e has been given by Buckley (Ref. 4.115). He performed s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n experiments w i t h a p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e copper r i d e r s l i d i n g across the surface o f a b i c r y s t a l o f copper. One g r a i n o f the b i c r y s t a l was o f the (111) o r i e n t a t i o n w h i l e t h e second was a (210) plane. With a s i n g l e pass o f t h e r i d e r across the surface, cracks developed i n t h e s u r f a c e o f b o t h g r a i n s o f t h e b i c r y s t a l . These surface cracks a r e shown i n t h e scanning e l e c t r o n micrograph o f Figure 4.36. The f r a c t u r e cracks developed a t room tempera-
122
F i g u r e 4.36
FL
v=l ,4mm/mi n
Fracture
J (
F i g u r e 4.37
123
t u r e w i t h i n t h e copper. Close e x a m i n a t i o n o f these c r a c k s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e w a l l o f t h e c r a c k i s v e r y smooth. F u r t h e r , t h e m a t e r i a l a t t h e l e a d i n g edge o f t h e c r a c k has been c u r l e d up above t h e p l a n e o f t h e b i c r y s t a l s u r face. The measured a n g l e between t h e c r a c k and t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e p l a n e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e f r a c t u r e c r a c k occurs a l o n g s l i p bands. The mechanism r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c r a c k s shown i n F i g u r e 4.36 i s p r e sented i n F i g u r e 4.37. Adhesion o f t h e r i d e r t o t h e b i c r y s t a l o c c u r s . W i t h t a n g e n t i a l m o t i o n f r a c t u r e occurs a l o n g s l i p bands as t h e t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e p a r t s a t o m i c planes. A t some a p p l i e d t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e , t h e a p p l i e d f o r c e exceeds t h e adhesive b o n d i n g f o r c e and t h e r i d e r breaks away f r o m t h e b i c r y s t a l s u r f a c e l e a v i n g a c u r l o f metal p r o j e c t i n g above t h e surface. A second pass shears o f f t h e c u r l and an adhesive wear p a r t i c l e has been generated.
4,4 5
I
TRIBO-CHEMI CAL
WEAR MECHANISMS
Whereas t h e mechanism o f s u r f a c e f a t i g u e wear, a b r a s i v e wear, and adhesive wear can be understood i n terms o f d e f o r m a t i o n and adhesion i n t e r a c t i o n s between two c o n t a c t i n g s u r f a c e s , (1) and ( Z ) , i n t r i b o - c h e m i c a l wear as t h i r d p a r t n e r t h e environment ( 3 ) and t h e dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n s between ( l ) ,
I f t h e two s u r f a c e s
r e a c t a c t i v e l y w i t h t h e environment, t h e r u b b i n g o f s u r f a c e s t o g e t h e r i n such an environment r e s u l t s i n t h e c o n t i n u o u s f o r m a t i o n and removal o f r e a c t i o n products. Since the material o f the contacting surfaces are contained i n t h e r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s , m a t e r i a l i s b e i n g removed f r o m t h e s u r f a c e s . The t y p i c a l appearance o f t r i b o - c h e m i c a l l y formed wear p a r t i c l e s i s shown i n F i g u r e 4.38 i n scanning e l e c t r o n micrographs. The d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e mechanisms o f s u r f a c e f a t i g u e , a b r a s i o n and adhesion on one hand and t r i b o - c h e m i c a l wear e f f e c t s on t h e o t h e r can be seen i n t h e conceptual diagram o f t h e wear processes w i t h i n a t r i b o l o g i c a l system, F i g u r e 3 . 8 and F i g u r e 3.4. The f i r s t t h r e e mechanisms can e s s e n t i a l l y be d e s c r i b e d - i n t h e s i m p l e s t case
as i n t e r a c t i o n s between o n l y two
p a r t n e r s , namely t h e two s o l i d s u r f a c e s ( 1 ) and (2), l e a d i n g d i r e c t l y t o t h e M g e n e r a t i o n o f d e b r i s { Z ) f r o m (1) and ( 2 ) . I n t h e case o f t r i b o - c h e m i c a l wear, t h e whole mechanism c l e a r l y c o n s i s t s o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s o f t h r e e p a r t n e r s , namely t h e s o l i d s u r f a c e s (1) and ( 2 ) and t h e environment ( 3 ) . These i n t e r a c t i o n s may be expressed as a c y c l i c s t e p w i s e process:
124
(i)
A t t h e f i r s t stage, t h e s u r f a c e s ( I ) and ( 2 ) r e a c t w i t h t h e e n v i r o n ment ( 3 ) . I n t h i s process, r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s (1)-(3) and (2)-(3) a r e formed on t h e s u r f a c e s o f (1) and ( 2 ) , shown i n F i g u r e 3.8 below.
(ii)
The second s t e p c o n s i s t s o f t h e a t t r i t i o n o f t h e r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s as a r e s u l t o f c r a c k f o r m a t i o n and a b r a s i o n i n t h e c o n t a c t process i n t e r a c t i o n s o f (1) and ( 2 ) . When t h i s occurs " f r e s h " , i.e., r e a c t i v e surf a c e p a r t s , o f (1) and ( 2 ) a r e formed and stage ( i ) c o n t i n u e s .
C l e a r l y , i n a t t e m p t s t o s t u d y t h e mechanisms o f t r i b o - c h e m i c a l wear, besides t h e e f f e c t s o f d e f o r m a t i o n and adhesion, t h e c h e m i s t r y o f t h e r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t f o r m a t i o n must be c o n s i d e r e d a d d i t i o n a l l y , t a k i n g i n t o account t h e cont r i b u t i o n o f f r i c t i o n a l energy i n these processes.
H 50
pm
F i g u r e 4.38
Appearance o f t r i b o - c h e m i c a l wear p a r t i c l e s .
As a consequence o f thermal and mechanical a c t i v a t i o n , t h e a s p e r i t i e s undergo t h e f o l l o w i n g changes: (a) (b) t h e r e a c t i v i t y i s i n c r e a s e d due t o t h e i n c r e a s e d a s p e r i t y temperature; therefore the formation o f surface layers i s accelerated, t h e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s u r f a c e a s p e r i t y l a y e r s a r e changed: i n general t h e y have a tendency t o b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e . S t a r t i n g w i t h t h e assumption t h a t t r i b o - c h e m i c a l l y formed s u r f a c e a s p e r i t y l a y e r s a r e detached a t a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l t h i c k n e s s , Q u i n n proposed an
125
o x i d a t i o n hypothesis o f the wear o f s t e e l s (Ref. 4.117). Since t h i s theory
on average, 1 / K encounters are necessary (K: s t a t i s t i c a l wear c o e f f i c i e n t , see Section 4:4.1) f o r a c r i t i c a l oxide f i l m thickness t o b u i l d up b e f o r e
i t becomes detached t o form a wear p a r t i c l e . I f tc i s t h e d u r a t i o n o f a
i s given by
But tc = d/v, where d i s the d i s t a n c e along which a wearing c o n t a c t i s made and v i s the speed o f s l i d i n g . Hence
t
=
d/vK
Now the mass per u n i t area o f oxide growth A m depends on t h e time o f o x i d a t i o n t through t h e p a r a b o l i c r e l a t i o n
A m2
where k
kp. t
g2
t/p 2
E l i m i n a t i n g t we o b t a i n an expression f o r K, namely
I t i s now g e n e r a l l y accepted t h a t k
temperature o f o x i d a t i o n To namely kp
=
is e x p o n e n t i a l l y dependent on t h e
Ac exp
-Q/ RcTo)
is
126
p l a s t i c a s p e r i t y d e f o r m a t i o n mode ( p l a s t i c i t y i n d e x
3H
* 1
v =
A ;
exp (-Q/RcTc)
3*g2*p2v
.H
FN * 1
T h i s e x p r e s s i o n i n d i c a t e s t h e dependence o f t h e wear volume V on t h e f o l l o w i n g groups o f parameters o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l system: (a) (b) (c) o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s (FN, v, 1, Tc) g e n e r a l c o n s t a n t s and m a t e r i a l parameters (Ac, Q, Rc,P, i n t e r a c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (d, Tc,
H)
4,4,6
THE
COMPLEXITY
OF WEAR PROCESSES
I n general, t h e d i f f e r e n t wear mechanisms as d i s c u s s e d s e p a r a t e l y i n t h e f o r e g o i n g s e c t i o n s , a r e superimposed. The processes o f t r i b o - c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s and adhesion l e a d t o changes i n t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s u r f a c e s . Thereby
r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s a r e formed o r m a t e r i a l i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e o t h e r p a r t n e r . The processes a r e a c t i v a t e d by t h e mechanical and thermal energy t r a n s f e r r e d and d i s s i p a t e d i n t h e s u r f a c e a s p e r i t i e s and i n t h e b u l k m a t e r i a l . A l l t h e s e processes promote t h e f o r m a t i o n o f l o o s e wear p a r t i c l e s which, i n any case, a r e generated t h r o u g h t h e mechanisms o f s u r f a c e f a t i g u e and abrasion.
127
4.119).
t o each o t h e r i n an o s c i l l a t o r y m o t i o n w i t h an a m p l i t u d e o f movement o f l e s s
than 100 pm. I n i n d u s t r y , f r e t t i n g occurs, f o r example, i n t h e f o l l o w i n g mechanical systems and components: l a p j o i n t s , s p l i n e s , p u s h - f i t t e d s h a f t wheels, metal s t a t i c s e a l s , e n g i n e mounts, c l u t c h e s , e t c . The s u r f a c e damage due t o f r e t t i n g i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f f a t i g u e c r a c k s and t h e f o r m a t i o n o f f r e t t i n g d e b r i s . As a consequence o f f r e t t i n g , f a t i g u e - s t r e n g t h r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r s o f 3 t o 6 a r e q u i t e normal ( R e f . 4.120). The c h a i n o f events t h a t l e a d s t o f r e t t i n g i s compiled s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n Table 4.4 (Ref.
4.121).
II
Ill
Table 4.4
Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t stages o f f r e t t i n g .
The f i r s t s t a g e ( I ) i s i n i t i a t e d by t h e o s c i l l a t o r y c o n t a c t d e f o r m a t i o n l e a d i n g t o t h e g e n e r a t i o n and p r o p a g a t i o n o f s u r f a c e c r a c k s as w e l l as t o t h e d i s p e r s a l o f s u r f a c e contaminants and t h e f o r m a t i o n and r u p t u r e o f adh e s i v e bonds. The second s t a g e ( 1 1 ) i s t h e f o r m a t i o n o f wear p a r t i c l e s e i t h e r by t h e s u r f a c e f a t i g u e mechanism o r t h e a d h e s i o n / d e f o r m a t i o n process. T h i s i s f o l l o w e d by t h e o x i d a t i o n o f wear p a r t i c l e s i n t r i b o - c h e m i c a l rea c t i o n s . The t h i r d s t a g e ( 1 1 1 ) c o n s i s t s o f t h e a b r a s i v e a c t i o n o f formed wear p a r t i c l e s . T h i s i n t u r n a s s i s t s t h e processes o f stage ( I ) , and so on. The f r e t t i n g mode o f wear which occurs under o s c i l l a t o r y m o t i o n i s a v e r y pronounced example o f t h e s u p e r p o s i t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t wear mechanisms
128
d e s c r i b e d s e p a r a t e l y above. From v a r i o u s wear s t u d i e s i t i s obvious t h a t under s l i d i n g and r o l l i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n most cases a s u p e r p o s i t i o n o f wear mechanisms a l s o occurs. Consider, f o r example a s i m p l e t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system c o n s i s t i n g o f two s o l i d b o d i e s ( l ) , ( 2 ) s l i d i n g i n a r e a c t i v e gaseous atmosphere ( 3 ) as i l l u s t r a t e d s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 4.39 above. As i n d i c a t e d by t h e schematic diagram i n t h e c e n t r e o f F i g u r e 4.39, t h e f o l l o w i n g processes o c c u r i n general s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a t t h e i n t e r f a c e : (i) ( i i) f o r m a t i o n o f s u r f a c e l a y e r s by a d s o r p t i o n o r t r i b o - c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s o f t h e s l i d i n g s u r f a c e s ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) w i t h t h e gaseous environment ( 3 ) , adhesive t r a n s f e r o f m a t e r i a l and r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s f r o m (1)-( 2) and (2)--(1), ( i i i ) g e n e r a t i o n o f wear p a r t i c l e s from t h e b u l k m a t e r i a l , t h e r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s or t h e adhesive t r a n s f e r r e d m a t e r i a l o f b o t h (1) and ( 2 ) through t h e e f f e c t s o f s u r f a c e f a t i g u e and abrasion. The changes o f t h e m a t e r i a l components o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system due t o t h e combined a c t i o n o f t h e wear mechanisms have been s t u d i e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y by Mdlgaard (Ref. 4.122) and a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 4.39. The p o s s i b l e m a t e r i a l components of a wearing system, c o n s i s t i n g i n i t i a l l y o f the three partners ( l ) , (2), ( 3 ) , are: the given materials t h e gaseous atmosphere deformed m a t e r i a l p a r t s t r a n s f e r r e d deformed m a t e r i a l back-transferred material reaction products t r a n s f e r r e d reaction products debris o f given material debris o f reaction products adsorbed gas
M1
G
M2
D2
R1
ZM ZR
129
I n i t i a l state
1-
1ope
abrasion, surface f a t i g u e
Final state
debris
F i g u r e 4.39
Superposition o f wear mechanisms i n a tribo-mechanical system and the changes o f t h e system's elements due t o wear processes.
130
I n summary, we see f r o m F i g u r e 4.39 t h a t t h e s t u d y o f wear i n a t r i b o mechanical system i s one i n v o l v i n g a complex interdependence o f many p r o cesses and p h y s i c a l parameters. I t i s most d i f f i c u l t t o i s o l a t e any one p r o cess o r parameter f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , and hence we a r e f o r c e d i n t o an e m p i r i c a l approach t o t h e s u b j e c t . I n o r d e r t o g i v e t h i s e m p i r i c a l approach a def i n i t e d i r e c t i o n l i k e l y t o prove s u c c e s s f u l , one must c o n s i d e r , s y s t e m a t i c a l l y , a l l t h e processes and parameters r e l e v a n t t o a g i v e n wear s i t u a t i o n . F o r t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e systems approach t o t h i s s u b j e c t t h e data-sheet d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 8 may be used.
4,5
LUBRICATION MODES
4 , 5 , 1 STRIBECK
MODES
The t r i b o l o g i c a l processes, i . e . ,
discussed h i t h e r t o are, i n general , r e l a t e d t o d i r e c t physical i n t e r a c t i o n s between r e l a t i v e l y moving surfaces. A l l these processes can be i n f l u e n c e d o r m o d i f i e d by t h e process o f l u b r i c a t i o n . The purpose o f l u b r i c a t i o n i s t o s e p a r a t e t h e s u r f a c e s moving r e l a t i v e t o each o t h e r w i t h a f i l m o f a m a t e r i a l which can be sheared w i t h low r e s i s t a n c e w i t h o u t causing any damage t o t h e s u r f a c e s . Depending on t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m (which may range from some t e n t h o f a m i l l i m e t e r down t o t h e nm range), t h e i n t e r f a c i a l h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m and t h e degree o f geometric c o n f o r m i t y , d i f f e r e n t l u b r i c a t i o n modes can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . The l u b r i c a t i o n modes can be c o n v e n i e n t l y d i s c u s s e d i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e S t r i b e c k curve. S t r i b e c k i n 1900 t o 1902 performed comprehensive experiments on t h e f r i c t i o n o f s l i d i n g and r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s , measuring t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s l o a d T (Ref. 4.123).
I n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e temperature depen-
dence o f v i s c o s i t y on h i s r e s u l t s , S t r i b e c k r e c a l c u l a t e d t h e measured f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t as a f u n c t i o n o f l o a d and v e l o c i t y f o r a c o n s t a n t b u l k - o i l temperature o f 25OC. The a c c u r a t e e x p e r i m e n t a l measurements o f S t r i b e c k s e r v e d as a b a s i s f o r t h e t h e o r e t i c a l work o f Sommerfeld, Giimbel and successors i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e t h e o r y o f hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t e d b e a r i n g s , see S e c t i o n 1.2.3.
I t i s now g e n e r a l l y accepted t h a t t h e S t r i b e c k c u r v e r e p r e s e n t s t h e
general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f l u b r i c a t e d moving s u r f a c e s as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e
131
1. . v
F N - l . ( T h i s parameter i s
t
111: h-0
B
11: h - R
FN
I I
I
s u r f a c e roughness R
I: h s R
v i s c o s i t- y n x v e l o c i t y v , l o a d FN
F i g u r e 4.40
As i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.40,
I I1
:
:
111 : Boundary l u b r i c a t i o n .
I n regime I , t h e r i g i d s u r f a c e s a r e s e p a r a t e d by a c o n t i n u o u s l u b r i c a n t
f i l m , whose t h i c k n e s s i s much l a r g e r t h a n t h e combined s u r f a c e roughness
132
c u l a t e d o r e s t i m a t e d by t h e methods o f f l u i d mechanics. I f t h e l u b r i c a t e d system under c o n s i d e r a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f nonconformal c o n c e n t r a t e d c o n t a c t s , t h e e l a s t i c ( H e r t z i a n ) d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e s and t h e p r e s s u r e dependence o f t h e l u b r i c a n t s v i s c o s i t y must a l s o t a k e n i n t o account. T h i s l e a d s t o t h e regime o f elastohydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n . Since i n regime I no d i r e c t p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e s u r f a c e s qccur, wear processes cannot t a k e p l a c e ( e x c e p t s u r f a c e f a t i g u e wear, c a v i t L t i o n wear o r f l u i d erosion). I f under c o n d i t i o n s o f hydrodynamic o r EHD l u b r i c a t i o t i , t h e l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y o r t h e v e l o c i t y decreases o r t h e l o a d i n c r e a s e s , t h e l u b r i c a n t
4,5,2
HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION
I n t h e process o f hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n o f a t r i b o l o g i c a l system, a continuous f l u i d f i l m i s b r o u g h t between t h e s u r f a c e s i n r e l a t i v e m o t i o n i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e f r i c t i o n and t o e l i m i n a t e wear. The t r i b o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r of a h y d r o d y n a m i c a l l y l u b r i c a t e d system i s t h e n m a i n l y determined by t h e two following features:
133
(i) (ii) The r e s i s t a n c e t o m o t i o n i s g i v e n by t h e " i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n " o f t h e fluid, i.e., t h e shear r e s i s t a n c e o r " v i s c o s i t y " o f t h e f l u i d f i l m . The e f f e c t s of wear a r e e l i m i n a t e d i f t h e geometry o f t h e s u r f a c e s i s such t h a t a l o a d - c a r r y i n g p r e s s u r e i s s e t up i n t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m d u r i n g ,the m o t i o n o f t h e surfaces l e a d i n g t o a complete s e p a r a t i o n o f the surfaces. I n ( i ) , t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o m o t i o n o f a h y d r o d y n a m i c a l l y l u b r i c a t e d system i s determined b y t h e shear f o r c e s which e x i s t i n a moving f l u i d . To g e t a meas u r e o f t h e shear r e s i s t a n c e o r v i s c o s i t y o f t h e f l u i d , c o n s i d e r a system
" '
area
v = o
Figure 4.41
I n F i g u r e 4.41 t h e l o w e r s u r f a c e i s k e p t s t a t i o n a r y w h i l e t h e upper moves p a r a l l e l t o i t a t a v e l o c i t y vo. S i n c e t h e molecules o f t h e f l u i d adhere t o t h e s u r f a c e s , a t v e l o c i t i e s which a r e n o t t o o h i g h , a l a m i n a r f l o w p r o f i l e r e s u l t s w i t h i n t h e f l u i d w i t h v = vo a t t h e upper s u r f a c e and v = o a t t h e l o w e r s u r f a c e . The f o r c e , F, r e q u i r e d t o keep t h e upper s u r f a c e moving i s t h e n p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e area o f t h e surfaces, A, and t o vo/z, where z i s t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e p l a t e s . Thus t h e shear s t r e s s F/A i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e change o f shear s t r a i n vo/z:
o r more g e n e r a l l y :
154
The constant o f p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y 7 i s c a l l e d c o e f f i c i e n t o f v i s c o s i t y , and f l u i d s which obey p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y between the viscous shear s t r e s s and the r a t e o f change o f the shear s t r a i n %are termed Newtonian f l u i d s . As regards p o i n t ( i i ) , f o r the generation o f a load-carrying pressure the formation o f a converging, wedge-shaped f i l m i s necessary, as shown by Reynolds i n 1886 (Ref. 4.124). A physical p i c t u r e o f the processes leading t o a generation o f a pressure i n a converging o i l f i l m can be gained by considering a simple t i l t i n g pad bearing, shown schematically i n Figure 4.42.
distribution t i l t i n g pad
Figure 4.42
A t i l t i n g pad bearing.
The t i l t i n g pad i s s t a t i o n a r y w i t h an i n l e t gap z1 l a r g e r than the o u t l e t gap z2, The whole gap i s flooded w i t h a viscous incompressible l u b r i c a n t . Assume t h a t i n i t i a l l y the i n l e t v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n may be l i n e a r (as i n Figure 4.41). Since z l > z2 there would be an excess o f i n l e t flow over the o u t l e t f l o w i n c o n t r a s t t o the c o n d i t i o n o f c o n t i n u i t y o f flow. This automat i c a l l y leads t o the generation o f a pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n against which the i n l e t f l o w has t o work. This i n t u r n modifies the v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s : a t t h e d i c a t e d schematically i n Figure 4.42. i n l e t the v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e i s concave and a t the o u t l e t i t i s convex as i n The area under each v e l o c i t y - p r o f i l e
curve along the pad i s the same, thus the c o n d i t i o n o f c o n t i n u i t y o f f l o w i s f u l f i l l e d . I f t h e surfaces are f u l l y separated, r e l a t i v e motion occurs e n t i r e l y w i t h i n the 1u b r i cant f i I m .
135
F o r t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f a h y d r o d y n a m i c a l l y l u b r i c a t e d mec h a n i c a l system, i . e . , t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n and d i s s i p a t i o n o f mechanical energy, t h e f o l l o w i n g aspects a r e i m p o r t a n t : t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s l i k e l o a d , v e l o c i t y , temperat u r e on t h e p r e s s u r e and f i l m t h i c k n e s s generated i n t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m , t h e r e l a t i o n s between ( a ) and t h e system geometry and t h e m a t e r i a l s and l u b r i c a n t parameters, t h e amount o f mechanical energy d i s s i p a t e d and t h e v a l u e o f f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , depending on ( a ) and ( b ) , t h e l i m i t s o f hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o ( a ) , ( b ) and ( c ) . The main f e a t u r e s o f t h e s e p o i n t s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g , s t a r t i n g f r o m a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e general equation o f motion f o r a viscous f l u i d , t h e Navier-Stokes e q u a t i o n . The main p h y s i c a l i d e a s i n v o l v e d i n t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f t h i s e q u a t i o n a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g (Ref. 4 . 1 2 5 ) : Consider an element o f volume A V w i t h i n a f l u i d o f v i s c o s i t y 7 and d e n s i t y p which moves under t h e a c t i o n o f a s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e p and an ext e r n a l c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r c e f i e l d o f t h e p o t e n t i a l 0 w i t h a mean v e l o c i t y v, as i n F i g u r e 4.43.
y 1 *
c
--c
t
F i g u r e 4.43 A volume element w i t h i n a v i s c o u s f l u i d . equal t o t h e t i m e r a t e o f change o f l i n e a r momentum
__
force
dt
(mass x v e l o c i t y )
p x
(acceleration)
138
The f o r c e per u n i t volume F i s given as sum o f three terms:
(i)
F1:
The pressure on the face a t x gives the f o r c e p b y b z , and the pressure on the face a t x t A x gives the f o r c e
- [p
(#A
x]A y A z,
so t h a t the r e s u l t a n t f o r c e i s
f o r c e per u n i t volume i s
- (#)
A x A y A z. I f we take the
(-a x
a a TIT*X I
(ii)
the f o r c e density r e s u l t s as
7%
acts ac-
so t h a t the r e s u l t a n t s t r e s s i s
137
Summing, i t f o l l o w s t h a t
with
v 2= -a'
ax2
'3
a2
+ a (Lap1 ace
az2
operator)
by t h e e x p r e s s i o n
A t i s g i v e n by
v (x
vxAt, y
v At, z Y
vzAt, t +At).
The a c c e l e r a t i o n
At
i s then vx
ax
v
) v
a v
av v y a y
av v z T
t73T
av
o r symbolically (v
t -a
a t
138
Now, i n s e r t i n g i n Newton's e q u a t i o n F
= p x (acceleration)
t h e expressions o b t a i n e d f o r t h e f o r c e F = F1 t f o r t h e m o t i o n o f a viscous f l u i d i s av
F2
F3 and t h e a c c e l e r a -
P{m+ ( v
) v}
a p -pfj@t?lV2v
(7t 7')
a ( av )
T h i s e q u a t i o n i s t h e b a s i s f o r a l l o f hydrodynamics ( s i m i l a r t o t h e Maxwell e q u a t i o n s which a r e t h e b a s i s f o r a l l o f e l e c t r o d y n a m i c s ) . The e q u a t i o n and i t s d i v e r s e a p p l i c a t i o n i n t r i b o l o g y have been s t u d i e d a t l e n g t h by d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s aspect, see (Ref. 4.126). S t a r t i n g f r o m t h e Navier-Stokes e q u a t i o n o f f l u i d mechanics, Reynolds i n h i s fundamental paper o f 1886 l a i d t h e b a s i s o f hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e . The d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e Reynolds e q u a t i o n o b t a i n e d e i t h e r f r o m t h e Navier-Stokes e q u a t i o n o r o t h e r w i s e , can be found i n any s t a n d a r d t e x t b o o k o f hydrodynamics, see f o r i n s t a n c e t h e books by Cameron (Ref. 1.7) o r Hersey (Ref. 4.126). The Reynolds e q u a t i o n i s a d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n f o r t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , t a k i n g i n t o account t h e v e l o c i t i e s o f t h e s o l i d surfaces and t h e p r o f i l e o r c o n t o u r o f t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m . Since, f r o m a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f Reynolds e q u a t i o n , a p h y s i c a l p i c t u r e o f t h e hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n process as w e l l as b a s i c t r i b o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y and f r i c t i o n r e s i s t a n c e can be o b t a i n e d , a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f Reynolds e q u a t i o n and i t s consequences i s g i v e n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g .
f
gene r a t e d pressure d i s t r i b u t ion
F i g u r e 4-44
139
Consider a g a i n a s i m p l e t i l t i n g pad b e a r i n g , shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 4.44, w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g assumptions: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (9) The f l u i d i s Newtonian The f l u i d f l o w i s l a m i n a r The f l u i d adheres t o t h e b e a r i n g s u r f a c e s The f l u i d i n e r t i a can be n e g l e c t e d The f l u i d w e i g h t can be n e g l e c t e d The f l u i d p r e s s u r e i s c o n s t a n t across t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e f l u i d f i l m The f l u i d i s i n c o m p r e s s i b l e .
23T
a h
"wedge" t e r m
"squeeze" t e r m
vl)
o f t h e surfaces.
( iii) "Squeeze" t e r m
T h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n i s caused by r e l a t i v e m o t i o n normal t o t h e b e a r i n g f l u i d . S o l u t i o n o f t h e Reynolds e q u a t i o n s l e a d s t o t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n which, when i n t e g r a t e d i n t h e x- and z - d i r e c t i o n s , y i e l d s t h e l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a pa c ity :
140
FN
7 y 1 p ( x , Z) dxdz
0 0
The f l o w o f f l u i d p e r u n i t w i d t h i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f v e l o c i t y v = ( v o is vh qx and t h e z - d i r e c t i o n i s
=---'2
- vl)
h3 127
ap
ax
x1
FF
5 / 1 3 dxdz
0 0
//
*1
0 0
*1
g dxdz
where t h e p l u s s i g n i s used f o r t h e f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e s l o w e r moving s u r face. C l e a r l y , i n i n t e g r a t i o n s o f t h e Reynolds e q u a t i o n t h e f i l m t h i c k n e s s h = h ( x ) must be known. A f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n i s t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e v i s c o s i t y as a f u n c t i o n o f b o t h temperature and p r e s s u r e . I n g e n e r a l , t h e v i s c o s i t y o f l u b r i c a n t f l u i d s decreases w i t h i n c r e a s i n g temperature and i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e . The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e e f f e c t s on t h e b e h a v i o u r o f l u b r i c a t e d systems w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4.5.3 and 4.5.6. S o l u t i o n s o f Reynolds e q u a t i o n , as o u t l i n e d above, have been performed f o r v a r i o u s types o f b e a r i n g s , such as t h r u s t b e a r i n g s and j o u r n a l b e a r i n g s , and t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s u p p o s i t i o n s and p r a c t i c a l consequences o f t h e s e s o l u t i o n s have been d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l (see f o r i n s t a n c e Ref. 4.127). These r e s u l t s w i l l n o t b e reproduced h e r e . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e Reynolds e q u a t i o n f o r t h e s i m p l e case o f l u b r i c a t i o n o f a c y l i n d e r n e a r a p l a n e w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d i n b r i e f , i n o r d e r t o g e t an i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e Reynolds e q u a t i o n and t o o b t a i n a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e elastohydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n mode. Consider t h e geometry
o f a r i g i d c y l i n d e r n e a r a plane, as i n F i g u r e 4.45.
141
F i g u r e 4.45
A l u b r i c a t e d c y l i n d e r - p l a n e system.
: :
:
surface v e l o c i t y viscosity
-q
h h
f i l m thickness
f i l m t h i c k n e s s when
dp/dx = 0
Using t h i s f i l m - t h i c k n e s s e q u a t i o n and a boundary c o n d i t i o n f o r p ( x ) , t h e Reynolds e q u a t i o n s can be i n t e g r a t e d . I n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , d i f f e r e n t boundary c o n d i t i o n s f o r p ( x ) a r e known: (a) (b) (c) Sommerfeld c o n d i t i o n , p = 0 a t x =
+ w
=- 0
-2-qv-
h2
142
Now u s i n g t h e H a l f Sommerfeld c o n d i t i o n , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e e a s i l y
t h e t o t a l l o a d c a r r i e d p e r u n i t l e n g t h o f t h e c y l i n d e r FN/L:
0
FN/L
Z y
0
Use o f t h e Reynolds c o n d i t i o n l e a d s t o
FN/L
2 . 4 5 y
0
( H a l f Sommerfeld)
(Reynolds)
These r e s u l t s show t h a t f o r t h e c y l i n d e r / p l a n e system t h e s e p a r a t i n g t h i c k ness o f t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m decreases w i t h d e c r e a s i n g v i s c o s i t y 7 , d e c r e a s i n g v e l o c i t y v, o r i n c r e a s i n g normal l o a d Fp,. A f t e r t h e s t u d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m t h i c k n e s s and t h e r e l e v a n t system parameters, t h e q u e s t i o n o f f r i c t i o n must be cons i d e r e d . As d e s c r i b e d above, t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e can be found by i n t e g r a t i n g t h e v i s c o u s shear f o r c e s on t h e c y l i n d e r s u r f a c e and adding t o them any hydrodynamic f o r c e a c t i n g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of movement. The r e s u l t s o f t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n , a p p l y i n g t h e Reynolds c o n d i t i o n l e a d s t o t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t (Ref. 1 . 7 ) :
143
I t i s interesting t o compare the results f o r the cylinderlplane system with t h a t f o r a journal bearing - practically, the most important hydrodynamically lubricated mechanical system (Ref. 4.128). I n Figure 4.46 the geometry of an operating journal bearing i s shown schematically, the clearance being grossly exaggerated.
I
FN : load
v
e rl r2 cr = I*2 - rl
velocity
: eccentricity : shaft
Figure 4.46
Since i n any journal bearing a natural lubricant wedge e x i s t s as a consequence o f the clearance, a t sufficiently high velocities the pressure generated in the wedge o f lubricant supports the shaft and separates i t completely from the bearing bushing. The f r i c t i o n a l behaviour can be described conveniently as a function of operating variables and the journal bearing data in terms o f the "Sommerfeld number" (sometimes also called "GUmbel number"). The Sommerfeld number is defined as
where
= -
2rL
9 ,
'r
: : :
rl
144
=-
J1r
so
for
so<
so>
i t follows t h a t
for
so c 1
for
so > 1
In this connection i t should be remembered t h a t the parameter-qv FN- was used as abscissa o f the Stribeck curve Figure 4.40, the general characteri s t i c of a lubricated system.
I-EZ-l
transmission
of wn*k
In t h i s connection i t should be remembered that the parameter-qv FN- was used as abscissa of the Stribeck curve Figure 4.40, the general characteri s t i c of a lubricated system.
145
Supplementing t h e s t u d y o f t h e f r i c t i o n r e s i s t a n c e i n hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n , t h e a s p e c t o f energy d i s s i p a t i o n s h o u l d be s t u d i e d . A exs p l a i n e d e a r l i e r , i n a j o u r n a l b e a r i n g t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of t h e mechanical i n p u t work i n t o t h e t e c h n i c a l l y used o u t p u t work i s performed v i a t h e t o r s i o n a l e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e b e a r i n g s h a f t . The f r i c t i o n a l energy losses a r e due t o " p a r a s i t i c " guidance l o s s e s o f t h e s h a f t . I n a f u l l - f l u i d j o u r n a l b e a r i n g t h e f r i c t i o n r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t m o t i o n i s g i v e n by t h e v i s cous shear r e s i s t a n c e l e a d i n g t o t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f h e a t w i t h i n t h e l u b r i c a n t which i s e i t h e r removed by t h e c i r c u l a t i n g l u b r i c a n t o r t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e elements o f t h e b e a r i n g . R e f e r r i n g t o t h e conceptual F i g u r e s 3.6 and
3.7,
p c1 q A T ,
t Ch
A A T2
where
f FN
v
:
:
f r ic t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t
normal l o a d velocity density o f lubricant volume f l o w r a t e o f l u b r i c a n t mean temperature r i s e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t i n passing through t h e bearing convective heat-transfer c o e f f i c i e n t a t the o i l bearing interface
P
c1
:
:
:
: s p e c i f i c h e a t o f 1u b r i c a n t
9 AT,
Ch
= 2nrL
: area o f t h e o i l b e a r i n g i n t e r f a c e
:
A T2
If
AT,
AT2
A T
i t follows t h a t
f FN v
=
A T ( p c1 q + 2 ~ ChrL) c
f FN v
AT
p c1 q + 2nChrL
146
JIr
so
+r so I/ 2
for
so -z 1
=-
for
so > I
i t e r a t i v e procedure must be adopted (Ref. 4.130). This i s due t o t h e i n t e r dependence o f t h e o p e r a t i n g parameter, load, v e l o c i t y , t h e Sommerfeld number which includes the v i s c o s i t y and t h e temperature
A T w i t h i n t h e bearing. The
consequences o f these e f f e c t s on the p r a c t i c a l design o f bearings are desc r i b e d i n books on p r a c t i c a l l u b r i c a t i o n (see f o r i n s t a n c e t h e Standard Handbook o f L u b r i c a t i o n Engineering, Ref. 4.131).
4 , 5 , 3 ELASTOHYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION
The d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n mode has been performed mainly f o r systems o f h i g h "geometrical conformity", l i k e t i l t e d pad bearings. I n these cases the surfaces are assumed t o remain completely r i g i d under the operation. I n t h e cases o f poor geometrical conformity, as i n t h e cases o f H e r t z i a n concentrated c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n s , t h e e f f e c t o f t h e e l a s t i c deformation o f t h e surfaces must be taken i n t o account. Owing t o t h e h i g h pressures t o be found i n l u b r i c a t e d H e r t z i a n contacts, t h e e f f e c t o f pressure on t h e l u b r i c a n t ' s v i s c o s i t y must a l s o be considered. A l l these leads t o t h e concept o f elastohydrodynamic (EHD) l u b r i c a t i o n (Ref. 4.132). I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , t h e main f e a t u r e s o f t h e elastohydrodynamic (EHD) l u b r i c a t i o n mode a r e t o be discussed i n two steps: F i r s t l y , t h e isothermal smooth surface EHD theory i s s t u d i e d and secondly, the e f f e c t s o f temperat u r e and surface roughness a r e included. Also i n t h i s s e c t i o n t h e emphasis
i s on t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l fundamentals and on t h e systems aspects o f t h e sub-
147
F i g u r e 4.48
An EHD c o n t a c t o f a c y l i n d e r n e a r a p l a n e .
The s o l u t i o n o f t h i s e q u a t i o n f o r t h e hydrodynamic case has been g i v e n above. T h i s s o l u t i o n i s n o t a p p l i c a b l e , however, t o EHD s i t u a t i o n s owing t o t h e dependence o f t h e f i l m p r o f i l e h and t h e v i s c o s i t y 7 on t h e p r e s s u r e p, i . e . , (ii) E l a s t i c i t y equation The f i l m p r o f i l e h ( x ) i s g i v e n by h = h ( p ) and q = y ( p ) .
2 X +-+h o 2 .,
elast
148
l o: v i s c o s i t y a t atmospheric
p r e s s u r e and To
a : pressure-viscosity
coefficient The v a l i d i t y o f an e x p o n e n t i a l law i n d i c a t e s an enormous i n c r e a s e o f v i s c o s i t y w i t h pressure. F o r i n s t a n c e , a t a H e r t z i a n p r e s s u r e o f about 2 1 GN/m t h e v i s c o s i t y o f a m i n e r a l o i l may i n c r e a s e b y a f a c t o r o f 106 compared w i t h i t s v a l u e under atmospheric pressure. The s o l u t i o n o f t h e EHD problem i n v o l v e s an i t e r a t i v e procedure t o e s t a b l i s h a c o m p a t i b i l i t y between e q u a t i o n s ( i ) , ( i i ) and ( i i i ) . I n a s i m p l i f i e d desc r i p t i o n t h e i t e r a t i v e procedure r u n s as f o l l o w s . Assuming an i n i t i a l f i l m t h i c k n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n which i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e Reynolds e q u a t i o n , a p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s o b t a i n e d . T h i s i n t u r n i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e e l a s t i c equat i o n g i v i n g an e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e e l a s t i c displacements which i s compared w i t h t h e i n i t i a l f i l m - t h i c k n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n . The i t e r a t i o n c o n t i n u e s u n t i l a s u f f i c i e n t degree o f c o n f o r m i t y i s o b t a i n e d . B e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e main s o l u t i o n s o f t h e EHD problem, a p h y s i c a l p i c t u r e o f t h e EHD p r e s s u r e and f i l m p r o f i l e w i l l be g a i n e d i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e drawings shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 4.49 f o r t h e c o n t a c t o f two cyl i n d e r s (Ref. 4.133). F i g u r e 4.49 ( a ) shows t h e w e l l known Hertzian-contact-pressure b u t i o n o f d r y s u r f a c e s s t u d i e d i n S e c t i o n 4.2.1. distriVarious s t u d i e s have a l s o
i n d i c a t e d t h a t under l u b r i c a t e d c o n d i t i o n s t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e gap i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y p a r a l l e l . T h i s r e q u i r e s t h a t a t t h e i n l e t r e g i o n t h e hydrodynamic p r e s s u r e i s l o w e r t h a n t h e H e r t z i a n p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n as sketched i n F i g u r e 4.49 ( b ) . I n t h e p a r a l l e l r e g i o n o f t h e gap, t h e f l o w volume p e r u n i t gap w i d t h i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t . Now, a t t h e o u t l e t t h e H e r t z i a n p r e s s u r e r a p i d l y decreases and t h e v i s c o s i t y f a l l s s e v e r a l o r d e r s o f magni-
149
( b ) pressure p r o f i l e a t the i n l e t
( c ) f i l m p r o f i l e belonging t o t h e pressure p r o f i l e
( d ) pressure p r o f i l e and f i l m p r o f i l e o f
Figure 4.49
160 tude t o i t s v alue under atmospheric pressure. Under these c o n d i t i o n s , t h e requirement o f t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f f l o w l e a d s t o a c o n s t r i c t i o n i n t h e f i l m p r o f i l e as i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.49 ( c ) . T h i s i s connected, i n accordance w i t h t h e e l a s t i c i t y equation, w i t h a p r e s s u r e s p i k e a t t h e o u t l e t . A l l these c o n s i d e r a t i o n s l e a d t o a f i l m p r o f i l e and a p r e s s u r e - d i s t r i b u t i o n shape as sketched i n F i g u r e 4.49 ( d ) . R e c e n t l y , t h e s e d i s t r i b u t i o n s have been d e t e r mined e x p e r i m e n t a l l y u s i n g s p e c i a l p r e s s u r e t r a nsducers (Ref. 4.134). A typ i c a l r e s u l t i s shown i n F i g u r e 4.50 (Ref. 4.94). The f e a t u r e s o f EHD l u b r i c a t i o n as des c rib ed i n Fi g u r e s 4.49 and 4.50 a r e now g e n e r a l l y accepted.
F i g u r e 4.50
Now, t u r n i n g o u r a t t e n t i o n f r o m t h e p h y s i c a l p i c t u r e o f EHD t o t h e i n f l u e n ces o f t h e v a r i o u s o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s and systems parameters, a r e l a t i o n d e s c r i b i n g t h e f i l m t h i c k n e s s was f i r s t o b t a i n e d by Grubin (Ref. 4.135) i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f o rm
Late r, Dowson and H i g g i n s o n (Ref. 4.136) were a b l e t o show t h a t t h e v a r i o u s s o l u t i o n s o f t h e EHD problem c o u l d be summarized t o t he f ormula:
161
hmin
r
where
hmi n
r
lo
: minimum f i l m thickness :
:
radius o f r e l a t i v e curvature v i s c o s i t y a t atmospheric pressure and a t t h e temperature o f t h e surfaces as they e n t e r the conjunction
a
1 v = - (vl 2
t v*)
T =Toexpap
: velocity :
load per u n i t width o f contact
FN/ L
The r e s u l t s were d e r i v e d f o r pure r o l l i n g b u t they are a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o moderate degrees o f s l i d i n g . The Dowson-Higginson formula has been extended i n various d i r e c t i o n s (Ref. 4.137, dynamic f l u i d t e s t i n g (Ref. 4.139, 4.138). 4.140). Further, refinements o f t h i s f o r mula have been obtained by t h e experimental methods o f o p t i c a l elastohydro-
I n a d d i t i o n , a h y p o t h e t i c a l con-
s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n f o r EHD o i l f i l m s has been proposed which combines a l i n e a r e l a s t i c response w i t h a n o n - l i n e a r shear t h i n n i n g viscous response (Ref. 4.141). The analyses o f e l astohydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n show t h a t t h e major v a r i a b l e s encountered i n isothermal smooth-surface EHD problems can be r e presented by t h e f o l l o w i n g dimensionless groups: Film-thickness parameter
= r
Load parameter
w = -
FN/L
Er
V e l o c i t y parameter
u = - TOV
Er G = a E
M a t e r i a l s parameter
The s e t o f t h e f o u r dimensionless groups can be reduced t o t h r e e w i t h o u t any l o s s o f g e n e r a l i t y (Ref. 4.133, f o r instance are: 4.142, 4.143). Two o f t h e p o s s i b l e sets,
152
HG2, WG2, UG4 The r e s u l t s o f i s o t h e r m a l , smooth-surface EHD t h e o r y have been c o n f i r m e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y and a r e now g e n e r a l l y accepted as an i d e a l i z e d b a s i s of t h i s f i e l d . I n more r e a l i s t i c s i t u a t i o n s , however, two f u r t h e r aspects must be considered (Ref. 4.144): (i) t h e d i s s i p a t i o n o f energy w i t h i n t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m , i . e . , ence on t h e l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y and t h e f i l m t h i c k n e s s , ( i i ) t h e s u r f a c e roughness. and i t s i n f l u e n c e on t h e f i l m shape and t h e effect o f asperity interactions. Another o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n which may f r e q u e n t l y be i m p o r t a n t b u t r a r e l y c o n s i d e r e d i s t h e s u p p l y and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l u b r i c a n t i n t h e neighbourhood o f t h e c o n j u n c t i o n r e g i o n . I t has been shown t h a t l u b r i c a n t " s t a r v a t i o n " a l t e r s t h e EHD b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system i n s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t ways (Ref. 4.145). Moreover, t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s t a r v a t i o n can be an o v e r r i d i n g f a c t o r on t h e performance o f machine elements (Ref. 4.146). the viscous
T(OC) l 8 160
' 1 &
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
Ty
= 4OoC),
153
In applying the I R temperature-detecting technique, Winer and coworkers were able t o measure b o t h lubricant temperatures and surface temperatures in sliding EHD point-contact situations (Ref. 4.147). Some representative results are reproduced in Figure 4.51. The friction-induced temperature d a t a measured under various operating conditions clearly indicate the importance of the e f f e c t of the operating variables sliding velocity and contact pressure, on b o t h ball-surface and fluid temperatures. They also show significant i n l e t zone heating which in turn will reduce the lubricant viscosity and pressure viscosity coefficient, the dominant mechanical properties affecting the EHD film thickness. The influence of friction-induced temperatures on lubricant viscosity lowers the film thickness. Therefore the e f f e c t o f surface roughness and the possibility of asperity contacts cannot be neglected in EHD lubrication. The inclusion o f these effects has led t o the concept of partial EHD lubrication. A characteristic factor of partial EHD i s the r a t i o , h , of the theoret i c a l (isothermal) smooth-surface EHD film thickness ho to the combined roughness, R , o f the surfaces:
ho IT'
where
[R a i
RaE]
112
The value of i s calculated e i t h e r on the basis of readily measured r.m.s. or c.1.a. (R,) values, o r in more sophisticated way, by using the standard deviation of the peak-height distribution of the surface a s p e r i t i e s as described in Section 4.2.1. The h - r a t i o n o t only i s important i n the limits of lubrication and film f a i l u r e i n rolling and sliding situations (see Section 4.5.61, b u t i t can a l s o be used in describing the change-over from f u l l EHD t o partial EHD lubrication or "mixed" lubrication and to boundary lubricae tion. I f h > 3 t o 5 w expect a f u l l - f l u i d EHD film t o separate the surfaces. A t h = 3 the f i r s t asperity "contacts" occur. A t t h i s point, the f u l l EHD regime of the Stribeck's curve i s l e f t and the region of partial EHD ( a t the minimum o f Stribeck's curve) i s reached.
164
4,5,4
MIXED
LUBRICATION
, Greenwood
4.153).
Vogelpohl i n 1954 (Ref. 4.149) extended t h e e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f a hydrodynamically l u b r i c a t e d j o u r n a l bearing, described i n s e c t i o n 4.5.2
(So > 1)
t o t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a o f mixed l u b r i c a t i o n
where fo i s t h e s t a t i c c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n and cr and hmin a r e t h e r a d i a l c l e a r a n c e and t h e f i l m t h i c k n e s s a t t h e minimum o f t h e S t r i b e c k curve, respectively. C h r i s t e n s e n i n h i s t h e o r y o f mixed l u b r i c a t i o n (Ref. 4.150) used a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f Reynolds e q u a t i o n f o r s u r f a c e s w i t h roughnesses i n t h e f o r m o f continuous l o n g i t u d i n a l r i d g e s and w i t h no l a r g e - s c a l e s i d e leakage. I n i t s i n t e g r a t e d form, t h i s e q u a t i o n becomes
155
-dP_
dx
E" ( h ' )
6 W l
+
- E* (boo)
v2)
E* ( h ' ) 3
where
p x
i s t h e hydrodynamic pressure, i s a Cartesian co-ordinate i n the d i r e c t i o n o f motion, i s t h e l o c a l dynamic v i s c o s i t y o f t h e l u b r i c a n t , are the v e l o c i t i e s o f the surfaces r e l a t i v e t o t h e i r conjunction, i s t h e l o c a l f i l m thickness, i s t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o p e r a t o r , d e f i n e d by
1
v1 and v2 h' and
E*
E*(xn)
1
00
0
xn f ( x ) dx
A m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c l a s s i c a l Reynolds e q u a t i o n f o r a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e
c o n t a c t o f rough s u r f a c e s has a l s o been proposed by B e r t h e and Godet ( R e f . 4.151). T h e i r approach a l s o emphasized t h e pronounced i n f l u e n c e o f s l i d i n g v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e regime o f mixed l u b r i c a t i o n . Johnson, Greenwood and Poon ( R e f . 4.152) combined t h e smooth-surface
F i g u r e 4.52
156
F i g u r e 4.52 ( b ) , t h e b u l k ( H e r t z an) d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e two s o l i d s under the applied loatl
is
m o d e l l e d by t h e s p r i n g Sh. The o 1 f i l m and t h e a s p e r i t i e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e p a r a l l e l s p r i n g s S f and Sa, r e s p e c t i v e l y . A l l s p r i n g s a r e n o n - l i n e a r ; t h e s t i f f n e s s of each i n c r e a s e s w i t h compression. From t h i s model i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e a s p e r i t y p r e s s u r e i s determined p r i m a r i l y by t h e f i l m - t h i c k n e s s - t o roughness r a t i o h , d e f i n e d above. Likewise, i n T a l l i a n ' s t h e o r y o f p a r t i a l elastohydrodynamic c o n t a c t s (Ref. 4.153), t h e 1 - r a t i o i s c o n s i d e r e d as an i m p o r t a n t parameter. From t h e t h e o r i e s o f p a r t i a l EHD, as o u t l i n e d by T a l l i a n and b y Johnson, Greenwood and Poon, i t may be concluded t h a t i f h i s l o w e r than a c e r t a i n l i m i t , l e s s than
4 5 , 5 BOUNDARY U B R I C A T I O N L
The l u b r i c a t i o n regime o f t h e u t m o s t l e f t p a r t o f t h e S t r i b e c k c u r v e i s termed boundary l u b r i c a t i o n . T h i s l u b r i c a t i o n mode i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g features: (a) (b) (c) t h e s o l i d s u r f a c e s a r e so c l o s e t o g e t h e r t h a t a p p r e c i a b l e c o n t a c t takes p l a c e between t h e a s p e r i t i e s , hydrodynamic e f f e c t s and i n f l u e n c e s o f t h e b u l k r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e l u b r i c a n t s a r e o f l i t t l e o r no importance, t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r i s determined by s u r f a c e i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h i n l a y e r s o f boundary l u b r i c a n t s and t h e s o l i d s u r f a c e s . Due t o these f e a t u r e s , t h e processes which determine t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l beh a v i o u r o f s o l i d s u r f a c e s (see S e c t i o n s 4.2, 4.3, 4.4) a r e v a l i d l i k e w i s e under boundary l u b r i c a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s , namely: (i) t h e c o n t a c t mechanics and t h e e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c a s p e r i t y deformat i o n processes, ( i i ) t h e c o n t a c t p h y s i c s and c h e m i s t r y and t h e a c t i o n o f s u r f a c e f o r c e s , ( i i i ) t h e f r i c t i o n processes, e s p e c i a l l y t h e s h e a r i n g o f adhesive j u n c t i o n s and t h e d e f o r m a t i o n o f a s p e r i t i e s , (iv) t h e wear processes which a r e g i v e n i n t h e g e n e r a l case by t h e superp o s i t i o n o f e f f e c t s o f s u r f a c e f a t i g u e , abrasion, adhesion and t r i b o chemical r e a c t i o n s .
( I ) "Nonreactive" o r
"
i n d i f f e r e n t " 1u b r i c a n t s
Hydrocarbons and most o t h e r base o i l s f a l l i n t h i s c l a s s . U s u a l l y t h e most i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t y o f these m a t e r i a l s i s v i s c o s i t y , which depends on chem i c a l s t r u c t u r e i n a f a i r l y r e g u l a r f a s h i o n . The hydrocarbons o r base o i l s f r o m p e t r o l e u m may be c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r s t r u c t u r e i n t o s a t u r a t e d ( p a r a f f i n s and naphthenes) and u n s a t u r a t e d ones ( o l e f i n s and aromat i c s ) . The f o u r c l a s s e s can be t y p i f i e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g s t r u c t u r e s : (a) Paraffin
CH3
CH2
CH
CH2
CH3
I
CH3
168
(b)
Naphthene
'CH2 7H2
\ CH
CH
CH2
(c)
Olefin
CH2
CH
- CH - CH3
CH 3
(d)
Aromatic
CH
CH\
CH
I1
A l l m i n e r a l o i l s c o n s i s t o f molecules which g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n more t han one type o f hydrocarbon m o i e t y . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f o i l s as p a r a f f i n i c , naphthen i c (i.e., c y c l o p a r a f f i n ) o r aromatic i n d i c a t e s the r e l a t i v e concentrations o f t h e moieties.
( II )
L u b r i c a n t a d d i t i v e s c o n t a i n i n g a p o l a r group a t t a c h e d t o l o n g chains o f methylene groups ( i .e., (-CH2-)n where n > 10) a r e o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o as " o i l i n e s s " o r " l u b r i c i t y " a d d i t i v e s ; oxygen i s t h e most usual hetero-atom i n t h e commonly used m a t e r i a l . T y p i c a l examples are:
159
S t e a r i c acid:
CH3 (-CH2-)15 0 // C-OH
Oleic acid:
0 //
CH3 (-CH2-)7 CH
=
CH (-CH2-)7 C-OH
Each of these a d d i t i v e s possesses an unbranched hydrocarbon chain with a polar group a t i t s extremity. Besides the long-chain f a t t y acids c e r t a i n alcohols and e s t e r s of s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e a r e a l s o used. These materials can be dissolved in small q u a n t i t i e s (about 1 per c e n t ) in a base o i l a n d will then a t t a c h themselves t o the metal surfaces.
(111)
"
These 1 ubri cant a d d i t i v e s usually contain t h e heteroatoms phosphorus, sulf u r o r chlorine and may a d d i t i o n a l l y o r even p r i n c i p a l l y contain oxygen, lead, zinc, boron, selenium, e t c . Examples are: Dibenzyldisulfide:
0CH2
Zinc d i o c t y l - d i t h i o - p h o s p h a t e :
Zn
ij
L
The major determined operating f a c t o r f o r
These a d d i t i v e s function under boundary l u b r i c a t i o n conditions by reacting with the contacting metal a s p e r i t i e s t o form films which a i d in the reduction of i n t e r m e t a l l i c contact and wear and t o prevent c a t a s t r o p h i c surface f a i l u r e s (Ref. 4.154, 4 . 1 5 5 ) . these actions i s the operating temperature i n the i n t e r f a c e . In order t o understand the mechanisms o f boundary l u b r i c a t i o n , the physico-chemical processes of i n t e r f a c i a l film formation must be considered.
160
The l u b r i c a n t / s o l i d i n t e r a c t i o n s which l e a d t o t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f a p r o t e c t i v e boundary f i l m can be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e mechanisms (Ref. 4.156,
4.157) :
(a) PHYSICAL ADSORPTION (PHY SISORPTION)
I n a b o u n d a r y - l u b r i c a t i o n system, p h y s i c a l a d s o r p t i o n occurs when t h e molec u l e s o f t h e l u b r i c a n t a r e h e l d t o t h e s u r f a c e by van d e r Waals s u r f a c e forces (i.e., d i p o l e - d i p o l e i n t e r a c t i o n s , see S e c t i o n 4.2.2). The molecules a r e weakly bonded, and t h e f i l m f o r m a t i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r e v e r s i b i l i t y and monomolecular o r mu1 t i m o l e c u l a r l a y e r s . P o l a r molecules, p a r t i c u l a r l y l o n g c h a i n hydrocarbons, adsorb w i t h p r e f e r r e d v e r t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n , see F i g u r e 4.53. Ref. 4.158.) ( F o r i n s t a n c e : adsorbed s t e a r i c a c i d molecules a r e 19
high,
unreactive metal
F i g u r e 4.53
Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f p h y s i s o r p t i o n .
The p o l a r a d d i t i v e s condense on t h e s u r f a c e t o f o r m a s o l i d f i l m . Many molec u l e s pack i n as c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e and s t r e n g t h e n t h e f i l m w i t h l a t e r a l cohesive f o r c e s . T h i s s o l i d f i l m , a d h e r i n g t o t h e s u r f a c e and w i t h t h e molec u l e s c o h e r i n g t o each o t h e r , t h e n has t h e a b i l i t y t o r e s i s t p e n e t r a t i o n o f a s p e r i t i e s and t h u s i n h i b i t m e t a l - t o - m e t a l c o n t a c t . I n a d d i t i o n , a zone o f low shear s t r e n g t h i s formed between t h e outermost s u r f a c e s o f two monolayers adsorbed on opposing metal s u r f a c e s . A boundary l u b r i c a t e d system w i t h phys i c a l a d s o r p t i o n o f t h e f i l m i s temperature s e n s i t i v e because h e a t causes
161
d e s o r p t i o n , d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , o r m e l t i n g o f t h e f i l m . Thus, boundary l u b r i c a t i o n dependent upon p h y s i c a l a d s o r p t i o n i s l i m i t e d t o l o w b u l k temperatures and c o n d i t i o n s o f low f r i c t i o n a l h e a t g e n e r a t i o n , i . e . , sliding velocities. (b) CHEMICAL ADSORPTION (CHEMISORPTION) l o w l o a d s and l o w
I n a b o u n d a r y - l u b r i c a t i o n system, c h e m i s o r p t i o n occurs when t h e molecules o f t h e l u b r i c a n t a r e h e l d t o t h e s u r f a c e by chemical bonds, i . e . , shortrange s u r f a c e f o r c e s . Compared w i t h p h y s i s o r p t i o n , i t i s g e n e r a l l y n o t comp l e t e l y r e v e r s i b l e and shows h i g h e r heats o f a d s o r p t i o n ( P h y s i s o r p t i o n :
i
H-C-H H-C-H
/
\
i
H-C-H H-C-H
/ \
H-C-H
H-C-H
H-C-H
H-C-H
\
H-C-H
H-C-H
\
H-C-H
adhesion
H-C-H
H-C-H
H-C-H
H-C-H H-C-H
/
F i g u r e 4.54
Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c h e m i s o r p t i o n .
These metal soaps n o t o n l y have d e s i r a b l e shear p r o p e r t i e s , t h e y a l s o have m e l t i n g p o i n t s c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r than t h o s e o f t h e o r i g i n a l f a t t y a c i d . F o r example, t h e m e l t i n g p o i n t o f s t e a r i c a c i d i s 69OC; o f i t s metal soaps,
i t i s about 120C. Chemisorbed f i l m s l u b r i c a t e e f f e c t i v e l y up t o t h e i r
m e l t i n g p o i n t , whether t h e f i l m i s formed " i n s i t u " on a r e a c t i v e s u r f a c e o r spread on an u n r e a c t i v e s u r f a c e . Boundary chemisorbed f i l m s p r o v i d e l u b r i c a t i o n a t moderate loads, temperatures and s l i d i n g v e l o c i t i e s and f a i l
162 under severe o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . The f a i l u r e t o l u b r i c a t e i s a r e s u l t o f t h e d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , s o f t e n i n g o r m e l t i n g o f t h e f i l m under t h e combined act i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s and t h e energy t r a n s a c t i o n s . (c) CHEMICAL REACTION
I n a b o u n d a r y - l u b r i c a t i o n system, chemical r e a c t i o n between t h e s o l i d s u r faces and t h e l u b r i c a n t molecules occurs when t h e r e i s an exchange of val e n c e e l e c t r o n s and a new chemical compound i s formed as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.55.
S S S S S S
F i g u r e 4.55
The boundary f i l m s a r e u n l i m i t e d i n t h i c k n e s s (governed by d i f f u s i o n p r o cesses through t h e c r y s t a l l i n e l a t t i c e s ) and c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h a c t i v a t i o n and bonding en e r g i e s and i r r e v e r s i b i l i t y . Most o f t h e c h e m i c a l l y react i v e boundary l u b r i c a n t s c o n t a i n s u l p h u r , c h l o r i n e and phosphorus atoms i n t h e molecule. They a r e b e l i e v e d t o f u n c t i o n b y f o r m i n g m e t a l - s a l t f i l m s o f low shear s t r e n g t h b u t o f h i g h m e l t i n g p o i n t , such as s u l f i d e , c h l o r i d e o r phosphide, a t t h e i n t e r f a c e . These f i l m s a r e more s t a b l e t h a n any p h y s i c a l l y o r c h e m i c a l l y adsorbed f i l m . Boundary l u b r i c a n t s dependent upon chemical r e a c t i o n a r e s u i t a b l e f o r h i g h load, h i g h temperatures, and h i g h s M d i n g speeds and l i m i t e d t o r e a c t i v e m e t a l s . These c o n d i t i o n s a r e commonly r e f e r r e d t o as "extreme-pressure" c o n d i t i o n s , a1 though t h e g r e a t e s t s e v e r i t y a r i s e s f ro m h i g h temperatures. A1 though "EP" a d d i t i v e s f u n c t i o n by r e a c t i n g w i t h t h e s urf ac es t h e y must n o t be t o o r e a c t i v e , o t h e r w i s e t r i b o - c h e m i c a l wear may reach v ery h i g h r a t e s .
163
Concerning the t r i b o l o g i c a l behaviour of a boundary-lubrication system, since the boundary films may be considered t o be s o l i d and t o behave a s a r i g i d continuation of the s o l i d body (Ref. 4.159), the contact, f r i c t i o n and wear processes a s discussed in Sections 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 a r e v a l i d i n p r i n c i p l e . I n order t o describe the f r i c t i o n a l behaviour of the various boundary f i l m s , s t y l i z e d diagrams have been used (Ref. 4.160, 4.161) as in Figure 4.56.
Figure 4.56
I n t h i s diagram, the c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n f i s plotted a g a i n s t the temperature T. Curve I i s f o r a system l u b r i c a t e d w i t h a non-polar base o i l . I t shows t h a t the f r i c t i o n is i n i t i a l l y r e l a t i v e l y high and increases with increasing temperature as the weak physical adsorption bonds are loosened. Curve I1 i s f o r a f a t t y acid dissolved i n the base o i l . This l u b r i c a n t rea c t s w i t h the metal s u r f a c e forming a m e t a l l i c soap which i s e a s i l y sheared a t t h e area of real contact. Up t o Tm, the melting point of the metal soap, the f r i c t i o n i s low and constant b u t above t h i s point r i s e s steeply. Curve 111 is representative of an EP a d d i t i v e dissolved in the base o i l . The add i t i v e r e a c t s very slowly below a c e r t a i n reaction temperature Tr. When Tr i s reached, the chemical reaction s t a r t s and the f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t decreases as the r a t e of f i l m formation permits a s o l i d f i l m t o carry the load. In t h i s case e f f e c t i v e l u b r i c a t i o n i s provided up t o high temperature. Curve IV i s a hypothetical curve f o r an e f f e c t i v e combination of I1 and 111.
Good l u b r i c a t i o n i s p r o v i d e d by t h e f a t t y a c i d below Tr, w h i l e above t h i s temperature t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e l u b r i c a t i o n i s due t o t h e EP a d d i t i v e . I f t h e wear behaviour o f t h e d i f f e r e n t b o u n d a r y - l u b r i c a t i o n systems i s t o be described i n t h e form o f s t y l i z e d diagrams, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s shown i n F i g u r e 4.57 r e s u l t .
Wear rate
K'
F O c r it F i g u r e 4.57
Load FN
x sliding
Curve ( a ) represents t h e wear behaviour o f a d r y metal/metal s l i d i n g system. As a r e s u l t o f t h e wear processes d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 4.4 occurr i n g i n i t i a l l y a t t h e " o u t e r " s u r f a c e l a y e r s (see F i g u r e 4.5) a c e r t a i n wear r a t e K', r e s u l t s . I f t h e l o a d i s r e l a t i v e l y low, t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r s worn o f f may be r e p l a c e d under t h e a c t i o n o f t h e gaseous environment ( " m i l d wear" regime). I f however, t h e l o a d reaches a c e r t a i n l i m i t , FOcrit, t h e wear process may p e n e t r a t e t o t h e " i n n e r " surface l a y e r s l e a d i n g t o "severe wear" and t o an i n c r e a s e o f t h e wear r a t e over several o r d e r s o f magnitude. Curve ( b ) i s f o r a system l u b r i c a t e d w i t h a base o i l . The i n f l u e n c e o f chemical a d d i t i v e s i n a base o i l may l e a d t o two d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t s :
166
(i) (ii) a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e wear r a t e amount A F. I f t h e a c t i o n of an a d d i t i v e l e a d s p r i m a r i l y t o t h e e f f e c t ( i ) , as shown i n curve (c), i t i s c a l l e d "anti-wear"
(AW) a d d i t i v e . The most common t y p e s
an i n c r e a s e o f t h e l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y Fcrit
AW
p r o p e r t i e s . I f t h e a c t i o n o f an a d d i t i v e l e a d s p r i m a r i l y t o t h e e f f e c t
i t i s termed "extreme p r e s s u r e
( i i ) , as shown i n c u r v e ( d ) o f F i g u r e 4.57,
a r e those c o n t a i n i n g s u l f u r and/or c h l o r i n e . T y p i c a l s u l f u r - c o n t a i n i n g add i t i v e s a r e s u l f u r i z e d f a t t y e s t e r s , terpenes and o l e f i n s o r d i b e n z y l d i s u l f i d e . The most common c h l o r i n e - c o n t a i n i n g EP a d d i t i v e s a r e c h l o r i n a t e d p a r a f f i n s , c o n t a i n i n g up t o 70% C 1 . A l t h o u g h i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e a d d i t i v e s under boundary c o n d i t i o n s f o r m p r o t e c t i v e s u r f a c e l a y e r s by t h e physico-chemical processes e x p l a i n e d above, t h e chemical d e t a i l s and t h e k i n e t i c s o f t h e f i l m f o r m a t i o n and i t s d i s p e r s a l a r e s t i l l under d i s c u s s i o n . C l e a r l y , i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f a d d i t i v e p e r formance b e s i d e s t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e l u b r i c a n t a l s o t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e metal s u b s t r a t e must be c o n s i d e r e d (Ref. 4.162). The l i t e r a t u r e on boundary For l u b r i c a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s o f a d d i t i v e s and t h e i r v a r i o u s combinations i s enormous and cannot be d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n t h e scope o f t h i s volume. (Ref. 4.161), F e i n ( R e f . 4.163). The t r e a t i s e on t h e b o u n d a r y - l u b r i c a t i o n mode o f a t r i b o l o g i c a l system s h o u l d n o t be c l o s e d w i t h o u t a c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e main i n f l u e n c i n g paramet e r s o f t h i s most complex f i e l d . Some o f these parameters a r e c o n t a i n e d i n
a f o r m u l a proposed by C.N. Rowe (Ref. 4.164,
4.165) f o r t h e r a t e o f adhesive
wear o f a boundary l u b r i c a t e d system. The f o r m u l a c o n t a i n s two d i m e n s i o n l e s s groups, one o f which i s d e s c r i p t i v e o f t h e s l i d i n g m e t a l c o u p l e and t h e o t h e r i s o f the effectiveness o f the l u b r i c a n t f i l m a t the surface, conside r i n g t h a t t h e h e a t o f a d s o r p t i o n may be t h e c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r i n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e boundary l u b r i c a n t . The model l e a d s t o t h e e x p r e s s i o n :
166
The parameters i n v o l v e d i n t h i s r e l a t i o n may be c l a s s i f i e d under t h e f o l l o w i n g headings: Operating variables:
FN
v 1
: load
TS
M a t e r i a l s parameters: p , Q
Rc : f l o w p r e s s u r e o f t h e s o f t e r metal : heat o f adsorption m o l a r gas c o n s t a n t :
Interaction characteristics: da to
f
: d i a m e t e r o f t h e area a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an adsorbed m o l e c u l e
: fundamental o s c i l l a t i o n t i m e o f an adsorbed m o l e c u l e
K ,
4,5,6
THE L I M I T S OF
LUBRICATION
The surveys p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f o r e g o i n g s e c t i o n s show t h a t l u b r i c a t i o n i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t means o f i n f l u e n c i n g t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s o f energy and m a t e r i a l s i n t r i b o l o g i c a l systems and r e d u c i n g f r i c t i o n and m i t i g a t i n g wear. Conseq u e n t l y , any d i s t u r b a n c e o r f a i l u r e o f l u b r i c a t i o n has d e t r i m e n t a l consequences f o r t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system. Besides an understandi n g o f t h e mechanisms o f p r o p e r l u b r i c a t i o n , i t i s t h e r e f o r e necessary t o g a i n some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e processes and f a c t o r s which d e t e r m i n e a f a i l u r e o f l u b r i c a t i o n , i.e., the possible " l i m i t s " o f lubrication. S t a r t i n g f r o m c o n d i t i o n s o f f u l l - f l u i d - f i l m l u b r i c a t i o n and f o l l o w i n g t h e course o f t h e S t r i b e c k c u r v e e i t h e r t o t h e r i g h t o r t o t h e l e f t , two d i f f e r e n t types o f t h e l i m i t s o f l u b r i c a t i o n a r e met:
167
(a) (b) To t h e r i g h t , as f o r i n s t a n c e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g v e l o c i t y , t h e c o n d i t i o n s
o f l a m i n a r f l u i d f l o w may change t o t u r b u l e n t f l o w .
To t h e l e f t , f o r i n s t a n c e w i t h d e c r e a s i n g v e l o c i t y , r u n n i n g t h r o u g h t h e v a r i o u s non-hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n regimes, t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m may e v e n t u a l l y break down l e a d i n g t o c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e i n t h e f o r m o f " s c u f f i n g " o r " s e i z u r e " (Ref. 4.166). I n f l u i d mechanics, c o n s i d e r i n g a f l u i d o f v i s c o s i t y T and d e n s i t y p f l o w i n g w i t h a v e l o c i t y v p a s t a l o n g c y l i n d e r o f d i a m e t e r d, t h e change f r o m l a m i n a r t o t u r b u l e n t f l o w i s d i s c u s s e d i n terms o f t h e Reynolds number
Re
P = - v d
rl
F o r Re < 1 a l a m i n a r f l u i d f l o w mode i s found. F o r Re > 1 v a r i o u s e f f e c t s o f d i s t u r b a n c e s and t u r b u l e n c e s o c c u r , l i k e t h e "KBrmln v o r t e x s t r e e t " app e a r i n g f o r Re > 40 ( R e f . 4.167). I n j o u r n a l b e a r i n g s o f t h e t y p i c a l c l e a r a n c e r a t i o s 0.001 < c r / r 0.01, < " T a y l o r v o r t e x f l o w " w i l l develop i n t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m b e f o r e t h e
n i q u e ( R e f . 4.172,
<
i s d e f i n e d as
168
t h e percentage o f t i m e d u r i n g which t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e Rc o f a c o n t a c t i s h i g h e r t h a n a c e r t a i n R c - l e v e l i n d i c a t i n g complete separat i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e s , see S e c t i o n 7.2.3.) The v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f and t h e n o - c o n t a c t t i m e f r a c t i o n as f u n c t i o n o f t h e f i l m t h i c k n e s s t o roughness r a t i o A a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 4.58.
uC
.C
c,
0.3 0.2
0.1
I
I
G z u-
a J u
8 u
'7
s
L
c,
.C
100
.I
P
u
i
c
O
ao
60
40 20
c,
W
m c
.r
u u
O
c,
z +
With t h e diagram shown i n F i g u r e 4.58, two t r a n s i t i o n s can be s p e c i f i e d : (a) The t r a n s i t i o n f r o m f u l l f l u i d - f i l m l u b r i c a t i o n t o mixed l u b r i c a t i o n o r p a r t i a l EHD l u b r i c a t i o n , i n d i c a t e d by
5
(b)
< 100%
and
h i a 3
The o n s e t o f continuous a s p e r i t y c o n t a c t w i t h i n t h e i n t e r f a c e , i n d i c a t e d by
0%
and
A c z l
169
The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n s ( a ) and ( b the film-thickness-to-roughness c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 4.5.3. Another way o f d e s c r i b i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n s between t h e v a r i o u s l u b r i c a t i o n modes i s t o s t u d y t h e change o f A as f u n c t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s f o r a g i v e n s l i d i n g system. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , a s i m p l i f i e d p h y s i c a l p i c t u r e o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t r a n s i t i o n s f r o m a f u l l - f l u i d EHD l u b r i c a t i o n t o t h e breakdown o f b o u n d a r y - l u b r i c a t i o n f i l m s i s o u t l i n e d (Ref. 4.174). t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e schematic diagram o f F i g u r e 4.59. The s i t u a On t h e l e f t t h e ratio h has been g i v e n i n terms o f u b r i c a n t p r o p e r t i e s as des-
The v a l u e o f h i n t u r n depends on
t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s and t h e m a t e r i a l and
l o , a ) and t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s (FN, v, T ) .
On t h e r i g h t , t h e d i f f e r e n t p o r t i o n s o f t h e c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e a r e d e s c r i b e d
pI fluid pressure
1-P
= PI
'Po
-Ap
Pl'O
I
EHD c o n t a c t and
F i g u r e 4.59
The A,
i n which ho i s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f i s o t h e r m a l smooth-surface EHD t h e o r y and i n which Ro r e p r e s e n t s t h e i n i t i a l s u r f a c e roughness. I n t h e l o w e r Adyn curve, two dynamic i n f l u e n c e s a r e t a k e n i n t o account:
170
( i1 The i n c r e a s e o f t h e i n t e r f a c i a l temperature AT, e s t i m a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f B l o k ' s t h e o r y , see S e c t i o n 4.3.4, i n t e r f a c i a l temperature r i s e , A T , (The assumption t h a t t h e
mated on t h e b a s i s o f B l o k ' s t h e o r y i s supported by t h e d i r e c t I R temperature measurements performed by Winer and co-workers, (ii) see a l s o F i g u r e 4.51.) The i n c r e a s e i n s u r f a c e roughness d u r i n g t h e s l i d i n g process. (The a c t u a l "dynamic" s u r f a c e topography has been measured i n s e p a r a t i n g t h e s l i d i n g s u r f a c e s r a p i d l y a t d i f f e r e n t stages o f t h e t e s t . ) From t h e values o f ( i ) , t h e v i s c o s i t y
= -q ( T + A T ) and t h e v i s c o s i t y -
p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t a = a ( T + A T ) a r e e s t i m a t e d and used i n r e - c a l c u l a t i n g t h e "dynamic" EHD f i l m t h i c k n e s s h. I f t h i s (reduced) f i l m t h i c k n e s s i s d i v i d e d by t h e a c t u a l dynamic s u r f a c e roughness values ( i i ) , t h e Adyn c u r v e o f F i g u r e 4.59 i s o b t a i n e d . The whole c h a i n o f events which l e a d s t o l u b r i c a n t f a i l u r e can now be d i s c u s s e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e schematic d i a gram o f F i g u r e 4.59: I f i n s l i d i n g EHD c o n t a c t s t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s l e a d t o an i n i t i a l film-thickness-to-roughness r a t i o o f h > 3 t o 4, c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f c o n v e n t i o n a l smooth-surface i s o t h e r m a l EHD t h e o r y , i t c o u l d be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e system operates under f u l l f l u i d - f i l m c o n d i t i o n s . However, depending on t h e v a l u e s o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s ( , F v, T V ) and t h e mat e r i a l data, a c e r t a i n amount o f i n t e r f a c i a l v i s c o u s h e a t i n g must be t a k e n i n t o account, which t h e n l o w e r s t h e v i s c o s i t y qo and t h e p r e s s u r e - v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t a , l e a d i n g t o a decrease i n t h e nominal values o f h . I f t h e n h f a l l s below a c e r t a i n v a l u e ( A c 3, say), t h e f i r s t a s p e r i t y c o n t a c t s o c c u r and t h e r e g i o n o f p a r t i a l EHD i s reached. I n t h i s r e g i o n , t h e Adyn c u r v e r a t h e r than t h e ho c u r v e i s v a l i d . The c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e i s t h e n made up o f t h e f l u i d p r e s s u r e pf and t h e a s p e r i t y p r e s s u r e pa. Through t h e a c t i o n o f i n t e r f a c i a l viscous h e a t i n g and a s p e r i t y c o l l i s i o n h e a t i n g , as w e l l as condecreases s t e e p l y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p u n t i l a t a c t topography changes, A dyn reached a t which t h e a c t i o n o f an EHD f i l m ends, i . e . , value o f h i s
171
s u r f a c e f i l m s (see S e c t i o n 4.5.5). The b r e a k t h r o u g h o f t h e s u r f a c e layer;
i n i t s e l f may a l s o o c c u r as a n o t h e r s t e p w i s e process i n which f i r s t t h e " o u t e r " s u r f a c e f i l m s ( p h y s i - o r chemisorbed l a y e r s ) and t h e n t h e " i n n e r " s u r f a c e l a y e r s ( o x i d e l a y e r s and t h e c o l d worked l a y e r s ) a r e broken o r t h e r m a l l y desorbed. I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e mechanisms o f f a i l u r e o f t h i n - f i l m l u b r i c a t i o n of s l i d i n g c o n c e n t r a t e d c o n t a c t s a r e determined b y t h e p h y s i c a l and chemical n a t u r e o f p r o t e c t i n g s u r f a c e l a y e r s as w e l l as t h e EHD and a s p e r i t y c o n t a c t c o n d i t i o n s as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s and t h e dynamic i n t e r f a c i a l changes.
F i g u r e 4.60
An e m p i r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e c r i t i c a l values o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s a t t h e f a i l u r e t r a n s i t i o n can now be o b t a i n e d as f o l l o w s : I f d u r i n g a g i v e n change o f o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f and t h e wear c o e f f i c i e n t K ' (wear volume x l o a d - ' x s l i d i n g d i s tance-') a r e recorded, t h e f a i l u r e t r a n s i t i o n i n d i c a t i n g " i n c i p i e n t s c u f 4.176, 4.177). F o r t h e case o f l u b r i c a t e d f i n g " m a n i f e s t s i n s h a r p jumps o f b o t h t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t and t h e wear c o e f f i c i e n t (Ref. 4.175, t e r i z e d by t h e t r a n s i t i o n s f < 0.1 s l i d i n g c o n c e n t r a t e d c o n t a c t s , t h e o n s e t o f i n c i p i e n t s c u f f i n g i s charac-
> 0.3
112
An e x p e r i m e n t a l example of t h e f r i c t i o n t r a n s i t i o n , i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h i n terferograms o f t h e s l i d i n g surfaces a t the d i f f e r e n t The above t r a n s i t i o n s o f f and tages o f f i l m f a i l u r e as d e s c r i b e d above, i s shown i n F i g u r e 4.60 ( R e f . 4.174).
s p e c i f y t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d FN ( o r p r e s s u r e p ) determined f o r a g i v e n c o n s t a n t s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y v and a g i v e n b u l k o i l temperature TV d u r i n g a g i v e n t e s t d u r a t i o n t. I f n e x t t h e c r i t i c a l f a i l u r e l o a d i s determined f o r v a r i o u s v a l ues o f v and TV, w i t h i n a g i v e n t i m e t, i t has been found e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d FN decreases w i t h b o t h i n c r e a s i n g s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y v and b u l k o i l temperature TV as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.61, 4.179). (Ref. 4.178, I n combining these diagrams, i t i s t h e n p o s s i b l e t o d e s c r i b e t h e
l i m i t s of l u b r i c a t i o n i n a three-dimensional l o a d - v e l o c i t y - t e m p e r a t u r e d i a gram, r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e c r i t i c a l values o f a l l t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s (FN, v, T V ) a t t h e f a i l u r e t r a n s i t i o n . T h i s diagram has been termed " f a i l u r e surface" (Ref. 4.180) and i s shown i n F i g u r e 4.62. The f a i l u r e s u r f a c e separates t h e r e g i o n o f e f f e c t i v e l u b r i c a t i o n (below t h e s u r f a c e ) from t h a t o f i n e f f e c t i v e l u b r i c a t i o n (above t h e s u r f a c e ) and shows t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f t h e values o f o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s a t t h e f a i l u r e t r a n s i t i o n . ( I t should be mentioned t h a t beyond t h e f a i l u r e t r a n s i t i o n shown i n F i g u r e s 4.60 t o 4.62,
i n the region o f i n e f f e c t i v e l u b r i c a t i o n ,
o t h e r f r i c t i o n and wear t r a n s i t i o n s may o c c u r which a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h met a l l u r g i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e s l i d i n g s u r f a c e s , Ref. 4.179. The d i f f e r e n t f r i c t i o n and wear t r a n s i t i o n s have been discussed i n d e t a i l by G. Salomon, Ref. 4.181.) Besides t h e dependence o f f a i l u r e on t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t p r o p e r t i e s i s o f g r e a t i n t e r e s t . From t h e schematic diagram o f F i g u r e 4.59, i t i s c l e a r t h a t b o t h v i s c o s i t y and t h e s u r f a c e r e a c t i v i t y o f l u b r i c a n t a d d i t i v e s i n f l u e n c e t h e f a i l u r e t r a n s i t i o n and t h e l o c a t i o n and shape o f t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e . Both i n f l u e n c e s s h i f t t h e c r i t i c a l f a i l u r e l o a d t o h i g h e r values. I t has been found e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f v i s c o s i t y on f a i l u r e i s most pronounced a t low s l i d i n g vel o c i t i e s and low temperatures, whereas t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s u r f a c e r e a c t i v e agents i s most pronounced a t h i g h s l i d i n g v e l o c i t i e s and h i g h temperatures (Ref. 4.182). The i n f l u e n c e of l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y on t h e l o c a t i o n and t h e
173
.-. z
v
inefficient 1u b r i c a t i o n 1u b r i c a t i o n
L L
'cI
m
L
v = const.
(0.05 m / s )
30
60
90
120
s t e e l A I S I 52100 l u b r i c a n t SAE 10 W
( 7 = 33 CP/37OC)
0.05
F i g u r e 4.62
174
shape o f the f a i l u r e surface can be seen from Figure 4.63. The i n f l u e n c e o f l u b r i c a n t a d d i t i v e s on the f a i l u r e t r a n s i t i o n s has been studied extensiveFy by Sakurai and co-workers, (Ref. 4.183, 4.184, 4.185).
6\\ ---
- base o i l
steel
base o i l ( T =
Figure 4.63
F i n a l l y , i t should be mentioned t h a t besides the influence o f the l u b r i c a n t ' s v i s c o s i t y and chemical r e a c t i v i t y , the contact geometry, i.e., the type o f Hertzian contact, l i k e " p o i n t " contact o r " l i n e " contact and the r a d i i o f curvature influence the f a i l u r e l i m i t s (Ref. 4.186, 4.187). I n addition, t h e type o f motion, e.g., t h e s l i d e / r o l l r a t i o i s also o f great importance i n t h a t f o r pure s l i d i n g the f a i l u r e phenomena are most pronounced whereas under pure r o l l i n g conditions s c u f f i n g f a i l u r e i s u n l i k e l y t o occur. I n conclusion, i t appears t h a t three conditions must be met f o r ( s c u f f i n g ) f a i l u r e t o occur f o r a tribo-mechanical system which operates i n i t i a l l y i n the regimes o f f u l l hydrodynamic o r elastohydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n :
176
(A) (B) (C)
The breakdown o f t h e f u l l - f l u i d hydrodynamic o r elastohydrodynamic film. The b r e a k t h r o u g h o f ( p r o t e c t i v e ) s u r f a c e l a y e r s . The o c c u r r e n c e o f s t r o n g metal-metal adhesion bonds.
Depending on t h e t y p e o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system and o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , t h e sequence o f events ( A ) , ( B ) , ( C ) l e a d i n g t o f a i l u r e may o c c u r as a " s t e p w i s e " process, as e x p l a i n e d i n F i g u r e 4.59 f o r p o i n t c o n t a c t c o n d i t i o n s and r e l a t i v e l y low s l i d i n g v e l o c i t i e s . On t h e o t h e r hand, f o r o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s , e.g., d i t i o n s (A), h i g h e r s l i d i n g v e l o c i t i e s , t h e t h r e e con-
(B),
1u b r i c a n t f a i l u r e .
I t f o l l o w s t h a t f r o m a systems p o i n t o f view t h e f a i l u r e l i m i t s depend
on t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s ( l o a d FN, v e l o c i t y v, temperature T, t i m e t ) as w e l l as on t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system (elements of t h e system A, p r o p e r t i e s o f elements P, i n t e r r e l a t i o n s between t h e elements s y m b o l i c a l l y as: failure limits failure limits where
=
=
R) c h a r a c t e r i z e d
f ( o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s ; system's s t r u c t u r e ) f (X; S )
[ FN, v , T, t }
= { A , P, R }
W i t h t h e diagrams p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n , a p h y s i c a l p i c t u r e o f t h e f a i l u r e o f l u b r i c a n t f i l m as w e l l as a b a s i s f o r a c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e i m p o r t a n t system's parameters t h a t govern t h e l i m i t s o f l u b r i c a t i o n i s obt a i n e d . Together w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e f o r e g o i n g s e c t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g t h e v a r i o u s t r i b o l o g i c a l processes, t h e s e d a t a w i l l be used i n s t u d y i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l processes on t h e s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n o f mechanical systems.
176
S
( A ] : t h e elements, i. e .
= ( A , P, R], where
, the
m a t e r i a l components o f t h e system,
{ X I : t h e i n p u t s o f t h e system,
{ Y } : t h e o u t p u t s o f t h e system,
T
: the f u n c t i o n a l transformation o f t h e inputs i n t o the outputs.
I n e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e i n t e r e s t i s o f t e n m a i n l y c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . I n t h i s connect i o n a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be drawn t o t h e g r e a t i n f l u e n c e o f t h e system's s t r u c t u r e on t h e f u n c t i o n a l performance o f a system. I t was e x p l a i n e d i n Chapters 2 and 3 t h a t i t i s o n l y p e r m i t t e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e f u n c t i o n a l aspect o f a g i v e n system i f t h i s system possesses a c o n s t a n t
177
i n v a r i a b l e s t r u c t u r e . Only i n t h e s e cases t h e whole system i n terms o f { X )
which, f o r i n s t a n c e , a r e o f t e n
g i v e n f o r e l e c t r o n i c systems - i s i t p o s s i b l e t o d e s c r i b e t h e b e h a v i o u r o f
{ Y ) i n p u t - o u t p u t r e l a t i o n s and t o model
t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system by mathematical o r symbolic means, l i k e t h e network techniques o f system m o d e l l i n g . Most t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems, however, possess s t r u c t u r e s which may change d u r i n g t h e f u n c t i o n a l performance o f t h e system due t o t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l processes d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o r e g o i n g c h a p t e r . Therefore, i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems i t must be taken i n t o account t h a t t h e s e systems g e n e r a l l y possess a dynamic system's s t r u c t u r e as w e l l as a dynamic s y s t e m ' s f u n c t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a system, t h e changes i n a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system's s t r u c t u r e may i n v o l v e : (i) The c r e a t i o n o r a n n i h i l a t i o n o f elements o f t h e system. Examples a r e t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f " t h i r d b o d i e s " i n t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l c o n t a c t o f d r y s u r f a c e s i n t h e f o r m o f " f r i c t i o n polymers" o r r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s o r , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f l u b r i c a n t f i l m s . (ii) Changes i n t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e elements. Examples a r e t h e v a r i a t i o n o f l u b r i c a t i o n modes i n f o l l o w i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e S t r i b e c k curve, o r changes i n wear mechanisms. ( i i i ) Changes i n t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e system's elements. Examples a r e t h e t r i b o - i n d u c e d changes i n s u r f a c e topography o r i n t h e hardness and s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s o f s l i d i n g o r r o l l i n g s u r f a c e s . These aspects a r e n o t o n l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f e x i s t i n g t r i b o mechanical systems, t h e y s h o u l d a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d c a r e f u l l y i n t h e d e s i g n o f new systems (see S e c t i o n s 5 . 4 and 6 . 6 ) . C l e a r l y , t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e dynamic changes o f t h e s y s t e m ' s s t r u c t u r e depend on t h e t y p e o f t r i b o mechanical system under c o n s i d e r a t i o n as w e l l as i t s f u n c t i o n a l purpose and i t s o p e r a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s . A1 though t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems d i f f e r v e r y b r o a d l y i n d e s i g n and f u n c t i o n (as can be seen f r o m t h e c o m p i l a t i o n o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems g i v e n i n t h e Appendix A ) ,
i t s h o u l d be a t t e m p t e d
t o s t u d y t h e b a s i c phenomena o f t h e t r i b o - i n d u c e d changes o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems which a r e o f general importance. The main f e a t u r e s o f t h e above aspects ( i ) and ( i i ) have a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n s 4.4 and 4 . 5 . 6 under t h e headings o f "wear processes" and " t h e l i m i t s o f l u b r i c a t i o n " . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g t h e b a s i c aspects o f c l a s s ( i i i ) o f t h e t r i b o - i n d u c e d changes o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f mechanical systems a r e s t u d i e d .
178
( f r i c t i o n and wear c o u p l e )
system envelope
Figure 5.1
The p o s s i b l e changes o f t h e l u b r i c a n t ( 3 ) and i t s i n f l u e n c e s on t h e s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems were d i s c u s s e d i n some d e t a i l i n t h e s e c t i o n on t h e l i m i t s o f l u b r i c a t i o n ( S e c t i o n 4.5.6). The i n f l u e n c e s o f t h e element ( 4 ) , t h e atmospheric environment and i t s changes, have i n t h e p a s t o f t e n n o t been p a i d t h e a t t e n t i o n t h e y deserve. These changes, which may i n c l u d e v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e chemical c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e environment and i t s h u m i d i t y , have a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on a1 1 t r i b o - c h e m i c a l processes (see S e c t i o n s 4.4.5 and 4.5.5). i n t o consideration. I n these processes a l s o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e environmental atmosphere ( 4 ) and t h e l u b r i c a n t ( 3 ) must be t a k e n
179
The t r i b o - i n d u c e d changes o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e elements ( 1 ) and
(2)
tem's i n p u t s and o u t p u t s
may be c l a s s i f i e d , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e s u l t s o f
Chapter 4, b r o a d l y i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g groups: (a) (b) (c) changes i n s u r f a c e topography, changes i n s u r f a c e composition, changes i n s u r f a c e s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s .
5,2 1 SURFACE
TOPOGRAPHY CHANGES
I n a l l t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems i n which s o l i d - s o l i d c o n t a c t o f s u r f a c e s i n r e l a t i v e m o t i o n occurs, i t must be expected t h a t t h e s u r f a c e topography may undergo some changes d u r i n g t h e f u n c t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n o f t h e system. These changes may be due t o two e f f e c t s : (i) (ii) p l a s t i c c o n t a c t deformation, wear processes.
4:
E
H :
: Hardness
' 6
:
:
p
If f o r a g i v e n system, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f
JI
JI
-= 0.6
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f p l a s t i c c o n t a c t d e f o r m a t i o n i s v e r y s m a l l . I f on t h e o t h e r hand,
JI
a s p e r i t y f l o w must be expected. The p l a s t i c c o n t a c t d e f o r m a t i o n changes t h e s u r f a c e roughness data, such as Ra o r RZ ( s e e S e c t i o n 4.2.1) and t h e a u t o - c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e p r o f i l e . t h e shape and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e a s p e r i t y h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n c u r v e
180
I t i s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t many e n g i n e e r i n g s u r f a c e s have a Gaussian
h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n . I f the i n i t i a l surface preparation technique involves a l a r g e number o f r e p e a t e d events which o c c u r randomly o v e r t h e s u r f a c e , i t f o l l o w s immediately from t h e C e n t r a l L i m i t Theorem o f s t a t i s t i c s (Ref. 5.1) t h a t t h e topography o f t h e s u r f a c e w i l l t e n d towards a Gaussian h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n . Consequently, any p l a s t i c c o n t a c t d e f o r m a t i o n changes t h e i n i t i a l h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n curve. The e f f e c t o f p l a s t i c c o n t a c t deformat i o n on t h e changes o f t h e s u r f a c e c o n t a c t topography i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 5.2.
40
- 30 5 - 25 + r .," 20 35
I
500 pn
O-O-O-
15
10
L
I
5 I
I
20
50
80
95
99
99.9
Cumulative h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n F i g u r e 5.2
(W)
I n t h i s diagram, t h e c u m u l a t i v e h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n curves o f t h e i n i t i a l
and t h e p l a s t i c a l l y deformed s u r f a c e s a r e p l o t t e d on p r o b a b i l i t y paper (Ref. 5.1). ( I n t h i s diagram paper, a Gaussian d i s t r i b u t i o n i s r e p r e s e n t e d as a s t r a i g h t l i n e . ) I t can be seen t h a t t h e i n i t i a l Gaussian h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n ( A ) i s increasingly disturbed w i t h increasing s e v e r i t y o f the c o n t a c t d e f o r m a t i o n process (B),
(C).
Since most e n g i n e e r i n g s u r f a c e s i n i -
t i a l l y possess a Gaussian s u r f a c e h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e curves shown i n F i g u r e 5.2 appear t o r e p r e s e n t b a s i c f e a t u r e s o f t h e s u r f a c e topography changes due t o p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n . The o t h e r group o f t r i b o - i n d u c e d s u r f a c e changes a r e t h e changes due t o wear processes. The appearance o f worn s u r f a c e s has been d e s c r i b e d i n
181
S e c t i o n 4.4 (see Table 4.3). F o r t h e changes o f t h e s u r f a c e topography due
t o wear, depending on t h e i n i t i a l s u r f a c e f i n i s h t h e r e a r e two p o s s i b i l i t i e s : ( i ) t h e wear processes may roughen smooth s u r f a c e s , ( i i ) t h e wear processes may smooth o u t rough s u r f a c e s . There i s a general consensus t h a t t h e s u r f a c e s o f moving machine p a r t s s h o u l d n o t be t o o "smooth". F o r example, f o r t h e d e s i g n o f p i s t o n s , a s u i t a b l e s u r f a c e f i n i s h f o r t h e c y l i n d e r bores o f Ra = 0.4 t o 0.6 pm has been suggested (Ref. 5 . 2 ) . (These f i g u r e s s h o u l d n o t be g e n e r a l i z e d because t h e y depend on t h e system under c o n s i d e r a t i o n ) .
20
50
80
95
99
99.9
The s i x non-Gaussian d i s t r i b u t i o n s r e p r e s e n t , f r o m
(A) t o (C), p r o g r e s s i v e
stages i n t h e w e a r i n g process. I t can be seen t h a t a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y t h e t o p 20% o f t h e s u r f a c e was a l t e r e d , t h e r e s t remained c o m p l e t e l y u n a f f e c t e d . T h i s b e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n , and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g changes i n b e a r i n g c u r v e a r e t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l i g h t l y worn s u r f a c e s . As wearing progressed, t h e
182 t r a n s i t i o n p e r c e n t i l e between t h e new topography c r e a t e d b y t h e wear p r o cess and t h e i n i t i a l s u r f a c e topography moved s t e a d i l y l o w e r u n t i l t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t u r e had been almost t o t a l l y r e p l a c e d . I n mechanical e n g i n e e r i n g , t h e s u r f a c e f i n i s h and t h e wear-induced changes o f s u r f a c e topography a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be o f g r e a t importance f o r t h e f u n c t i o n a l performance o f moving mechanical components (Ref. 5.4, 5.5, 5.6). G e n e r a l l y speaking, t h e wear-induced changes o f s u r f a c e topography may have an i n d i f f e r e n t , b e n e f i c i a l , d e t r i m e n t a l o r c a t a s t r o p h i c i n f l u e n c e on t h e f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e whole t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system. Some asp e c t s o f t h e d e t r i m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e o f s u r f a c e topography changes have been discussed i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e l i m i t s o f l u b r i c a t i o n ( S e c t i o n 4.5.6). b e n e f i c i a l aspects o f s u r f a c e topography changes l e a d t o t h e w e l l known The
r u n n i n g - i n e f f e c t o f b e a r i n g s u r f a c e s (Ref. 5.7,
process on t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r has been s t u d i e d i n two steps. F i r s t l y , t h e S t r i b e c k c u r v e o f t h e s l i d i n g system l u b r i c a t e d w i t h a p u r e p a r a f f i n i c m i n e r a l o i l has been measured t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e n o - c o n t a c t t i m e f r a c t i o n determined by e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t - r e s i stance measurement t e c h n i q u e s . These curves, v a l i d f o r t h e i n i t i a l s u r f a c e roughness, were determined f o r cons t a n t values o f l o a d and temperature by v a r y i n g t h e s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y f r o m h i g h t o l o w values w i t h i n a few seconds. ( W i t h t h i s procedure, S t r i b e c k l s c u r v e i s r u n t h r o u g h f r o m r i g h t t o l e f t w i t h n e g l i b l e surface-roughness changes. ) Secondly, a f t e r a " r u n n i n g - i n " process has been performed under c o n d i t i o n s o f boundary l u b r i c a t i o n , t h e S t r i b e c k curve and t h e n o - c o n t a c t t i m e f r a c t i o n have been determined again. The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e measurements a r e shown i n F i g u r e 5.4. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e surface-roughness c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e r u n - i n procedure a r e c o m p i l e d i n F i g u r e 5.5. I n comparing t h e curves f o r t h e system w i t h t h e i n i t i a l s u r f a c e roughness d a t a ( a ) , w i t h those o f t h e r u n - i n system ( b ) , t h e f o l l o w i n g main consequences o f t h e r u n n i n g - i n process can be n o t e d : (i)
A r e d u c t i o n o f t h e h e i g h t o f t h e h i g h e s t a s p e r i t y peaks i n d i c a t i n g
an
( i i i ) A l o w e r i n g o f t h e f r i c t i o n v a l u e a t t h e minimum o f t h e S t r i b e c k
183
-0.14
Y-
-0.12
c
V
0
.r
C I . r
L
lt
-0.10
YO
c , W .V
-0.08
-
Y-
01 0
-0.06
(cm/s)
S t r i b e c k c u r v e and n o - c o n t a c t t i m e f r a c t i o n b e f o r e ( a ) and a f t e r ( b ) r u n n i n g - i n .
184
Rt = 3.00 pm Ra = 0.49 pm
Bearing-area curve
Peak d i s t r i bu ti on
-c,
nr
( a ) : Before r u n n i n g - i n
100 pm
Bearina-area curve
Peak number
186
C l e a r l y , t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e hydrodynamic regime as a consequence o f t h e r u n n i n g - i n process enhances t h e " o p e r a t i n g s e c u r i t y " o f t h e system.
l
a- t = 30 h
+ 0 -
x-xt=
W
t = 90 min t = 15 min
2
S
100
80
.r
20
186
0 -
t = 2 h (optimized) Mt =16 h
$ 100 + l
- t = O
5
V
8060
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
:.L
m
40
20-
face q u a l i t y was reached a f t e r a r u n n i n g - i n d u r a t i o n o f 2 hours, whereas i n a c o n v e n t i o n a l non-optimized r u n n i n g - i n procedure f o r a comparable s u r f a c e q u a l i t y a r u n n i n g - i n d u r a t i o n o f more t h a n 16 hours was needed.
5 , 2 , 2 SURFACE COMPOSITION
CHANGES
T h i s aspect o f t h e t r i b o - i n d u c e d changes o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a mechanical system i s e x t r e m e l y c o m p l i c a t e d b o t h f r o m t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and e x p e r i m e n t a l p o i n t o f view. T h e o r e t i c a l l y , owing t o t h e n a t u r e o f s u r f a c e s (see F i g u r e 4.5) and t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s - l u b r i c a n t - a t m o s p h e r e i n t e r a c t i o n s as discussed i n Chapter 4, i t appears e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o develop models f o r t h e a c t u a l dynamic c o m p o s i t i o n o f t r i b o l o g i c a l l y s t r e s s e d s u r f a c e s . E x p e r i m e n t a l l y , owing t o t h e i n a c c e s s i b l e c o n t a c t i n t e r f a c e , i t i s n o t generally possible t o study " i n s i t u " the actual composition o f surfaces
187
( a ) Before contact
(C)
After 5 passes
( d ) After 20 passes
severe
,h 2 . 4
.r
v1
2.0
1.6
4J
r:
'-
m 2
0
1.2
0.8 mild 1045 steel
T=23 OC;
I
I
c,
transfer
I
1
, 24
Figure 5.8
iaa
(a) SURFACE-COMPOSITION CHANGES OF A SLIDING SYSTEM UNDER ULTRA-HIGH-VACUUM CONDITIONS. I n t h i s case, the t r i b o l o g i c a l system consists o f only two partners and t h e tribo-induced surface composition changes are mainly the m a t e r i a l t r a n s f e r from one partner t o the other and vice versa. The physical causes f o r t h i s material t r a n s f e r , i. e . , the adhesion mechanisms, have been explained i n Sections 4.2.2 and 4.4.4. As mentioned there, i n adhesion experiments of metal-metal pairs, i t has been observed t h a t under the a c t i o n o f pure normal contact and separation forces the cohesively weaker material t r a n s f e r s t o the cohesively stronger. With r e l a t i v e tangential motion between the surfaces, as i n s l i d i n g , r o l l i n g , o r o s c i l l a t i n g , i n t e r f a c i a l m a t e r i a l s t r a n s p o r t becomes more complex. Under such conditions, p l a s t i c deformation, shear and high surface temperatures due t o f r i c t i o n a l heating are some f a c t o r s which must be given a t t e n t i o n . I n the l a s t few years i t has become possible t o study the tribo-induced changes i n the composition o f the uppermost l a y e r s o f surfaces by means o f Auger e l e c t r o n Spectroscopy (AES). As an example, the changes o f the compos i t i o n o f a s t e e l surface s l i d i n g against an aluminium counterface w i l l be discussed (Ref. 5.11). Before s l i d i n g contact, i r o n and carbon peaks were detected from the steel surface by means o f AES. I n s l i d i n g , i t was found t h a t the aluminium t r a n s f e r s t o the steel surfaces. The degree o f the "contamination" o f the steel surface w i t h A1 was detected by measuring the r a t i o o f t h e aluminium t o carbon AES peak i n t e n s i t i e s . This r a t i o , as a f u n c t i o n o f the number o f passes o f the A 1 r i d e r over t h e s t e e l surface, i s shown i n Figure 5.8.
I t can be seen t h a t a m i l d t r a n s f e r regime i s followed by a
severe t r a n s f e r regime. This example shows the importance o f surface-compos i t i o n changes on the behaviour o f tribo-mechanical systems: i t i s the severe adhesive wear, i n d i c a t e d i n the right-hand s i d e o f the graph o f Figure 5.8, which o f t e n causes the catastrophic f a i l u r e o f components o f mechanical sys terns.
(b)
I n these cases, surface composition changes due n o t o n l y t o materials transf e r b u t also t o the i n t e r a c t i o n o f the atmospheric environment w i t h the s l i d i n g surfaces a c t i v a t e d by the f r i c t i o n a l energy, take place. Important examples are the tribochemical o x i d a t i o n processes i n dry s l i d i n g o f s t e e l surfaces. The corresponding changes i n surface composition have o f t e n been i n v e s t i g a t e d i n studying the chemical composition o f the surface debris.
189 F i n k and Hoffmann observed i n 1932 i n a c l a s s i c paper t h a t under c o n d i t i o n s o f r o l l i n g w i t h s l i p , t h e s u r f a c e d e b r i s c o n s i s t e d o f Fe, Fe203 and Fe304; FeO was n o t d e t e c t a b l e (Ref. 5.12). I n a n o t h e r fundamental paper, Dies i n 1939 s t u d i e d t h e connections between t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e d e b r i s and t h e wear o f a s t e e l specimen (0.04% C ) s l i d i n g under atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s a t v = lm/s a g a i n s t a hardened s t e e l (0.86% C, 1.64% C r ) d i s c (Ref. 5.13). I n F i g u r e 5.9, t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by Dies as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e a r e shown
70 60
50
40
30
20 10 50
100
150
200
C o n t a c t p r e s s u r e ( N/cmL)
F i g u r e 5.9
The broken curves r e p r e s e n t t h e measured wear r a t e i n r e l a t i v e u n i t s . (The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c shape o f t h e wear c u r v e i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n , i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e t r i b o - i n d u c e d changes o f s u r f a c e s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s . ) The f u l l curves o f F i g u r e 5.9 show t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e d e b r i s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g c o n t a c t pressure. I t can be seen t h a t a t t h e minimum o f t h e wear r a t e , d e b r i s c o n t a i n e d m a i n l y
a - Fe203 whereas
a t the
maximum o f wear, t h e d e b r i s c o n s i s t e d m a i n l y o f m e t a l l i c i r o n . S i m i l a r changes have been r e p o r t e d t o o c c u r a l s o as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y ( R e f . 5.14, 5.15). From t h i s work i t may be concluded t h a t a t r i b o - c h e m i c a l wear mechanism o p e r a t e s a t l o w c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e s and l o w
190
s l i d i n g v e l o c i t i e s whereas a t h i g h e r values o f t h i s o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s metal -metal adhesion becomes t h e dominant Near process. Q u i n n and Wooley (Ref. 5.16) were a b l e t o show t h a t under m i l d c o n d i t i o n s , t h e o x i d e Fe203 was generated b u t t h a t a t r a n s i t i o n t o Fe304 o c c u r r e d as t h e l o a d o r vel o c i t y was i n c r e a s e d above c e r t a i n l e v e l s . (c) SURFACE COMPOSITION CHANGES OF A SLIDING SYSTEM UNDER LUBRICATED CONDITIONS.
I n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s , t h e whole complex o f s o l i d - s o l i d - l u b r i c a n t - a t m o s p h e r e
i n t e r a c t i o n s must be taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . Some o f t h e main p h y s i c o chemical aspects o f t h e s e processes have a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d i n connect i o n w i t h t h e boundary l u b r i c a t i o n mode (see S e c t i o n 4.5.5). One o f t h e advantages o f t h e presence o f a l u b r i c a n t i n a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system i s the p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n f l u e n c i n g t h e actual composition o f t h e s l i d i n g surf a c e by l u b r i c a n t a d d i t i v e s . Through t h e i n t e r f a c i a l t r i b o - c h e m i c a l react i o n s , b e n e f i c i a l s u r f a c e l a y e r s may be b u i l d up. Obviously, as i n d r y s l i d i n g , oxygen and w a t e r p l a y e x t r e m e l y import a n t r o l e s f o r the " i n s i t u " composition o f t r i b o l o g i c a l l y stressed surfaces and, consequently, f o r t h e i r f u n c t i o n a l behaviour. I n c r e a s i n g oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n s seem t o have a f a v o r a b l e e f f e c t on t h e amount o f wear, as w e l l as on t h e l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f s l i d i n g s u r f a c e s . F o r systems l u b r i c a t e d w i t h p l a i n hydrocarbon l u b r i c a n t s , as t h e oxygen a v a i l a b i l i t y i n creases, t h e i n o r g a n i c wear p r o d u c t s f r o m t h e s l i d i n g s u r f a c e s change f r o m i r o n and i r o n c a r b i d e FeC t o t h e i r o n o x i d e s Fe304 and a
Fe203. I f t h e
l u b r i c a n t c o n t a i n s " l u b r i c i t y " agents, l i k e f a t t y a c i d s , c a r b o x y l a t e "soaps" a r e formed when oxygen o r w a t e r i s p r e s e n t . The i n o r g a n i c f i l m s formed " i n s i t u " f r o m extreme p r e s s u r e agents on metal s u r f a c e s , such as s u l f i d e s , c h l o r i d e s , and phosphides, p r o v i d e l u b r i c a t i o n a t v e r y h i g h temperatures (see also S e c t i o n 4.5.5). These t r i b o - c h e m i c a l l y formed s u r f a c e f i l m s a r e more s t a b l e than any p h y s i c a l l y o r c h e m i c a l l y adsorbed f i l m . Reacted f i l m s need n o t t o be t r i b o - c h e m i c a l , b u t t h e r a t e o f r e a c t i o n can be enhanced b y t h e exposure o f s u r f a c e and t h e r u b b i n g temperature. The a c t u a l s u r f a c e c o m p o s i t i o n i s n o t w e l l known, and a s t u d y o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e shows t h a t o n l y i n a few cases have t h e a c t u a l compounds been i d e n t i f i e d on worn s u r f a c e s . T h i s i n a b i l i t y t o d e f i n e t h e chemical n a t u r e o f t h e s u r f a c e s p e c i e s has been due m a i n l y t o t h e f a c t s t h a t t h e l a y e r s a r e e x t r e m e l y t h i n ( a b o u t 10-3pm) and a r e f r e q u e n t l y amorphous. Recently, i n a p p l y i n g t h e newly developed s e n s i t i v e X-ray p h o t o e l e c t r o n spectroscopy t e c h n i q u e (ESCA o r XPS, see S e c t i o n 7 . 6 ) examinations o f s t e e l s u r f a c e s
191
before and a f t e r wear t e s t i n g have been p e r f o r m e d (Ref. 5.17, 5.18). I n these s t u d i e s , t h e s u r f a c e c o m p o s i t i o n a f t e r t h e a c t i o n o f t y p i c a l a n t i wear (AW) a d d i t i v e s , l i k e z i n c d i a l k y l d i t h i o p h o s p h a t e (ZDDP) and t y p i c a l extreme p r e s s u r e (EP) a d d i t i v e s , l i k e d i b e n z y l d i s u l p h i d e (060s) have been s t u d i e d . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t o f t h e elements z i n c , s u l f u r , phosphorus, carbon and oxygen i n t h e AW a d d i t i v e , o n l y s u l f u r underwent a d e t e c t a b l e change i n chemical n a t u r e d u r i n g wear t e s t i n g of t h e s t e e l s u r f a c e (Ref. 5.17). The s u l f u r s u r f a c e s p e c i e s produced was i d e n t i f i e d as L i k e w i s e , i n t h e case o f a metal s u l p h i d e . The r e s u l t s suggest t h a t t h i s s u r f a c e s u l p h i d e i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h boundary l u b r i c a t i o n (see S e c t i o n 4.5.5). t h e EP a d d i t i v e DBDS, t h e rubbed s u r f a c e s had t h i c k d i s c o n t i n u o u s l a y e r s o f s u l p h i d e ( R e f . 5.18). These f i n d i n g s a r e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h those o f Coy and Q u i n n (Ref. 5.19) who a l s o observed t h i c k s u l p h i d e l a y e r s f o r t h e h i g h EP region.
5,2,3
SURFACE STRENGTH
PROPERTIES
CHANGES
There a r e two p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t r i b o - i n d u c e d changes o f t h e s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s o f i n t e r a c t i n g moving s u r f a c e s : (i) an i n c r e a s e i n s t r e n g t h as a consequence o f e f f e c t s l i k e " s t r a i n hardening" due t o c o n t a c t s t r e s s e s and t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f i n t e r n a l stress fields, ( i i ) a decrease i n s t r e n g t h due t o t h e " s o f t e n i n g " e f f e c t o f f r i c t i o n induced h e a t i n t h e c o n t a c t i n t e r f a c e . I n t h i s connection t h e question o f the t r i b o l o g i c a l l y r e l e v a n t strength p r o p e r t i e s a r i s e s . From a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s a t t e m p t s t o e s t a b l i s h c o r r e l a t i o n s between wear b e h a v i o u r and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s
neglecting
i t has
been concluded t h a t many o f t h e r e l e v a n t parameters can be expressed i n terms o f t h e r a t i o o f t h e e l a s t i c modulus E t o t h e hardness H ( R e f . 5.20).
I t has a l r e a d y been e x p l a i n e d above t h a t t h e r a t i o E/H i s p a r t o f t h e
p l a s t i c i t y i n d e x J, which i s a s a t i s f a c t o r y c r i t e r i o n b y which t o d e t e r m i n e
192
On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e i n d e n t a t i o n hardness, H, o f m a t e r i a l s i s a markedly " s t r u c t u r e - d e p e n d e n t p r o p e r t y " . I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e i n d e n t a t i o n hardness may b e t h e most r e l e v a n t s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t y c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e t r i b o - i n d u c e d changes o f s u r f a c e s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s . B u r w e l l and S t r a n g (Ref. 5.22) have shown t h a t s t e e l - s t e e l s l i d i n g couples e x h i b i t a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m m i l d t o severe wear when t h e apparent c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e reaches a v a l u e o f about o n e - t h i r d o f t h e hardness o f t h e s o f t e r m a t e r i a l . As t h i s p r e s s u r e corresponds q u i t e c l o s e l y t o t h e u n i a x i a l b u l k f l o w s t r e s s o f t h e metal, i t was suggested t h a t t h e wear t r a n s i t i o n was due t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f p l a s t i c zones beneath c o n t a c t i n g a s p e r i t i e s and t h e onset o f b u l k p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n . I n s t u d y i n g t h e t r i b o - i n d u c e d changes o f t h e hardness o f s l i d i n g surfaces, however, t h e whole s t r e s s f i e l d o f normal and t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s e s must be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n (Ref. 5.23). Since t h e t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s e s depend on t h e f r i c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system, those p r o p e r t i e s which determine t h e f r i c t i o n ( l i k e s u r f a c e contamination, atmospheric environment, e t c ) must a l s o be i n c l u d e d . A char a c t e r i s t i c example o f t h e changes o f t h e hardness o f s l i d i n g s u r f a c e s w i t h r e l a t i o n t o t h e v a r i o u s i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s i s g i v e n i n F i g u r e 5.10. The f i g u r e s shows c r o s s - s e c t i o n s o f p i n s of p u r e i r o n , which have been s l i d a g a i n s t a d i s c i n d r y s y n t h e t i c a i r o f d i f f e r e n t pressure, t o g e t h e r w i t h micro-hardness d a t a (Ref. 5.24, 5.25). Under c o n d i t i o n s o f normal atmospheric p r e s s u r e through t r i b o - c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n o f t h e i r o n w i t h t h e oxygen an o x i d e l a y e r i s formed as can be seen i n t h e upper p a r t o f t h e micrograph o f F i g u r e 5.10. The f r i c t i o n a l shear s t r e s s e s a c t m a i n l y i n t h e o x i d e l a y e r s w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e sub-surface l a y e r s a r e s t r a i n - h a r d e n e d o n l y t o s m a l l degree 2 ( H = 2000-3000 N/mm ) . I f , however, under t h e same o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e , s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y , ambient temperature and s l i d i n g d i s tance, t h e t e s t s a r e performed i n a vacuum o f T o r r a d i f f e r e n t behaviour i s found. Here, a l e s s e r amount o f oxygen f o r o x i d e l a y e r f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e and h i g h e r f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t v a l u e s a r e measured. The combined a c t i o n of t h e normal f o r c e s and t h e i n c r e a s e d t a n g e n t i a l f r i c t i o n f o r c e s a c t m a i n l y i n t h e m e t a l l i c p a r t s and l e a d t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n t h e subs u r f a c e hardness (H = 2000-6000 N/mm 2 ). The importance o f t h e changes o f s u r f a c e hardness and s u r f a c e composit i o n on t h e wear b e h a v i o u r o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system i n d r y s l i d i n g i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 5.11. I n t h i s graph, t h e wear c o e f f i c i e n t K ' o f 0.52 p e r c e n t carbon s t e e l as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e l o a d FN i s p l o t t e d (Ref. 5.26, 5.27). The i n i t i a l hardness o f t h e specimen was 268 DPN. A t low l o a d s m i l d
Hardness (GN/m 2 )
(a)
2 Hardness (GN/m )
(b)
atmospheric p r e s s u r e : p = T o r r (130 mPa) f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t : f = 0.81 - 0.97 wear c o e f f i c i e n t : K = 0.00058
F i g u r e 5.10
T r i b o - i n d u c e d hardness changes.
194 wear occurs u n t i l a t FN = 1N t h e t r a n s i t i o n T r 1 t o severe wear occurs. The severe wear mode p e r s i s t s up t o a l o a d o f a b o u t FN = 25 N. A t t h i s p o i n t , a second t r a n s i t i o n T r 2 occurs when t h e wear mode r e v e r t s . I t was found, f r o m m e t a l l o g r a p h y and micro-hardness t e s t s , t h a t above t h e T r 2 t r a n s i t i o n t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r s o f t h e specimens were hardened by a phase change. The v a l u e o f t h e T r 2 t r a n s i t i o n l o a d was determined f o r a number o f s l i d i n g v e l o c i t i e s and f o r s t e e l s o f v a r i o u s carbon c o n t e n t s , and i n each case t h e v a l u e o f t h e f l a s h temperature was c a l c u l a t e d . B e a r i n g i n mind a number o f u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e o v e r a l l p a t t e r n o f r e s u l t s suggests t h a t t h e s u r f a c e h a r d e n i n g i s caused by a m a r t e n s i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , and t h a t
i t i s caused by t h e f l a s h temperatures and t h e i r d u r a t i o n a t t h e t r u e a r e a
o f c o n t a c t . The o v e r a l l e f f e c t s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 5.11 have been conf i r m e d by Uetz and co-workers ( R e f . 5.28). The r e s u l t s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e t h e importance o f t h e combined e f f e c t s o f s u r f a c e c o m p o s i t i o n changes and s u r face s t r e n g t h changes on t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f s l i d i n g systems.
10-6
LTr
T r 1-
8
m
\
v
5
L
a ,
CI 4
L
4
d=25.. mm 10-10
/
1
10 Load FN ( N )
&.% v = l m/s m
10-11 100
F i g u r e 5.11
195
dZM dt
c1 _ 3 Z M ZM
(t)
pp]
Secondly,the
dt
c2
+ ZM ( t )
C2t
T h i r d l y , when t h e amount o f m a t e r i a l - l o s s o u t p u t reaches a c e r t a i n value, a q u a l i t a t i v e t r a n s i t i o n i n t h e s t a t e o f t h e system may o c c u r c o n s i s t i n g o f a s i g n i f i c a n t change i n t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l p i c t u r e o f t h e phenomena. The changes i n t h e s t a t e o f t h e system a r e o f a d i r e c t e d n a t u r e and t h e i n c r e ments i n t h e wear processes i n t h i s regime a r e m u t u a l l y dependent. Here l a r g e increments i n one i n t e r v a l o f t i m e cause even l a r g e r increments i n the next time i n t e r v a l . I t follows t h a t
196 I n t h i s case t h e worn m a t e r i a l - l o s s o u t p u t i n c r e ases r a p i d l y w i t h time. Depending on t h e v a l u e s o f Co and Cj s e l f - a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e process occur which may l e a d t o c a t a s t r o p h i c damage o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system and, acco rd ingly , t o " f a i l u r e " o f t h e whole system (see a l s o S e c t i o n 6.4). The t h r e e modes o f m a t e r i a l - l o s s o u t p u t s diqcussed may f o l l o w each o t h e r i n t i m e as shown i n F i g u r e 5.12. I n F i g u r e 5 . 1 2 ZMlim denotes a maximum l e v e l o f a dmiss i b l e m a t e r i a l l o s s - o u t p u t s . A t t h i . l e v e l , t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system has changed as a consequence o f t h e materl.1 l o s s - o u t p u t s , i n such a way t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n a l i n p u t - o u t p u t - r e l a t i o n s v i a t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system
which a r e performed
a r e s e v e r e l y d i s t u r b e d (see S e c t i o n 6.4).
Time
F i g u r e 5.12
R e l a t i v e l y few workers i n t h e f i e l d o f t r i b o l o g y have attempted t o d e r i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r w e a r - p a r t i c l e dimensions generated by t h e wear process. Rabinowicz proposed a c o r r e l a t i o n between mean adhesive wear, p a r t i c l e d i a meter and t h e "surface-energy c r i t e r i o n " which i s t h e r a t i o o f t h e work o f adhesion between two m e t a l s t o t h e hardness o f t h e weaker m a t e r i a l (Ref. 5.29). T h i s t h e o r e t i c a l approach has r e c e n t l y been m o d i f i e d (Ref. 5.20) and t h e f o l l o w i n g i n e q u a l i t y has been suggested t o d e s c r i b e t h e mean wearp a r t i c l e diame t e r d E d
: e l a s t i c modulus
: p e n e t r a t i o n hardness
15 (E/H)'
(nm)
H
197 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f wear regimes s t u d i e d ( s c h e m a t i c ) : Lubricated state ( S t r i beck c u r v e ) (c) lubricant f i l m breakdown ( a ) quasiDry s t a t e
wear
1 ,
(severe) o x i d a t ive wear
t
c, W
m L
( b ) boundary
Load
Load
Regime
Surface d e s c r i p t i o n
V a r i e s between p o l i s h e d and v e r y rough S t a b l e , smooth l a y e r w i t h a few grooves Ploughed w i t h e v i dence o f p l a s t i c f l o w and s u r f a c e cracking Ploughed w i t h areas of o x i d e s on t h e surface Ploughed w i t h areas o f o x i d e s on t h e surface S e v e r e l y ploughed, gross p l a s t i c f l o w and smearing
Low High
High
d up t o 150 pm F r e e metal p a r t i c l e s , d up t o 1 mn
Catastrophic
F i g u r e 5.13
198
E x p e r i m e n t a l l y , t h e f o l l o w i n g f i n d i n g s on t h e chemical c o m p o s i t i o n and t h e s i z e o f t h e m a t e r i a l l o s s d e b r i s appear t o have been observed q u i t e g e n e r a l l y f o r s l i d i n g systems o p e r a t i n g under normal atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s : (i) I n t h e s o - c a l l e d m i l d wear regime, t h e worn d e b r i s c o n s i s t s o f s m a l l p a r t i c l e s w i t h a d i a m e t e r o f l e s s t h a n a b o u t 5 pm. These p a r t i c l e s a r e formed m a i n l y i n t r i b o - o x i d a t i v e wear processes and f o r s l i d i n g m e t a l couples o f t e n c o n s i s t o f o x i d e s . F o r example, t h e wear d e b r i s o f i r o n , c o b a l t , magnesium s l i d i n g a g a i n s t themselves under d r y c o n d i t i o n s consists of
. I
e x p l a i n e d i n accordance w i t h t h e thermodynamics o f t h e o x i d a t i o n p r o cesses i f t h e f r i c t i o n induced temperatures and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d a t a o f f r e e energy o f t h e m a t e r i a l s a r e used. ( i i ) I n t h e s o - c a l l e d severe wear regime m e t a l l i c p a r t i c l e s r a n g i n g i n s i z e up t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 mm a r e found. These p a r t i c l e s a r e m a i n l y observed under severe m e t a l 1 i c adhesion processes. There i s some e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence t h a t f o r l i k e m e t a l l i c s l i d i n g couples t h e s i z e o f l o o s e wear p a r t i c l e s i s l a r g e r than f o r u n l i k e metal-metal p a i r s . The d e t a i l s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e wear p a r t i c l e s generated a t t h e i n t e r f a c e o f l u b r i c a t e d and d r y s l i d i n g c o n c e n t r a t e d A I S I 52100 s t e e l cont a c t s have been s t u d i e d (Ref. 5.30) i n l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s u s i n g t h e F e r r o g r a p h t e c h n i q u e d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 7.5. I n F i g u r e 5.13 t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e worn m a t e r i a l loss o u t p u t and t h e wear-induced s u r f a c e changes a r e comp i l e d . As can be seen, each regime produced wear p a r t i c l e s o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c morphology and c o m p o s i t i o n . S i n c e a l l t h e t y p e s o f p a r t i c l e s have been found l i k e w i s e i n t h e l u b r i c a t i n g o i l o f f i e l d o p e r a t i n g machines, t h e c o m p i l a t i o n o f F i g u r e 5.13 appears t o r e p r e s e n t a good s u r v e y o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e wearinduced m a t e r i a l s l o s s e s and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g changes o f t h e o p e r a t i n g s u r f a c e s o f mechanical systems. The d a t a o f F i g u r e 5.13, which a r e v a l i d f o r c o n d i t i o n of p u r e s l i d i n g , show t h a t f r o m t h e s t u d y o f t h e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h e shape and c o m p o s i t i o n o f wear p a r t i c l e s i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e o p e r a t i n g wear modes and t h e a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a t r i b o mechanical system can be o b t a i n e d (Ref. 5.31). Based on t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , a p r o g n o s i s o f t h e imminent b e h a v i o u r o f machinery can t h e n be undertaken.
199
Now, t u r n i n g f r o m d i a g n o s i s t o t h e r a p y , t h e q u e s t i o n a r i s e s how t o a v o i d
d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s and how t o r e a l i z e t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems w i t h unchanging s t r u c t u r e s t h u s p r o v i d i n g t h e p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a p r o p e r f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e whole system. The r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s have shown t h a t i n almost e v e r y case t h e d e t r i m e n t a l changes o f t h e system's s t r u c t u r e a r e due t o t h e i n t e r f a c i a l wear processes. I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e wear-induced changes o f t h e s y s t e m ' s s t r u c t u r e a r e e l i m i n a t e d i f a s u i t a b l e i n t e r f a c i a l element e n t i r e l y p r e v e n t s t h e s o l i d - s o l i d c o n t a c t between t h e moving components o f a mechanical system. There a r e f o u r b a s i c e n g i n e e r i n g s o l u t i o n s t o t h i s problem, as i l l u s t r a t e d s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 5.14.
,,I
(a) F l u i d f i l m
( b ) Magnetic f i e l d
1 - 1
c
( d ) F l e x u r a l means
( c ) Elastomers
F i g u r e 5.14
Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s o l u t i o n s f o r no-wear c o n d i t i o n s .
The most common method f o r t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f wear processes f r o m a t r i b o mechanical system ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f s u r f a c e - f a t i g u e wear o r , perhaps, f l u i d e r o s i o n o r c a v i t a t i o n ) i s by t h e use o f l i q u i d o r f l u i d l u b r i c a n t s , F i g u r e 5.14 ( a ) . I n t h e cases where a c o n v e r g i n g gap e x i s t s , t h e r e l a t i v e
200
m o t i o n o f t h e elements (1) and ( 2 ) drags t h e f l u i d i n t o t h i s gap t h u s genera t i n g a load-carrying pressure w i t h i n t h e f l u i d f i l m . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , the p r e s s u r e may be p r o v i d e d by an e x t e r n a l pumping system as i n a h y d r o s t a t i c o r a e r o s t a t i c b e a r i n g . Another p o s s i b i l i t y , i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 5.14 ( b ) , i s t h e use o f magnetic o r o t h e r r e p u l s i v e f o r c e f i e l d s c a r r y i n g t h e normal l o a d and s e p a r a t i n g t h k moving s u r f a c e s ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) . I f t h e r e l a t i v e m o t i o n between t h e elements ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) i s o f f a i r l y small a m p l i t u d e , t h e s o l u t i o n s shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e s 5.14 ( c ) and ( d ) may be a p p l i c a b l e . Here, t h e moving s u r f a c e s a r e separated by an e l a s t i c a l l y deforming i n t e r f a c i a l e l e ment (3), and t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o a r e l a t i v e m o t i o n between ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) i s g i v e n by t h e i n t e r n a l d e f o r m a t i o n ( i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n ) o f element ( 3 ) . The p r i n c i p l e s shown i n F i g u r e 5.14 have t h e advantage t h a t t h e y e l i m i n a t e wear processes a1 t o g e t h e r f r o m a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system t h u s p r o v i d i n g an " i n v a r i a n t s t r u c t u r e " o f t h e system, Due t o t h e i r g r e a t importance, t h e main f e a t u r e s o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 5.14 w i l l be d i s cussed b r i e f l y .
5 , 4 , 1 FLUID F I L M S
The advantages o f hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n as d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 4.5.2 are u t i l i z e d n o t o n l y i n bearing applicatiqns b u t also i n o t h e r t r i b o mechanical systems l i k e hydrodynamic s e a l s o r i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes l i k e hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t e d w i r e d r a w i n g systems. Besides t h e s e l f - a c t i n g hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n mode, h y d r o s t a t i c o r a e r o s t a t i c l u b r i c a t i o n i s app l i e d i n e x t e r n a l l y p r e s s u r i z e d b e a r i n g s . A l t h o u g h these h y d r o s t a t i c b e a r i n g s may r e q u i r e r e l a t i v e l y expensive and complex f l u i d s u p p l y equipment, t h e y o f f e r t h e f o l l o w i n g advantages: (i)
No s o l i d - s o l i d c o n t a c t , i . e . no wear a t any o p e r a t i n g v e l o c i t y
( i n c l u d i n g v = 0 ) o r l o a d f o r a l l types o f r e l a t i v e motion.
Low f r i c t i o n (determined b y t h e i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n o f t h e f l u i d ) .
I n F i g u r e 5.15 a t y p i c a l h y d r o s t a t i c t h r u s t b e a r i n g i s shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y . The b e a r i n g pad, i n t h i s i n s t a n c e t h e l o w e r member, c o n t a i n s a recess o r pocket w i t h a depth considerably greater than the lands o r s i l l s . (Sometimes t h e pad i s above, e.g., on s k i d s f o r moving heavy machines on p l a t e s l e t i n t o t h e f l o o r . ) As f l u i d i s s u n p l i e d t o t h e recess a t a h i g h p r e s s u r e a p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n b u i l d s up, whose i n t e g r a l must equal t h e
201 load which i s applied t o the bearing. Figure 5.15 i n d i c a t e s t h a t h y d r o s t a t i c bearings can operate w i t h a uniform f i l m thickness h = const ( i n c o n t r a s t t o hydrodynamic bearings) and a l s o w i t h no r e l a t i v e tangential motion. Thus, i n the Reynolds equation, t r e a t e d i n Section 4.5.2, the right-hand s i d e equals zero (since vo, vl, Oh may be p u t equal t o zero). The Reynolds equation then reduces t o
This i s Laplace's equation i n two dimensions which must be solved f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r geometry o f the bearing under consideration. pressure distribution
1and recess
'
Figure 5.15
A h y d r o s t a t i c t h r u s t bearing.
For t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f Figure 5.15 t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s govern the behaviour o f the system (Ref. 5.32). The pump pressure p needed f o r the support o f t h e load FN i s given by
i n the recess
Pp
-In
TC
2FN
d2 -
dml
dl
202
7 : lubricant viscosity
determines the necessary power o f the pump. I f the upper p a r t P o f t h e h y d r o s t a t i c bearing r o t a t e s w i t h an angular v e l o c i t y w, a f r i c t i o n a l The term qlp torque,
the l u b r i c a n t f i l m o f equal thickness h t o be calculated from the shear stress. I t follows t h a t icTwd,l
MF
=
4h
(d2,,, t 12)
Since wear processes are eliminated from h y d r o s t a t i c bearings the t r i b o l o g i c a l behaviour can be described e n t i r e l y i n terms o f t h i s data and equations. For other bearing geometries the r e l e v a n t equations may be o f more o r l e s s d i f f e r e n t form (Ref. 5.33, 5.34).
5,4.2
MAGNETIC
FIELDS
T r i b o l o g i c a l systems employing the p r i n c i p l e s o f magnetism f o r the separat i o n o f t h e surfaces i n r e l a t i v e motion can be d i v i d e d broadly i n t o two classes (Ref. 5.35): (i) Systems which u t i l i z e the e f f e c t o f a load-carrying f o r c e generated by the flow o f conducting f l u i d s w i t h i n a magnetic f i e l d (Magnetohydrodynamic, MHD, bearings). ( i i ) Systems w i t h no l u b r i c a n t , d e r i v i n g t h e i r load-carrying a b i l i t y from the a t t r a c t i o n and repulsion associated w i t h magnetic f i e l d s (Magnetic supens i o n bearings )
203
Magnetohydrodynamic b e a r i n g s ( i ) o p e r a t e t h r o u g h mechanical f o r c e s produced by magnetic f i e l d s on a c o n d u c t i n g f l u i d . From t h e laws o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c s , i t i s w e l l known t h a t an e l e c t r i c charge q moving w i t h a v e l o c i t y v w i t h i n a magnetic f i e l d B e x p e r i e n c e s a f o r c e F, t h e L o r e n t z f o r c e , a c t i n g perpend i c u l a r t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f m o t i o n and t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e magnetic f i e l d :
A A -
q e ( v x B )
F o r MHD l u b r i c a t i o n , i t f o l l o w s t h a t when an e l e c t r i c a l l y c o n d u c t i n g f l u i d f l o w s across a magnetic f i e l d t h e p r e s s u r e developed i n t h e f l u i d can exceed t h e o r d i n a r y h y d r o d y n a m i c a l l y generated p r e s s u r e . The t h e o r e t i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f MHD b e a r i n g s s t a r t s f r o m a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e f l u i d - m e c h a n i c s e q u a t i o n s and t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c e q u a t i o n s l e a d i n g t o a magnetohydrodynamic f o r m o f Reynolds e q u a t i o n (Ref. 5.36).
been undertaken i n d i c a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f MHD b e a r i n g s . However, t h e i m p r a c t i c a b i l i t i e s o f t h e magnet and a s s o c i a t e d equipment s i z e have as y e t r e s t r i c t e d applications. The o t h e r c l a s s ( i i ) o f magnetic b e a r i n g s needs no l u b r i c a n t a t a l l and d e r i v e s i t s l o a d - c a r r y i n g a b i l i t y f r o m t h e a t t r a c t i o n and r e p u l s i o n ass o c i a t e d w i t h magnetic f i e l d s . The mechanical f o r c e s produced by e i t h e r p e r manent magnets o r by e l e c t r o m a g n e t s can be used t o f r e e l y s u p p o r t one p a r t n e r o f a b e a r i n g . The p r i n c i p l e i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 5.16.
F i g u r e 5.16
P r i n c i p l e of t h e s u p p o r t o f a b e a r i n g s h a f t by f o u r electromagnets.
204
One problem with bearings having a member freely supported i n a magnetic f i e l d i s s t a b i l i t y . This problem can be solved with a servo-control system. If an external disturbing force acts on the "free" body, the corresponding displacement of the body detected by non-contacting sensors thus producing an electrical current which in turn i s fed to the electromagnets generating an additional force compensating the disturbing displacement. Owing t o the advantageous tribological structure, (no solid-solid cont a c t , no lubricant, low f r i c t i o n ) , magnetic bearings are able t o operate under a broad spectrum of operating conditions. Charateristic data of commercially available bearings are (Ref. 5.37):
l o a d capacity velocity temperature
: 0.2 N :
15 kN
: up t o 800,000 r.p.m.
u p t o 800 K
The lifetime of the bearing depends on the bulk materials properties; operating lifetimes up t o 105h have been obtained independently o f rotation velocity. The advantages of the tribological structure of these bearings are utilized in technical applications like the transmission of motion into closed chambers ( f o r instance, vacuum chambers) or high-speed trackedvehicle support.
5 , 4 , 3 INTERFACIAL ELASTOMERS
In t h i s solution, wear processes in a tribo-mechanical system are eliminated by replacing sliding surfaces with the internal mobility o f elastomers (Ref. 5.38). The elastomer a c t as a k i n d of lubricant and the resistance to motion i s due t o the internal f r i c t i o n of the elastomer. The most common elastomeric "lubricant" i s natural rubber, because of i t s excellent strength and fatigue properties, b u t many synthetic elastomers can be used as well. The principle of a typical elastomeric bearing i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 5.17. Basically, the elastomeric bearing i s comprised of alternating layers of rubber and metal laminates. The elastomer i s vulcanized and bonded t o the metal laminates as well as to the attachment metal components - inner and outer "races". The design of an elastomers bearing depend on types of load and motion ( r a d i a l , axial, spherical, etc.). For instance, the "sandwich-type" bearing shown in Figure 5.17 i s designed t o support high axial loads FN while accornodating torsional ( A q ) or lateral motions ( A s ) through the compression and shear characteristics of the elastomer, respectively.
205
As
laminates races
F i g u r e 5.17
T h i s t y p e o f b e a r i n g i s v e r y s t i f f i n t h e a x i a l modes and s o f t i n shear. I n g e n e r a l , t h e d e s i g n o f e l a s t o m e r i c b e a r i n g s must Zake i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n f a c t o r s such as t h e t y p e and frequency o f l o a d s and motions as w e l l as space-envelope l i m i t a t i o n s and l i f e r e q u i r e m e n t s . The advantage o f t h e e l a s t o m e r i c b e a r i n g i s t h a t t h e v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e guidance o f m o t i o n and t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n and d i s s i p a t i o n o f mechanical work can be d e t e r mined, a t l e a s t i n p r i n c i p l e , f r o m t h e b u l k m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e i n t e r facial material.
5,4,4
FLEXURAL MEANS
F o r t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s i n which o n l y l i m i t e d t r a n s l a t o r y o r angular motions are required, f l e x u r a l bearings, i.e., b e a r i n g s wh ch f l e x o r t w i s t i n an e l a s t i c member t o s u p p o r t t h e l o a d , possess a wear- r e e i n v a r i a b l e t r i b o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e . These b e a r i n g s do n o t r e q u i r e a l u b r i c a n t and t h e f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e t o m o t i o n i s s i m p l y t h e e l a s t i c s t r e s s
As an example, a p a r a l l e l s p r i n g s u p p o r t f o r t r a n s l a t o r y mo-
206
--c
7
1
F i g u r e 5.18
A f l e x u r a l bearing.
( Z ) , a r e separated
by two p a r a l l e l
f l e x u r e s t r i p s ( 3 ) which a r e made o f h e a t - t r e a t e d s t e e l o r phosphor bronze. For a t r a n s l a t o r y motion, s, o f t h e upper p a r t (1) o f t h e b e a r i n g , a f o r c e , FF, i s necessary which i s determined by t h e i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n o f t h e f l e x ure s t r i p s :
E
FF = 2 E b h 3 s
b , h, 1
S
: e l a s t i c moduls : dimensions o f
the s t r i p s
:
l3
displacement
The c o n t r a c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e m o t i o n i s g i v e n by
Summing up, t h e above examples show t h a t t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t ways o f e l i m i n a t i n g s o l i d - s o l i d wear processes from mechanical systems under c e r t a i n circumstances, thus p r o v i d i n g t h e p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a c o n s t a n t , i n v a r i a n t s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system. The advantages o f t h e s e s o l u t i o n s are: (i) The t r i b o l o g i c a l processes i n such systems a r e due t o i n t e r n a l p r o cesses ( i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n and f a t i g u e ) o f t h e i n t e r f a c i a l components (fluids
1 i q u i ds , e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s ) ,
207
(ii) The f r i c t i o n a l l o s s e s and t h e l i f e t i m e p r o p e r t i e s can be e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e b u l k p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e i n t e r f a c i a l components. ( i i i ) The f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r of these systems can be d e s c r i b e d by a p p l y i n g analogue models of t h e w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d t h e o r i e s o f e n g i n e e r i n g systems a n a l y s i s ( s e e S e c t i o n 6.1).
5 , 4 , 5 WEAR
RESISTANT COATINGS
With the s o l u t i o n s described i n the foregoing sections, i t i s possible t o s e p a r a t e c o m p l e t e l y t h e moving s u r f a c e s o f a t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g system e l i m i n a t i n g any wear process f r o m t h e system.
I f t h e s o l u t i o n s d e s c r i b e d above a r e n o t a p p l i c a b l e , an advantageous
s t r u c t u r e o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system may be e s t a b l i s h e d by a p p l y i n g a s u i t a b l e surface treatment o f the surfaces i n order t o m i t i g a t e t r i b o induced changes o f s u r f a c e p r o p e r t i e s . There a r e s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s a v a i l a b l e which a r e s u i t e d f o r t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s (Ref. 5.41, 5.42). A c o m p i l a t i o n o f these methods i s g i v e n i n Table 5.1. I n t h e c h o i c e o f a s u i t a b l e c o a t i n g f o r a g i v e n problem two b a s i c aspects s h o u l d be considered, i n a d d i t i o n t o a c o s t - b e n e f i t a n a l y s i s : (a) (b) The t e c h n i c a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e system under c o n s i d e r a t i o n and t h e values o f t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f l o a d , v e l o c i t y and t e m p e r a t u r e . The t y p e o f wear mechanism o r mechanisms expected t o a c t i n t h e i n t e r f a c e o f t h e moving components. Depending on t h e t y p e o f t h e dominant i n t e r f a c i a l wear mechanisms, d i f f e r e n t s u i t a b l e s u r f a c e c o m p o s i t i o n s have been suggested. I n c o n s i d e r i n g t h i s asp e c t from t h e view o f t h e " d e 1 a m i n a t i o n t h e o r y o f wear" f o r low-speed d r y s l i d i n g wear c o n d i t i o n s , Suh and co-workers (Ref. 5.43) suggested t h a t a s o f t metal s u r f a c e l a y e r s h o u l d be t h i n n e r t h a n a c r i t i c a l t h i c k n e s s t o p r e v e n t t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f d i s l o c a t i o n s i n t h e p l a t e d l a y e r and t h e format i o n o f t h e d e l a m i n a t e d l a y e r . T h i s s u g g e s t i o n was i n v e s t i g a t e d by p l a t i n g annealed A I S I 1018 s t e e l w i t h 0.1 pm cadmium l a y e r s on b o t h o f t h e contact i n g s u r f a c e s . I n a s p e c i a l case t h i s has l e d t o a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e wear r a t e o f about t h r e e o r d e r s o f magnitude. Some general a d v i c e f o r t h e d e s i g n o f s u r f a c e c o a t i n g s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i n t e r f a c i a l wear mechanisms i s compiled i n F i g u r e 5.19 ( R e f . 5 . 4 4 ) :
I f i n a s l i d i n g system t h e adhesive wear mechanism i s expected t o dominate,
208
TREATMENT DEPOSITED COATIgGS Electroplating Electrochemical Co-depos iti on Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) Arc Deposition Powder/Wi r e Spraying P1asma Spraying Detonation Gun Spraying/Brushi ng Sputtering Porous Sintered Layers Porous Anodic Films
CONSTITUENTS
T i c , TiN, WC
Co-Cr-Ni A1 l o y s
1 I
Resin Bonded
CHEMICAL CONVERSION COATINGS Phosphate Anodize Oxal ate D i chromate Ferrous A1 1oys T i t a n i u & A1 -A1 1oys m Copper A1 1oys Magnesium A l l o y s
C N,C
NsS
Si
i n Ferrous A1 loys
8, FeeB
Cr
Be i n Titanium
Table 5 . 1
may be applied. Depending on t h e material o f the counterpartner, t h i n surface layers o f s o f t m a t e r i a l s w i t h a hexagonal c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c s t r u c t u r e may f o r example be s u i t a b l e . (Thin s o f t coatings are a l s o useful from the p o i n t of the delamination theory; they may a l s o
i n a broader sense
p o s i t i v e l y i n f l u e n c e surface f a t i g u e wear processes.) I f the abrasive wear component dominates, very hard surface coatings, l i k e t i t a n i u m carbides, may lead t o low wear r a t e s . Hard coatings, e.g., TiN, w i l l also reduce adhesion of s t e e l as w e l l as t h e wear r a t e . I f superposition o f various wear processes i s t o be expected, m u l t i - l a y e r e d surface coatings may be b e n e f i c i a l (Ref. 5.45, 5.46). For c e r t a i n cases o f a p p l i c a t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g r u l e s f o r the design of a t r i b o l o g i c a l l y stressed surface as i l l u s t r a t e d i n the lower p a r t o f Figure 5.19, may be favourable: (i) (ii)
( i i i ) Below the hard intermediate l a y e r the strength decreases progressively u n t i l t h e lower values o f the base material are reached.
pizZzG-1
coatin material
210
These r a t h e r q u a l i t a t i v e p o i n t s s h o u l d be supplemented by an example o f t h e d e s i g n o f an a c t u a l t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g component. Consider as a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c example t h e design o f a b e a r i n g bushing (Ref. 5.47), shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 5.20. as
0.3-1.5
mm
Pb o r Sn Pb-Sn-Cu Ni bronze
s t e e l back
steel
F i g u r e 5.20
Design o f a b e a r i n g bushing.
f u l f i l l i t s t e c h n i c a l purpose. The p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t ( c o r r o s i v e ) e n v i r o n mental a t t a c k i s p r o v i d e d by t h e outermost l a y e r , t h e f l a s h . The t r i b o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r i s determined m a i n l y by t h e o v e r l a y and t h e b e a r i n g l a y e r . ( B o t h l a y e r s a r e separated by a t h i n n i c k e l l a y e r which p r e v e n t s t h e d i f f u s i o n o f t i n from t h e o v e r l a y t o t h e copper o f t h e b e a r i n g l a y e r which may o c c u r a t e l e v a t e d temperatures. ) Whereas t h e o v e r l a y forms t h e s l i d i n g s u r f a c e , t h e purpose o f t h e b e a r i n g l a y e r i s t o embed h a r d p a r t i c l e s and t o r e p l a c e t h e s l i d i n g s u r f a c e i f t h e o v e r l a y i s worn away. The purpose o f t h e s t e e l back i s t o c a r r y t h e normal l o a d and t o connect t h e bushing w i t h
**
'
211
212
systems a n a l y s i s t o t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system. As o u t l i n e d i n S e c t i o n 2.3, t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f a mechanical system by means o f t h e network approach o f e n g i n e e r i n g systems a n a l y s i s s t a r t s w i t h t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and m o d e l l i n g o f t h e elements o f t h e system. Next, t h e i n p u t and o u t p u t v a r i a b l e s o f t h e system a r e i d e n t i f i e d and c l a s s i f i e d i n t o " a c r o s s " and " t h r o u g h " v a r i a b l e s o r " e f f o r t " and " f l o w " v a r i a b l e s . Then network graphs and s i g n a l f l o w graphs a r e drawn and t h e s t a t e e q u a t i o n s a r e f o r m u l a t e d . F o r t h i s purpose, t h e K i r c h h o f f ' s mesh and node laws a r e o f t e n u t i l i z e d . The r e s u l t i n g e q u a t i o n s a r e t h e n s o l v e d a p p l y i n g s u i t a b l e methods, l i k e t h e Laplace t r a n s f o r m , o r by u t i l i z i n g d i g i t a l o r analogue computers i n o r d e r t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system.
M1
Figure 6.1
M1-M2
and a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y u1-u2
and i t i s sometimes c a l l e d a
mechanical-mechani c a l energy c o n v e r t e r . The f u n c t i o n a l i n p u t - o u t p u t r e l a t i o n s o f t h e g e a r - t r a i n system can be found by an e l e c t r i c a l analogue f r o m t h e g e n e r a l i z e d K i r c h h o f f ' s laws (see S e c t i o n 2.3): (i) From f o r c e e q u i l i b r i u m , t h e f o r c e e x e r t e d m u t u a l l y by t h e i n t e r a c t i n g gear t e e t h must be equal, i . e . F2 =
F1. I n t r o d u c i n g t h e gear r a t i o , N,
i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e o u t p u t t o r q u e M2 i s equal t o t h e i n p u t t o r q u e M1
213
times t h e gear r a t i o N : M2
=
N M1
W2
W1
u 1 a r e d e s c r i b e d t o g e t h e r as an i n p u t v e c t o r
x =
r "1
by t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x
Figure 6.2
214
T h i s i s t h e t y p i c a l network r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a ( l i n e a r ) " t w o - p o r t ' ' system. I f more t h a n two i n p u t and o u t p u t v a r i a b l e s a r e connected w i t h t h e system, t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e m o d e l l i n g t e c h n i q u e l e a d s t o t h e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f a n - p o r t system as shown i n F i g u r e 6.3.
Input 1
0 0
output 1
.
0
System structure
0
Input n
Output m
1,.
. . ,m
1, ...,n
F i g u r e 6.3
Network r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f n - p o r t system.
The t e c h n i q u e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e s 6.2 and 6 . 3 o n l y works i f t h e elements o f t h e a c t u a l system can be m o d e l l e d by s i m p l e p h y s i c a l elements w i t h l i n e a r c a u s e - e f f e c t i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e i n p u t and o u t p u t v a r i a b l e s . Moreover, t h e network t e c h n i q u e assumes a l o s s - f r e e s t e a d y - s t a t e f u n c t i o n o f t h e system and a c o n s t a n t system s t r u c t u r e . Due t o these r e s t r i c t i o n s t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l network technique, as i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e s i m p l e gear t r a i n example, has t o be m o d i f i e d f o r t h e f u n c t i o n a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems. An e x t e n s i o n o f t h e network method f o r t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e case o f power t r a n s m i s s i o n systems which takes i n t o account f r i c t i o n a l energy l o s s e s has been proposed b y S c h l o s s e r (Ref. 6.1). I n t h i s model a Coulomb-type o f f r i c t i o n i s assumed, i n t r o d u c i n g a c o n s t a n t c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n f o r a g i v e n s e t o f c o n d i t i o n s . W i t h t h i s model t h e t r a n s f e r and l o s s - c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e v a r i o u s mechanical p o w e r - t r a n s m i s s i o n systems can be d e s c r i b e d . I n o r d e r t o s t u d y t h e dynamics o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems, v a r i a b l e f r i c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s a r e t o be taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n as d i s c u s s e d i n t h e n e x t section.
215
6,2
TRANSMISSION MOTION OF
AND
STICK-SLIP EFFECTS
t y p e o f m o t i o n i s determined by t h e v a l u e o f t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e a t vrel and t h e dependence o f t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e on t h e v e l o c i t y FF = f ( v ) . L e t t h e i n i t i a l s t a t e o f t h e system shown i n F i g u r e 6.4 be such t h a t t h e s p r i n g s Csl and C s 2 a r e uncompressed and ml and m2 a r e a t r e s t . When t h e m o t i o n o f v e l o c i t y vo i s i n t r o d u c e d t h e r e w i l l be no movement o f ml
relative
216
Friction f o r c e , FF
F i g u r e 6.4
Model o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system.
F i g u r e 6.5
Network r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
F i g u r e 6.6
S i g n a l f l o w graph.
217
t o m2 ( " s t i c k " phase) u n t i l t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e on ml i s h i g h enough t o o v e r come t h e ( s t a t i c ) f r i c t i o n f o r c e between ml and m2. I f t h e n t h e m o t i o n o f
---+'r
- = + -
Table 6.1
Analogue mechanical and e l e c t r i c a l system elements. t h e netMork graph o f t h e system o f F i g u r e 6.4 i s drawn. The
I n F i g u r e 6.5,
6.1.
a " v o l t a g e d r i v e r " o f t h e c i r c u i t . The f o r c e s F a r e t h e n t h e " f l o w " v a r i a b l e s t h r o u g h t h e elements o f t h e c i r c u i t , i . e . t h e masses ml, m2, t h e s p r i n g s sl,
s2 and t h e damper d. The c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i g n a l f l o w graph o f t h e
network graph o f F i g u r e 6.5 i s shown i n F i g u r e 6.6. From t h e network and s i g n a l - f l o w graphs, t h e e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g t h e f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r of t h e t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system can be e a s i l y d e r i v e d . U t i l i z i n g K i r c h h o f f ' s node l a w t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s r e s u l t : node 1)
node 2 )
218
(I)
(11)
or
Csl
-FF
(vot
=
x)
FF t
t Cdl
m,ii
Cs2z t m?
F o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f these d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s , d i f f e r e n t methods can be used. ( F o r a r e v i e w o f a n a l y t i c a l methods see Ref. 6.5.) I n the following, these e q u a t i o n s and t h e s t i c k - s l i p b e h a v i o u r o f t h e t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system shown i n F i g u r e 6.4 w i l l be s t u d i e d b y means o f an analogue computer.
6,2,2
SIMULATION
OF STICK-SLIP
BEHAVIOUR
I f a system can be r e p r e s e n t e d b y d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s , t h e b e h a v i o u r o f
t h e system can be s t u d i e d w i t h an analogue computer. The systems elements can be r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h reasonable accuracy by s t a n d a r d computer elements. Whereas f o r t h e t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system m o d e l l e d i n F i g u r e 6.4 t h e values o f t h e s p r i n g s and t h e damper Csl,
a d j u s t e d by p o t e n t i o m e t e r s e t t i n g s , t h e model1 i n g o f t h e f r i c t i o n charact e r i s t i c s r e q u i r e s an a p p r o p r i a t e f u n c t i o n g e n e r a t o r . The above q u a l i t a t i v e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s t i c k - s l i p e f f e c t has i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e s t i c k - s l i p m o t i o n may be determined by t h e t y p e o f t h e dependence o f t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e FF ( o r t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f ) on t h e v e l o c i t y . I n o r d e r t o s t u d y t h e s t i c k - s l i p m o t i o n w i t h s u f f i c i e n t g e n e r a l i t y , i n t h i s study, f o r t h e f r i c t i o n - v e l o c i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h e shape o f t h e S t r i b e c k c u r v e has been chosen and t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system a t t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e S t r i b e c k c u r v e has been s t u d i e d (Ref. 6.6). The analogue computer f l o w diagram f o r t h e system i s shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 6.7.
I t can be seen t h a t t h e upper and t h e l o w e r p a r t s o f t h e computer f l o w
diagram correspond t o t h e above d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s ( I ) and (11) and t h a t the coupling o f these d i f f e r e n t i a l equations v i a the f r i c t i o n force ( o r t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ) i s s i m u l a t e d by t h e f u n c t i o n g e n e r a t o r i n t h e m i d d l e
219
o f F i g u r e 6 . 7 . The a p p r o p r i a t e s c a l i n g f a c t o r s a r e determined f r o m t h e d e s i g n parameters o f a p i n - o n - d i s c t r i b o m e t e r m o d e l l e d b y F i g u r e 6.4.
csl
ml
X
1
Z
~
'd -
cs2
m2
Figure 6 . 7
F o r g i v e n c o n s t a n t d a t a of m l ,
m2, Csl,
Cd,
depending on t h e l o c a t i o n o f
t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h i n t h e S t r i b e c k curve, a d i f f e r e n t dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f t h e t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system can be observed. W i t h o u t g o i n g i n t o numerical d e t a i l s , t h e t h r e e f o l l o w i n g d i f f e r e n t g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s o f t h e m o t i o n b e h a v i o u r o f t h e m o d e l l e d t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system o f F i g u r e 6 . 4 can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d : (i) F o r t h e c o n d i t i o n o f f r i c t i o n around t h e minimum o f t h e S t r i b e c k curve, t h e system i s u n s t a b l e and t h e m o t i o n f o l l o w i n g a d i s t u r b a n c e i s divergent, i . e . , i n F i g u r e 6.8. (ii) F o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f f r i c t i o n on t h e l e f t p a r t o f t h e S t r i b e c k c u r v e t h e t y p i c a l s t i c k - s l i p m o t i o n diagram r e s u l t s as i n F i g u r e 6.9. ( i i i ) F o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f f r i c t i o n on t h e r i g h t p a r t o f S t r i b e c k ' s c u r v e t h e system i s s t a b l e , i . e . v i b r a t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e system a r e damped a u t o m a t i c a l l y . T h i s b e h a v i o u r can be seen i n F i g u r e 6.10 f o r f i v e d i f f e r e n t s l o p e s of t h e r i g h t p a r t o f t h e S t r i b e c k c u r v e and f i v e o p e r a t i n g v a l u e s o f t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f. The r e s u l t s c o n f i r m t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t s t i c k - s l i p e f f e c t s a r e l i k e l y t o o c c u r if t h e s l o p e of t h e f r i c t i o n - v e l o c i t y c u r v e i s n e g a t i v e t h e system e x c i t e s i t s e l f t o v i b r a t i o n s , as shown
220
Friction characteristic
Motion behaviour
Time
F i g u r e 6.9
S t i c k - s l i p o s c i l l a t i o n s f o r c o n d i t i o n s on t h e l e f t p a r t o f t h e S t r i b e c k c u r v e (f0=0.6).
F i g u r e 6.10
221
o r equal t o zero,
df -< dv
0, as i n t h e l e f t p a r t o f t h e S t r i b e c k curve. Thus,
s t i c k - s l i p e f f e c t s may o c c u r o n l y under c o n d i t i o n s o f s o l i d f r i c t i o n o r boundary o r mixed l u b r i c a t i o n b u t a r e u n l i k e l y t o o c c u r under c o n d i t i o n s o f hydrodynamic 1u b r i c a t i o n . These r e s u l t s show t h a t t h e s t i c k - s l i p b e h a v i o u r o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems can be c o n v e n i e n t l y s t u d i e d by analogue computer s i m u l a t i o n . I f an a c t u a l t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system i s m o d e l l e d i n t h i s way, i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o use t h i s model as a b a s i s f o r a t t e m p t s t o e l i m i n a t e s t i c k - s l i p e f f e c t s and t o o p t i m i z e t h e dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system. The o p t i m i z a t i o n d a t a can be o b t a i n e d by v a r y i n g t h e values o f t h e analogue computer s e t t i n g s , t h u s s i m u l a t i n g a change i n t h e d e s i g n of t h e elements o f t h e system (masses, s p r i n g s , dampers) o r a change o f t h e f r i c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . F u r t h e r , c r i t i c a l o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e m o d e l l e d system may be s t u d i e d . I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a c o m b i n a t i o n o f system m o d e l l i n g t e c h niques and analogue computer s t u d i e s may be o f g r e a t h e l p f o r o b t a i n i n g a p r o p e r f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f a g i v e n t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system.
I n p u t work 'in
System structure
"
Losses "
F i g u r e 6.11
Work t r a n s a c t i o n s o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system.
222
The a b i l i t y o f a mechanical system t o t r a n s f e r work, mechanical energy o r power i n t o a t e c h n i c a l l y u s e f u l o u t p u t i s u s u a l l y expressed by t h e e f f i c i e n c y -q o f t h e system d e f i n e d as u s e f u l o u t p u t work i n p u t work
efficiency
T '
W,,t
'in
Because o f i t s economic importance, t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f a mechanical system i s one o f i t s b a s i c e n g i n e e r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and most s t a n d a r d books o f mechanical e n g i n e e r i n g c o n t a i n some d a t a on t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f machine e l e ments. (See f o r i n s t a n c e Ref. 6 . 7 . ) However, due t o t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems and t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t r i b o l o g i c a l processes, t h e r e e x i s t s no g e n e r a l t h e o r y c o r r e l a t i n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f mechanical systems w i t h t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l processes o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n t h e system as d i s cussed i n S e c t i o n 4.3.4. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f f r i c t i o n on t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system w i l l b e s t u d i e d phenomenologically i n d i s c u s s i n g a s i m p l e t e c h n i c a l example. From t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s example some g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s w i l l be drawn. Consider a s i m p l e "wedge d r i v e " as i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e upper p a r t o f F i g u r e 6.12. The system c o n s i s t s o f a h o r i z o n t a l l y moving wedge (1) and a v e r t i c a l l y moving wedge ( 2 ) . The t e c h n i c a l purpose o f t h e system i s t o t r a n s f o r m t h e i n p u t motion, i . e . t h e i n p u t t r a n s l a t i o n x i n t o an o u t p u t m o t i o n y a t a r i g h t a n g l e t o i t , and t o l i f t a l o a d F a t t h e o u t p u t by Y i n t r o d u c i n g an i n p u t f o r c e Fx. The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
o f i n p u t s o f f o r c e and m o t i o n (Fx, x ) i n t o t e c h n i c a l l y u s e f u l o u t p u t s o f
f o r c e and m o t i o n ( F y ) by means o f a "wedge e f f e c t " i s u t i l i z e d i n v a r i o u s Y' t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l machine elements, i n c l u d i n g t r a n s l a t i o n screws, worm-wheel d r i v e s , cam-and-follower s e t s , e t c . The e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e wedge d r i v e system shown i n F i g u r e 6.12 can b e c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p s (Ref. 6 . 8 ) : (a) (b) (c) draw free-body diagrams o f t h e elements o f t h e system, draw v e c t o r diagrams o f t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e system's elements, determine t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f f o r c e e q u i l i b r i u m , c a l c u l a t e t h e e f f i c i e n c y T d e f i n e d as 7 = Fy. y/F; x.
(d)
223
tY
I
iFY+
F3
FN2
Fx
FY
F i g u r e 6.12
224
As i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 6.12,
t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e i n p u t f o r c e Fx
i n t o t h e o u t p u t f o r c e F i s i n f l u e n c e d by t h r e e sources o f f r i c t i o n : Y FF1 i s t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e a c t i n g a t t h e s u p p o r t o f wedge ( l ) , (i) (ii) FF2 i s t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e a c t i n g a t t h e i n t e r f a c e between wedge ( 1 ) and wedge ( 2 ) , ( i i i ) FF3 i s t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e a c t i n g i n t h e guides o f wedge ( 2 ) . S p l i t t i n g up these f o r c e s i n t o components normal and t a n g e n t i a l t o t h e surfaces, t h e f o r c e v e c t o r diagrams shown i n t h e r i g h t - h a n d p a r t o f F i g u r e 6.12 can be drawn. I n these diagrams, 6 denotes t h e a n g l e between t h e t a n g e n t i a l ( f r i c t i o n ) f o r c e component FT and t h e normal f o r c e component FN, t h e t a n g e n t o f which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n , i . e . , t a n 5 = FT/FN = f. From t h e p a r t i a l f o r c e v e c t o r diagrams t h e r e s u l t i n g f o r c e v e c t o r diagram, d e s c r i b i n g t h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n between t h e f o r c e s Fx, F1, 1ows t h a t
t r i g o n o m e t r i c r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e two t r i a n g l e s w i t h i n t h i s diagram, i t f o l -
sin
p1
sin
p2
and
-FXsin
p3
- - F2
sin
p4
Thus
225
fl
i t follows t h a t
F
f*
f3 =
f,
Y=
FX
t a n (cp t 26)
x tancp,
then f o r the e f f i c i e n c y Fy
'
*
11
i t follows t h a t
=-
Fx
tang
11'
t a n ( c p t 26)
T '
tan ( g t 6 )
as a func-
226
z
F
90
80
70
6o
F i g u r e 6.13
E f f i c i e n c y o f a wedge d r i v e system as f u n c t i o n o f f r i c t i o n .
of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n , F o r t y p i c a l f r i c t i o n and l u b r i c a t i o n regimes t h e f o l l o w i n g ranges a r e found: (I) (11) (111) (IV) dry s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n boundary l u b r i c a t i o n hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n rolling friction
: :
1 z 5 t o 40%
x 60 t o 70%
: :
1
-q
= 90
= 97
t o 98% t o 99%
These d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t f o r s l i d i n g s i t u a t i o n s , e f f i c i e n c i e s g r e a t e r t h a n
90 p e r c e n t can o n l y be o b t a i n e d w i t h f u l l f l u i d l u b r i c a t i o n , and t h a t
h i g h e s t e f f i c i e n c i e s can be r e a l i z e d by s u b s t i t u t i n g s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n by r o l l i n g elements. Although these f i g u r e s a r e d e r i v e d f o r t h e s p e c i f i c wedged r i v e system, they c h a r a c t e r i z e b r o a d l y t h e t y p i c a l e f f i c i e n c y ranges o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems o p e r a t i n g under d i f f e r e n t t r i b o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s .
227
I f e x a c t e f f i c i e n c y d a t a of a g i v e n t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system a r e needed,
e x p e r i m e n t a l measurements s h o u l d be used i n a d d i t i o n t o an a n a l y t i c a l e s t i m a t i o n . F o r example, f o r t h e a c c u r a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f gear systems, b o t h e x p e r i m e n t a l measurements and mathematical model s i m u l a t i o n s were performed i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f such f a c t o r s as d i a m e t r a l p i t c h , c o n t a c t r a t i o , magnitude o f t r a n s m i t t e d l o a d , and speed upon t h e e f f i c i e n c y (Ref. 6 . 1 0 ) . f o r a s p u r gear system o f e f f i c i e n c y
I f d i f f e r e n t tribo-mechanical
i s s u p p o r t e d by two b e a r i n g s
systems a c t t o g e t h e r , t h e e f f i c i e n c i e s must be m u l t i p l i e d . F o r i n s t a n c e ,
11 , which
9
o f e f f i c i e n c y q b t h e t o t a l e f f i c i e n c y i s g i v e n by
I n g e n e r a l i z i n g t h e s e r e s u l t s , i t f o l l o w s t h a t a multi-component mechanical system o f h i g h t o t a l e f f i c i e n c y can o n l y be r e a l i z e d i f a l l i n d i v i d u a l subsystems a r e designed w i t h e f f i c i e n c i e s as h i g h as p o s s i b l e . F o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e t o t a l e f f i c i e n c y o f a multi-component system t h e procedure o f "systems t e a r i n g " as e x p l a i n e d i n Chapter 2 may be used.
6,4,1 CAUSES
OF FAILURE
The d i s c u s s i o n s i n t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n s have shown t h a t t r i b o l o g i c a l p r o cesses determine t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f mechanical systems and may a l s o d i s t u r b t h e f u n c t i o n a l i n p u t - o u t p u t r e l a t i o n s . If i n t h e performance o f a g i v e n system, t h e f u n c t i o n a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m ' s i n p u t s i n t o t h e t e c h n i c a l l y used o u t p u t s i s d i s t u r b e d i n such a way t h a t t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s exceed c e r t a i n t o l e r a n c e l i m i t s i t i s s a i d t h a t a " f u n c t i o n a l f a i l u r e " o f t h e system has o c c u r r e d . Since i n any system, t h e i n p u t s a r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e o u t p u t s v i a t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system, i n g e n e r a l t h e e f f e c t o f a f u n c t i o n a l f a i l u r e i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h , o r caused by, s i g n i f i c a n t changes o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system (see Chapter 5 ) . These s t r u c t u r a l changes i n t u r n a r e i n f l u e n c e d o r caused by t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l processes o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n t h e system d u r i n g t h e f u n c t i o n a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e i n p u t s i n t o t h e o u t p u t s . B e f o r e s t u d y i n g t h e r o l e o f t r i b o l o g i c a l processes i n t h e f a i l u r e o f
228
mechanical systems, some general t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t h e aspects o f s a f e t y and f a i l u r e o f e n g i n e e r i n g systems w i l l f i r s t be made. Why do f a i l u r e s and a c c i d e n t s happen and what should be done t o p r e v e n t them? According t o S t a n t o n (Ref. 6.11) t h e r e a r e t h r e e i m p o r t a n t t h e ories i n this field. The f i r s t i s H e i n r i c h ' s domino sequence t h e o r y which p o s t u l a t e s t h a t f i v e f a c t o r s , o c c u r r i n g i n sequence, l e a d t o an a c c i d t i t ( R e f . 6 . 1 2 ) . These f i v e f a c t o r s a r e : ( a ) p e r s o n a l t r a i t s , e i t h e r i n h e . i t e d o r a c q u i r e d f r o m t h e environment; ( b ) a p e r s o n a l d e f i c i e n c y , i.e., t h e s e t r a i t s predispose a person t o commit an u n s a f e a c t ( o r o m i s s i o n ) o r t o a l l o w a p h y s i c a l o r mechanical hazard t o e x i s t ; ( c ) an u n s a f e a c t ( o r o m i s s i o n ) o r a p h y s i c a l o r mechanical hazard; i d ) t h e a c c i d e n t ; and a t t h e end o f t h e sequence, ( e ) t h e i n j u r y . Each f a c t o r i s l i k e a domino s t a n d i n g on end. As one f a l l s , i t knocks t h e o t h e r s down. To p r e v e n t a c c i d e n t s , H e i n r i c h sugg e s t s removal o f one o f t h e dominoes, p r e f e r a b l y t h e domino l a b e l l e d "unsafe a c t o r mechanical o r p h y s i c a l hazard". The second i m p o r t a n t t h e o r y i s Haddon's abnormal energy exchange t h e o r y (Ref. 6.13). A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s t h e o r y , damage occurs when a system exchanges energy w i t h i t s environment beyond some a c c e p t a b l e o r normal l e v e l . " L e v e l " can mean q u a n t i t y , q u a l i t y , o r r a t e o f t r a n s f e r . "Energy" can be o f i t s d i f f e r e n t forms, e.g. e l e c t r i c a l , mechanical, a c o u s t i c a l , r a d i a t i o n , t h e r mal, e t c . A p p l y i n g Haddon's t h e o r y t o t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f f a i l u r e r e q u i r e s t h a t we know t h e l e v e l s o f energy i n p u t f r o m o r t h e o u t p u t t o i t s e n v i r o n ment which w i l l i n i t i a t e damage t o t h e o b j e c t under study. The t h i r d i m p o r t a n t t h e o r y i n t h e f i e l d o f s a f e t y i s G r i m a l d i ' s r i s k a c c e p t a b i l i t y t h e o r y (Ref. 6 . 1 4 ) . He r e c o g n i z e s t h a t t h e i d e a l o f e l i m i n a t i n g o r n e u t r a l i z i n g a l l hazards can n e v e r be achieved i n r e a l l i f e . The " a c c e p t a b i l i t y " o f a hazard i s determined by t h e t o l e r a b i l i t y o f t h e r i s k a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h a t hazard. The magnitude o f t h e r i s k ' s t o l e r a b i l i t y i s conceived as a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l space. The dimensions o f t h i s space a r e ( i ) s e n s i t i v i t y t o exposure, ( i i ) p r o b a b i l i t y o f occurrence, and, ( i i i ) seriousness o f t h e e f f e c t s . S e n s i t i v i t y o f exposure i n v o l v e s such m a t t e r s as l e g a l i t y , confidence, and e t h i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , o r values. To c o n t r o l a c c i d e n t s by a p p l y i n g G r i n i a l d i I s t h e o r y , we reduce t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f occ u r r e n c e by u s i n g f a i l - s a f e devices, reduce t h e seriousness by exposing fewer people f o r s h o r t e r p e r i o d s o f time, and reduce t h e s e n s i t i v i t y by making o u r designs more a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e changing values o f o u r s o c i e t y (Ref. 6.11).
229
Causes o f f a i l u r e
manufacturing f a u l t s d e s i g n and c a l c u l a t i o n f a u l t s m a t e r i a l s f a u l t s o f components s e r v i c e f a u l t s , maintenance faults, f a i l u r e o f monitoring equi pment wear f a i l u r e t h r o u g h e x t e r n a l causes Table 6.2
9.1
3.6 39.1 30.5 7.0
Damage types breakages due t o o v e r s t r e s s i n g scuffing, seizure mechanical and c o r r o s i v e s u r f a c e damage cracks d e f l e c t i o n s , deformations Table 6.3
Occurrence ( % ) 60 18 15
5
2
T u r n i n g o u r a t t e n t i o n now t o t h e f i e l d o f mechanical f a u l t s , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e general t h e o r i e s o f s a f e t y and f a i l u r e , i t i s necessary t o c o n s i d e r t h e causes o f f a i l u r e observed e x p e r i m e n t a l l y . I n r e v i e w i n g t h e causes o f mechanical f a i l u r e , C o l l a c o t t i n h i s r e c e n t book on "Mechanical f a u l t d i a g n o s i s and c o n d i t i o n m o n i t o r i n g " (Ref. 6.15) d i s t i n g u i s h e s between t h e f o l l o w i n g main a s p e c t s : (a) (b) (c) Service f a i l u r e s Fatigue Excessive d e f o r m a t i o n
230
(d) (e) (f) (9) Wear Corrosion Blockages Design, m a n u f a c t u r i n g and assembly causes o f f a i l u r e
T h i s c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e main c l a s s e s o f f a i l u r e a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l n o n - t r i b o l o g i c a l causes which may l e a d t o f a i l u r e o f mechanical equipment. T h i s can a l s o be seen f r o m t h e d a t a o f Tables 6.2 and 6.3 i n which f a i l u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t y p i c a l t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems, namely r o l l i n g and s l i d i n g b e a r i n g s and mechanical c l u t c h e s , a r e l i s t e d . The d a t a have been c o m p i l e d by t h e i n s u r a n c e company ALLIANZ (Ref. 6.16). Table 6 . 2 c o n t a i n s t h e r e s u l t s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e causes o f 1400 r o l l i n g - b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s and 530 s l i d i n g - b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s . I t can be seen t h a t f o r these t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems, about 30 p e r c e n t o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l f a i l u r e s a r e due t o wear processes. Table 6.3 c o n t a i n s t h e p e r centage o f t h e main t y p e s o f damage o f mechanical c l u t c h e s . Also i n t h i s case t h e damage o c c u r r i n g a t t h e l o a d - t r a n s m i t t i n g s u r f a c e s has been f o u n d t o c o n s t i t u t e about 30 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l f a i l u r e causes. These examples show t h a t b e s i d e s t h e t r i b o - i n d u c e d causes o f f a i l u r e , v a r i o u s non- tri b o l o g i c a l causes may 1ead t o f a i 1u r e o f mechanical equi pment. T u r n i n g now t o t r i b o l o g i c a l causes o f f a i l u r e , i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n t h e systems approach t o t h e s t u d y o f t h e f a i l u r e o f mechanical systems w i l l be o u t l i n e d by d i s c u s s i n g an example.
6,4,2 A
CASE STUDY:
FAILURE
MODES OF GEARS
I n S e c t i o n 6.1,
an i d e a l g e a r t r a i n was s t u d i e d b y t h e systems a n a l y s i s
network method t o i l l u s t r a t e " i d e a l " f u n c t i o n a l behaviour. I n t h i s s e c t i o n t h e main aspects o f t h e f a i l u r e modes o f gears w i l l be considered, as an example o f a s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y o f t h e f a i l u r e o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system. I n a r e c e n t r e v i e w , P.M. Ku o u t l i n e d t h e many f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g g e a r He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t any r a t i o n a l f a i l u r e , emphasizing t h e importance o f b o t h gear mechanics and gear l u b r i c a t i o n on gear f a i l u r e modes ( R e f . 6.17). approach t o gear d e s i g n must c o n s i d e r , as a minimum, t h e impact o f t h e v a r i o u s modes o f g e a r - t o o t h f a i l u r e on gear performance, o p e r a t i n g l i f e , r e l i a b i l i t y , s i z e , w e i g h t , and c o s t . I t has been emphasized above t h a t f a i l u r e o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system occurs t h r o u g h t h e a c t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s on t h e s t r u c t u r e o f
231
the system c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a severe d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l i n p u t o u t p u t r e l a t i o n s . Accordingly, a study of t h e f a i l u r e o f a gear system must, by necessity, i n c l u d e a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e t o t a l e f f e c t o f t h e f o l l o w i n g participating factors :
OPERATING VARIABLES ( a ) type o f motion, i . e . t h e kinematics, ( b ) f o r c e s which may be s t u d i e d under steady-state c o n d i t i o n s ("pseudos t a t i c s " ) and under dynamic c o n d i t i o n s , (c) velocities, ( d ) ambient temperature, (e) operating duration.
(i )
(ii)
L u b r i c a t i o n modes elastohydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n w i t h some s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , l i k e unsteady EHD c o n d i t i o n s (dynamic t o o t h l o a d and squeezef i l m e f f e c t s ) , l u b r i c a n t s t a r v a t i o n , non-isothermal f l o w c o n d i t i o n s , e l l i p t i c gear-mesh conjunctions, surface-roughness and s u r f a c e - t e x t u r e e f f e c t s , non-Newtonian f l o w behaviour,
232
boundary l u b r i c a t i o n i n c l u d i n g t h e v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l and chemical aspects o f t h e m a t e r i a l - l u b r i c a n t - a t m o s p h e r e interactions. (iii) F r i c t i o n processes s l i d i n g / r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n o f the counterformal gear-tooth c o n t a c t under dynamic l o a d s and v e l o c i t i e s . (iv) Wear processes g e a r - t o o t h wear o c c u r r i n g t h r o u g h t h e a c t i o n o f one o r more o f t h e b a s i c wear mechanisms, namely s u r f a c e f a t i g u e , a b r a s i o n , adhesion, t r i b o - c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s . The nomenclature o f t h e American S o c i e t y o f Gear Manufacturers (AGMA) c i t e s
t h e r a t i o o f t h e o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s t o t h e composite s u r f a c e roughness
233
( i i ) t h e r e i s some evidence t h a t w i t h o i l s o f d i f f e r e n t chemical composit i o n s , t h e chemical e f f e c t on p i t t i n g l i f e cannot be i g n o r e d . From t h e m a t e r i a l p o i n t o f view, t h e s t e e l c o m p o s i t i o n and t h e m e t a l l u r g i c a l s t r u c t u r e e x e r t an i n f l u e n c e on p i t t i n g l i f e . T h i s i s i n f l u e n c e d a l s o by l o a d - s h a r i n g and t o o t h - p r o f i l e m o d i f i c a t i o n . The e f f e c t o f p i t t i n g o c c u r s w i t h gears o f l o w c o n t a c t r a t i o s u s u a l l y n e a r t h e p i t c h l i n e where t h e m o t i o n i s n e a r l y p u r e r o l l i n g b u t t h e H e r t z i a n s t r e s s i s a maximum. F o r gears w i t h h i g h e r c o n t a c t r a t i o s , t h e l o a d s h a r i n g p a t t e r n i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t and t h e maximum H e r t z i a n s t r e s s may v e r y w e l l o c c u r i n t h e mesh c y c l e where t h e s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y may be h i g h . S c u f f i n g i s t h e o t h e r m a j o r f a i l u r e mode o f gears, and i s a severe f o r m o f adhesive wear which cannot o c c u r i f an o i l f i l m o f s u f f i c i e n t t h i c k n e s s separates t h e s u r f a c e s . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e time-dependent f a i l u r e mode o f p i t t i n g , s c u f f i n g f a i l u r e s may o c c u r q u i t e p r e c i p i t o u s l y . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t , i n o r d e r t o ensure f u l l EHD l u b r i c a t i o n t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s must be such t h a t f o r a g i v e n system t h e r a t i o o f o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s t o composite surface roughness,h, S e c t i o n 4.5.6, c o n d i t i o n s a r e met: ( i ) t h e necessary c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e breakdown o f t h e EHD f i l m , ( i i ) an a d d i t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e breakdown o f t h e s u r f a c e f i l m s . Whereas i t appears p o s s i b l e t o t a c k l e c o n d i t i o n ( i ) f r o m b a s i c EHD p r i n c i p l e s t a k i n g i n t o account t h e dynamic i n f l u e n c e s o f temperate and p r e s s u r e induced v i s c o s i t y changes and s u r f a c e roughness e f f e c t s , t h e r e i s s t i l l some d i s c u s s i o n on t h e p h y s i c a l mechanism o f t h e c o n d i t i o n ( i i ) . I t appears t h a t t h e r e m i g h t be a c r i t i c a l i n t e r f a c i a l " s u r f a c e temperature" o r a c r i t i c a l "power i n p u t " o r a c r i t i c a l "power i n t e n s i t y i n p u t " t h a t a g i v e n boundary l u b r i c a t i o n f i l m may w i t h s t a n d . C l e a r l y , t h e c r i t i c a l f a i l u r e c o n d i t i o n depends on t h e m a t e r i a l s - l u b r i c a n t - a t m o s p h e r e i n t e r a c t i o n under t h e a c t i o n variables. o f the s e t o f the operating load-velocity-temperature-time (Ref. 6.17), i s i n t h e o r d e r o f t h r e e . As has been e x p l a i n e d i n f a i l u r e o f a f u l l EHD l u b r i c a t e d systems occurs o n l y i f two
Ku
t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system because i t c l e a r l y demonstrates t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f f a i l u r e - i n d u c i n g parameters and f a i l u r e - i n d u c i n g e f f e c t s . I t a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h e c l o s e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s between t r i b o - i n d u c e d changes o f t h e system's s t r u c t u r e and t h e f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system. A l t h o u g h t h e v a r i o u s aspects o f f a i l u r e have been d i s c u s s e d elsewhere f o r o t h e r t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l
234
systems, f o r example p l a i n b e a r i n g s (Ref. 6.18), r o l l i n g c o n t a c t b e a r i n g s (Ref. 6.19) o r p i s t o n r i n g s (Ref. 6.20), i t i s somewhat d i f f i c u l t t o genera l i z e these f i n d i n g s . An approach t o d e a l i n g w i t h t h e v a r i o u s aspects o f f a i l u r e i n a g e n e r a l i z e d way i s p r o v i d e d by t h e p r o b a b i l i s t i c r e l i a b i l i t y e s t i m a t i o n f o r components and systems as d i s c u s s e d in t h e n e x t s e c t i o n .
6,5
MECHANICAL EQUIPMENTRELIABILITY
R e l i a b i l i t y i s d e f i n e d as " t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f a d e v i c e p e r f o r m i n g i t s p u r pose adequately f o r t h e p e r i o d o f t i m e i n t e n d e d under t h e o p e r a t i n g cond i t i o n s encountered". T h i s i s t h e c l a s s i c d e f i n i t i o n o f r e l i a b i l i t y g i v e n by t h e Radio E l e c t r o n i c s and T e l e v i s i o n Manufacturers A s s o c i a t i o n i n 1955. Since t h a t time, t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f e l e c t r o n i c equipment has r e c e i v e d i n c r e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n , as apparatus has grown more c o m p l i c a t e d and has been a p p l i e d t o a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f i m p o r t a n t t a s k s . Now, t h e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e o f e l e c t r o n i c equipment r e l i a b i l i t y i s o f a f a i r l y h i g h s t a n d a r d and methods f o r r e l i a b i l i t y p r e d i c t i o n and d e s i g n i n g f o r r e l i a b i l i t y have been developed i n c l u d i n g t h e aspects o f redundancy (Ref. 6.21, 6.22, 6.23). Attempts of w e l l - f o u n d e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f mechanical equipment r e l i a b i l i t y a r e o f o n l y r e c e n t o r i g i n (Ref. 6.24, 6.25). The d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t o f r e l i a b i l i t y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f e l e c t r i c a l and mechanical systems may be due t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r " i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s " as d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 3 . 1 (see F i g u r e 3 . 1 ) . Consider, as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e r e l i a b i l i t y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems, t h e wear b e h a v i o u r as a f u n c t i o n o f time. I n S e c t i o n 5.3 i t was e x p l a i n e d t h a t f o r t h e l o s s - o u t p u t wear r a t e s o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system t h r e e main d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be d i s t i n g u i s h e d (Ref. 6.26, 6.27):
(I)
(11)
s e l f accommodation steady s t a t e
(111) s e l f a c c e l e r a t i o n
These t h r e e modes o f change i n t h e system b e h a v i o u r may f o l l o w each o t h e r i n time, as i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e ' 6 . 1 4 . I n F i g u r e 6.14, ZMlim denotes a maximum a d m i s s i b l e l e v e l o f t h e wear losses. A t t h i s l e v e l t h e system s t r u c t u r e has changed i n such a way t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n a l i n p u t - o u t p u t r e l a t i o n s o f t h e system a r e d i s t u r b e d s e v e r e l y . Repeated measurements show random v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e data, as i n d i c a t e d b y t h e dashed l i n e s i n F i g u r e
235
6.14. From sample functions of the wear process a distribution of the "lifetime" of the system, i.e., a failure distribution can be derived.
failure distribution
In a quantitative way the reliability of a mechanical system may be characterized mathematically as follows: Generally, the reliability of a mechanical system is expressed by a probabilistic function R(t) based on the following definitions: F(t) f(t)
=
dF0 dt
density function
A(t)
f t) o 1-F(
: failure rate
(h(t)dt is a conditional probability that the system will fail during the time t + dt under the condition that the system i s safe until the time t)
: reliability function : mean time to failure
R(t) MTBF
1-F(t)
236
I n some cases, the f a i l u r e r a t e h ( t ) o f a component i n a system can be estimated from the p o i n t o f view o f the physical behaviour o f the mater i a l used. Empirically, and sometimes t h e o r e t i c a l l y , the f o l l o w i n g proba-
b i l i t i e s are proposed (Ref. 6.28): (a) EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION h(t) f(t) R(t)
=
=
constant
C . exp (-Ct)
exp (-Ct)
I n t h i s case the f a i l u r e r a t e i s constant. I t means p h y s i c a l l y t h a t any f a i l u r e occurs a c c i d e n t a l l y without any accumulation o f f a t i g u e - l i k e e f f e c t s during i t s service time under c e r t a i n stresses. Many kinds o f e l e c t r o n i c components f o l l o w t h i s type o f f a i l u r e . Components i n a machine break down i n t h i s mode when the f a i l u r e i s b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e . As an example, i n Figure
6.15 the density f u n c t i o n o f the f a i l u r e of a Diesel engine c o n t r o l u n i t i s
Ct
C t . exp () -- C t
I n t h i s case the f a i l u r e r a t e increases w i t h time. The constant, C , i n d i cates the r a t e o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f the component which depends upon the stress l e v e l applied t o it.
(c)
Many components of machines obey t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i f the f a i l u r e occurs due t o wear processes. The f a i l u r e r a t e o f t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n cannot be expressed i n a simple form.
237
lo0l
150
50
10
15
20
25
Time (103h) F i g u r e 6.15 Density f u n c t i o n f ( t ) o f t h e f a i l u r e o f Diesel engine c o n t r o l u n i t s (Exp. d i s t r i b u t i o n ) ( R e f . 6 . 2 9 ) . 0.95 0.90 0.80 0.50
F i g u r e 6.16
F a i l u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n F ( t ) o f b a l l bearings (Wei b u l l d i s t r i b u t i o n ) ( R e f . 6 . 3 0 ) .
50
10
15
20
= - t to
c-1
T h i s i s a d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h two parameters, to, t h e nominal l i f e and t h e c o n s t a n t C. The d i s t r i b u t i o n i s found t o r e p r e s e n t f a i l u r e o f many k i n d s o f mechanical systems, such as f a t i g u e i n b a l l b e a r i n g s . As an example, i n F i g u r e 6.16 t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n o f t h e t i m e t o f a i l u r e , F ( t ) , as determined by t e s t i n g 500 grease l u b r i c a t e d b a l l b e a r i n g s a t 1000 r.p.m., (e) i s shown (Ref. 6.30).
GAMMA DISTRIBUTION
where
r(x) i s
meters. T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h e importance o f t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e q u a t i o n i s an x - f o l d c o n v o l u t i o n o f t h e e x p o n e n t i a l funct i o n . I t means p h y s i c a l l y t h a t a component f a i l s a t x - t h shock which occurs as a Poisson s t a t i s t i c a l process. As an example, i n F i g u r e 6.17 t h e d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n o f t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e p i s t o n s o f D i e s e l engines i s p l o t t e d showing a Gamma d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h x = 2 (Ref. 6.29). These d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ones which appear i n t h e f a i l u r e process o f v a r i o u s components and systems. As a general overview, i n Table 6.4 a c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e phenomena o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n and t h e mode o f f a i l u r e i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e u n d e r l y i n g p h y s i c a l processes i s g i v e n . The t a b l e i s due t o Yoshikawa (Ref. 6.28).
I t can be seen t h a t d i f f e r e n t f a i 1u r e modes and d i f f e r e n t e l ementary
f a i l u r e processes a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f f a i l u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n s . I t f o l l o w s , t h a t i n t u r n from t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f f a i l u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n curves c o n c l u s i o n s on t h e t y p e o f f a i l u r e mechanism may be drawn. F o r most t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems f a i l i n g as a consequence o f wear processes, t h e f a i l u r e b e h a v i o u r i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e normal d i s t r i b u t i o n o r the Weibull d i s t r i b u t i o n . I f f o r a given type o f tribo-mechanical system t h e f a i l u r e mode and t h e t y p e o f f a i l u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e known, t h i s knowledge can be used t o improve t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e system.
239
I
Physical process
I
D e t e r i o r a t i o n (Mode o f f a i l u r e ) Phys ic a l
I
I
Fracture Yielding
~-
Exponential
F o r i n s t a n c e , t h i s approach can be used t o s e l e c t t h e t y p e o f a b a l l o r r o l l e r b e a r i n g system t o o p e r a t e under a g i v e n s e t o f o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s w i t h h i g h o p e r a t i o n a l s a f e t y ( R e f . 6.31, system; 6.32). I n t h i s connection, the importance o f 1u b r i ca t i on techno1 ogy on t h e r e 1 ia b i 1 it y o f tri bo-mechani c a l has been emphasized (Ref. 6.33, 6 . 3 4 ) .
To conclude t h e d i s c u s s i o n on t h e f a i l u r e and r e l i a b i l i t y o f t r i b o mechanical systems, t h e dependence o f t h e f a i l u r e r a t e on t h e o p e r a t i n g d u r a t i o n o f a system s h o u l d be considered. I f t h e f a i l u r e r a t e i s p l o t t e d as f u n c t i o n o f time, a curve, known as t h e " b a t h - t u b - c u r v e " , shown i n F i g u r e 6.18. I n t h i s c u r v e t h r e e regimes can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d : ( a ) e a r l y f a i l u r e s , ( b ) random f a i l u r e s , ( c ) wear-out f a i l u r e s . None o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n curves d i s c u s s e d above have t h i s bath-tub-shaped f a i l u r e c u r v e b u t an a p p r o x i m a t i o n may be o b t a i n e d by s e l e c t i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n f o r each o f t h e t h r e e regimes (Ref. 6.35). Regime ( a ) d e s c r i b e s t h e r e g i o n o f t h e " i n f a n t death" o f t h e system. T h i s regime i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a decrease o f t h e f a i l u r e r a t e w i t h t i m e f o r example i n e f f e c t i v e r u n n i n g - i n . The r e gime ( b ) o f c o n s t a n t f a i l u r e r a t e i s t h e r e g i o n o f normal r u n n i n g . Here, i s found, as
240
f a i l u r e occurs as a consequence o f s t a t i s t i c a l l y independent f a c t o r s . Regime ( c ) i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an i n c r e a s e o f t h e f a i l u r e r a t e w i t h t i m e . Here f a i l u r e may be due t o ageing e f f e c t s . As d e s c r i b e d above, f o r a g r e a t deal o f t r i b o - i n d u c e d f a i l u r e s t h e f a i l u r e r a t e i n c r e a s e s w i t h t i m e . Thus r e g i o n ( c ) o f t h e " b a t h - t u b curve" of F i g u r e 6.18 appears t o be r e l e v a n t f o r t h e normal mode o f wear induced f a i l u r e o f mechanical systems.
'
I
Time
F i g u r e 6.18
"Bath-tub'' f a i l u r e r a t e curve.
6,6
REQUIREMENTS
FOR
Having s t u d i e d i n some d e t a i 1 t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f tri b o l o g i c a l processes on t h e f u n c t i o n o f mechanical systems, f i n a l l y t h e requirements f o r a p r o p e r f u n c t i o n a l behaviour o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems should be considered. The f o u r main aspects t h a t may be i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n w i l l be discussed i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s (see a l s o Chapter 8 ) .
6,6,1 STUDY
OF ALTERNATIVE
SOLUTIONS
B e f o r e d e s i g n i n g a mechanical system, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e l i m i n a t i n g t r i b o induced d i f f i c u l t i e s by u s i n g an a l t e r n a t i v e t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n s h o u l d f i r s t be considered. T h i s r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e t e c h n i c a l purpose o f t h e system under q u e s t i o n and t h e c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e t e c h n i c a l l y r e q u i r e d i n p u t s and use-outputs (see T a b l e 3 . 1 and 3 . 2 ) . I f t h i s a n a l y s i s shows t h a t
241
the system's inputs and o u t p u t s needed t o f u l f i l the required technical purpose a r e e s s e n t i a l l y mechanical in nature, i . e . comprise the transmission of motion, mechanical work and/or m a t e r i a l s , the technical purpose can, of course, be f u l f i l l e d only by a mechanical system. There a r e , howe v e r , some technical systems t h a t a r e not i n t r i n s i c a l l y mechanical in nature b u t a r e realized by mechanical means only f o r h i s t o r i c a l reasons, since mechanical methods have o f t e n , in the p a s t , been the f i r s t means a v a i l a b l e f o r the solution of technical problems. The function of such systems i s connected mainly with the generation, transmission o r reproduction of "information". Examples of t h i s c l a s s of (pseudo-mechanical) systems a r e the portable mechanical clock ( t h e prototype was invented and b u i l t by P. Henlein around 1510), the mechanical c a l c u l a t i n g machine ( t h e prototype was invented by B. Pascal a n d G.W. Leibniz between 1640 and 1670), or mechanical devices f o r the control of machinery or production processes. The technical function of these engineering systems i s essent i a l l y the generation or reproduction of information. Whereas the t r a d i tional mechanical r e a l i z a t i o n s of these technical systems, l i k e the clock, a r e based on the motion o f macroscopic bodies. such as gears o r l e v e r s , the contemporary e l e c t r o n i c r e a l i z a t i o n s of these systems a r e based on the motion o r impulses of sub-microscopic p a r t i c l e s , namely e l e c t r o n s . Although in b o t h types of clock the external technical function i s i d e n t i c a l , the internal system s t r u c t u r e s a r e e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t . Clearly, the replacement of the motion o f macroscopic bodies by the motion of sub-microscopic part i c l e s not only eliminates t r i b o l o g i c a l processes b u t a l s o leads t o a microdimensional design and t o a f a s t and r e l i a b l e function of the system. In the f u t u r e some other tribo-mechanical systems t r a d i t i o n a l l y used f o r the generation, transmission or reproduction of information may be replaced by technically more s u i t a b l e e l e c t r o n i c s o l u t i o n s . The replacement of conventional mechanical systems by e l e c t r o n i c systems, consisting of mini-chips, large s c a l e integrated c i r c u i t s , microprocessors, e t c . , and the corresponding i n d u s t r i a l changes have some f a r reaching s c i e n t i f i c , technical, economical and sociological consequences. ( I n the j o u r n a l i s t i c language t h i s has been already termed the " t h i r d i n d u s t r i a l revolution", Ref. 6.36.) Cramer has recently pointed t o some of these consequences in discussing the e l e c t r o n i c t e l e t y p e as an example f o r the " s t r u c t u r a l changes" in precision engineering (Ref. 6.37). I n the study of a l t e r n a t i v e engineering s o l u t i o n s f o r tribo-mechanical systems, however, in addition t o the functional input-output r e l a t i o n s the
242
i n f l u e n c e s o f d i s t u r b i n g i n p u t s f r o m t h e environment s h o u l d be t a k e n i n t o account. S p e c i a l c a r e i s then r e q u i r e d f o r example, i n t h e d e s i g n o f e l e c t r o n i c components s u i t e d f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s i n a v i b r a t i n g environment, as i n a m o t o r - c a r o r an a i r c r a f t . From t h i s p o i n t o f view, a r o b u s t mechanical s o l u t i o n may be more a p p r o p r i a t e t h a n a f r a g i l e e l e c t r o n i c s o l u t i o n .
6,6,2
PROPER D E S I G N OF
SYSTEM STRUCTURE
The main aspects o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e design o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t r i b o mechanical systems have a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 5.4. Some f u r t h e r suggestions f o r t h e design o f b e a r i n g systems can be found i n Ref. 6.38,
6.39,
systems, Peeken p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n - o r i e n t e d and k i n e m a t i c s - o r i e n t e d design o f mechanical systems i s o f t e n n o t i n accordance w i t h t r i b o l o g i c a l requirements (Ref. 6.41).
A d e s i g n e r who t r i e s t o d e s i g n
a mechanical system i n a t r i b o l o g i c a l l y c o r r e c t manner s h o u l d a t t e m p t t o solve the basic engineering task o f t r i b o l o g y : t o design i n t e r a c t i n g surfaces i n r e l a t i v e m o t i o n i n such a way t h a t f o r c e s can be t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e i n t e r f a c e w i t h a minimum o f wear. Peeken mentioned t h r e e p o i n t s which may be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o improve t h e d e s i g n o f tri bo-mechani c a l systems : (i) (ii) I n f l u e n c e i n t e r f a c i a l b e a r i n g geometry t h r o u g h e l a s t i c and thermoe l a s t i c processes by changing t h e shape o f t h e moving s u r f a c e s . Lower t h e f o r c e s t o be t r a n s m i t t e d . E q u a l i z e t h e f o r c e and p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s and i n f l u e n c e t h e v e l o c i t i e s by changing t h e g e o m e t r i c a l design. ( i i i ) Change t h e k i n e m a t i c s , f o r example by changing t h e t y p e o f i n t e r f a c i a l f r i c t i o n (e.g., sliding friction or rolling friction) t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e consequences on p r o d u c t i o n . I n d e s i g n i n g t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems where r e l i a b i l i t y i s a t a premium, c e r t a i n b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f d e s i g n s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y t a k e n i n t o cons i d e r a t i o n . These a r e t h e use o f d i v e r s i t y , redundancy and d e s i g n i n g w i t h a p r e f e r r e d mode o f f a i l u r e i n mind such as always endeavouring t o produce a " f a i l - s a f e " c o n d i t i o n . The p r i n c i p l e o f equipment redundancy i m p l i e s t h a t t h e system w i l l g e n e r a l l y s u r v i v e a s i n g l e equipment f a u l t and c o n t i n u e
w i t h i t s i n t e n d e d o p e r a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n . One method o f redundancy i s t o have
243 one system i n o p e r a t i o n and t h e o t h e r on standby. I f f a i l u r e o f t h e o p e r a t i n g system t a k e s p l a c e t h e n a u t o m a t i c change-over t o t h e standby system s h o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y t a k e p l a c e . Another method o f redundancy i s t o have two systems o p e r a t i n g " p a r a l l e l " . These p r i n c i p l e s o f redundancy which can be e a s i l y r e a l i z e d i n e l e c t r o n i c systems a r e , however, n o t so e a s i l y r e a l i z e d i n t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems. An i n s t r u c t i v e example c o n c e r n i n g t h e redundant d e s i g n o f b e a r i n g assemblies i s shown i n F i g u r e 6.19 ( R e f . 6 . 4 2 ) .
Centre race
( b ) Para1 1e l redundancy
Redundant d e s i g n o f a b e a r i n g assembly.
I n t h e standby case, a c o m b i n a t i o n of a p l a i n b e a r i n g and a b a l l b e a r i n g a l l o w s one t o f a i l b u t for o p e r a t i o n t o c o n t i n u e on t h e o t h e r t y p e o f b e a r i n g . T h i s i s an i n t e r e s t i n g example because i t a l s o b r i n g s i n t h e i d e a o f d i v e r s i t y which i s o f t e n used t o overcome a common f a u l t c o n d i t i o n . I n t h e case o f t h e p a r a l l e l redundant b e a r i n g assembly, t h e l o a d can be c a r r i e d by a s i n g l e r a c e hence s u r v i v i n g under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s a f a i l u r e on t h e o t h e r r a c e . I n t h i s case, checks s h o u l d be made a t maintenance, whereas i n t h e standby arrangement i t would be u s e f u l t o have a m o n i t o r i n g system t o sense when t h e p l a i n b e a r i n g i s working.
244
6,6,3 PROPER C H O I C E
OF
OPERATING VARIABLES
I n order t o o b t a i n a proper functional behaviour o f a tribo-mechanical system o f a g i v e n design, t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s ( l o a d FN o r p r e s s u r e p, v e l o c i t y v, o p e r a t i n g temperature T, o p e r a t i n g d u r a t i o n t ) s h o u l d n o t exceed c e r t a i n 1 i m i t s . See a l s o Haddon's abnormal energy exchange t h e o r y (Ref. 6 - 1 3 ) , discussed i n S e c t i o n 6.4.1. These l i m i t s o f o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s may be found from t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e a c t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s may n o t l e a d t o i n t o l e r a b l e changes o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system. Although t h e r e i s no g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f t h e l i m i t s o f o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , f o r mec h a n i c a l systems o f s i m p l e geometry, t h e procedure o f t h e s o - c a l l e d " z e r o wear model" (Ref. 6.43) may be a c o n v e n i e n t s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r e s t i m a t i n g the l i m i t s o f operational 'conditions f o r a quasi-constant s t r u c t u r e o f a t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system. "Zero wear" i s taken t o be wear o f such a magnitude t h a t t h e s u r f a c e roughness i n t h e wear t r a c k i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e i n i t i a l s u r f a c e f i n i s h i n t h e unworn p a r t o f t h e s u r f a c e . To q u a n t i f y t h i s s t a t e ment, t h e z e r o wear l i m i t i s assumed when t h e depth o f t h e wear t r a c k equals o n e - h a l f o f t h e p e a k - t o - v a l l e y s u r f a c e roughness. The model s t a t e s t h a t wear can be c o n t r o l l e d by l i m i t i n g t h e maximum ( H e r t z i a n ) shear s t r e s s
T,,,~~
a c t i n g i n t h e c o n t a c t r e g i o n . D e f i n i n g one "pass" as a d i s t a n c e 1 o f s l i d i n g equal t o t h e l e n g t h o f t h e g e o m e t r i c c o n t a c t a r e a i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f s l i d i n g , t h e n as an example, f o r 2000 passes s u r f a c e topography changes s h o u l d be o f a " z e r o l e v e l " i f t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s l e a d t o
ty : y i e l d s t r e s s i n shear
The v a l u e o f 1u b r i c a t i o n .
< yRQ
y R = 0.54
or
yR
0.20
245
F o r i z= 2000 passes t h e " z e r o wear c o n d i t i o n " i s g i v e n by
From t h i s r e l a t i o n , f o r a g i v e n t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system o f known values o f y R and t t h e a l l o w a b l e number o f s l i d i n g passes ( f o r g i v e n o p e r a t i n g Y' shear s t r e s s e s t m a x ) o r t h e a l l o w a b l e o p e r a t i n g shear s t r e s s e s ( f o r a g i v e n number o f passes i ) may be e s t i m a t e d . Since t h i s model i s based almost e n t i r e l y on s t r e s s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i t may be n o t a p p l i c a b l e f o r wear process i n c l u d i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e adhesive wear component ( R e f . 6 . 4 4 ) . Indeed, t h e f o r m o f t h e above e q u a t i o n , i . e . , a t i o n s (see S e c t i o n 4.4.2). F o r h y d r o d y n a m i c a l l y l u b r i c a t e d j o u r n a l b e a r i n g s , V o g e l p o h l ' s method may be a p p l i e d i n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e a l l o w a b l e l i m i t s o f o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s (Ref. 6.45). Vogelpohl found t h a t t o a r e a s o n a b l e degree o f accuracy t h e f o l lowing r e l a t i o n characterize t h e conditions a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n from f u l l f l u i d f i l m l u b r i c a t i o n t o mixed l u b r i c a t i o n a t t h e minimum o f t h e S t r i b e c k c u r v e : t h e one-ninth-power dependence, i m p l i e s t h a t t h e model may be a p p l i c a b l e o n l y f o r f a t i g u e wear s i t u -
where
: :
( p , ~ ,) v
the c r i t i c a l
F i n a l l y , f o r a l u b r i c a t e d system o p e r a t i n g i n t h e low speed, h i g h l o a d p a r t o f t h e S t r i b e c k c u r v e , under c o n d i t i o n s o f mixed o r boundary l u b r i c a t i o n , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l i m i t s o f t h e system may be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d e t e r m i n i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h e " f a i l u r e s u r f a c e " f o r t h e g i v e n system (see S e c t i o n 4.5.6, Figure 4.62).
246
6,6,4 MONITORING
THE FUNCTION
OF THE SYSTEM
The p r i m a r y method o f r e l a t i n g d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f a system t o consequence i s t h e m o n i t o r i n g o f t h e performance o f t h e system. The s i m p l e s t f o r m o f such m o n i t o r i n g i s t h e r e g u l a r r e c o r d i n g o f r e l e v a n t parameters i n a l o g book. Regular l o g g i n g o r a u t o m a t i c r e g i s t e r i n g o f i m p o r t a n t parameters and t h e i r d e r i v a t i v e s , i n comparison w i t h r e f e r e n c e i n f o r m a t i o n , p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i s f o r performance-trend m o n i t o r i n g .
In t r y i n g t o m o n i t o r t h e p e r f o r -
mance o f a system, i t i s necessary t o decide w h i c h r e l e v a n t parameters t o m o n i t o r . From a systems p o i n t o f view two c l a s s e s o f parameters may be distinguished:
(I)
I n p u t and o u t p u t v a r i a b l e s o f t h e system.
( 1 1 ) Relevant parameters o f t h e system s t r u c t u r e . I n r e c e n t years, s e v e r a l t e c h n i q u e s have been developed which can be used f o r t h e o n - l i n e m o n i t o r i n g o f o p e r a t i n g t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems. I n a feed-back loop, t h e s i g n a l s f r o m t h e m o n i t o r i n g d e v i c e may t h e n be used t o influence o r c o n t r o l the system's i n p u t operating variables i n order t o o b t a i n a p r o p e r f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system. The main techniques a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e m o n i t o r i n g o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l system a r e t o be d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n S e c t i o n 7.5. T h i s c h a p t e r on t h e f u n c t i o n a l behaviour o f t r i bo-mechanical systems may be b e s t concluded by c i t i n g some i n t e r e s t i n g remarks o f t h e g r e a t mathematician John von Neumann c o n c e r n i n g t h e f u n c t i o n and m a l f u n c t i o n o f e n g i n e e r i n g and l i v i n g systems. I n a l e c t u r e a t t h e Hixon Symposium, September, 1948, i n Pasadena, C a l i f o r n i a , e n t i t l e d "The g e n e r a l and l o g i c a l t h e o r y o f automata'' von Neumann made t h e f o l l o w i n g remarks (Ref. 6.46): " I n l i v i n g organisms m a l f u n c t i o n s o f components occur. The organism o b v i o u s l y has a way t o d e t e c t them and r e n d e r them harmless. The system must, t h e r e f o r e , c o n t a i n t h e necessary arrangements t o diagnose e r r o r s as they occur, t o r e a d j u s t t h e organisms so as t o m i n i m i z e t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e e r r o r s , and f i n a l l y t o c o r r e c t o r t o b l o c k permanently t h e f a u l t y components. Our modus procedendi with r e s p e c t t o m a l f u n c t i o n s i n o u r a r t i f i c a l automata i s e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t . Every e f f o r t i s made t o d e t e c t e v e r y e r r o r as soon as i t occurs. Then an a t t e m p t i s made t o i s o l a t e t h e component t h a t caused t h e e r r o r as r a p i d l y as f e a s i b l e . T h i s may be done p a r t l y a u t o m a t i c a l l y , b u t i n any case a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f t h i s d i a g n o s i s must be e f f e c t e d by i n t e r v e n t i o n f r o m t h e o u t s i d e . Once t h e f a u l t y component has
241
been i d e n t i f i e d , i t i s i m m e d i a t e l y c o r r e c t e d o r r e p l a c e d . Note t h e d i f ferences i n these two a t t i t u d e s . The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f d e a l i n g w i t h malf u n c t i o n s i n n a t u r e i s t o make t h e i r e f f e c t as u n i m p o r t a n t as p o s s i b l e and t o a p p l y c o r r e c t i v e s , i f t h e y a r e necessary a t a l l , a t l e i s u r e . I n o u r d e a l i n g s w i t h a r t i f i c i a l automata, on t h e o t h e r hand, we r e q u i r e an immed i a t e d i a g n o s i s . T h e r e f o r e , we a r e t r y i n g t o arrange t h e automata i n such a manner t h a t e r r o r s w i l l become as c o n s p i c i o u s as p o s s i b l e , and i n t e r v e n t i o n and c o r r e c t i o n f o l l o w i m m e d i a t e l y . The r a t i o n a l e o f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s n o t f a r t o seek. N a t u r a l organisms a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l conceived t o be a b l e t o o p e r a t e even when m a l f u n c t i o n s have s e t i n . They can o p e r a t e i n s p i t e o f m a l f u n c t i o n s , and t h e i r subsequent tendency i s t o remove these m a l f u n c t i o n s . An a r t i f i c i a l automaton c o u l d c e r t a i n l y be designed so as t o be a b l e t o o p e r a t e n o r m a l l y i n s p i t e o f a l i m i t e d number o f m a l f u n c t i o n s i n c e r t a i n l i m i t e d areas. Any m a l f u n c t i o n , however, r e p r e s e n t s a c o n s i d e r a b l e r i s k t h a t some g e n e r a l l y d e g e n e r a t i n g process has a l r e a d y s e t i n w i t h i n t h e machine. I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , necessary t o i n t e r v e n e i m m e d i a t e l y , because a machine which has begun t o m a l f u n c t i o n has o n l y r a r e l y a t e n dency t o r e s t o r e i t s e l f , and w i l l more p r o b a b l y go f r o m bad t o worse."
248
(ii) cheap t e s t p i e c e s ,
( i i i ) used f o r " a c c e l e r a t e d " t e s t i n g , (iv) (v) a t b e s t o f moderate accuracy, y i e l d i n g r e s u l t s t h a t can n o t be i n t e r p r e t e d i n a s i m p l e way.
The t e r m " h y b r i d t e s t e r s " was proposed, s i n c e s e r v i c e c o n d i t i o n s were n o t a c c u r a t e l y reproduced n o r were p h y s i c a l parameters w e l l d e f i n e d (Ref. 7 . 2 ) .
249
Today t h e same equipment i s s t i l l p o p u l a r i n I n d u s t r i a l L a b o r a t o r i e s , because i t i s c o n v e n i e n t f o r acceptance t e s t i n g and p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r o l . However, i f t h e r e s u l t s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as models o f r e a l tri b o - e n g i n e e r i n g events, grave. q u a n t i t a t i v e e r r o r s may be made ( R e f . 7 . 2 ) . Recently research l a b o r a t o r i e s , t a k i n g advantage o f modern i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , have developed v a r i o u s general-purpose t r i b o m e t e r s . Equipped w i t h s e n s i t i v e r e c o r d e r s and a n a l y z e r s , such s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n s t r u m e n t s p e r m i t t h e s t u d y o f a g r e a t many v a r i a b l e s (Ref. 7 . 3 ) . These few p o i n t s i n d i c a t e t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y o f t r i b o m e t r i c t e c h n i q u e s and i m p l y t h a t t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n and t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s r e q u i r e s g r e a t c a r e . I n t h e f i e l d of t r i b o m e t r y i t i s a g a i n found t h a t t h e systems approach can be used as a c o n v e n i e n t g u i d e - l i n e f o r t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s t r i b o m e t r i c methods and t h e i r p o s s i b i l i t i e s . I t has been emphasized i n t h e f o r g o i n g c h a p t e r s t h a t b o t h s t r u c t u r a l and f u n c t i o n a l aspects o f a t r i b o l o g i c a l system must be s t u d i e d , and t h i s l e a d s t o t h e f o l l o w i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f tri b o m e t r i c techniques :
(I)
(11) F u n c t i o n a l aspects
F u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system -simul a t i ve t r i bo- t e s t i n g condition monitoring -machinery
C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s aspects o f t r i b o m e t r y f r o m a systems p o i n t
260
w i t h t h e new p o w e r f u l s u r f a c e a n a l y t i c a l t o o l s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s t u d y t h e
elementary f r i c t i o n and wear processes i n d e t a i l . I t s h o u l d be emphasized, however, t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f these t r i b o m e t e r s i s u s e f u l m a i n l y f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e system s t r u c t u r e
as f o r i n s t a n c e t h e changes i n t h e
p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e system components due t o wear processes. As a consequence o f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h e s t r u c t u r a l aspects, from a systems p o i n t o f view t h e e n g i n e e r i n g " u s e - f u n c t i o n " i s f r e q u e n t l y degenerate i n t r i b o m e t r i c models
.
I n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e f i g u r e t h e elements, i . e . ,
I n F i g u r e 7 . 1 t h e main parameters r e l e v a n t t o t r i b o - t e s t i n g a r e comp i l e d (Ref. 7 . 5 ) . test t h e m a t e r i a l components o f t h e t e s t system a r e sketched. I n most cases t h e system c o n s i s t s o f two s o l i d specimens ( l ) , ( 2 ) t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e l u b r i c a n t ( 3 ) and t h e atmosphere ( 4 ) . The i n p u t s o f t h e t e s t - s y s t e m a r e g i v e n by t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s compiled on t h e l e f t - h a n d s i d e o f F i g u r e
7.1. Through t h e a c t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s on t h e t e s t - s y s t e m
elements, f r i c t i o n and wear processes o c c u r . F o r t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f these t r i b o l o g i c a l processes t h e t r i b o m e t r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s compiled on t h e r i g h t o f F i g u r e 7.1 have t o be measured. Supplementing t h e s e t r i b o m e t r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e specimens (1) and ( 2 ) have t o be determined. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s t h e main f e a t u r e s o f t h e parameters and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s shown i n F i g u r e 7 . 1 w i l l be d i s c u s s e d b r i e f l y . (The measuring techniques d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h l a b o r a t o r y t e s t r i g s may be a d e q u a t e l y used a l s o i n t h e t e s t i n g o f t r i b o - t e c h n i c a l components, see S e c t i o n 7.4, see S e c t i o n 7 . 5 . ) and i n machinery c o n d i t i o n m o n i t o r i n g ,
251
Operating variables
u
Type of motion
c-
F r i c t i o n force
FF
F r i c t i o n coeff.
( 2 ) Tribo-element ( 3 ) Lubricant
Duration
Temperature
TtA;
Wear r a t e
t
Surface c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Figure 7 . 1 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and parameters relevant t o t r i b o - t e s t i n g .
Contact conditions
252
1.
2. 3.
4. 5.
6.
7.
8. 9.
M i s c e l 1aneous
Besides t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e t e s t systems geometry, t h e o t h e r r e l e v a n t p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e elements o f t h e t e s t system must be s p e c i f i e d as c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e . F o r t h i s purpose, P a r t I 1 1 o f t h e " T r i b o l o g i c a l Systems Data Sheet" developed i n S e c t i o n 8.2 can be c o n v e n i e n t l y used ( s e e F i g u r e 8.5). Table 7 . 1 c o n t a i n s t h e r e l e v a n t parameters t o be s p e c i f i e d i n o r d e r t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t e s t system. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e c l e a n i n g and s u r f a c e p r e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e a p p l i e d t o t h e t e s t specimens
(1) and ( 2 ) s h o u l d be s p e c i f i e d .
253
T r i b o element
11
Lubricant
131
Atmosphere I4 )
8 8
c 11 2
Tribologicol i n t e r a c t i o n s 111
Table 7.1
Parameters t o be s p e c i f i e d t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a t r i b o - t e s t i n g system.
254
7,2,2
CONTROL OF
OPERATING VARIABLES
i s g i v e n by one o f t h e f o u r b a s i c m o t i o n t y p e s , namely:
256
I n F i g u r e 7.2 t h e d i f f e r e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
l o a d a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y f o r t h e example o f a p i n - o n - c y l i n d e r t e s t sy s tern.
7.7).
(b) VELOCITY
F o r t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n and c o n t r o l o f t h e v e l o c i t y between t h e t e s t specimens o f a t r i b o t e s t i n g system, t h e same c o n s i d e r a t i o n s as i n t h e case o f t h e l o a d r e l a t e t o t h e dynamic b e h a v i o u r . F o r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e v e l o c i t y , e l e c t r o n i c o r opto-electronic transducers are commercially available. The v e l o c i t y i s an i m p o r t a n t parameter i n t r i b o t e s t i n g i n as much as i t determines t h e l u b r i c a t i o n regime w i t h i n t h e S t r i b e c k c u r v e (see S e c t i o n
4.5.1).
I t i s a l s o t h e independent v a r i a b l e i n t h e p r o d u c t FFv w h i c h g i v e s
a t least a t
256
(i) (ii)
The s e t o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s ( l o a d FN, v e l o c i t y v , temperature T ) a c t s on t h e t r i b o t e s t i n g system as f u n c t i o n o f t i m e o r d u r a t i o n t. As f o r t h e s e t (FN, v, t ) t h e t e s t d u r a t i o n t a l s o s h o u l d be s e l e c t e d t o be cons i s t e n t w i t h t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Attempts a r e f r e q u e n t l y made t o s h o r t e n t h e t e s t d u r a t i o n i n s o - c a l l e d " a c c e l e r a t e d t e s t s " by i n c r e a s i n g t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f FN, v, T. T h i s procedure, however, i s o n l y p e r m i s s i b l e i f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l processes i s n o t changed. Consider, f o r example, a c e r t a i n t e s t system r u n n i n g under g i v e n o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s (FN, v, T) w i t h t r i b o l o g i c a l processes o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n t h e " o u t e r " s u r f a c e l a y e r s ( s e e F i g u r e 4.5) o f t h e t e s t specimens, thus g i v i n g a v e r y l o w wear r a t e . Consequently, i n o r d e r t o c b t a i n s u f f i c i e n t removal o f m a t e r i a l f o r an a c c u r a t e wear measurement, a l o n g t e s t d u r a t i o n i s needed. If, i n o r d e r t o s h o r t e n t h e t e s t d u r a t i o n , t h e s e v e r i t y
o f t h e t e s t i s now increased, e.g.,
by i n c r e a s i n g t h e l o a d FN, a h i g h e r
wear r a t e may i n d e e d r e s u l t . However, t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l processes may now a c t w i t h i n t h e " i n n e r " s u r f a c e l a y e r s thus changing e n t i r e l y t h e f r i c t i o n and wear mechanisms and i n c r e a s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e due t o s c u f f i n g or s e i z u r e . T h i s s i m p l e example i n d i c a t e s t h e importance o f t h e p r o p e r c h o i c e o f o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f FN, v, T i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the t e s t duration t f o r a given t e s t s i t u a t i o n . Instead o f increasing t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s i t m a y be more a p p r o p r i a t e t o i n crease, where p o s s i b l e , t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e d e t e c t o r s and a n a l y z e r s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e necessary q u a n t i t i e s w i t h i n a c e r t a i n t e s t d u r a t i o n . The t r i b o - t e s t i n g o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s d i s c u s s e d h i t h e r t o r e f e r t o t e s t systems o f a " c l o s e d s t r u c t u r e " , g i v e n f o r example by t e s t systems i n which t h e elements ( l ) , ( 2 ) , (3), ( 4 ) o f t h e t r i b o - t e s t i n g system a r e e n t i r e l y w i t h i n a c l o s e d s p e c i i e n chamber as i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 7.1. I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e t e s t system s t r u c t u r e i s "open" w i t h r e s p e c t t o l u b r i c a n t ( 3 ) and environmental atmosphere ( 4 ) , t h e f l o w r a t e s o f ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s . Where, f o r i n s t a n c e , a 1i q u i d l u b r i c a n t c i r c u l a t i n g system i s used, t h e l u b r i c a n t f l o w r a t e and t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m on t h e t e s t specimens s h o u l d be c o n t r o l l e d , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s discussed above. Another group o f systems
257
w i t h an open system's s t r u c t u r e concerns t e s t systems r e l a t e d t o i n d u s t r i a l processes as i n a g r i c u l t u r e , mining, e a r t h moving, d r i l l i n g , d r e d g i n g , e t c . The o p e r a t i n g " i n p u t " o f these systems i s v a r i a b l e due t o t h e n a t u r e o f s o i l s , r o c k s , sledges, e t c . S p e c i a l c a r e i s needed i n t h e t e s t i n g o f such systems w i t h an " i n t r i n s i c a l l y open system s t r u c t u r e " (Ref. 7.11).
7 2 , 3 TRI BOMETRI c
I
CHARACTERISTICS
The t r i b o m e t r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o be measured i n t r i b o - t e s t i n g s h o u l d a l l o w p r o p e r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e f r i c t i o n and wear processes. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e g e n e r a l scheme developed i n Chapter 3 t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e groups: (i) Mechanical q u a n t i t i e s
:
(ii)
Thermal q u a n t i t i e s
: :
( i i i ) Material quantities
F i g u r e 7.3
258
For t h e measurement o f t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e , e l e c t r o - m e c h a n i c a l f o r c e t r a n s d u c e r s based m a i n l y on s t r a i n - g a u g e t e c h n i q u e s o r i n d u c t i v e e f f e c t s a r e a v a i l a b l e commercially. As i n d i c a t e d i n t h e f o r e g o i n g s e c t i o n , i t i s advantageous t o measure b o t h f r i c t i o n f o r c e FF and l o a d FN and t o c a l c u l a t e the f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t d i r e c t l y during the t e s t . A force transducer f o r t h e simultaneous measurement o f FN and FF i n d e p e n d e n t l y f r o m each o t h e r i s shown i n F i g u r e 7.3. The f o r c e t r a n s d u c e r i s a d e v i c e c o n t a i n i n g f o u r b a r s w i t h notches p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o each o t h e r (Ref. 7.12). pin-on-disc tribometer
I n t h e c e n t r e o f symmetry o f t h e
f o u r b a r s one o f t h e specimens o f a t r i b o m e t e r
f o r instance the p i n o f a
i s i n s e r t e d . I n each n o t c h a s t r a i n gauge i s
f i x e d , d e t e c t i n g t h e s t r a i n s as f u n c t i o n s o f FN and FF. The s e n s i t i v i t y and t h e eigenfrequency o f t h e f o r c e t r a n s d u c e r can be v a r i e d t h r o u g h t h e dimens i o n s o f t h e b a r s and t h e l o c a t i o n s and dimensions o f t h e notches. The b l o c k diagram o f t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f r o m t h e s i g n a l s o f FF and FN by means o f an e l e c t r o n i c d i v i d e r i s shown i n F i g u r e 7.4. With t h e h e l p o f t h i s measuring d e v i c e i t i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n a l l necessary i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e mechanics o f a t r i b o - t e s t i n g system a s a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e . Moreover, w i t h t h e use o f a d i s c r i m i n a t o r i t i s p o s s i b l e t o stop the t e s t i f c e r t a i n (adjustable) l e v e l s o f the f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a r e passed.
r - - - - - - - - - - - -1
I
Tribome ter
F i g u r e 7.4 (b)
B l o c k diagram o f s i g n a l f l o w .
N O I S E AND VIBRATION
As o t h e r "mechanical" c a p a b i l i t i e s o f a t r i b o - t e s t i n g device, measurements o f n o i s e and v i b r a t i o n s s h o u l d be mentioned (Ref. 7.13). A l t h o u g h i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n o f t h e t e s t system may be deduced f r o m
259
such measurements, they have n o t u s u a l l y been r e p o r t e d i n connection w i t h l a b o r a t o r y f r i c t i o n and wear t e s t r i g s . These techniques are, however, o f t e n used i n m o n i t o r i n g t h e f u n c t i o n a l behaviour o f complete t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g systems, such as b a l l bearings o r gear t r a i n s (see Section 7.5). (c)
TEMPERATURE
I metal 1 p 1FN
~
yUt\,
metal 2
V C J
4 " ' s
To
t ,
thermoel ement
dynamic thermocouple
i n f r a r e d pyrometer
F i g u r e 7.5
o f d i f f e r e n t types o r o p t i c a l i n f r a r e d pyrometer techniques are u t i l i z e d . The techniques may be d i f f i c u l t t o handle o r t h e r e s u l t s d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t , so t h a t i t i s s t i l l n o t easy t o perform accurate and meaningful measurements o f f r i c t i o n - i n d u c e d temperatures. The thermoelements commercially a v a i l a b l e have time reponses from 10 sec t o 10 msec, depending on t h e s i z e and t h e thermocouple m a t e r i a l s . I n using thermocouples two methods may be applied: (i) one ( o r b o t h ) o f t h e a c t u a l t e s t specimens forms p a r t o f t h e thermocouple ( " n a t u r a l thermocouple"), ( i i ) one o r more complete thermocouples are i n s e r t e d i n one o r b o t h o f t h e t e s t specimens.
260
force transducer
i n f r a r e d camera
Representation o f isotherms
26 1
(d)
WEAR
DIN 50321,
Also f o r t h e determination o f wear, d i f f e r e n t measuring techniques may be u t i l i z e d (Ref. 7.16, 7.17). According t o t h e German standard t i e s , such as (a) changes o f geometry o f t h e specimens: "Wear-quanti t i e s " , wear may be detected by measuring " d i r e c t " wear-quanti-
(b)
(c)
changes o f the mass o f the specimens the amount o f worn m a t e r i a l - l o s s i.e., wear r a t e s such as
262
(d) (e)
t h e w e a r - t i m e - r a t i o (wear v e l o c i t y ) t h e wear-di s t a n c e - r a t i o
o r t h e wear c o e f f i c i e n t , d e f i n e d as (f)
K'
=
(-1Nm
mm
7.5.
w i t h t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , and t h e wear d a t a o b t a i n e d s h o u l d be r e p o r t e d i n terms t h a t a r e u s e f u l f o r e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s ( R e f . 7.18). I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i t s h o u l d a g a i n be emphasized t h a t t h e wear-quantit i e s must n o t be m i s i n t e r p r e t e d as i n t r i n s i c m a t e r i a l c o n s t a n t s b u t must be t r e a t e d as system-dependent q u a n t i t i e s which depend on b o t h t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s and t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e wearing system under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . A c h e c k - l i s t t o a s s i s t i n the compilation o f r e l e v a n t data i n connection w i t h wear measurements i s developed i n Chapter 8. Supplementing t h e measurement o f t h e mechanical, thermal and m a t e r i a l s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e c o n t a c t c o n d i t i o n w i t h i n a t r i b o m e t e r may be u s e f u l . Here two groups o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e o f i n t e r e s t : (i) t h e e x t e n t o f r e a l s o l i d - s o l i d c o n t a c t ( i n c l u d i n g t h e r e a l area o f contact) ( i i ) the l u b r i c a n t f i l m thickness F o r t h e measurements ( i ) , t h e techniques o f o p t i c a l microscopy, d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 7.6, and t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e (ECR) measuring t e c h n i q u e s have been a p p l i e d (Ref. 7.19). The p r i n c i p l e o f t h e ECR t e c h n i q u e i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e b l o c k diagram i n F i g u r e 7.7 (Ref. 7.20). A small e l e c t r i c a l v o l t a g e (10-100 mV)' i s a p p l i e d t o t h e specimens and t h e t i m e dependence o f t h e v o l t a g e drop on a s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e i s d e t e c t e d . U s u a l l y t h e v o l t a g e drop f l u c t u a t e s o v e r s e v e r a l o r d e r s o f magnitude ( < 0.1R up t o
> 100 k R ) w i t h impulse d u r a t i o n s down t o t h e psec range as i l l u s t r a t e d i n
F i g u r e 7.8. By r a p i d e l e c t r o n i c means ( d i s c r i m i n a t o r s , a m p l i f i e r s , c o u n t e r s )
263
Figure 7 . 7
Figure 7.8
100
Figure 7.9
ECR fluctuation rates (lubricate sliding AISI 52180 steel cylinders, r=2.5mn, poH=0.67GN/me, v=1.5cm/s, T=25 C ) .
264
i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as t h e " n o - c o n t a c t - t i m e
f r a c t i o n " (see F i g u r e 4.58) o r i m p u l s i v e f l u c t u a t i o n r a t e s as shown i n F i g u r e 7.9. Although these r e s u l t s p e r m i t c o n c l u s i o n s on t h e e x t e n t o f m e t a l l i c c o n t a c t o r on t h e a c t i o n o f l u b r i c a n t a d d i t i v e s t o be drawn, g r e a t c a r e i s needed i n t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n because o f t h e e f f e c t s o f m u l t i p l e contact o r i n t e r f a c i a l electromotive forces. L u b r i c a n t f i l m t h i c k n e s s ( i i ) may a l s o be s t u d i e d by means o f o p t i c a l microscopy (see S e c t i o n 7 . 6 ) , by t h e c a p a c i t a n c e method, o r by an X-ray technique. A d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s methods f o r measuring l u b r i c a n t f i l m t h i c k n e s s i s p r o v i d e d i n Ref. 7.21. Having d i s c u s s e d t h e v a r i o u s measuring t e c h n i q u e s r e l e v a n t t o f r i c t i o n and wear t e s t i n g i t i s now p o s s i b l e t o supplement t h e c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e r e l e v a n t t e s t parameters l i s t e d i n F i g u r e 7.1 by t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g measuring techniques. Although i n t r i b o t e s t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s i t may n o t be p o s s i b l e t o measure a l l o f t h e parameters l i s t e d i n F i g u r e 7.1 i t s h o u l d be emphasized once more t h a t e v e r y parameter can i n f l u e n l c e markedly t h e r e s u l t s o f a f r i c t i o n and wear t e s t .
7 3 SIMULATIVE TRIBO-TESTN G I
I
I n s i m u l a t i v e t r i b o - t e s t i n g an a t t e m p t i s made t o s i m u l a t e t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f a p r a c t i c a l t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g system, or t h e b e h a v i o u r o f some p a r t o f i t , by means o f a l a b o r a t o r y t e s t system. Obviously, t h i s f i e l d o f t r i b o m e t r y i s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t due t o t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t r i b o l o g i c a l p r o cesses, i t s numerous i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s and t h e a d d i t i o n a l requirement o f an a p p r o p r i a t e " s i m u l a t i o n c r i t e r i o n " (Ref. 7.22, 7.23). For The s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n s i m u l a t i v e t r i b o - t e s t i n g s h o u l d be t h e c o l l e c t i o n
o f a v a i l a b l e d a t a on t h e p r a c t i c a l system (PS) and t h e t e s t system (TS).
t h e d a t a s h e e t developed
i n S e c t i o n 8.2 can be c o n v e n i e n t l y used. Based on these d a t a , t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r s i m u l a t i v e t e s t i n g may t h e n be s p e c i f i e d . From a f o r m a l systems p o i n t o f view, t h e procedure o f s i m u l a t i v e t r i b o - t e s t i n g r e q u i r e s : (a)
A s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e f u n c t i o n s o f PS and TS, i . e . :
A s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s o f PS and TS, i . e . :
265
(ii)
s i m i l a r i t y o f system element p r o p e r t i e s
A .
AW2
/ -
F i g u r e 7.10
applicabl'e f o r pure continuous s l i d i n g w i t h the m a t e r i a l s ( l ) , ( 2 ) ident i c a l w i t h t h o s e o f t h e p r a c t i c a l system. The c o n d i t i o n s o f d r y o r l u b r i c a t e d s l i d i n g s h o u l d be r e a l i z e d w i t h t h e atmosphere and l u b r i c a n t i d e n t i c a l t o those i n t h e p r a c t i c a l system. Then t h e i m p o r t a n t "system-independent'' p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e elements, i n c l u d i n g chemical c o m p o s i t i o n , e l a s t i c modulus, hardness, v i s c o s i t y , e t c . w i l l i n h e r e n t l y be i d e n t i c a l i n PS and TS. A f t e r
266
t h e c h o i c e o f t h e elements o f t h e system and t h e i r sys,tem-independent p r o p e r t i e s , t h e g e o m e t r i c a l and c o n t a c t c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e t e s t system s h o u l d be compared w i t h t h o s e o f t h e p r a c t i c a l system. I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n t h e q u a n t i t i e s l i s t e d i n Table 7.2 a r e i m p o r t a n t .
I
(real)
v1
Am1 An
v2 Am2
I
-
1 C o n t a c t area
I
Aml-Ao Am2-A0 AW2
Table 7.2
Geometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t e s t specimens.
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s compiled i n T a b l e 7.2 a r e n o t o n l y i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e c o n t a c t pressures po = FN/Ao and pr = FN/Ar t h e y a r e a l s o r e l e v a n t t o t h e processes o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n and d i s s i p a t i o n o f mechanical work i n t h e system, as e x p l a i n e d i n Table 7.3.
T r i b o l o g i c a l process
LEG o f f r i c t i o n a l
No-contact a r e a
Table 7.3
Relevance o f g e o m e t r i c a l q u a n t i t i e s f o r t r i b o l o g i c a l processes
26 I
ratio
Am1,2 1,2
"1,2
Another i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i v e q u a n t i t y i s g i v e n by:
ratio
1 1
<
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e l a t e d t o t h e v a l u e o f E a r e compiled i n T a b l e 7.4.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f elements f o r which E = 1 permanent c o n t a c t permanent f r i c t i o n h e a t i n g no d i r e c t in f l uence o f atmospheric environment on wear area no macroscopic c y c l i c s t r e s s ing Table 7.4
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f elements f o r which ~ < l i n t e r m i t t e n t contact intermittent f r i c t i o n heating i n f l u e n c e o f atmospheric env i r o n m e n t on t h e area AM - A . cyclic stressing
268 f a c t o r s based on s i m i l a r i t y t h e o r y and dimensional a n a l y s i s f o r t h e simul a t i v e t e s t i n g o f a drum brake was r e p o r t e d by Pogosian (Ref. 7.22). An i m p o r t a n t p o i n t i n s i m u l a t i v e t r i b o - t e s t i n g i s t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e same t r i b o l o g i c a l processes as i n t h e p r a c t i c a l system. F o r t h i s p u r pose, t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s s h o u l d be a d j u s t e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e geometric and c o n t a c t c o n d i t i o n s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e same f r i c t i o n and wear processes i n TS and PS. A s i m u l a t i o n procedure f o r t h e design o f h i g h performance d r y b e a r i n g s , suggested by P l a y and Godet (Ref. 7 - 2 4 ) , i s based
1u b r ic a t i on
boundary
1u b r i c a t i on
/P
F i g u r e 7.11 S i m p l i f i e d form o f t h e c u r v e o f f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f vs b e a r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c number q w / p .
269 I n Figure 7.11, a s i m p l i f i e d form o f the curve o f c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n f versus bearing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c number w i s shown, i.e., curve, discussed i n Section 4.5.1,
the S t r i b e c k
cant, w t h e angular v e l o c i t y and p the l o a d per u n i t p r o j e c t e d area). I n the s i m u l a t i v e t r i b o t e s t i n g procedure suggested by de Gee, the same l u b r i c a t i o n s t a t e i n t h e t e s t system as i n the p r a c t i c a l system i s established, as f a r as possible, by a d j u s t i n g the operating conditions i n the t e s t system u n t i l f becomes independent o f the parameter 2 This i m p l i e s boundary l u b r i c a t i o n . P only and i s done i n the f o l l o w i n g steps:
R~ : 1.2 :
[rPsI1"
Ra
in
pm
m
and
rPSi n
( i i i ) Apply a r e a l i s t i c normal load F N t o the t e s t system. The most widely ~ ~ acceptable compromise i s t o make the force per u n i t p r o j e c t e d p i n area i n the TS equal t o the force per u n i t projected bearing area of the PS. Choose a temperature TTS o f the l u b r i c a n t bath o f the TS corresponding
t o t h a t o f the PS. Because o f f r i c t i o n heating the s e l e c t i o n o f a
r e a l i s t i c temperature may be d i f f i c u l t . I n such cases i t may be wise t o introduce the t e s t temperature as an independent parameter, performing t e s t s a t d i f f e r e n t temperatures and presenting separate res u l t s f o r each temperature l e v e l . E s t a b l i s h f o r a l l m a t e r i a l s o r m a t e r i a l - l u b r i c a n t combinations t o be tested, the lower l i m i t o f the angular v e l o c i t y Q f o r which the f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f becomes independent o f w. I f the lowest Q value thus established i s B subsequent experiments are performed a t a constant wvalue, wtest
A t the conditions o f
< Omin.
F N ~ ~
uTS
TTS
270
perform experiments with a l l material-lubricant combinations t o be tested. Measure f r i c t i o n during the e n t i r e t e s t period and measure wear of the s t a t i o n a r y specimen during or a f t e r termination of the t e s t . The t e s t duration t should be long enough t o allow f o r determination of the t o t a l amount of wear by weight-loss measurement.
By applying t h i s simulative t r i b o - t e s t i n g procedure, de Gee obtained a
f i n a l ranking of candidate bearing alloys t o be used in lubricated journal bearings, In the simulative t r i b o - t e s t i n g procedure proposed by de Gee, the f r i c t i o n a n d lubrication s t a t e o f the system ( s p e c i f i e d as location within the Stribeck curve) served as "simulation c r i t e r i o n " . As o t h e r "simulation c r i t e r i a " which i n d i c a t e a s i m i l a r i t y of t r i b o l o g i c a l processes within t h e t e s t system and the practical system the appearance of worn surfaces o r vibration c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be used.
1. Collect data of practical system (PSI and test system (TS) 2. Choose conditions and parameters of test system
I (A)
Velocity v
r---1
I
adjust parameters to influence interactionsbetween the elements until similar tribologicai characteristics of TS and PS result
I
I
L - - h
I
I
(31
(4)
(C) Tribological characteristics Appearance of worn surfaces Thermal parameters Frictional parameters Wear parameters Vibrational Darameters
Fomparel measured
I andPS
data of TS
Figure 7.12
271
In summarizing t h e v a r i o u s aspects o f s i m u l a t i v e t r i b o - t e s t i n g , f r o m
a systems p o i n t o f view, a g u i d e - l i n e as o u t l i n e d i n F i g u r e 7.12 may be recommended. A c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 7.12 we may proceed t h r o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g steps i n choosing t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f a t e s t system i n an a t t e m p t a t s i m u l a tive testing: (i) make t h e t y p e o f m o t i o n and t h e m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e elements
( i i i ) a d j u s t t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s (FN, v, T, t ) as w e l l as t h e c o n t a c t c o n d i t i o n s u n t i l s i m i l a r t r i b o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f TS and PS a r e observed. Although i t i s c l e a r , t h a t a procedure as i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 7.12 can o n l y be regarded as a v e r y rough o u t l i n e , s u c c e s s f u l s i m u l a t i v e t r i b o t e s t i n g has, i n f a c t , been based on p r i n c i p l e s s i m i l a r t o t h e g u i d e - l i n e o f F i g u r e 7.12, see S e c t i o n 8.5. F o r example, Heinke has r e p o r t e d a s i m u l a t i o n o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f a vane pump
( T S ) ( R e f . 7.26).
I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , t h e appearance o f t h e worn s u r f a c e s o f
PS and
Materials properties
I
Adjustment of operating variables FN. v. T, t until similar appearance of worn surfaces result
tom H
cylinder surface
F i g u r e 7.13
An example o f s i m u l a t i v e t r i h o - t e s t i n g ( R e f . 7.26).
212
m o t i o n were made i d e n t i c a l . Then, t h e values o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s (FN, v, T, t ) were a d j u s t e d u n t i l t h e SEM p i c t u r e s o f t h e worn s u r f a c e s i n t h e TS and t h e PS were t h e same. The r e s u l t o f t h e s i m u l a t i v e t e s t i n g i n t h i s case was t h e p l a c i n g o f d i f f e r e n t t r i b o - t e c h n i c a l m a t e r i a l s i n an o r d e r o f merit.
7,4 TESTING
OF
TRIBO-TECHNICAL COMPONENTS
The c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e performance o f a g i v e n t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g system r e q u i r e s i t s p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d t e s t i n g . These t e s t s should be performed w i t h t h e a c t u a l components o f - t h e t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g system. Due t o t h e g r e a t var i e t y o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems (see Appendix A) and t h e i r components ( s e e Appendix B) t h e t e s t procedures may v a r y w i d e l y i n scope and performance. Therefore, i n t h i s s e c t i o n o n l y some general remarks w i l l be made. The t e s t i n g o f t r i b o - t e c h n i c a l components can be b r o a d l y c l a s s i f i e d i n t o ( a ) t h e t e s t i n g o f t r i b o - t e c h n i c a l machine elements and ( b ) t h e t e s t i n g
o f 1u b r i c a n t s .
(a) TESTING OF TRIBO-TECHNICAL MACHINE ELEMENTS
I n t h e t e s t i n g o f a c t u a l t r i b o - t e c h n i c a l machine elements some o f t h e f r i c t i o n and wear measuring t e c h n i q u e s d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 7.2 may be a p p l i c a b l e . F o r t h e measurement o f mechanical and thermal q u a n t i t i e s (such as c o n t a c t pressures, f r i c t i o n f o r c e s o r f r i c t i o n - i n d u c e d temperatures) f o r c e d e t e c t i n g transducers, i n c l u d i n g s t r a i n gauges o r pressure- o r temperatures e n s i t i v e c o a t i n g s , may be f i x e d d i r e c t l y on t h e machine element t o be i n ves ti gated. I n some cases, i n o r d e r t o a v o i d f u l l - s c a l e t e s t i n g a s e m i - p r a c t i c a l t e s t i n g o f machine components i s performed. Consider, as an example o f t h i s t y p e o f t r i b o - t e s t i n g , t h e t e s t i n g o f gears. A number o f t e s t machines have been developed which employ gears as t e s t specimens. A l t h o u g h a c t u a l gears a r e used as t e s t specimens, t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f t e s t performance w i t h s e r v i c e performance r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l c o n t r o l o f t h e t e s t parameters. F o r i n s t a n c e , i f t h e g e a r - t e e t h - r a t i o o f t h e gear t e s t system i s d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f t h e p r a c t i c a l gear system t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f t h e c o n t a c t o f a gear t o o t h o f one gear w i t h a g i v e n gear t o o t h o f t h e o t h e r gear may be d i f f e r e n t , t h u s l e a d i n g t o d i f f e r e n t r u n n i n g - i n b e h a v i o u r o f t h e two systems.
273
drive
30
30
40
40
40
30000
12000
0.89
12000
0.75
30000
15000
0.89
1.26 yes
1.07
no
no
no
yes
yes
Table 7.5
The most widely used gear t e s t machines employ spur gears. I t i s n o t poss i b l e here to go into the d e t a i l s of the various types, b u t the charact e r i s t i c s of s i x common spur-gear t e s t machines are presented in Table 7.5 as compiled by Brown (Ref. 7.27). These test-machines a l l employ the powercirculating or four-square principle. The application of t h i s principle e to gear testing was suggested f i r s t by Kutzbach i n 1926 (Ref. 7.28). H also showed t h a t i t has the advantage that power i s needed only t o overcome the f r i c t i o n in the t e s t and slave gears and t h e i r support bearings, see Figure 7.14. With gear t e s t machines, the following main tribometric characteristics are determined in order t o describe the tribological behaviour o f a gear set:
274
Lz L4 L2
Losses: L electrical ; L bearing-friction; L air-friction; L gear-friction
Figure 7.14
These tribometric characteristics are in most cases also determined i n the testing of other tribo-technical components, for example ball and roller bearings. As mentioned above, these tribometri c characteristics concentrate, however, on the loss-output function and the wear-induced change of the system's structure. In addition to this type of testing o f tribo-technical components, for the characterization of the performance of actual machinery the control and monitoring of the use-function of the tribo-engineering system is needed. This aspects of tribometry is discussed in the next section. (b) TESTING OF LUBRICANTS
A l s o for the testing o f the other group o f tribo-technical components, namely the lubricants, several aspects must be considered. As in the charac-
terization of every component of a tribological system, the testing and characterization of system-independent and system-dependent properties of
276
1ubricants shoul d be d i s ti ngui shed. The sys tem-independent 1u b r i c a n t chara c t e r i s t i c s describe the p r o p e r t i e s "per se" o f t h e l u b r i c a n t , independently
o f the tribo-engineering a p p l i c a t i o n o f the l u b r i c a n t . The main l u b r i c a n t
s p e c i f i c heat and thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y d i e l e c t r i c constant a c i d i t y , b a s i c i t y , n e u t r a l i z a t i o n number aniline point cloud, pour and f l o c k p o i n t s hydrolytic stability oxidation characteristics i n t e r f a c i a l tension emulsion c h a r a c t e r i s t i c foaming viscosity
8. flash and f i r e p o i n t
11.
13. 14. 15. 16.
17. v i s c o s i ty-temperature c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 18. v i s c o s i ty-pressure c h a r a c t e r i s t i c For the t e s t i n g and s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f these system-independent l u b r i c a n t p r o p e r t i e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , well-known t e s t s have been worked o u t and standardized. This has been done, f o r instance, i n the USA by the American Society f o r Testing and M a t e r i a l s , Committee on Standards on Petrolem Products and Lubricants (ASTM-DZ), i n England by the I n s t i t u t e o f Petroleum
(IP) and i n the Federal Republic o f Germany by the FachausschuR M i n e r a l o l und Brennstoffnormung i m Deutschen I n s t i t u t f u r Normung (FAM-DIN). The d e t a i l s o f the various t e s t s can be found i n the o f f i c i a l p u b l i c a t i o n s o f these i n s t i t u t i o n s ; f o r general compilations o f these t e s t s the reader i s r e f e r r e d t o R e f s . 7.29 t o 7.31. I n c o n t r a s t t o the standardized t e s t s f o r the system-independent phys i c a l , chemical and technological p r o p e r t i e s o f l u b r i c a n t s , the t e s t i n g of the f u n c t i o n a l behaviour o f l u b r i c a n t s should be performed i n connection w i t h the technical f u n c t i o n o f the actual tribo-engineering system i n which the l u b r i c a n t i s used. These tests, assess predominantly the o v e r a l l a b i l i t y o f a l u b r i c a n t t o permit rubbing surfaces t o operate w i t h o u t s c u f f i n g
216
I n these t e s t s , t h e performance o f l u b r i c a n t s i s t e s t e d w i t h s i m p l i f i e d t e s t geometries l e a d i n g t o p o i n t , l i n e o r f l a t c o n t a c t . The more f a m i l i a r t e s t s o f t h i s t y p e a r e t h e Four B a l l , Timken, SAE o r Amsler, F a l e x and Almen. Most o f these t e s t s were devised t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between EP and non-EP o i l s , and t h e i r accuracy i s sometimes n o t good enough t o grade d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f EP a c t i v i t y . E r r a t i c r e s u l t s can o c c u r i f o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s (e.g. t h e temperature o f t h e l u b r i c a n t ) a r e n o t c l o s e l y c o n t r o l l e d . As mentioned above, t h e term " h y b r i d t e s t e r s " was proposed as n e i t h e r s e r v i c e c o n d i t i o n s n o r p h y s i c a l l y w e l l d e f i n e d parameters were reproduced (Ref. 7 . 2 ) . P r e d i c t i n g t h e performance o f l u b r i c a n t s on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e t e s t s a l o n e i s a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e y a r e c o n v e n i e n t f o r acceptance t e s t i n g , p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r o l and t h e y a r e good i n d i c a t o r s o f b a t c h v a r i a t i o n s o f 1u b r i c a n t s . (ii) T e s t i n g o f l u b r i c a n t s w i t h t r i b o - t e c h n i c a l components.
Because o f t h e above shortcomings, a d i f f e r e n t t y p e o f l u b r i c a n t t e s t i n g i s r e q u i r e d t o p e r m i t c o n t r o l o f as many v a r i a b l e s as p o s s i b l e w h i l e simul a t i n g a c t u a l performance requirements. A c o n v e n i e n t way o f d o i n g t h i s i s t o t e s t l u b r i c a n t s i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y , where o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s can be c o n t r o l l e d , t h e p a r t s under t e s t b e i n g those used i n t h e complete t r i b o e n g i n e e r i n g u n i t . The b e s t known examples o f t h i s t y p e o f l u b r i c a n t t e s t i n g a r e t h e l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s performed w i t h g e a r - t e s t r i g s as compiled i n T a b l e
211
(iii) Testing o f lubricants i n f u l l - s c a l e tests
There i s general agreement t h a t t h e o n l y s a t i s f a c t o r y means o f e v a l u a t i n g t h e performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f l u b r i c a n t s i s by f u l l - s c a l e t e s t s o f i t s a c t u a l use i n t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g systems. A l t h o u g h these t e s t s v a r y b r o a d l y i n scope and.procedure, t h e y may be c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s which account f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f l u b r i c a n t s consumed, namely (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) General machinery l u b r i c a n t s H y d r a u l i c f l u i d s and t u r b i n e o i l s I n t e r n a l combustion engine o i l s Steam c y l i n d e r o i l s Compressor o i l s Gear o i l s
T e s t procedures f o r t h e f u l l - s c a l e t e s t i n g o f t h e s e main groups o f l u b r i c a n t s can be found i n Refs. 7.34 and 7.35. Although t h e p r a c t i c a l v a l u e o f f u l l - s c a l e t e s t i n g o f l u b r i c a n t s i s agreed, t h e c o s t o f f i e l d o r p r o v i n g - g r o u n d t e s t s i s c o n s i d e r a b l e , so t h a t t h i s t y p e o f t r i b o - t e s t i n g i s g e n e r a l l y used o n l y as f i n a l p r o o f o f t h e dec i s i o n s made w h i l e d e v e l o p i n g t h e d e s i g n o f an a c t u a l t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g system.
MONITORING
W i t h t h e i n c r e a s e o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f contemporary machinery any d i s t u r bance o r f a i l u r e o f t h e p r o p e r f u n c t i o n i n g o f complex machines w i l l t e n d t o have s e r i o u s consequences. To i l l u s t r a t e t h e c o s t s which can be i n v o l v e d ,
i t has been r e p o r t e d t h a t a s i m p l e b e a r i n g f a i l u r e i n a f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d
a 3 0 0 p e r minute. A s i m i l a r b e a r i n g f a i l u r e i n a modern g e n e r a t o r s e t c o u l d
- d20
p e r m i n u t e u n t i l t h e s e t was a g a i n o p e r a t i o n a l
I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t such f a i l u r e s o f t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g systems,
i n c r e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n i s now b e i n g g i v e n t o t r i b o m e t r i c machinery c o n d i t i o n o r "health" monitoring techniques. I n r e c e n t y e a r s , s e n s i t i v e d e t e c t o r s and t e c h n i q u e s f o r t h e d i a g n o s i s o f m a l f u n c t i o n s i n machinery have been developed (Ref. 7.37). Emphasis i s b e i n g g i v e n t o " o n - l i n e m o n i t o r i n g t e c h n i q u e s " as a means o f d e t e c t i n g det e r i o r a t i o n so t h a t r e m e d i a l a c t i o n can be t a k e n b e f o r e t h e breakdown p o i n t
270
i s reached. I n a d d i t i o n , there i s growing r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t f u t u r e progress cannot r e l y upon diagnosis alone. I t i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y important t o monitor the " s t a t e o f health" of machinery on e i t h e r an i n t e r m i t t e n t o r continuous basis. A prognostic approach can then be adopted and remedial a c t i o n can be taken a t a convenient time i n the normal c y c l e o f operation o f the equipment (Ref. 7.38). The systems approach as applied throughout t h i s volume can be conv e n i e n t l y used f o r the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t r i b o m e t r i c machinery c o n d i t i o n monitoring techniques. Since the c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f a tribo-engineering system requires the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the system f u n c t i o n as w e l l as i t s s t r u c t u r e , the machinery c o n d i t i o n monitoring techniques can be broadly c l a s s i f i e d i n (a) t r i b o m e t r i c techniques f o r the monitoring o f the system function, and ( b ) t r i b o m e t r i c techniques f o r the monitoring o f the system s t r u c t u r e . (a) MONITORING OF THE FUNCTION OF TRIBO-MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
The monitoring o f the system's use-function would r e q u i r e t h e c o n t r o l o f operating i n p u t variables and i t s corresponding use-outputs, namely:
type o f motion, i n p u t and output forces, o r contact pressures, i n p u t and output v e l o c i t i e s , temperatures a t the i n p u t and the output.
A1 though the use-function o f tribo-engineering systems i s connected w i t h the above q u a n t i t i e s , information on the proper function o f a given t r i b o engineering system i s o f t e n i n d i r e c t l y obtained by monitoring t h e lossoutputs corresponding t o the use-input and use-output q u a n t i t i e s (Ref.
7.39).
the loss-outputs i n d i c a t i n g the ailments o f machinery may be f e d back by means o f servo-control equipments o r microprocessors t o the input, thus influencing the operational inputs i n order t o e s t a b l i s h a proper funct i o n i n g o f the whole system. According t o the general scheme o f the transmission and transformation of mechanical work w i t h i n a tribo-mechanical system as i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure
3.4,
(i)F r i c t i o n force and f r i c t i o n a l changes An increase o r decrease i n the f r i c t i o n o f tribo-engineering systems l i k e bearings, gears etc. can be a p o i n t e r towards decreased performance and i n c i p i e n t f a i l u r e (see Section 4.5.6).
279
(ii) Noise and v i b r a t i o n Changes i n the noise spectrum associated w i t h p a r t i c u l a r tribo-engineering components operating under normal conditions i n known environments can i n d i c a t e i n c i p i e n t f a i l u r e . Two types o f acoustic s i g n a l s may be d i s t i n guished: noise f i e l d s due t o v i b r a t i o n s , impacts o r aerodynamic processes emitted
Area C 2
10
25
50 100
250
5000
Frequency (Hz) Figure 7.15 Noise diagram o f submarine engine (Ref. 7.41).
i n Figure 7.15 a noise diagram i s shown which i s used as maintenance i n d i c a t o r f o r t h e monitoring o f submarine engines. The d i f f e r e n t frequency ranges A t o D correspond t o d i f f e r e n t types o f mechanical f a u l t s (Ref. 7.41). ( i i i ) Heat emission and temperature changes Tribo-induced heat and temperature r i s e may lead t o thermal d i s t o r t i o n and thermal stresses and may both adversely a f f e c t the mechanical s t r e n g t h o f the machine components and the p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e l u b r i c a n t , thus i n f l u e n c i n g the performance and s a f e t y o f the machine. I n t h e c o n d i t i o n monitoring o f r o l l i n g element bearings and s l i d i n g bearings, t h e temperature l e v e l s comp i l e d i n Table 7.6 are recommended as thresholds f o r t h e alarm o r t h e stoppage of the bearing (Ref. 7.42).
280
1. housing
2. r i n g s
70 90
4. l u b r i c a n t w i t h i n bearing
80 80
5. l u b r i c a n t
outlet Table 7.6
(ii), (iii) h o s t o f sensing a For the monitoring of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (i), devices i s a v a i l a b l e today, based on the measuring techniques described i n
d e t a i l i n Section 7.2.
(b)
Besides the monitoring o f the i n p u t and output parameters o f a t r i b o - e n g i neering system i n d i c a t i n g the (momentary) f u n c t i o n a l behaviour o f the system, the monitoring o f parameters characterizing the s t a t e o f the system's s t r u c t u r e i s required. I n t h i s connection a t t e n t i o n should be drawn t o the important d i f f e r e n c e between the information and the conclusions t h a t f o l low from the monitoring o f f u n c t i o n a l and s t r u c t u r a l parameters. These d i f ferences can be e a s i l y explained i n considering the conceptual tribo-process diagram o f a given tribo-mechanical system, see Figure 3.4. I f o n l y the f u n c t i o n a l parameters on the conceptual f u n c t i o n a l plane o f a given t r i b o engineering system are monitored, t h e system s t r u c t u r e may undergo unperceived gradual changes , f o r example on the conceptual material planes, 1eadi n g a f t e r a c e r t a i n operating d u r a t i o n t o an unexpected f a i l u r e although d u r i n g the whole time the f u n c t i o n a l parameters remained i n t h e i r proper range. If, on the other hand, t h e monitoring o f t h e r e l e v a n t parameters o f the s t r u c t u r e o f the system i n d i c a t e a constancy o f the system s t r u c t u r e and if, i n addition, the f u n c t i o n a l inputs are w i t h i n t h e i r proper range,
281 the occurrence o f a sudden f a i l u r e i s r a t h e r u n l i k e l y . Although the o n - l i n e monitoring o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the system s t r u c t u r e i s , i n general, more d i f f i c u l t than the monitoring o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the f u n c t i o n a l inputs and outputs, convenient detectors have been developed f o r t h i s purpose a l s o i n recent years. The f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be monitored as an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e actual s t a t e o f the s t r u c t u r e o f a tribo-engineering system: (i)Lubricant supply and l u b r i c a t i o n mode I f the volume o f l u b r i c a n t t o the component i s inadequate o r i f the physical and chemical p r o p e r t i e s o f the l u b r i c a n t change i n service, the l u b r i c a t i o n mode may change leading t o a d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f the performance o f the whole system. Methods o f monitoring o i l supply o f a machine a r e w e l l known and have long been practiced. The techniques involved range from the v i s u a l checking o f the o i l l e v e l i n the sump o r o i l tank using a s i g h t glass, t o the i n s e r t i o n o f o i l pressure gauges and o i l f l o w meters. These detectors are o f t e n connected t o an automatic alarm system so t h a t the o i l f l o w i s monitored continuously. Further, the l u b r i c a n t q u a l i t y should be monitored by t a k i n g samples o f the used o i l s a t i n t e r v a l s and s u b j e c t i n g them t o l a boratory t e s t s t o determine whether r e l e v a n t l u b r i c a n t p r o p e r t i e s have changed.
(ii)Surface conditions o f machine components Changes i n surface roughness o r the appearance o f p i t s o r cracks are a
powerful i n d i c a t o r o f i n c i p i e n t f a i l u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r o l l i n g elements and gears. The techniques f o r the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f surfaces are discussed i n some d e t a i l i n Section 7.6. The a p p l i c a t i o n o f these techniques i n machinery c o n d i t i o n monitoring i s hindered by the f a c t t h a t moving surfaces have t o be investigated. To overcome these d i f f i c u l t i e s attempts have been made t o use l a s e r s f o r the i n s i t u d e t e c t i o n o f surface roughness charact e r i s t i c s . Another p o s s i b i l i t y i s t o make a r e p l i c a o f the surface t o be monitored. I t has been reported, f o r example, t h a t the surface examination o f a hypoid gear may be c a r r i e d o u t by such methods w i t h o u t removing i t from i t s housing (Ref. 7.43). ( i i i ) Wear behaviour o f the system As c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the wear-induced changes o f the s t r u c t u r e o f t r i b o mechanical systems, ( a ) geometrical changes o f t h e moving components o r (b) worn m a t e r i a l loss r a t e s may be monitored. As an example o f c l a s s (a) i n Figure 7.16 a method f o r p i s t o n r i n g c o n d i t i o n monitoring i s shown.
282
proximi ty transducer
Figure 7.16
The p i s t o n r i n g c o n d i t i o n i s sensed by means o f p r o x i m i t y transducers, which are mounted f l u s h w i t h t h e running Qurface o f the cylinders. The transducer detects r i n g s n o t i n proper cotitact w i t h the c y l i n d e r , as w e l l as broken p i s t o n r i n g s . From t h e e l e c t r o n i c signal-processing equipment shown i n Figure 7.16, information can be CJbtained about the p i s t o n r i n g condition. Various techniques are a l s o a v a i l a b l q f o r the monitoring o f wear outp u t rates. Careful examination o f debris q r l u b r i c a n t contaminants can i n d i c a t e t h e i r o r i g i n and a l l o w conclusion go be drawn about t h e i r formation, and hence the c o n d i t i o n o f inaccessible moving parts. For example, i t i s n o t possible t o examine i n s i t u the workirlg p a r t s o f a j e t engine, b u t each drop o f l u b r i c a n t which c i r c u l a t e s through t h e moving p a r t s c a r r i e s w i t h i t evidence o f i t s experience i n passage. Careful examination o f the o i l and any p a r t i c l e s i t may contain allows i n t e r i r e t a t i o n o f the conditions. The wear debris contained i n the l u b r i c a n t s i n operating mechanisms may be monitored by the f o l l o w i n g methods:
(a) Spectrographic o i 1 analysis procedure (SOAP) Very small concentrations o f m e t a l l i c wear products (1-2 p a r t / m i l l i o n ) suspended i n used l u b r i c a t i n g o i l can be i d e n t i f i e d by spectrographic
analysis (Ref. 7.44). Using the information thus obtained together w i t h
283
a knowledge o f chemical c o m p o s i t i o n o f o i l - w e t t e d p a r t s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o determine which components a r e wearing. F o r example, abnormal l e v e l s o f i r o n i n t h e sump o i l o f a D i e s e l e n g i n e can i n d i c a t e e x c e s s i v e c y l i n d e r b o r e wear.
l4OI
120
f 100
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
(0)
Magnetic c h i p d e t e c t o r s
The use o f a magnet i n a l u b r i c a t i o n system p r o v i d e s a s i m p l e and e f f e c t i v e method f o r m o n i t o r i n g t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f l i q u i d s . A s t r o n g magnet w i l l a t t r a c t p a r t i c l e s i n an o i l stream. as f o r i n s t a n c e metal f l a k e s such as a r i s e f r o m f a t i g u e f r a g m e n t a t i o n . Use o f t h i s d e t e c t o r i n v o l v e s removal o f t h e magnetic probe a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s and t h e i n s e r t i o n o f a f r e s h probe w h i l e t h e o r i g i n a l i s r e t a i n e d f o r t h e assessment o f t h e p a r t i c l e s a d h e r i n g t o it.
(y) R a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r methods
The use o f r a d i o i s o t o p e s , a r t i f i c a l l y produced by n e u t r o n i r r a d i a t i o n o f f e r s a p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n v e n i e n t method f o r f o l l o w i n g t h e movement o f m a t e r i a l
284
d u r i n g d e f w m a t i o n , t r a n s f e r , o r t h e forniation o f wear d e b r i s . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , a g r e a t r e d u c t i o n i n background r a d i a t i o n by i m p l a n t i n g r a d i o a c t i v e i o n s i n s t e a d o f a c t i v a t e t h e whole sample has been o b t a i n e d . I n u s i n g a t h i n - l a y e r a c t i v a t i o n t e c h n i q u e i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between t h e wear f r o m d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of moving Machine elements.
m 4
E
$ 3
x
2
1
1
2 3 4 5
Running t i m e ( h )
F i g u r e 7.18
p a r t s o f a D i e s e l engine, namely t h e c y l i n d e r l i n e r , t h e r u n n i n g s u r f a c e and t h e f l a n k s o f t h e p i s t o n r i n g s a r e shown. The p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r i n machSnery c o n d i t i o n m o n i t o r i n g have been reviewed i n d e t a i l by GervZ? (Ref. 7.46).
285
L-4
------ 1
operating tribo-mechanical system
I I +--I
J-
Figure 7.19
I l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e Ferrography technique: ( a ) schematic representation of Ferrograph analyzer, ( b ) SEM micrograph o f deposited wear p a r t i c l e s (Ref. 7.48).
286
p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f t h e wear p a r t i c l e s , i s pumped across a transparent subs t r a t e which i s mounted a t a s l i g h t i n c l i n e , the magnetic p a r t i c l e s adhere t o t h e substrate, d i s t r i b u t e d approximately according t o size. The q u a n t i t y o f wear p a r t i c l e s and t h e i r s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n can be determined by o p t i c a l density measurement. I n Figure 7.19 the a p p l i c a t i o n o f the Ferrograph technique (Ref. 7.48) i s i l l u s t r a t e d . The monitoring techniques described i n t h i s section are applied i n various types o f machinery as f o r instance i n the f a i l u r e e a r l y warning system f o r a i r c r a f t engines. I t may be concluded t h a t machinery conditionmonitoring techniques, i n a d d i t i o n t o enabling a prognostic approach t o f a i l u r e prevention can be an a i d t o the design o f advanced machinery f o r immediate maintenance and f a i l u r e f r e e service without c o s t l y r e p a i r work.
7,6 SURFACEINVESTIGATION
TECHNIQUES
Since f r i c t i o n and wear processes occur p r i m a r i l y a t surfaces, surface i n v e s t i g a t i o n techniques p l a y an important r o l e f o r l a b o r a t o r y t r i b o - t e s t i n g as we1 1 as f o r the practice-oriented t e s t i n g o f tribo-engineering equipment (Ref. 7.49). For a complete i n v e s t i g a t i o n both the topography and the comp o s i t i o n o f surfaces have t o be studied. (a) INVESTIGATION O SURFACE TOPOGRAPHY F
Surfaces can be studied i n a q u a l i t a t i v e manner by microscopic techniques. For plane surfaces, the usual o p t i c a l microscopy can be u t l l i z e d . With the use o f Nomarski lenses i t becomes possible t o study surfaces w i t h a r e s o l u t i o n i n depth o f about 50
(Ref. 7.50).
nique i t i s possible t o detect s l i p bands around wear t r a c k s as w e l l as t o estimate the thickness o f t h i n polymer f i l m s (thickness l e s s than 200
1)
t r a n s f e r r e d t o m e t a l l i c counterfaces i n the s l i d i n g o f polymer-metal couples (Ref. 7.51), as shown i n Figures 7.20 and 7.21. Q u a n t i t a t i v e measurements o f surface i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , such as steps, scratches, o r grooves, can be made on smooth surfaces w i t h an o p t i c a l i n t e r ference microscope o r i n applying mu1t i p l e beam i n t e r f e r e n c e microscopy (Ref. 7.52). Peak-to-valley surface roughness values down t o 0.015 pm can be measured (7.53). The technique can be improved f u r t h e r by applying t h e method o f equidensities, which s p l i t s up every i n t e r f e r e n c e l i n e i n t o two l i n e s , thus improving the s e n s i t i v i t y and p r o v i d i n g a 3-dimensional p i c t u r e
207
F i g u r e 7.20
(a)
50 pm
(b)
F i g u r e 7.21
w.
F i g u r e 7.22
289
o f t h e s u r f a c e roughness, see F i g u r e 7.22. By f o l l o w i n g an i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e l i n e w i t h a p l a n i m e t e r , s u r f a c e roughness data, such as t h e Ra ( c e n t e r - 1 i n e - a v e r a g e ) v a l u e can be determined f o r t h e v a r i o u s c r o s s - s e c t i o n s o f the p r o f i l e . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f o p t i c a l m i c r o s c o p i c t e c h n i q u e s t o i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f worn s u r f a c e s i s l i m i t e d t o t h e s t u d y o f r e l a t i v e l y p l a n e and smooth s u r faces because o f t h e v e r y p o o r d e p t h o f f o c u s o f o p t i c a l techniques, b e i n g o n l y 0 . 1 pin a t a m a g n i f i c a t i o n o f say 500 times. T h e r e f o r e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e scanning e l e c t r o n microscope (SEM) t o t h e s t u d y o f worn s u r f a c e s has been v e r y advantageous (Ref. 7.54). Due t o t h e e x t r e m e l y s h o r t wavelength o f t h e e l e c t r o n beam, b o t h h i g h m a g n i f i c a t i o n and h i g h d e p t h o f focus can be o b t a i n e d . F o r example, a t a m a g n i f i c a t i o n o f 5000 t i m e s t h e d e p t h o f focus i s s t i l l h i g h e r t h a n 10 pm. T h e r e f o r e , t h i s t e c h n i q u e can be conven i e n t l y used i n t h e s t u d y o f r e l a t i v e l y rough s u r f a c e s as i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e examples shown i n S e c t i o n 4.4, d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t appearance o f worn s u r f a c e s . The SEM can a l s o be used t o d e t e c t t h e s t a t e o f deformat i o n below t h e s u r f a c e w i t h t h e " e l e c t r o n channel 1 i n g p a t t e r n (ECP)" t e c h nique. I n t i l t i n g t h e e l e c t r o n beam w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s u r f a c e s p o t under study, t h e d i f f r a c t i o n o f t h e e l e c t r o n beam a t t h e d i f f e r e n t c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c planes l e a d s t o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ECP l i n e s ( R e f . 7.55). Under optimum exp e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s , w i t h t h e ECP technique, which i s analogous t o t h e
K i k u c h i t e c h n i q u e o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n e l e c t r o n microscopy, i n f o r m a t i o n on
d i s l o c a t i o n d e n s i t i e s can be e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e w i d t h , w, o f t h e ECP l i n e s (Ref. 7.56). I n F i g u r e 7.23 examples o f ECP diagrams a r e shown (Ref. 7.57). P r o f i l o m e t e r methods a r e p r e f e r r e d f o r t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e topography. A s m a l l diamond n e e d l e w i t h a t i p r a d i u s o f about
5 pin i s moved across t h e s u r f a c e and t h e d e r a t i o n o f t h e n e e d l e i s a m p l i f i e d
by e l e c t r o n i c means. The v e r t i c a l r e s o l u t i o n has a v a l u e o f about 0.01 pm whereas t h e h o r i z o n t a l r e s o l u t i o n i s determined by t h e r a d i u s o f t h e t i p o f t h e needle. Feeding t h e e l e c t r o n i c o u t p u t o f t h e p r o f i l e m e t e r t o a computer
i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e v a r i o u s s u r f a c e roughness measures d e s c r i b e d
i n S e c t i o n 4.2.1.
Moreover, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as t h e F o u r i e r a n a l y s i s , t h e a u t o c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t i o n and r e l a t e d q u a n t i t i e s can be o b t a i n e d . W i t h t h e h e l p o f a specimen s t a g e ( x - y - m o t i o n i n s t e p s ) s u r f a c e p r o f i l e maps can be o b t a i n e d . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f s u r f a c e p r o f i l o m e t r y t o t h e s t u d y o f t r i b o - i n d u c e d s u r f a c e topography changes can be seen f r o m t h e examples d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 5.2.1.
290
SEM micrographs
F i g u r e 7.23
291
Figure 7.24
(b)
For the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the composition o f surfaces several powerful t o o l s are a v a i l a b l e today. I n the e l e c t r o n probe microanalyzer (EPMA) an e l e c t r o n beam i s scanned across the surface and the X-ray r a d i a t i o n emitted i s analyzed by means o f a spectrometer. The concentration o f the chemical elements belonging t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c X-ray r a d i a t i o n i s r e g i s t e r e d on a screen. Since t h e X-ray emission o r i g i n a t e s from t h e topmost surface atoms as well as f r o m atoms some pm below the surface one resolved spot on the screen i s r e l a t e d t o a specimen volume o f about 1 pm (Ref. 7.59).
only f o r the study o f the surface composition o f r e l a t i v e l y t h i c k surface layers. I n Figure 7.25 the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the chemical nature o f a wear p a r t i c l e on a copper p i n which has been s l i d against an i r o n d i s c i s shown. The comparison o f the p o s i t i v e images from t h e Cu-Karadiation and the Fe-K, r a d i a t i o n i n d i c a t e t h a t the wear p a r t i c l e consists mainly o f i r o n . Surface-investigation techniques f o r the analysis o f the topmost surface l a y e r s have been developed o n l y i n recent years. The main p r i n c i p l e o f these techniques i s t h a t t h e surface is bombarded w i t h photons, electrons,
292
Figure 7.25
293
i o n s , e t c . and t h e e m i t t e d p a r t i c l e s which c a r r y some i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e i r h i s t o r y , a r e analyzed. I n F i g u r e 7.26 a g e n e r a l scheme o f t h e v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l processes u t i l i z e d i n s u r f a c e a n a l y z i n g t e c h n i q u e s i s shown (Ref. 7.60).
f i
Photons Electrons
Ions i
Neutrals
Heat I k T I
Electric f i e l d
Photons h v Electrons e
ESCA
AES,LEED
I Ions
Neutrals F i g u r e 7.26
il
N
SIMS
FIM
AES
: : :
:
:
LEE0 ESCA
SIMS
FIM
F i e l d i o n microscopy
The a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e new p o w e r f u l s u r f a c e - i n v e s t i g a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s t o t r i b o l o g i c a l problems i s s t i l l i n i t s b e g i n n i n g s . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , b r i e f descriptions o f the basic physical p r i n c i p l e s o f these techniques together w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o some examples o f t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n w i l l be g i v e n . F o r
294
Copper
S t r u c t u r a l arrangement
,,noble
metal
I'
S i 1ver
295
more d e t a i l s t h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o t h e r e v i e w a r t i c l e s , Ref. 7.61, 7.62, 7.63. I n t h e AES t e c h n i q u e , t h e s u r f a c e t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d i s bombarded b y a monoenergetic e l e c t r o n beam ( E =: 3 keV) and t h e energy d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e eini t t e d secondary e l e c t r o n s (Auger-el e c t r o n s ) i s measured. The energy o f t h e Auger e l e c t r o n s i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l . I n t h i s way, t h e cnemical elements a t t h e s u r f a c e can be d e t e c t e d , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f l i g h t chemical elements (hydrogen t o n i t r o g e n ) . W i t h AES a s e m i q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s w i t h a r e s o l u t i o n o f 1/1000 o f a monolayer i s p o s s i b l e . An example o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e AES t e c h n i q u e i s shown i n F i g u r e 5.7. I n t h e LEED t e c h n i q u e , an e l e c t r o n beam o f l o w energy ( E - 2 0
...2000eV)
FeS04
FeS
FeS
F i g u r e 7.28
296
The ESCA technique u t i l i z e s t h e e f f e c t o f p h o t o e l e c t r i c emission o f surfaces. Oepending on t h e energy o f t h e i n c i d e n t r a d i a t i o n t h e techniques o f u l t r a v i o l e t p h o t o e l e c t r o n spectroscopy (UPS) , extreme UPS (XUPS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . The spectrum o f t h e photoelectrons gives a p i c t u r e o f t h e e l e c t r o n i c s t r u c t u r e o f the s u r f a c e l a y e r s thus a l l o w i n g conclusions about t h e i r chemical composition. With t h i s technique i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e s t a t e o f chemical bonding o f t h e s u r f a c e atoms. An example o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e ESCA technique f o r the study o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t a d d i t i v e dibenzyld i s u l p h i d e under m i l d and severe wear c o n d i t i o n s i s shown i n F i g u r e 7.28 (Ref. 7.64) (see a l s o Section 5.2.2). I n the SIMS technique an emission o f i o n s from t h e s u r f a c e i s obtained
: through the bombardement w i t h argon ions ( E : 3 keV). The i o n s a r e then
analyzed by means o f mass spectroscopy. With t h i s technique a l l chemical elements can be detected. The r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e technique has been r e p o r t e d t o be b e t t e r than
o f d monolayer (Ref. 7.65).
used t o study the composition o f surface l a y e r s formed on t h e r u n n i n g surfaces o f b o t h a pin-on-disc t r i b o m e t e r and an i n t e r n a l combustion engine l u b r i c a t e d w i t h a commercial engine o i l (Ref. 7.66). I n t h i s study, t h e s p e c t r a o f p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e secondary i o n s were measured b e f o r e and a f t e r the t e s t runs and t h e r a t i o o f t h e measured i o n i n t e n s i t i e s a f t e r and b e f o r e the t e s t runs were determined.
0
.r
c ,
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Mass number
F i g u r e 7.29
297
Figure 7 . 3 0
FIM micrographs o f tungsten prior and after contact with gold (Ref. 7 . 6 1 ) .
298
Figure 7.31
299
With the FIM technique i t i s possible t o get a p i c t u r e o f the atomic arrangement o f surfaces (Ref. 7.67). As specimen an extremely t h i n t i p o f a metal w i t h h i g h m e l t i n g p o i n t (W,
e l e c t r i c f i e l d o f high strength, as a r e s u l t o f which p a r t i c l e s are emitted and become v i s i b l e on a fluorescent screen. This microscope i s t r u l y unique i n t h a t i t i s the o n l y device a v a i l a b l e today which w i l l a l l o w the examinat i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l atom s i t e s and surface s t r u c t u r e s i n atomic d e t a i l . I t has an atomic r e s o l u t i o n o f 2.5
8.
FIM micrographs
o f a tungsten surface before and a f t e r contact w i t h the metal gold, and the polymer p o l y t e t r a f l u o r e t h y l e n e are shown (Ref. 7.61). I t can be seen t h a t i n a l l cases m a t e r i a l from the counterpartner adheres on t h e tungsten surface. This then i s the d i r e c t p r o o f o f the occurrence o f adhesion on an atomic scale! The techniques and a p p l i c a t i o n examples discussed i n t h i s s e c t i o n i n d i cate t h a t very powerful t o o l s f o r surface i n v e s t i g a t i o n s are a v a i l a b l e today. I n combining these techniques w i t h the o t h e r t r i b o m e t r i c techniques and the t h e o r e t i c a l t r i b o a n a l y s i s methods and check1 i s t s described i n the next chapter some f u r t h e r progress i n t h e d i f f i c u l t f i e l d o f t r i b o t e s t i n g may be anticipated.
300
301
o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s . These omissions and shortcomings a r e , o f course, n o t i n t e n t i o n a l b u t a r e consequences o f t h e mu1 t i d i s c i p l i n a r y nat u r e o f t r i b o l o g y . I t i s c l e a r t h a t a p h y s i c i s t o r chemist, who p u b l i s h e s e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f f r i c t i o n o r wear processes, i s m a i n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e p h y s i c a l o r chemical c o n t e n t o f h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n r a t h e r than i n t h i n k i n g o f possible l i n k s o f h i s f i n d i n g s w i t h e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s . On t h e o t h e r hand, i t i s o f t e n n o t p o s s i b l e t o draw b a s i c g e n e r a l i z e d c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m t h e r e s u l t s o f e n g i n e e r i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t r i b o - t e c h n i c a l components o f machinery. T h i s i n t u r n nec e s s i t a t e s t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f s t u d i e s a l r e a d y performed b u t i n c o m p l e t e l y d e s c r i b e d iil t h e l i t e r a t u r e and p a r t l y e x p l a i n s t h e v a s t number o f p u b l i c a t i o n s produced e v e r y y e a r i n t h e f i e l d o f t r i b o l o g y . (As mentioned i n S e c t i o n 1.3, about 8000 t r i b o l o g i c a l papers a r e c u r r e n t l y p u b l i s h e d e v e r y y e a r . ) From a l l t h i s i t f o l l o w s t h a t b o t h t h e l a c k o f a c o n v e n i e n t framework f o r t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t r i b o l o g i c a l r e s u l t s and t h e l a c k o f a conven i e n t methodology f o r t h e s o l u t i o n of t r i b o l o g i c a l problems f o r m severe o b s t a c l e s t o p r o g r e s s . D i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m u l t i f a r i o u s aspects o f t r i b o l o g y f r o m a systems p o i n t o f view as p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f o r e g o i n g c h a p t e r s has p r o v i d e d t h e b a s i s f o r a systems approach t o these problems. F o r t h i s p u r pose, t h e general t h e o r e t i c a l framework as p r e s e n t e d i n t h e t r i b o - p r o c e s s diagram, F i g u r e 3.4, s h o u l d be b r o u g h t i n t o a f o r m s u i t a b l e f o r e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , t h e development o f a " d a t a sheet" s u i t a b l e f o r t h e a n a l y s i s and s o l u t i o n o f t r i b o l o g i c a l problems w i l l be d e s c r i b e d and examples o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f systems methodology w i l l be g i v e n (Ref. 8.2).
8,2 A
As a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r an e n g i n e e r i n g systems approach t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f
t r i b o l o g i c a l problems, c o n s i d e r a t y p i c a l t r i b o - t e c h n i c a l system, namely t h e gear-box as shown i n F i g u r e 8.1.
1.
302 The inputs o f the operating variables a r e transformed through the s t r u c t u r e o f the system i n t o outputs which are used t e c h n i c a l l y : the useoutputs. Sirnul taneously, as a consequence o f the t r i b o l o g i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n s between the elements, loss-outputs occur, denoted i n summary by the terms f r i c t i o n and wear losses. The way i n which the inputs are transformed i n t o outputs determines the technical function o f the system.
Operating Variables
s = {A, eli t
A:
n. n--
Use -Outputs
Systems Envelope
Loss- Outputs
Figure 8.1
follows t h a t the relevant t r i b o l o g i c a l parameters can be d i v i d e d i n t o the f o l l o w i n g f o u r groups as compiled i n Table 8.1. I n the next f o u r sections, the main features o f the r e l e v a n t parameters of these groups w i l l be discussed. Since most o f the various systems aspects have been already t r e a t e d i n some d e t a i l i n t h e preceding chapters, the f o l l o w i n g considerations w i l l be summarizing i n nature.
303
II
I
I
I m
I l l Tribo-element
(3) Lubricont
(41 Atmosphere
Table 8.1
8,2,1 TECHNICAL
FUNCTION
OF THE SYSTEM
I n u s i n g these f o u r b a s i c q u a n t i t i e s o r r e l a t e d q u a n t i t i e s , t h e t e c h n i c a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e various t r i b o l o g i c a l systems may be c l a s s i f i e d i n terms o f the i n p u t - o u t p u t r e l a t i o n s o f these q u a n t i t i e s . The p r i n c i p l e s o f the method o f c l a s s i f y i n g tribo-mechanical systems according t o t h e i r f u n c t i o n were i l l u s t r a t e d i n Table 3.2. Appendix ( A ) .
A more d e t a i l e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s given i n t h e
304
8,2,2
OPERATING
VARIABLES
The most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c operating v a r i a b l e o f a tribo-mcfianical system i s the type o f r e l a t i v e motion between tribo-element (1) and tribo-element ( 2 ) . The basic types o f motion are
as i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 8.2 f o r the simple case o f the r e l a t i v e motion o f a b a l l (1) against a plane ( 2 ) .
Sliding
Rolling
.C.p
p7
Spin Figure 8.2 Basic types o f r e l a t i v e motion,
(J$$
Impact
bodies can be expressed as a superposition o f these f o u r basic types o f motion. I n a d d i t i o n t o the c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f the type o f motion, i t s dependence on time should be specified, being f o r example:
continuous oscillating
305
reciprocating intermittent
t h e f l o w r a t e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t . Some v i b r a t i o n and r a d i a t i o n .
8,2,3
STRUCTURE OF
THE SYSTEM
As compiled i n Table 8.1, t h e s t r b c t u r e o f a system i s g i v e n b y t h e system's elements, t h e i r r e l e v a n t p r o p e r t i e s and t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s , desc r i b e d f o r m a l l y by t h e s e t S = [ A , (a) ELEMENTS
P, R }
.
i s l o c a t e d as
OF THE SYSTEM, A
[ ai ]
(4)
(1) T r i b o - e l e m e n t (moving)
( 2 ) Tribo-element ( s t a t i o n a r y
( 3 ) I n t e r f a c i a l element ( l u b r c a n t , e t c .
( 4 ) Environment (atmosphere)
306
As i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 8.3, t h e components t h a t f o r m t h e p a i r of t h e
" i n t e r a c t i n g s u r f a c e s i n r e l a t i v e m o t i o n " a r e named " t r i b o - e l e m e n t (1)" and " t r i b o - e l e m e n t ( 2 ) " . The o t h e r two b a s i c elements a r e t h e l u b r i c a n t ( 3 ) and t h e environment ( 4 ) . (b) PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS, P = ( P(ai))
Any t r i b o l o g i c a l process i s i n f l u e n c e d by many p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e b a s i c e l e ments ( l ) , ( 2 ) , (3), ( 4 ) . Owing t o t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems and t r i b o l o g i c a l processes, i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o p r o v i d e a comp r e h e n s i v e general c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l l y r e l e v a n t p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e systems elements. The f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e elements have been found t o be o f p r i m a r y concern f o r t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system: (i) P r o p e r t i e s o f t h e t r i b o - e l e m e n t s (1) and ( 2 ) The t r i b o l o g i c a l l y r e l e v a n t p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e elements (1) and ( 2 ) can be s u b - d i v i d e d i n t o "volume" p r o p e r t i e s and " s u r f a c e " p r o p e r t i e s . The s t u d y o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l processes, as d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 4, has shown t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g main p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e elements (1) and
( 2 ) a r e r e l e v a n t f o r t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e system:
us,
hardness,
(ii)
Properties o f the l u b r i c a n t (3) The main r e l e v a n t p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e l u b r i c a n t a r e t h e v i s c o s i t y and i t s dependence upon temperature and pressure, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e chemical composition o f the l u b r i c a n t .
( i ii) P r o p e r t i e s o f t h e environmental atmosphere ( 4 ) The main r e l e v a n t p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e atmosphere a r e i t s chemical comp o s i t i o n and t h e amount and p r e s s u r e o f i t s components, e s p e c i a l l y water vapour. (c) INTERRELATIONS BETWEEN THE ELEMENTS, R = { R(ai, aj))
307
I n F i g u r e 8.4 t h e b a s i c t r i b o l o g i c a l processes a r e expressed i n t h e f o r m o f schematic diagrams f o r systems o f i n c r e a s i n g c o m p l e x i t y , i.e., i n c r e a s i n g number o f i n t e r a c t i n g system's elements ( R e f . 7.16).
System i n vacuum
I System i n a i r I
tribochemical r e i c t i o n s
(1) -surface
( 1)-surface
(2)
System l u b r i c a t e d
I
) 1 (
F i g u r e 8.4
Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t r i b o l o g i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n s ,
I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i t s h o u l d be emphasized t h a t b e s i d e s t h e f r i c t i o n and wear processes between t h e s y s t e m ' s elements (1) and ( 2 ) t h e processes o f d i f f u s i o n and e f f u s i o n between t h e elements ( 3 ) , t h e l u b r i c a n t , and ( 4 ) , t h e environment, a r e of g r e a t importance f o r t h e b e h a v i o u r of t r i b o l o g i c a l systems. (The i n f l u e n c e o f d i f f u s i o n processes (4)-(3) i n F i g u r e 8.8; see Ref. 8 . 3 . ) i s illustrated f o r an i n s t r u c t i v e example o f e f f u s i o n processes (3)-(4)
308
8,2,4
groups : (a) (b) (c)
TRIBOLOGICAL A R A C T E R I S T I C S CH
The t r i b o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be d i v i d e d i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e
According t o Chapter 5, t r i b o - i n d u c e d changes o f a system's s t r u c t u r e ( a ) may concern: (i) (ii) t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f elements o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f new elements i n a tribo-system, changes i n t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e elements, f o r i n s t a n c e , changes i n c o n t a c t topography and s u r f a c e composition, ( i i i ) changes i n t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s between t h e elements, as f o r i n s t a n c e , changes o f t h e wear mechanisms under t h e a c t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g variables. The o t h e r two mairi t r i b o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( b ) and ( c ) l i s t e d i n T a b l e 8.1, i.e., t h e f r i c t i o n - i n d u c e d energy l o s s e s and t h e wear-induced m a t e r i a l s l o s s e s , may be expressed f o r m a l l y as: f r i c t i o n losses wear l o s s e s
= =
f ( o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s ; system's s t r u c t u r e ) f ( o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s ; system's s t r u c t u r e )
m
f
=
f (X; S)
where X
S
: Operating variables
: ( A , P, R ) : System's s t r u c t u r e
Although t h e parameter groups X, S, a r e n o t independent v a r i a b l e s s i n c e t h e y a r e connected w i t h each o t h e r t h r o u g h t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s R, t h e above symbolic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f r i c t i o n and wear c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be c o n v e n i e n t l y used as s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e systems methodology, see S e c t i o n 8.5. Summarizing t h e v a r i o u s parameters o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems, a d a t a sheet r e s u l t s as shown i n F i g u r e 8.5. On t h e b a s i s o f t h e general explanat i o n s g i v e n i n t h e l a s t s e c t i o n s , t h e d a t a sheet should be s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y .
309
l Operating variables 7
'pe of motion'J IDurotion of operotion t i
'her op variobles
Locotion
Tri b o - element
Ill
Tri bo - element
(21
L u bricont
Atmosphere
(3)
14)
sl
Wear dato
l l e g sliding, roll!ng. oscilloting, reciprocoting.etc 2)the contact pressure p is given by p = % / A F i g u r e 8.5 T r i b o l o g i c a l 3)velocity of tribo-elementll) relative to tribo-elernent/2/ data sheet. Lltemperature o t stoted location 5 ) e g density, thermol conductivity, Youngs modulus etc 61eg changes in hordness of lIll2). rhonges in viscosity of/3/, changes in humidity of /Ll,etc
systems
310
(I)
The s t r u c t u r e (111) o f t h e system i s d e s c r i b e d by t h e elements o f t h e system, t h e i r r e l e v a n t p r o p e r t i e s and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s . I n t h i s case, t r i b o element (1) i s g i v e n by a b e a r i n g bushing c o n s i s t i n g o f a l e a d - t i n - b r o n z e and t r i b o - e l e m e n t ( 2 ) i s a s t e e l s h a f t . As l u b r i c a n t ( 3 ) a m i n e r a l o i l of t h e t y p e SAE 2OW-20 i s used and t h e atmosphere ( 4 ) i s l a b o r a t o r y a i r . Tog e t h e r w i t h t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e elements and m a t e r i a l s t h e d a t a sheet c o n t a i n s a l l i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e elements. The d a t a sheet a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e elements o f t h e system which can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a " r u n n i n g - i n " p e r i o d l e a d i n g t o t o p o g r a p h i c a l changes which a r e w i t h i n t h e i n i t i a l roughness o f t h e b e a r i n g bush element ( 2 ) .
As t r i b o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( I V ) emphasis i s l a i d i n t h e charact e r i z a t i o n o f wear r a t e s . A l t h o u g h t h e o r i g i n a l wear r a t e s a r e g i v e n i n mass u n i t s , s i n c e t h e dimensions o f t h e b e a r i n g a r e given, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o est i m a t e wear-time r a t e s and w e a r - d i s t a n c e r a t e s . Because t h e wear measurements have been performed by means o f r a d i o - t r a c e r techniques, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e wear r a t e s o f t r i b o - e l e m e n t ( l ) , t h e b e a r i n g bushing, and t r i b o - e l e m e n t
(Z),t h e
bearing shaft.
311
J o u r n a l b e a r i n g : guidance o f m o t i o n
ll Operating variables
pe
Of
motton
continuous s l i d i n g
N
IDurotton of operotton t
40 min
.ood26(t)[
7000
F l FN r
~ e l o ctty Temperature
OC/
v(t)[m/sl
T(t)[
v 1
20
t (min)
40
20
40
20
40
t (minl
t (min)
Trlbo-element (11
Tribo-element (21
Lubricant
mineral o i l SAE 20 W 20
Atmosphere
shaft steel d = 65 mm
0.2 C; 0.8 Mo 0.2 C r ; 0.4 V
air
91
I -
H=2630
(thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y
VI Topography descriptors
I I
2.5 - 3.0
~
1 I 1
3 kcal/mhC
0.5
up iuortcarion moae
rj/-14/
Wear dato
sl
( 1 ) : run-in
( 2 ) : s l i g h t l y roughened
F i g u r e 8.6 Description o f a j o u r n a l bearing.
312
I n a s i m i l a r manner as t h e example d e s c r i b e d i n F i g u r e 8.6, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f o t h e r t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g systems can be d e s c r i b e d w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l systems d a t a sheet. F o r an adequate d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g systems, t h e d a t a sheet may be i n d i v i d u a l l y
8,4
The i n t r o d u c t o r y remarks o f t h i s c h a p t e r have amply demonstrated t h e need f o r a u s e f u l framework f o r t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f r i c t i o n and wear r e s e a r c h data. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t r e s u l t s be p r e s e n t e d i n a f o r m s u i t a b l e f o r subsequent independent e v a l u a t i o n and, i f p o s s i b l e , c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from o t h e r sources. The v a l u e o f a l l work, whether b a s i c o r a p p l i e d , would be g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d i f some b a s i c standards o f r e p o r t i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l v a r i a b l e s would be accepted. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l systems d a t a sheet t o t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f r i c t i o n and wear r e search d a t a w i l l be i l l u s t r a t e d i n d i s c u s s i n g two examples. I n F i g u r e 8.7, t h e r e l e v a n t parameters and d a t a o f an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a s l i d i n g c o b a l t - c o b a l t couple under c o n d i t i o n s o f h i g h vacuum a r e l i s t e d (Ref. 8.5). I n t h i s case, t h e t r i b o - s y s t e m , a p i n - o n - d i s c apparatus, connamely: s i s t s o f o n l y t h e two elements (1) and ( 2 ) . The t r i b o l o g i c a l systems d a t a sheet c l e a r l y shows t h e main f e a t u r e s o f t h i s tribo-system, (i) (ii)
f o r t h e t r i b o - e l e m e n t (1) and t r i b o - e l e m e n t ( 2 ) l e a d i n g t o d i f f e r e n ( i i i ) the transformation o f the c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e o f the p i n a t a c e r t a i n temperature, (iv) t h e changes o f f r i c t i o n and wear b e h a v i o u r w i t h i n c r e a s i n g s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y as a consequence o f ( i ) , ( i i ) , ( i i i ) . I n another example, shown i n F i g u r e 8.8, the data o f a research study w i t h
a b a l l - o n - c y l i n d e r t r i b o - t e s t i n g system a r e compiled (Ref. 8.6). By c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e f o r e g o i n g example, i n t h i s example t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l system c o n s i s t s o f f o u r elements, i . e . , a s l i d i n g steel-steel couple ( l ) , (2), together w i t h
Il Operating variables
Type of motion": ~oad"G(t)[
continuous s l i d i n g
Durotion of operotion t l
h 1. 7 h r u n - i n time
N]
~ e l o c r t v (~ )' l m / ~ t
~ e m ~ e r a t u r eTTI~I[OC "
FN=10 N = const.
(10 steps)
, '
8.6
from c o n t a c t surface
Lubricant (31 Atmosphere
Other op variables:
(4)
F i g u r e 8.7
II O p e r a t i n g continuous s l i d i n g
N
variables
Duration of operation t
velocity3'
v/t)[m/
Temperature"
lot (min)loO
t1 (min) 100
A
1
Locotion:
lot (minfoO
Other op voriobles:
ambj e n t
Atmosphere 14 1
l Structure of the U
Pro erties, of elements L i t i a / / ~ Designation of element and rnoteriol Geometry/Dimensions/ Volume Chemical composition al.S Phys.-mech. dato: Hardness (Rockwell ) 4 Viscosity qlT.pl otherS' Topography descriptors ic.l.o..etclcl a (pm) Surface layer data Tribo-element
tribo-system
Lubricant
111
Tribo-element
~ r 80 N2 i
'5
EH
3
2
UL
, 20 0,
7 /25Oc=2.5 CP
.:
0.02
0.05
0.25
'40
~ l m d
mixed 1u b r i c a t i o n
i m p u r i t i e s i n ( 4 ): 5 ppm water 20 ppm 0 (B): 20 ppm w%ter Tribological interactions: (A): (0):
- 0.33
other doto:
(A):
(3)Wear doto
l? l
Formation and rubbing away o f
T r i b o l o g i c a l characteristics
Friction doto
t
Other characteristics(e.g.: contact resrstonce, vibrations. noise, etcl:
(min)
Figure 8.8
315
a l u b r i c a n t ( 3 ) and the atmosphere (4). I n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , the i n f l u e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t atmospheric environments on the t r i b o l o g i c a l behaviour o f l u b r i c a t e d s t e e l - s t e e l contacts was studied. Also i n t h i s case, the compilat i o n o f the experimental data i n the form o f a t r i b o l o g i c a l data sheet has the advantage t h a t a l l r e l e v a n t parameters are registered. The main features o f t h i s f r i c t i o n and wear t e s t , which was run under a constant s e t o f operat-
r e l e v a n t t r i b o l o g i c a l parameters i n the form o f t r i b o l o g i c a l systems data sheets. The p u b l i c a t i o n s quoted here are e x c e p t i o n a l l y detailed. Nevertheless, two items on t h e data sheets had t o be estimated. However, t r i b o l o g i s t s w i l l be f a m i l i a r w i t h the problem o f comparing the work o f d i f f e r e n t authors. As mentioned above, i t i s u s u a l l y found t h a t some important parameters, required f o r comparative studies o r f o r the a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e study t o practice, are missing. I f , i n f u t u r e publications, authors would add such a t r i b o l o g i c a l systems data sheet no r e l e v a n t parameter would be o m i t t e d and the usefulness of the p u b l i c a t i o n s would be much enhanced (Ref. 8.7). Another major p r a c t i c a l aspect i s t h a t data banks are being compiled f o r many aspects o f technology. A f i r s t step f o r t r i b o l o g y would be the use o f standard data c h e c k l i s t s as developed here.
8.5
APPLICATION
OF
AS emphasized throughout t h i s volume, i n attempts t o reach a systematic solut i o n o f t r i b o l o g i c a l problems, the whole s e t o f the f o u r basic groups o f systems parameters discussed i n Section 8.2 and t h e i r interdependencies must be taken i n t o consideration under the headings:
316
I1
IV
111 S t r u c t u r e o f t h e system
Again, t h e e s s e n t i a l p o i n t i s t h a t o n l y by s y s t e m a t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a l l main v a r i a b l e s o f t h e f o u r b a s i c groups o f parameters can o v e r s i g h t o f i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s be avoided. Once t h i s "systems t h i n k i n g " i s adopted, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f systems methodology t o t h e s o l u t i o n o f t r i b o l o g i c a l problems appears t o be a q u i t e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a p p l i c a t i o n o f " t e c h n o l o g i c a l common sense" on a broad s c a l e . The case s t u d i e s discussed i n b r i e f i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e chosen t o ill u s t r a t e s y s t e m a t i c approaches t o t h e s o l u t i o n o f t r i b o l o g i c a l problems f r o m d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g systems, components and processes as w e l l as t o i l l u s t r a t e m a t e r i a l - s e l e c t i o n procedures, w e a r - r e d u c t i o n a t t e m p t s and f a i l u r e analyses. I n most cases, t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e problem has been o b t a i n e d by a combination o f systems methodology and l a b o r a t o r y t r i b o - t e s t i n g (see S e c t i o n s 7 . 2 and 7 . 3 ) . While t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l d a t a s h e e t developed i n S e c t i o n 8.2 served as a c o n v e n i e n t " c h e c k - l i s t " f o r t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f p e r t i n e n t parameters, f o r t h e sake o f b r e v i t y , i n t h e case s t u d i e s o n l y t h e main r e l e v a n t parameters a r e i n d i v i d u a l l y compiled and o n l y t h e main s t e p s o f t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e problem a r e o u t l i n e d . The examples p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g i n d i c a t e t h a t p r o p e r s o l u t i o n s of t r i b o l o g i c a l problems can be o b t a i n e d by d i f f e r e n t means, f o r example change o f design (see S e c t i o n 8.5.5), a t e m a t e r i a l and l u b r i c a n t s e l e c t i o n (see S e c t i o n 8.5.2, 8.5.3 appropriand 8.5.4)
8.5.8),
8 , 5 , 1 INVESTIGATION
OF THE V A L I D I T Y O F "COULOMB-FRICTION"
PROBLEM
Polymer-steel p a i r s t o be used i n a p r e c i s i o n e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n under d r y s l i d i n g c o n d i t i o n s should e x h i b i t a ( l o w ) f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t w h i c h must be c o n s t a n t under v a r y i n g o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . The c o n d i t i o n s f o r cons t a n t " C o u l o m b - f r i c t i o n " o f s u i t e d p o l y m e r - s t e e l p a i r s a r e t o be s p e c i f i e d .
317
(b) APPROACH
The "Amontons-Coulomb l a w " o f d r y s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n s t a t e s t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f l o a d FN and g e o m e t r i c a l a r e a o f c o n t a c t A . and t h u s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e n o m i n a l c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e p o = FN/Ao ( s e e Sect i o n 4.3.2). I n a d d i t i o n , f o r l o w s l i d i n g v e l o c i t i e s v, i t i s o f t e n assumed have been r e p o r t e d i n t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s a l s o i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y v. I n c o n t r a s t , many " d e v i a t i o n s f r o m C o u l o m b - f r i c t i o n ' ' t h e l i t e r a t u r e , so t h a t a s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y o f t h e dependence o f t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t on t h e v a r i o u s s y s t e m p a r a m e t e r s has t o b e p e r f o r m e d . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , f r o m a systems v i e w p o i n t , t h e f r i c t i o n o f a g i v e n s l i d i n g p a i r depends on b o t h t h e s e t o f o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s and t h e s y s t e m ' s s t r u c t u r e . As d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 8 . 2 . 4 t h i s can b e e x p r e s s e d f o r m a l l y as: friction coefficient or
=
f (X; S )
contact pressure
System's s t r u c t u r e S = [ A ,
R] :
{A]
p o l y m e r ( t o be s p e c i f i e d ) s t e e l ( A I S I 52100) air
{PI (R}
: :
relevant properties o f
(I), ( Z ) ,
(3)
f r i c t i o n a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s between
(l), ( Z ) , ( 3 )
0.1) i f s l i d i n g a g a i n s t s t e e l :
p o l y t e t r a f l u o r e t h y l e n e (PTFE) h i g h d e n s i t y p o l y e t h y l e n e (HDPE)
I n using these m a t e r i a l s i n connection w i t h t h e ranges o f operating v a r i ables given by the engineering a p p l i c a t i o n conditions, f r i c t i o n t e s t s were performed w i t h a pin-on-disc tribometer u t i l i z i n g the two-component f o r c e transducer described i n Section 7.2.3. t e r , see Ref. 8.10.) (For f u r t h e r d e t a i l s o f the tribomeI n Table 8.2, the t e s t conditions are l i s t e d .
Table 8.2
Conditions o f f r i c t i o n t e s t s .
319
(c) RESULTS
0.04
0.12
0.01
0.02 2
PTFE-steel HDPE-steel
= = =
for
p v
0.6 0.01
6 N/mm
1 mm/min
( i i ) a h i g h - f r i c t i o n regime w i t h an i n c r e a s i n g c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n ,
i.e.,
f f
=
= =
=
0.35 0.35
PTFE-steel HDPE-steel
for
p v
- 6 N/mL
10 m/min
1 mm/min
20 nm, i s
observed, whereas i n t h e h i g h - f r i c t i o n regime ( i i ) t h e polymer t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e s l i d i n g s t e e l c o u n t e r f a c e c o n s i s t s o f lumps o f polymers o f a t h i c k ness up t o s e v e r a l pm. ( F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l mechanisms o f t h e d i f f e r e n t s l i d i n g b e h a v i o u r i n regimes ( i ) and ( i i ) see Ref. 8.10 and 8.11.) (d) FOLLOW-UP
i.e.,
a c o n s t a n t f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t independent
F o r t h e e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n under q u e s t i o n , t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s
320
Figure 8.9
p = 6 . 2 N/INII
v = 0.01 m/min
T = 70 OC
0.6 N/mm 2
v = 10 m/min
T = 70
OC
Figure 8.10
321
s h o u l d be w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f t h e above regime ( i ) i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a
low f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f an a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t v a l u e .
8,5,2
CHARACTERIZATIONO F
THE T R I B O L O G I C A LB E H A V I O U R O F
WEAR-RESISTANT DIFFUSION S U R F A C E C O A T I N G S
A c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e wear r e s i s t a n c e o f newly developed s u r f a c e t r e a t ments ( b o r i d i n g , v a n a d i z i n g ) i n comparison w i t h s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s a l r e a d y used i n p r a c t i c a l t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s ( c a r b u r i z i n g , n i t r i d i n g ) i s t o be made. (b)
APPROACH
W e a r - r e s i s t a n t s u r f a c e c o a t i n g s a r e used i n d i f f e r e n t t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s under b r o a d l y v a r y i n g c o n d i t i o n s . Since a t t h e development stage o f new s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s , s u i t a b l e e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y s t i l l n o t s p e c i f i e d , a c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e wear b e h a v i o u r o f these c o a t i n g s i n general terms i s necessary. I n S e c t i o n 4.4 i t was emphas-ized t h a t wear i s n o t a s i n g l e process b u t a v a r i e t y o f processes. To c h a r a c t e r i z e ( o r c o n t r o l ) wear, each o f these processes must be i s o l a t e d and s t u d i e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y . From a systems v i e w p o i n t , t h e wear o f a g i v e n s l i d i n g p a i r depends - l i k e f r i c t i o n f o r m a l l y as: wear r a t e
=
t h e s y s t e m ' s s t r u c t u r e . As d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 8.2.4,
f ( 0 p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s ; System's s t r u c t u r e )
w
=
f (X;
S)
: : :
T s
System's s t r u c t u r e , S = { A , P, R } :
(A]
(P)
: :
322
[ R)
: wear mechanisms:
tri bo-oxidation
wear-resistant surface coatings, the materials should be studied success i v e l y under d i f f e r e n t conditions i n which o n l y one o f the f o u r basic wear mechanisms p r e v a i l s . I n the following, only the adhesive and the abrasive wear resistance o f some d i f f u s i o n surface coatings w i l l be characterized. I n Table 8.3 the materials, surface treatments and relevant material prop e r t i e s are l i s t e d .
6100
3480
2740
2780
"C
N/mm2)
Properties of surface coatings.
Table 8.3
(D)
s l i d i n g against themselves has been tested i n vacuum where the formation o f p r o t e c t i v e t r i b o c h e m i c a l l y formed i n t e r f a c i a l l a y e r s i s reduced and thus t h e adhesion component i s the dominating wear process. The abrasive wear r e s i s tance has been studied w i t h a disc-on-abrasive-paper abrasive "micro-cutting" d e t a i l s see Ref. 8.12.) technique where t h e process i s the dominating wear process. (For f u r t h e r
323
I
p i n - o n - d i s c ; vacuum 10 b a r
-9
lo4
lo3
W
T = 230C; s = 1 km
u
5
.r
v)
:lo2
W
L L
m
W
10
. c
>
a
W
.tJ
(Y
10-1
(A)
abrasive-paper-on-disc;
lo2
W
U
.,"
*
4
u l
T = 23 0C ; t = 6 rnin
lo1
L W
L 3
W
.r-
3 1
>
2
W
10-1
CT
EO
c
m w
bul d
v u
(A)
(D)
F i g u r e 8.11
324
vacuum: lo-
FN
10
bar
= 1 km
Figure 8.12
325
(d)
RESULTS
I n F i g u r e 8.11 t h e r e l a t i v e wear r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e s u r f a c e c o a t i n g s under c o n d i t i o n s o f adhesive wear and a b r a s i v e wear t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a p p l i e d t e s t c o n d i t i o n s i s shown w i t h t y p i c a l r e s u l t s . I n t h e adhesive-wear s i t u a t i o n , t h e measured wear r e s i s t a n c e and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g appearance o f worn s u r f a c e s , shown i n F i g u r e 8.12 i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e n i t r i d e d s u r f a c e c o a t i n g s e x h i b i t t h e b e s t w e a r - r e s i s t a n c e behavi o u r . The p o o r e s t wear r e s i s t a n c e has been found f o r t h e ( v e r y h a r d ) vanad i z e d s t e e l . I n t h i s case, t h e s u r f a c e - c o a t i n g l a y e r was p e n e t r a t e d so t h a t t h e adhesive wear a c t i o n extended t o t h e ( s o f t ) base m a t e r i a l . I t s h o u l d be mentioned t h a t t h e adhesive wear r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e b o r i d e d c o a t i n g , which a l s o shows a r e l a t i v e l y p o o r b e h a v i o u r a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 8.11, i s markedly improved i f oxygen i s a v a i l a b l e . I n t h i s case, t h e adhesive wear r e s i s t a n c e of b o r i d e d s t e e l i s c l e a r l y b e t t e r t h a n t h a t o f case-hardened s t e e l . I n c o n t r a s t , i n t h e abrasive-wear s i t u a t i o n , t h e b e s t w e a r - r e s i s t a n t b e h a v i o u r i s f o u n d f o r t h e vanadized s u r f a c e c o a t i n g . As d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n
4.4.3,
m a t e r i a l s and t h e a b r a s i v e . Since corundum, which was used as an a b r a s i v e 2 (hardness HV = 17000 N/mm ), i s c o n s i d e r a b l e h a r d e r than b o t h t h e case-hardened s t e e l ( A ) and t h e n i t r i d e d s t e e l ( B ) , b o t h m a t e r i a l s ( A ) ,
(B) are i n the
1. n i t r i d i n g 2. case h a r d e n i n g 3. b o r i d i ng
4. v a n a d i z i n g
( i i ) a b r a s i v e wear r e s i s t a n c e
:
1. v a n a d i z i n g 2. b o r i d i n g
3. case h a r d e n i n g
4. n i t r i d i n g
326
(d) FOLLOW-UP
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y c o n f i r m t h a t f o r a p r e - c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e wear b e h a v i o u r o f s u r f a c e c o a t i n g s besides t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s t h e dominating wear mechanism must be known. I t f o l l o w s t h a t d i f f e r e n t s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s may be suggested t o be used i n d i f f e r e n t t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g appl ic a t i o n s . F o r example, f o r t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f severe adhesive wear ( o r s c u f f i n g ) o f gears, n i t r i d i n g may be s u i t a b l e whereas f o r t h e m i t i g a t i o n o f a b r a s i v e wear a t t a c k , as i n dredge pumps, v a n a d i z i n g may be b e s t .
8 , 5 , 3 MATERIAL
(a) PROBLEM
S E L E C T I O N F O R OFF-SHORE B E A R I N G A P P L I C A T I O N
mm /Nm. Because
o f s t r e n g t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e wear r a t e o f t h e j o u r n a l i s t o be s m a l l e r
*
APPROACH
The t r i b o l o g i c a l systems parameters which have t o be taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e m a t e r i a l - s e l e c t i o n process can be seen from t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l d a t a sheet o f a j o u r n a l b e a r i n g , F i g u r e 8.6. F o r m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n a simul a t i v e t r i b o - t e s t i n g procedure w i t h a p i n - a n d - r i n g t e s t r i g was a p p l i e d . A diagrammatic p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h i s r i g i s shown i n F i g u r e 8.13. The specimen assembly c o n s i s t s o f a p i n (1) and a r i n g ( 2 ) . The p i n , made f r o m t h e beari n g m a t e r i a l t o be t e s t e d , i s pressed under a known normal f o r c e a g a i n s t t h e curved s u r f a c e o f t h e r o t a t i n g r i n g , made f r o m t h e j o u r n a l m a t e r i a l t o be t e s t e d . The c o n t a c t s u r f a c e o f t h e p i n i s preshaped t o f i t t h e r a d i u s o f c u r v a t u r e o f t h e r i n g . Diameter r i n g : 50 mm; dimensions p i n ( r e c t a n g u l a r cross s e c t i o n ) :
were surrounded by a box, f i l l e d w i t h a r t i f i c i a l sea water o f 2loC. The specimens were c o m p l e t e l y submerged.
327
I I I
I ,'
1.
I
lever
-L pressurized air
F i g u r e 8.13
Diagrammatic p r e s e n t a t i o n o f p i n - a n d - r i n g t e s t r i g .
(N)
3.85
4.0
10'
lo7
v = 0.05
Total s l i d i n g
__-__
18
Journal diameter 0.42 m Seawater ( 5 - 3 5 ' ~ ) Ring d i a m e t e r 50 mm P i n cross section 12 x 8 mm A r t i f i c i a l seawater (21OC)
I
I
Table 8.4
C o n d i t i o n s i n p r a c t i c e and i n s i m u l a t i v e t r i b o - t e s t i n g .
328 ( i ) O pera t in g v a r i a b l e s :
peri ment d u r a t i o n t = 100 h r s , t h e t o t a l s l i d i n g d i s t a n c e s i n one e x p e r i ment was 100 x 3600 x 0.05 x 0.001 = 18 km. Table 8.4 compares t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n p r a c t i c e w i t h those i n s i m u l a t i v e t e s t i n g . I t can be seen t h a t t h e r e a r e some d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e pract i c a l s i t u a t i o n and t h e t e s t s i t u a t i o n , a s s o c i a t ed w i t h FN, v and s . As t o FN, t h e c h oic e o f a much l o w e r v a l u e i n l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g was j u s t i f i e d p r i m a r i l y by c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t by e q u a l i z i n g t h e pressure p, t h e amount o f deformation i n v o l v e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y t e s t w i l l be equal t o t h a t i n pract i c e . As t o v, t h e r e a s o n i n g was t h a t t h e main e f f e c t o f an i n c r e a s e i n v i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e temperature i n t h e c o n j u n c t i o n area due t o f r i c t i o n a l hea t in g. Although t h i s w i l l c e r t a i n l y be t h e case i n t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n , even a t v = 0.05 m/s t h e above temperature r i s e was so l o w ( o r d e r o f magn i t u d e : a few degrees K) t h a t i t c o u l d p r o b a b l y be n e g l e c t e d ( n o t e t h a t t h e sea-water p r e s e n t i n p r a c t i c e as w e l l as i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y t e s t c o o l s t h e r u b b i n g s urf ac es q u i t e e f f e c t i v e l y ) . As r e g a r d s s , t h e acceptance o f 18 km i n s t e a d o f 1000 km was based on t h e assumption t h a t t h e wear process would r a p i d l y re ac h a s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n . Again, by v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t t h a t thermal e f f e c t s a r e v i r t u a l l y n e g l i g i b l e , t h i s assumption seemed r e a l i s t i c . (ii)a t e r i a l s M M a t e r i a l s f o r p i n and r i n g were p r e s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f a number o f n o n - t r i b o l o g i c a l c r i t e r i a , f o r i n s t a n c e , r e s i s t a n c e t o sea-water c o r r o s i o n and p r i c e , as w e l l as t r i b o - t e c h n i c a l e x p e r i e n ce and handbook data. Event u a l l y i t was decided t o make t h e t e s t specimens f rom t h e m a t e r i a l s desc r i b e d i n Table 8.5. Because o f r e s t r i c t e d time, o n l y a l i m i t e d number o f combinations o f p i n and r i n g m a t e r i a l s was t e s ted.
(c)
RESULTS
A summary o f r e s u l t s i s g i v e n i n Table 8.6. T h i s shows t h a t , f rom t h e two bronzes w i t h MoS2, t y p e ( a ) d i d n o t come up t o e x p e c t a t i o n s . However t y p e (b), combined w i t h r i n g m a t e r i a l s ( C ) and (E), met t h e requirements as r e gards wear r a t e . However, even w i t h m a t e r i a l ( b ) t h e r i n g s were s l i g h t l y damaged, see F i g u r e 8.14. Combinations o f d i f f e r e n t c o b a l t - t y p e a l l o y s ,
329
i.e., m a t e r i a l combinations (cD), (cE), ( c F ) and (dF), were s u c c e s s f u l as
f a r as t h e wear r a t e o f t h e p i n ( b u s h i n g ) m a t e r i a l was concerned. However, i n a l l cases an u n a c c e p t a b l y h i g h wear r a t e o f t h e r i n g s was observed, r a n g i n g from 0.5 u n i t s f o r c o m b i n a t i o n ( c F ) t o 1.5 u n i t s f o r c o m b i n a t i o n ( d F ) .
M a t e r i a1 Pin (bushing)
Code
Type
Hardness 1eve1
(lo7 N I ~ )
c a s t bronze w i t h MoS2 150-250
.------C
(1)
e f 9 h
cobal t-chromium a l l o y s
I -
__--__-_
---30-40
500 - 600
phenolic r e s i n s
fillers
t solid lubricant
Ring (journal)
A B
C
Cr-Ni a l l o y
-----
_--
Cu-Ni a l l o y
Fe-Ni a l l o y
----_
200
(2)
Table 8.5
Types o f p r e s e l e c t e d m a t e r i a l s .
F i g u r e .8.15. (d)
FOLLOW-UP
330
F i g u r e 8.14
F i g u r e 8.15
331
ing distance: 25 km). The r e s u l t s f u l l y corroborate the pin and r i n g res u l t s and thus j u s t i f y in r e t r o s p e c t the choice of t h e t e s t conditions i n the laboratory tests.
KI ( ~ o - ~ ~ ~ / N ~ )
ring
(A) (6)
pin Cr-Ni Cu-Ni Fe-Ni Co-Cr Co-Cr Co-Cr alloy alloy alloy alloy allov all&
10
9
7
(C) (D)
fEl (Fj
6 10 6
3 3
0.1
< 0.1
< 0.1
(C) (E)
(F)
5
0.4 0.5 0.1
0.4
(d) cobal t-chromium a l l o y (e) phenolic r e s i n s t f i l l e r s t solid lubricant (f) phenolic resins + f i l l e r s t solid lubricant phenolic resins + f i l l e r s t solid lubricant (h) phenolic r e s i n s t f i l l e r s t solid lubricant
(9)
(F)
(A) (B)
(B)
4 2
3
eo.1
(B)
Cu-Ni a l l o y
co.1
(8)
Cu-Ni a l l o y
< 0.1
Table 8.6
Summary of r e s u l t s of pin and ring t e s t i n g . (Note t h a t each f i g u r e given i s the highest f i g u r e found in t r ipl ica t e t e s t i n g )
332
8 , 5 , 4 LUBR CANT
(a) PROBLEM
SELECTION FOR
A couple o f l u b r i c a n t s ( m i n e r a l o i l s ) were p r e s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f
c r i t e r i a l i k e p r i c e , chemical c o n s t i t u t i o n , ageing b e h a v i o u r and v i s c o s i t y ( v i s c o s i t y range a t room temperature: 100-300 mPas). I n T a b l e 8.7 some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the preselected l u b r i c a n t s are l i s t e d . L u b r i c a n t s (A) and (B) a r e t h e p r a c t i c a l l y proven s p e c i a l l u b r i c a n t s , and l u b r i c a n t s ( C )
( F ) a r e p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e s f o r t h e replacement. The
f i g u r e s CA, CN, Cp c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e percentage o f carbon atoms i n a r o m a t i c groups, naphthenic groups o r p a r a f f i n i c groups, r e s p e c t i v e l y . (For a desc r i p t i o n o f these terms see S e c t i o n 4.5.5.) The t r i b o l o g i c a l performance o f t h e p r a c t i c a l l y proven and t h e presel e c t e d l u b r i c a n t s was t e s t e d by s i m u l a t i n g t h e behaviour o f t h e p i v o t beari n g i n laboratory t e s t s using t h e i d e n t i c a l steel-sapphire bearing materials and a d j u s t i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n a l t e s t v a r i a b l e s t o t h a t o f t h e p r a c t i c a l b e a r i n g system. The v a r i a b l e s r e l e v a n t f o r s i m u l a t i v e t r i b o - t e s t i n g have been checked w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l systems d a t a sheet, see F i g u r e 8.5.
333
Lubricant
Dens i &y a t 20 C
%CA
%CN
%CP
9
8
20 21 34 38 30 31
71 71 62 60 64 63
4 2 6 6
0.896
0.895
Table 8.7
Load FN ( N )
-~
2.6 2 . 1 . lo9 22 54 25
I
I
~-.______
(4) q F N
Geometry
r
Components o f the systems
(1) AISI 52100 s t e e l ball E = 2 . 107 N/cm 2 H v = 8000 N/mm 2 Ra = 0.02 pm ( 2 ) sapphire E = 5 l o 7 N/cm2 Ra = 0.02 pm ( 3 ) l u b r i c a n t ( s e e Table 8 . 7 )
334
(c)
RESULTS
The f u n c t i o n a l performance o f t h e p i v o t b e a r i n g i s determined m a i n l y by boundary l u b r i c a t i o n a t t h e s t e e l - s a p p h i r e i n t e r f a c e and t h e l i m i t s o f p r o p e r f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r a r e reached i f t h e amount o f wear o f t h e p i v o t reaches a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l l i m i t . Thus, t h e wear c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h e p i v o t served as t h e u l t i m a t e l u b r i c a n t s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i o n . I n T a b l e 8.9, t h e measured wear c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e v a r i o u s systems s t u d i e d a r e compiled.
L u b r i c a n t used
p r a c t i c a l l y proven special l u b r i c a n t s
2.9
I
Table 8.9
1.5
l u b r i c a n t s t o be used
t------8.9
8.2
(A),
( 6 ) a r e r e p l a c e d by one o f t h e l u b r i c a n t s ( C )
( F ) . Moreover, f r o m t h e
d a t a o f Table 8.8,
h a v i o u r o f t h e p i v o t b e a r i n g may be o b t a i n e d by u s i n g one o f t h e l u b r i c a n t s
(C) - ( F ) .
(d) FOLLOW-UP
On t h e b a s i s o f t h e above r e s u l t s i t was suggested t h a t t h e s p e c i a l (and expensive) l u b r i c a n t s ( A ) and ( 5 ) s h o u l d be r e p l a c e d by t h e l u b r i c a n t ( E ) . T h i s has been done i n p r a c t i c e and o v e r a p e r i o d o f t h r e e y e a r s ( d u r i n g which t h e p r o p e r f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e p i v o t b e a r i n g s has been checked) a s a t i s f a c t o r y f u n c t i o n a l performance o f t h e p i v o t b e a r i n g was observed.
335
8,5,5
(a)
REDUCTION
PROBLEM
Cam and t a p p e t combinations ( p a r t s o f t e x t i l e machinery) which f u n c t i o n a t i r r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s t o t r a n s m i t motion, s u f f e r f r o m severe adhesive wear, f r e q u e n t l y w i t h i n 1 month a f t e r p u t t i n g i n t o use. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s were f o r m u l a t e d : (i)
decreases a g a i n t o 0 i n a n o t h e r 4 s . Thus, a f u l l c o n t a c t c y c l e r e q u i r e s
9 s . The problem i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be s o l v e d i f t h e cam can p e r f o r m 15000
37.5 h r s . ( b ) APPROACH
Since, f r o m a systems p o i n t o f view, wear o f a g i v e n t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g system i s a f u n c t i o n o f b o t h t h e o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s , X, and t h e s y s t e m ' s s t r u c t u r e , S, i . e . , wear
=
f (X, S),
( I ) Changing o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s ,
X) :
decrease o f FNmax
336
r a d i i rl o f 1.5,
s t e e l . P r i o r t o use, t h e specimens were t r e a t e d i n a manganese-phosphating b a t h s i m i l a r t o t h e one used i n p r a c t i c e . D u r i n g t e s t , t h e specimen assemb l y was c o m p l e t e l y immersed i n 20W30 o i l of,50C. t h e r i n g s was a d j u s t e d a t 200 rev./min, f r i c t i o n i n t e r f a c e o f 0.8 m/s. The speed o f r o t a t i o n o f which y i e l d e d a l i n e a r speed i n t h e
Load F N ( t )
(N)
Velocitv v
h/s 1
0.8
Tribo-element (1) (stationary pin) Material Dimensions (mm) Hardness (Rockwell C) Surface treatment steel 15 CrNi6 radii 1,5; 5; 11 62 manganese-i r o n phosphate
Lubricant (3)
Atmosphere (4)
o i1 SAE 20W30
air
I !Peter 1 1 - 4
62
manganese-i r a n phosphate
Table 8.10
C o n d i t i o n s o f wear t e s t .
337 D u r i n g a t e s t t h e normal f o r c e FN-time c h a r a c t e r i s t i c was s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n p r a c t i c e , i . e . b u i l d up o f FN f r o m 0 t o maximum v a l u e i n 45, cons t a n t l e v e l FN = Fmax d u r i n g I s , f o l l o w e d by decrease t o 0 N i n a n o t h e r 4s. C o n t r a r y t o p r a c t i c e , however, t h e l o a d c y c l e s f o l l o w e d i n immediate succ e s s i o n , 15000 c y c l e s t h u s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a t e s t i n g t i m e o f 37.5 h r s . I n Table 8.10 t h e s i m u l a t i v e t e s t c o n d i t i o n s a r e l i s t e d . ( c ) RESULTS
___
endurance
r
FN
(N)
PHertz
w i t h MoS2
m in
w i t h o u t MoS2
(mm) 1.5
(10 N/m2)
hrs
hrs
> 2400
90
0 0
> 40 1.5
40
>40 25 2 > 40 17
> 40 20 1
> 2400
3000 4000 457 1010 0 0
> 40 16
Table 8.11
Results o f t r i b o - t e s t i n g . time t o
i n c r e a s i n g l y l o n g endurances were found. M i c r o s c o p i c o b s e r v a t i o n d i r e c t l y b e f o r e and a f t e r f a i l u r e i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e occurrence o f adhesive-wear e f f e c t s was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f a i l u r e o f t h e phosphate f i l m . Table 8.11 shows t h a t t h e presence o f a resin-bonded MoS2 f i l m , although d i s c e r n i b l e , has o n l y l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on t h e endurance o f t h e phosp h a t e f i l m . I n a d d i t i o n a l experiments i t has been shown t h a t t h i s i s due t o t h e 20W30 o i l r a p i d l y d i s s o l v i n g t h e r e s i n , thus d e s t r o y i n g t h e cohesive i n t e g r i t y o f t h e s o l i d l u b r i c a n t f i l m . Under c o n d i t i o n s o f d r y r u b b i n g , a resin-bonded MoS2 f i l m p r o t e c t s phosphated s u r f a c e s q u i t e e f f e c t i v e l y , b u t i n t h e p r e s e n t case t h i s i s o f no p r a c t i c a l v a l u e .
Clearly, f a i l u r e of the phosphate film is pressure-dependent rather t h a n force-dependent. Further, the results show t h a t the endurance i s more than 40 hrs a t pHertz G 230 107 N/m 2 A t r = 5, t o reach t h i s pHertz value would require a d r a s t i c decrease i n normal force, i.e. from 500 N t o some 150 N. Thus i t was recommended t o increase the radius of curvature of the cam t o 11 m instead.
(d)
FOLLOW-UP
Since performing the experiments, the radius of the cam has indeed been increased, i.e. t o 10.5 mm. Since then, severe adhesive wear has n o t been reported for a period which now amounts t o approximately 1 Year.
8,5,6
REDUCTION
OF FRICTION-INDUCEDNOISE OF
WHEEL/RA I L
SYSTEM
( a ) PROBLEM
110
100
h
B 90
w
01
.r
80
70
1 2 Frequency (kHz)
15
Figure 8.16
339
City t r a i n s running through narrow curves o f t e n produce a p e n e t r a t i n g
squealing n o i s e which reach n o i s e l e v e l s up t o 120 db a t frequencies ranges from 4000 t o 8000 Hz. As a t y p i c a l example i n F i g u r e 8.16, a n o i s e diagram i s shown measured i n s i x runs o f a c a r r i a g e running through a curve o f 193111 radius. The causes o f f r i c t i o n - i n d u c e d n o i s e generation are t o be s t u d i e d and methods f o r n o i s e r e d u c t i o n a r e t o be suggested. (b) APPROACH
( I ) Operating v a r i a b l e s , ( X ) :
Load (weight o f c a r r i a g e p l u s passengers) Speed ( t r a i n speed, transverse s l i p speed) Temperature (depending on season)
(11) System's s t r u c t u r e , S = ( A, P, R ]
{ A ) Elements: ( 1 ) Type o f wheel ( 2 ) Type o f r a i l
( 3 ) Envi ronmental atmosphere
340
[P]
P r o p e r t i e s o f elements:
{ R)
C l e a r l y , t h e parameters ( I ) and a l s o most o f t h e parameters (11) a r e f i x e d f o r a g i v e n commercial w h e e l - r a i l - t r a i n system. T h e r e f o r e , s i n c e changes i n d e s i g n cannot be made, an a t t e m p t must be made t o i n f l u e n c e d i r e c t l y t h e i n t e r f a c i a l t r i b o l o g i c a l processes ( R ) which a r e t h e o r i g i n o f t h e n o i s e generation. E m p i r i c a l l y , i t was found t h a t i f c e r t a i n phosphate s o l u t i o n s a r e sprayed on t h e r a i l s , t h e n o i s e vanished. T h e o r e t i c a l l y , f r o m t h e analogue computer s t u d i e s o f s t i c k - s l i p e f f e c t s (see S e c t i o n 6.2.2),
i t follows that
t h e s t i c k - s l i p e f f e c t s depend on t h e f r i c t i o n - v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t . I n o r d e r t o c l a r i f y t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f r e l i e f o f s t i c k - s l i p - i n d u c e d n o i s e and t o o p t i mize t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f an a p p r o p r i a t e s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e r a i l s , s t i c k s l i p s t u d i e s i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y were made (Ref. 8.14). F o r these s t u d i e s , a p i n - o n - d i s c and a b a l l - o n - d i s c t r i b o m e t e r were used. The t e s t s were p e r formed w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l wheel - r a i 1 m a t e r i a l s under o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n p r a c t i c e ( , = 5 0 . 107N/m 2 ; v = 2 - 20 cm/s). p (c) RESULTS
The e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s show t h a t t h e s t i c k - s l i p e f f e c t s a r e markedly i n f l u enced by d i f f e r e n t phosphate t r e a t m e n t s o f t h e s u r f a c e s . I t was found t h a t t h r o u g h t h e s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t , t h e s t a t i c f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f, i s s l i g h t l y decreased and t h e dynamic f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t fd i s c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e d ,
so t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e A f = fS
fd i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y zero. T h e r e f o r e , t h e
requirement f o r v a n i s h i n g s t i c k - s l i p e f f e c t s i s g i v e n (see S e c t i o n 6.2.2). Indeed, i t has been found t h a t under these c o n d i t i o n s t h e s t i c k - s l i p a m p l i t u d e i s d r a s t i c a l l y reduced. A t y p i c a l r e s u l t o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t on t h e s t i c k - s l i p b e h a v i o u r i s shown i n F i g u r e 8.17. (d) FOLLOW-UP
341
t h i s solution, a satisfactory reduction o f the stick-slip-induced noise o f t h e p r a c t i c a l dheel r a i l system was o b t a i n e d .
dry sliding
fstatic fdynami c
0.42 = o.39
=
w i t h surface treatment
/
Time F i g u r e 8.17 I n f l u e n c e o f s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t on s t i c k - s l i p b e h a v i o u r .
8 , 5 , 7 FAILURE
(a) PROBLEM
INVESTIGATION
OF ELECTRICAL
CONTACTS
E l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t s i n t e l e p h o n e exchange u n i t s show sudden, i n e x p l i c a b l e f a i l u r e s due t o severe a d h e s i v e wear e f f e c t s . There i s some i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a t low r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y ( u n i t s l o c a t e d i n d e s e r t c o u n t r y ) t h e f a i l u r e r a t e i s h i g h e r t h a n elsewhere. The causes o f f a i l u r e a r e t o be s t u d i e d and methods f o r a v o i d i n g f a i l u r e a r e t o be suggested.
342
(b)
APPROACH
(ice
S e c t i o n 6.4).
Checking t h e p o t e n t i a l i n f l u e n c e o f t h e v a r i -
(see F i g u r e 8 . 5 ) , i t appears t h a t t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t s i s due t o a breakdown o f " p r o t e c t i v e " s u r f a c e l a y e r s i n f l u e n c e d d i f f e r e n t l y by c o n t a c t l o a d FN and atmospheric h u m i d i t y R.H. f o r various contact-material combinations. I n o r d e r t o s t u d y these f i n d i n g s f u r t h e r , l a b o r a t o r y f a i l u r e t e s t s w i t h v a r i o u s c o n t a c t m a t e r i a l s were performed w i t h a p i n - o n - d i s c t r i bometer. I n Table 8.12 t h e f a i l u r e t e s t c o n d i t i o n s a r e l i s t e d . ( F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s see Ref. 8.15).
sliding 0.01
0.2
18 - 1 t up t o 72
Operating duration ( h )
C o n t a c t element ( 2 ) (rotating pin) 99.9 CU, 85 Cu, 15 Zn, 90 Cu, 9.5 Sn, 0.5P, 55 Cu, 18 N i , 27 Zn 75 air r e 1 humi dity: 0-100%
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
__
(%)
100
< 1
Table 8.12
Conditions o f f a i l u r e tests.
343
(c)
RESULTS
be-
a t a c r i t i c a l value o f r e l a t i v e humidity. This c r i t i c a l value i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e a l l o y composition, p r o b a b l y b e i n g determined by t h e w a t e r a d s o r p t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t surface oxides. The analyses c l e a r l y show t h a t t h e p r o p e r f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t system i s c r i t i c a l l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y
344
I
Relative humidity
(%I
1
10 15 40 60 20 30 40 50 60 70
Wear r a t e o f Ag-Au-Cu p i n
um/h 1
e 0.01
Incubation time ( h)
coefficient of friction f
> 72 72
60
c: 0.01
* :
0.01
< 0.01
42 50 62
0.6 0.6
0.6
0.6-0.5
0.5 0.5
Table 8.13
R.H.
(%I
0
C r i t i c 1 load
(lo-? N)
8
8 8 8 40 40
20 40 50 60
10 10
10
10
50 50
80
Table 8.14
Table 8.15
345
by a p r o p e r t y o f the element ( 3 ) o f
Some telephone exchange u n i t s , o p e r a t i n g i n extremely d r y environments, were provided w i t h a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g . This ( r a t h e r expensive) s o l u t i o n proved t o be e n t i r e l y s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . I n o t h e r cases, g o l d p l a t i n g o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l contacts ( a l s o expensive) e f f e c t i v e l y e l i m i n a t e d t h e problem. (With g o l d p l a t e d contacts, adhesive m a t e r i a l t r a n s f e r always occurs; however formation o f loose wear p a r t i c l e s i s a r e l a t i v e l y r a r e e v e n t . ) F i n a l l y , i n r e p l a c i n g exchange u n i t s w i t h mechanical contacts by f u l l y e l e c t r o n i c u n i t s , precedence was given t o r e p l a c e u n i t s , o p e r a t i n g i n extremely d r y environments.
8,5,8 COMPILATIONOF
PROCESSES
(a)
CHARACTERISTICSOF METAL-WORKING
PROBLEM
An important area o f t r i b o l o g y which has n o t been t r e a t e d e x p l i c i t l y i n t h i s volume so f a r concerns t h e t r i b o l o g y o f manufacturing processes. Also i n t h i s f i e l d , progress i s p o s s i b l e o n l y through a b e t t e r understanding o f the g r e a t number o f c o n t r o l l i n g v a r i a b l e s . While i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o ent e r i n t o d e t a i l s o f t h i s f i e l d w i t h i n the scope o f t h i s volume, a t l e a s t a b r i e f o v e r a l l view o f i t s main "systems parameters" should be attempted here. (b) APPROACH
c r i b e d i n Chapter 4, i.e.,
cesses, a c t a l l a t t h e workpiece-tool i n t e r f a c e . I n manufacturing, t h e trib o l o g i c a l processes p l a y a "dual" r o l e : (i) O one hand, t r i b o l o g i c a l processes i n f l u e n c e d i r e c t l y the surface n p r o p e r t i e s o f the manufactured workpiece. Thus, t r i b o l o g i c a l processes determine t o a g r e a t e x t e n t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e manufactured workpiece, i.e., t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e "use-output" o f t h e manufacturing system.
346
( i i ) On t h e o t h e r hand, t r i b o l o g i c a l processes a t t h e w o r k p i e c e - t o o l i n t e r f a c e a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t o o l - w e a r and t o o l - w o r k p i e c e f r i c t i o n . Thus, as i n any t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g system, t r i b o l o g i c a l processes a r e a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e , o f course, f o r t h e energy and m a t e r i a l " l o s s - o u t p u t s " o f t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g system. M a n u f a c t u r i n g processes can be c l a s s i f i e d b r o a d l y i n two groups: " c u t t i n g " o r "machining" processes, and " f o r m i n g " processes. I n machining, m a t e r i a l i s removed f r o m a c r u d e p i e c e o f s t o c k t o l e a v e b e h i n d a p r e c i s i o n - s h a p e d u s e f u l p a r t . M a n u f a c t u r i n g by t h i s method i s , however, w a s t e f u l o f m a t e r i a l ; sometimes as much as 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e o r i g i n a l m a t e r i a l i s removed and d i s c a r d e d i n t h e process. I n f u t u r e , such waste may become i n t o l e r a b l e as a consequence o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g e f f o r t s o f c o n s e r v a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s . Thus, t h e u l t i m a t e method o f manufacture i n t h e f u t u r e w i l l be " c o n s o l i d a t i v e processing"
a c o n t r o l l e d p r e c i s e manner (Ref. 8.16). One o f t h e m a j o r areas o f c o n s o l i d a t i v e m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes i s t h e f i e l d o f m e t a l - w o r k i n g processes. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , t h e main systems parameters r e l e v a n t t o t h e t r i b o l o g y o f met a l - w o r k i n g processes w i l l be s t u d i e d i n b r i e f . (c) RESULTS
l i s h e d by Schey i n 1970 (Ref. 8 . 1 7 ) . F u r t h e r r e v i e w s o f t h e o v e r a l l f i e l d o r s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n t aspects can be found i n Refs 8.18 t o 8.22. b a s i s o f t h i s work t h e main systems parameters o f t h e t r i b o l o g y o f m e t a l w o r k i n g processes a r e compiled w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l systems d a t a sheet (see F i g u r e 8.5), the following compilation results:
1.
T e c h n i c a l f u n c t i o n o f m e t a l - w o r k i n g systems Forming o f m a t e r i a l s t h r o u g h :
11.
O p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s o f m e t a l - w o r k i n g process
341
111.
(1) (2)
(3)
(4)
(b)
P r o p e r t i e s o f m e t a l - w o r k i n g components
(3)
(4)
and 1 - p - b e h a v i o u r , - q - s t r a i n o r v e l o c i t y dependence
Atmosphere: c o m p o s i t i o n , h u m i d i t y
(c)
T r i b o l o g i c a l processes a t t h e w o r k p i e c e - t o o l i n t e r f a c e
c o n t a c t d e f o r m a t i o n processes: t y p e , s t a t e o f s t r e s s and s t r a i n , s t a t e o f deformation adhesion and t r i b o c h e m i c a l processes f r i c t i o n processes wear processes, w i t h r e s p e c t t o (1) workpiece and ( 2 ) d i e l u b r i c a t i o n modes
IV.
T r i b o l o g i c a l "loss-output'' c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s g e n e r a l c o m p i l a t i o n o f e f f e c t s and parameters o f t h e t r i b o l o g y o f m e t a l - w o r k i n g processes, t y p i c a l ranges o f t h e b a s i c o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s o f p r e s s u r e , p r o d u c t speed and temperature a r e o u t l i n e d i n T a b l e 8.16 f o r t h e main m e t a l - w o r k i n g processes.
348
Basic operating variables M e t a l w o r k i n g process temperature
(OC)
. .
0.0005 ( b a r and t u b e )
. . .20
...1
ieavier wire)
, ,15-30 fine wire)
i 4 \ a tmos uhere
Pressing
,
.80
0.02-0.5
I
Forgi
+
0.02-0.2 30- 130 ( h y d r . presse:
. . .10
(hammers)
500-600 (warm )
.1200 (hot forging)
..
Extrusion 100-200
0.05
( I' h o t s h o t I' )
0.5-5
Table 8.16
Some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m e t a l - w o r k i n g processes.
349
(d)
FOLLOW-UP
Clearly, t h e given compilation o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f metal -working processes m u s t be s p e c i f i e d and e x t e n d e d f o r a g i v e n a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n . However, t h e s y s t e m a t i c c o m p i l a t i o n o u t l i n e d i n b r i e f may b e u s e d f o r p u r p o s e s o f m a t e r i a l and l u b r i c a n t s e l e c t i o n as w e l l as a framework f o r r e p o r t i n g e x perimental variables o r performing simulative t r i b o - t e s t i n g o f metal-working processes.
350
Using t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , a c o m p i l a t i o n o f b a s i c t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems o f technology and b i o l o g y i s g i v e n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g . Most o f t h e t r i b o systems named can be a d d i t i o n a l l y c l a s s i f i e d . F o r example, t h e group o f " s l i d i n g b e a r i n g s " can be c l a s s i f i e d f u r t h e r i n t o j o u r n a l b e a r i n g s , t h r u s t bearings, dry bearings, f l u i d bearings, etc., o r t h e group o f "human j o i n t s " can be c l a s s i f i e d f u r t h e r i n t o h i p j o i n t s , knee j o i n t s , e t c . While n o t c l a i m i n g t o be complete, t h i s l i s t i n g shows t h e e x t r e m e l y wide r e l e v a n c e o f t h e t r i b o l o g y o f mechanical systems. I t s h o u l d be emphasized t h a t t h e sys-
361
terns l i s t e d below are the basic, i.e., t h e " s i m p l e s t " , tribo-mechanical
i.e.,
I
t
Primary t e c h n i c a l f u n c t i o n
( a l ) Guidance o r transmission o f
I S1 i d i n g bearings
B a l l and r o l l e r bearings Needle bearings P i v o t bearings Gyros cop ic bea r in gs Guides S1 ideways Ball-and-screw mechanisms Spindles Hinges Engineering j o i n t s Human and animal j o i n t s Shoe ( o r f o o t ) on ground
4
MOTION
F1anges Gear couplings Splines Cone clutches Disc clutches Band clutches Block brakes Band brakes Disc brakes Fastener sets Bol t sets F r i c t i o n dampers
~
(a3) A n n i h i l a t i o n o f MOTION
(b)
Rack-and-pinions Spur gears Bevel gears Hypoid gears P l a n e t a r y gears Worm gears Power screws Chain d r i v e s Be1t d r i v e s Rope d r i v e s Crank d r i v e s Cam d r i v e s Actuators F r i c t i o n drives Hydraulic drives
352
Primary technical f u n c t i o n
( c l ) Generation o f INFORMATION
C1ock-works Cam-and-fol lowers E l e c t r i c a l contacts Switches Re 1ays Printing units Typewriter u n i t s Writing units Tape-recorder heads S1 i p - r i n g assemblies Audio pick-ups Video pick-ups Wheel and r a i l Tyre and road Pipe1 ines Conveyors Earth movement u n i t s Human and animal veins Seals Valves Packings Washers Piston-cyl inder assemblies Drawing Deep drawing Pressing Extrusion Forging
( d l ) Transportation o f MATERIALS
( e l ) Forming o f MATERIALS
Rolling
Casting I n j e c t i o n moulding Spinning Weaving
~~~ ~
363
Primary technical f u n c t i o n
Tribo-engineering system ( o r tribo-engineering processes Cutting Punching Sawing Filing Turning Shaping and Planing Boring D r i 11i n g Grinding Abrasive c u t t i n g Chipless c u t t i n g Lapping Polishing B1a s t i n g Brushing
Suppl ement ing remark: The compilation o f basic tribo-engineering systems shows t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y o f mechanical systems i n which f r i c t i o n , l u b r i c a t i o n , and wear processes occur. While i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o deal w i t h s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s o f the i n d i vidual tribo-engineering systems w i t h i n t h e scope o f t h i s volume, the trib o l o g i c a l fundamentals r e l e v a n t t o the various mechanical systems are presented i n t h e preceding chapters under the headings:
Contact processes, Section 4.2, page 47 F r i c t i o n processes, Section 4.3, page 69 --Wear processes, Section 4.4, page 97 L u b r i c a t i o n modes, Section 4.5, page 130 The influences o f f r i c t i o n and wear processes on mechanical engineering systems are discussed i n general t e n s under t h e headings: S t r u c t u r a l aspects : -D Surface topography changes, Section 5.2.1, page 179 Surface composition changes, Section 5.2.2, page ,186 L Surface s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s changes, Section 5.2.3, page 191 Solutions f o r no-wear conditions, Section 5.4, page 199 Functional aspects:
Dynamic behaviour, Section 6.2.1, page 215 S t i c k - s l i p e f f e c t s , Section 6.2.2, page 218 -- E f f i c i e n c y , Section 6.3, page 221 F a i l u r e and safety, Section 6.4, page 227 R e l i a b i l i t y , Section 6.5, page 234 Machinery c o n d i t i o n monitoring, Section 7.5, page 277 ----c Requirements f o r proper f u n c t i o n a l behaviour, Section 6.6,
page 240
354
(A)
356
1
Surrounding medium
Interfacial medi um
(3)
(4)
(all S l i d i n g bearing Human h i p j o i n t (a21 Band c l u t c h Spline (a3 1 Disc brake Fastener s e t (b)
Bushing Acetabulum Band Outer s p l i n e Pad Nut Gear Be1t Fol 1ower Paper Brush Sapphire t i p Rai 1 Pipe Val ve-body Cylinder Die Die Soil Earth Cutting tool Grinding whee
Lubricant Synov ia
Air
Air Air
Air Air Air Air Air
dorm gear s e t
3el t d r i v e (cl) : m and f o l l o w e r a Printing u n i t
worm Shaft
Cam P r i nt-head
Gear o i l
Air
Cover gas Air
Air
(c2) E l e c t r i c a l contaci Ring h d i o pick-up Record idheel Fluid id2) la1 ve 'iston assembly
Contaminant
P1ug Piston r i n g
dire 3 i llet 3orer kedge Jorkpiece lorkpiece
:el) h redrawing
tot extrusion [e2) Jell d r i l l i n g lredgi ng
Cutting f l u i c Cutting f l u i o
Air
:a31
rurning kinding
Air Air
356
The l i t e r a t u r e in the f i e l d of tribology i s extremely voluminous owing t o the vast number o f topics included. For example, as mentioned already in Section 1.3, in the period 1966 t o 1977 some 55,000 papers were published i n t h i s f i e l d . An international and comprehensive bibliography i s provided by the D C M N A I N TRIBOLOGY: O U E T TO
an annual systematic bibliography of t i t l e s covering the e n t i r e f i e l d of wear, f r i c t i o n and lubrication, including l i t e r a t u r e from a l l over the world (English translations of the t i t l e s are given in brackets wherever the t i t l e s are Non-English), a comprehensive source material, also referring t o parallel publications, translations and abstract material, edited and published by the Bundesanstal t f u r Materialprufung (BAM) in Berlin (West), Germany
p r o v i d i n g d i r e c t and easy access t o required re7erences from various points of i n t e r e s t by a detailed and lpgical classification of the f i e l d , consisting o f ten main sections and more than 100 subsections, relieving the individual s c i e n t i s t o r engineer of the pains of currently scanning the l i t e r a t u r e and registering the relevant t i t l e s referring t o his/her f i e l d of i n t e r e s t , total number o f references a t present 6000-8000 t i t l e s per year, among these are:
357
m a t e r i a l s and p a i r i n g s w e a r - r e s i s t a n t coatings lubricants, lubricant testing bearings transmissions manufacturing processes, t o o l s 650 450 600 1250 250 1200
D-1000 B e r l i n 45
I n the f o l l o w i n g , a summary o f the c l a s s f i c a t i o n o f main sections and subsections of t h e
1.
2.
General, monographs, reviews Experimental methods and equipment T r i b o l o g i c a l fundamentals, f r i c t i o n and wear: laws, mechanisms, e f f e c t s
3.
3.1
Mechanical and a c o u s t i c a l phenomena Chemical , physi co-chemical and thermal phenomena E l e c t r i c a l and o p t i c a l phenomena
3.2 3.3
4. 5.
Resting and p r e l i m i n a r y displacement i n s t a t i c f r i c t i o n Sliding, including s t i c k - s l i p Rolling, r o l l i n g with s l i d i n g Spin Impact Grain s l i d i n g Fretting, f r e t t i n g corrosion Wear caused by f l o w i n g media Thermal wear, a b l a t i o n
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8 6.
M a t e r i a l s and combinations o f m a t e r i a l s ( w i t h and w i t h o u t i n t e r m e d i a t e m a t e r i a l s ) 6.1 6.2 Metals Minerals, ceramics Polymers ( p l a s t i c s and rubber) Composites ( g l a s s - f i b r e r e i n f o r c e d m a t e r i a l s , cermets, laminated m a t e r i a l s e t c . )
6.3 6.4
358
6.8
6.9
Textile materials, leather Other m a t e r i a l s and combinations o f m a t e r i a l s ( i n c l u d i n g wood, paper, shoe soles, f l o o r i n g s , g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l s , b i o l o g i c a l materials, dental m a t e r i a l s )
7.
I n f l u e n t i a l f a c t o r s and c o n t r o l parameters 7.1 M a t e r i a1 -dependent f a c t o r s 7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.9 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4 7.4 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3 7.4.4 Strength Composition, t e x t u r e , s t r u c t u r e Other material c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( i n c l u d i n g c o m p a t i b i l i t y ) Topography S u r f a c e l a y e r s (adsorbed f i l m s , o x i d e l a y e r s ) S u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t (mechanical and h e a t t r e a t m e n t ) Surface coatings M o t i o n and v e l o c i t y Shear f o r c e , l o a d Temperature Environment E l e c t r i c p o t e n t i a l , c u r r e n t passage S o l i d i n t e r m e d i a t e p a r t i c l e s , d u s t , contaminants Irradiation Geometric f a c t o r s , e f f e c t s o f d e s i g n
Surface-dependent f a c t o r s
Operating conditions
Other i n f l u e n t i a l f a c t o r s
8.
Lubrication 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 T h i c k - f i l m l u b r i c a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y hydrodynamic 1u b r i c a t i o n T h i n - f i l m l u b r i c a t i o n (boundary 1u b r i c a t i o n , e l a s t o hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n ) L u b r i c a t i o n i n s p e c i a l environments L u b r i c a t i o n a t extreme temperatures L u b r i c a t i o n under r a d i a t i o n and/or i n r e a c t o r t e c h n i q u e Extreme p r e s s u r e l u b r i c a t i o n L u b r i c a n t s , 1u b r i c a n t t e s t i n g L u b r i c a t i o n systems and methods Hygiene and m i c r o b i o l o g i c a l problems
359
9.
F i e l d s o f a p p l i c a t i o n . T e c h n i c a l designs and processes 9.0 9.1 L i f e , r e l i a b i l i t y and maintenance o f t e c h n i c a l systems Machinery and components: s e l e c t i o n and performance 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.1.3 9.1.4 9.1.5 9.1.6 9.1.7 9.1.8 9.1.9 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.2.5 9.2.6 9.3 9.4 Bearings Transmissions Couplings, c l u t c h e s and b r a k e s Seals Machines, s e t s . V e h i c l e s and v e s s e l s Wheel and r a i l T y r e and r o a d Specific industries O t h e r machine elements and p r o d u c t s Forming Chipless c u t t i n g Machining Surface f i n i s h i n g Joining Coating
M a n u f a c t u r i n g processes. T o o l s
10.
B a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n on s o l i d s u r f a c e s and c o n t a c t s 10.1 S o l i d surfaces 10.1.1 10.1.2 10.2 Morphology S t r e n g t h , s u r f a c e t e n s i o n and energy, chemical r e a c t i o n s , environmental e f f e c t s Contacts 10.2.1 10.2.2 Area o f c o n t a c t , d e f o r m a t i o n o f c o n t a c t , h e a t t r a n s f e r J o i n t c h a r a c t e r , adhesion
360
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M. Fuchsel, Ober V e r s c h l e i B b a r k e i t d e r Werkstoffe b e i trockener Reibung, Organ F o r t s c h r . Eisenbahnwes., 84( 1929) 413.
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1.36 1.37
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2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11
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CHAPTER 4
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M.H. Jones, R.I.L. Howells, and S.D. P r o b e r t , S o l i d s i n s t a t i c c o n t a c t - a review, Wear, 12(1968) 225.
J.F. Archard, S u r f a c e topography and t r i b o l o g y , T r i b o l o g y , 7(1974) 213.
D.J. Whitehouse, The measurement and a n a l y s i s o f s u r f a c e s , T r i b o l o g y , 7(1974) 249.
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43(1977) 25.
K.H. Kloos und E. Broszeit, Zur Frage der Dauerwalzfestigkeit, Z. f . Werkstofftechnik, 5(1974) 181.
M.J.W. Schouten, Der E i n f l u B elastohydrodynamischer Schmierung auf Reibung, VerschleiB und Lebensdauer von Getrieben, Schmiertechnik und Tribologie, 20( 1973) 147.
W.E. Littmann, The mechanism o f contact fatigue, i n : I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y approach t o the l u b r i c a t i o n o f concentrated contacts, NASA SP-237, Washington, 1970, p. 309. Y.P. Chiu, T.E. T a l l i a n and J . I . Mc Cool, An engineering model o f s p a l l i n g fatigue f a i l u r e i n r o l l i n g contact, I , The subsurface model, Wear, 17(1971) 433. T.E. T a l l i a n and J.I. Mc Cool, 11, The surface model, Wear, 17(1971) 447.
J . C . Tyler, R.A. Burton and P.M. Ku, Contact f a t i g u e under o s c i l l a t o r y normal load, ASLE Trans., 6(1963) 255.
4.101 N.P. Suh, The delamination theory o f wear, Wear, 25( 1973) 111. 4.102 J.P. H i r t h and D.A. Rigney, Crystal p l a s t i c i t y and the delamination theory o f wear, Wear, 39(1976) 133. 4.103 T.S. Eyre, Wear c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of metals, Tribology I n t e r n a t i o n a l , (1976) 203. 4.104 K. Wellinger und H. Uetz, GleitverschleiB. SpulverschleiD,
StrahlverschleiD u n t e r Wirkung von kornigen Stoffen, VDI-Forschungsheft 449, Beilage zu Forsch. Ing. Wes. Zl(1955) 1.
369
4.107 4.108 4.109
4.110
4.111 4.112 4.113 4.114 4.115 4.116 4.117 4.118 4.119 4.120 4.121 4.122 4.123 4.124 4.125 4.126 4.127
a review,
H.
4.128 4.129
370
4.130 4.131 D.F. Moore, P r i n c i p l e s and Applications o f Tribology, Pergamon, Oxford, 1975, p. 346. J.J. O'Connor, J. Boyd, E.A. Avallone, ( E d i t o r s ) , Standard Handbook o f L u b r i c a t i o n Engineering, McGraw-Hill , New York, 1968. L.D. Wedeven, What i s EHD?, Lubr. Engng, 31(1975) 291. F.H. Theyse, Elastohydrodynami k, Schmiertechni k, 15(1967) 15. J.W. Kannel, J.C. B e l l and C.M. Allen, Methods f o r determining pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n l u b r i c a t e d r o l l i n g contact, ASLE Trans., 8(1965) 250. see Ref. 1.7, p. 203.
4.138
H.S. Cheng and F.K. Orcutt, A c o r r e l a t i o n between the t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental r e s u l t s on the elastohydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n o f r o l l i n g and s l i d i n g contact, Proc. I. Mech. E., London, Vol. 180, P a r t 38, (1965/66) 158. A.J. Petrousevitch, D.S. Kodnir, R.G. Salukvadze, D.L. Bakashvili and V.Sh. Schwarzman, The i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f o i l f i l m thickness i n l u b r i c a t e d b a l l - r a c e r o l l i n g contact, Wear, 19(1972) 369. F.J. Westlake and A. Cameron, Optical elastohydrodynamic f l u i d t e s t i n g , ASLE Trans., 15(1972) 81.
A. Jackson, F i l m thickness i n EHL p o i n t contacts: r e v i s i o n o f Westlake and Cameron's equations, ASLE Trans., 19(1976) 48.
-
J. Tevaarwerk and K.L. Johnson, A simple non-linear c o n s t i t u t i v e equation f o r elastohydrodynamic o i l f i l m s , Wear, 35( 1975) 345. 0. Dowson, T r a n s i t i o n t o boundary l u b r i c a t i o n from elastohydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n , i n : Boundary Lubrication, (Editors: F.F. Ling, E.E. Klaus and R.S. Fein), ASME, New York, 1969, p. 229.
4.143
4.144 4.145
A. Dyson, discussion in: I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y approach t o the l u b r i c a t i o n o f concentrated contacts, NASA SP-237, Washington, 1970, p. 58. J.F. Archard, Elastohydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n o f r e a l surfaces, Tribology, 6(1973) 8. L.D. Wedeven, Traction and f i l m thickness measurements under starved elastohydrodynamic conditions, Trans. ASME, JOLT, 97( 1975) 321.
H. Munnich, E i n f l u B der Schmierung auf Lebensdauer, Reibung und VerschleiB von Walzlagern, Schmiertechnik und Tribologie, 16( 1968) 87. V.K. Ausherman, H.S. Nagaraj, D.M. Sanborn and W.O. Winer, I n f r a r e d temperature mapping i n elastohydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n , Trans. ASME, F, 98(1976) 236. L. Gumbel, Der EinfluD der Schmierung auf d i e Konstruktion, Jb. schiffbautechn. Ges., 18(1917) 299. G. Vogelpohl , Die Stribeck-Kurve a l s Kennzeichen des allgemeinen Reibungsverhaltens geschmierter GleitflPchen, VDI-Z., 96(1954) 261.
4.146
4.147
4.148 4.149
371
4.150 H. Christensen, A theory o f mixed l u b r i c a t i o n , Proc. I n s t n . Mech. Engrs, London, 186(1972) 421. 4.151 D. Berthe and M. Godet, A more general form o f Reynolds equation - a p p l i c a t i o n t o rough surfaces, Wear, 27(1974) 345. 4.152 K.L. Johnson, J.A. Greenwood and S.Y. Poon, A simple theory
o f a s p e r i t y c o n t a c t i n elastohydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n , Wear,
19(1972) 91. 4.153 T.E. T a l l i a n , The theory o f p a r t i a l elastohydrodynamic contacts, Wear, Zl(1972) 49. 4.154 E.S. Forbes, Antiwear and extreme pressure a d d i t i v e s f o r l u b r i c a n t s , Tribology, 3(1970) 145. 4.155 P. Studt, Schmieroladditive f u r hohe Flachenpressung und i h r e Wirkung, VDI-Berichte, 156(1970). 4..156 D. Godfrey., Boundary l u b r i c a t i o n , i n Ref. 4.131, Chapter 2. 4.157 D. Godfrey, .Boundary l u b r i c a t i o n , i n : I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y Approach t o F r i c t i o n and Wear, ( E d i t o r : P.M. Ku), NASA SP-181, Washington, 1968, p. 335. 4.158 J.S. Courtney-Pratt, An o p t i c a l method o f measuring the thickness o f adsorbed monolayers, Proc. Roy. SOC., London, 212(1952) 505. 4.159 R. Holm, E l e c t r i c Contacts, H. Gebers Forlag, Stockholm, 1946, p. 198. 4.160 F.P. Bowden and D. Tabor, F r i c t i o n - An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o T r i b o l o g y , Heinemann, London, 1973, p. 128. 4.161 W.E. Campbell, Boundary l u b r i c a t i o n , i n : Boundary L u b r i c a t i o n ,
( E d i t o r s : F.F. Ling, E.E. 1969, p. 87. Klaus and R.S. Fein), ASME, New York,
4.162
F.G. Rounds, I n f l u e n c e o f s t e e l composition on a d d i t i v e performance, ASLE Trans., 15(1972) 54. Fein, Chemistry i n concentrated - c o n j u n c t i o n l u b r i c a t i o n , i n : I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y Approach t o t h e L u b r i c a t i o n o f Concentrated Contacts, NASA SP-237, Washington, 1970, p . 489.
Rowe, Some aspects o f the heat o f a d s o r p t i o n i n t h e f u n c t i o n o f a boundary l u b r i c a n t , ASLE Trans., 9(1966) 100. Rowe, A r e l a t i o n between adhesive wear and heat o f adsorption f o r the vapor l u b r i c a t i o n o f graphite, ASLE Trans., lO(1967) 10.
4.166 A. Dyson, S c u f f i n g - a review, T r i b o l o g y , 8(1975) 77 and 117. 4.167 T.v. M r m i n , Ober den Mechanismus des Widerstandes, den e i n
bewegter Korper i n e i n e r F l u s s i g k e i t e r f a h r t , Nachrichten der K. Ges. d. Wissenschaften, Math-phys. Klasse, Gottingen, 1911.
4.168 G.I. Taylor, S t a b i l i t y o f a viscous l i q u i d contained between two r o t a t i n g c y l i n d e r s , Trans. Roy. SOC., London, A 223(1923) 289. 4.169 R.C. d i Prima, A note on t h e s t a b i l i t y o f f l o w i n loaded j o u r n a l bearing, ASLE Trans., 6( 1963) 249. 4.170 V.N. Constantinescu, Analysis o f bearings o p e r a t i n g i n t u r b u l e n t regime, Trans. ASME, D, 84(1962) 139. 4.171 E. Saibel, Turbulence i n l u b r i c a t i o n , i n Ref. 1.7, p. 441.
372
4.172 T.E. T a l l i a n , Y.P. Chiu, D.F. H u t t e n l o c her, J.A. Kamenshine, L.B. S i b l e y and N.E. S i n d l i n g e r , L u b r i c a n t f i l m s i n r o l l i n g c o n t a c t o f rough s u r f a c e s , ASLE Trans., 7(1964) 109. H. Czichos, Untersuchungen uber d i e V e r t e i l u n g met al1 i s c h e r und n i c h t m e t a l l i s c h e r K o n t a k t a n t e i l e b e i Mischreibung, Wear, 17(1971) 209. H. Czichos, I n f l u e n c e o f a s p e r i t y c o n t a c t c o n d i t i o n s on t h e f a i l u r e o f s l i d i n g elastohydrodynamic c o nt act s, Wear, 41(1977) 1 .
R.S. Fein, C.N. Rowe and K.L. Kreuz, T r a n s i t i o n temperatures i n s l i d i n g systems, ASLE Trans., 2(1959) 50.
4.173
R.S. Fein, O p e r a t i n g procedure e f f e c t s on c r i t i c a l temperatures, ASLE Trans., 10( 1967) 373. H. Czichos and K. Kirschke, I n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o f i l m f a i l u r e ( t r a n s i t i o n p o i n t ) o f l u b r i c a t e d c o n c e nt rat ed cont act s, Wear, 22( 1872) 321.
the
H. Czichos, T r i b o m e t r i s c h e Untersuchung d e r Versagensgrenzen von G le it rei b u n g s s y s t e m e n m i t Hertzschem Kont akt i m Mischreibungsg e b i e t , M a t e r i a l p r u f u n g , 16(1974) 32. A. Sethuramiah, H. Okabe, T. Sakurai, C r i t i c a l temperatures i n EP l u b r i c a t i o n , Wear, 26(1973) 187. M. Tomaru, S. Hironaka and T. S a k u r a i , E f f e c t s o f oxygen on t h e l o a d - c a r r y i n g a c t i o n o f some a d d i t i v e s , Wear, 41(1977) 117. M. Tomaru, S. Hironaka and T. Sakurai, E, f f ect s o f some chemical f a c t o r s on f i l m f a i l u r e under EP c o n d i t i o n s , Wear, 41(1977) 141. A. B e g e l i n g e r and A.W.J. de Gee, L u b r i c a t i o n o f s l i d i n g p o i n t the influence o f curvature, c o n t a c t s o f A I S I 52100 s t e e l Wear, 36(1976) 7.
4.187
H. Czichos, F i l m f a i l u r e o f s l i d i n g H e r t z i a n cont act s: The i n f l u e n c e o f c o n t a c t geometry, Proc. JSLE-ASLE I n t e r n a t . Lubr. Conf. Tokyo 1975, ( E d i t o r : T. S a k u r a i ) , E l s e v i e r , Amsterdam, 1976, p. 368.
CHAPTER 5
5.1 J.B.P. Williamson, J . P u l l e n and R.T. Hunt, The shape o f s o l i d surfaces, i n : S u r f a c e Mechanics ( E d i t o r F.F. Ling), The American SOC. o f Mech. Engrs, New York, 1969, p. 32. M.J. Neale ( E d i t o r ) , T r i b o l o g y Handbook, But t erwort hs, London, 1973, p. A31. K.J. S t o ut , T.G. K i n g and D.J. Whitehouse, A n a l y t i c a l techniques i n s u r f a c e topography and t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n t o a r u n n i n g - i n experiment, Wear, 43(1977) 99.
5.2 5.3
373
5.4 5.5
J.E. W i l l n , C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f c y l i n d e r b o r e s u r f a c e f i n i s h a r e v i e w o f p r o f i l e a n a l y s i s , Wear, 19(1972) 143. J.C. Campbell, C y l i n d e r b o r e s u r f a c e roughness i n i n t e r n a l combustion engines: i t s a p p r e c i a t i o n and c o n t r o l , Wear, 19( 1972) 163.
J.R. Dowd and F.T. B a r w e l l , T r i b o l o g i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n between p i s t o n and c y l i n d e r o f a model h i g h p r e s s u r e h y d r a u l i c pump, ASLE Trans., 18(1975) 21. R. g s t v i k and H. C h r i s t e n s e n , Changes i n s u r f a c e topography w i t h r u n n i n g - i n , Proc. I n s t n . Mech. Engrs, London, Vol. 183 P t 3P, (1968/69) 57.
G.W. Rowe, S u r f a c e t o p o g r a p h i c changes a t breakdown o f t h i n - f i l m investigal u b r i c a t i o n ; a s h o r t account o f a c o l l a b o r a t i v e C . I . R . P . t i o n , Wear, 28(1974) 125.
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9 5.10
J . Volz, E r s t e l l u n g o p t i m i e r t e r Einlaufprogramme von Dieselmotoren ( E i n System u n t e r Anwendung von Radionukl i d e n ) Kernforschungszentrum K a r l s r u h e , L a b o r a t o r i u m f u r I s o t o p e n t e c h n i k , KFK 2432, Marz 1977.
D.H. Buckley, Wear and i n t e r f a c i a l t r a n s p o r t o f m a t e r i a l , J. Vac. S c i . Technol., 13( 1976) 88.
M. F i n k and
T.S. Eyre and D. Maynard, S u r f a c e aspects o f u n l u b r i c a t e d m e t a l - t o metal wear, Wear, 18(1971) 301.
S. Hogmark, 0. Vingsbo and S. F r i e d s t r o m , Mechanisms o f d r y wear o f some m a r t e n s i t i c s t e e l s , Wear, 31(1975) 39.
5.16
5.17 5.18
T.F.J. Q u i n n and J.L. Wooley, The u n l u b r i c a t e d wear o f 3% Cr-1/2% Mo s t e e l , L u b r . Eng., 26(1970) 226.
B.A. Baldwin, Chemical c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f wear s u r f a c e s u s i n g X-ray p h o t o e l e c t r o n spectroscopy, L u b r . Engng, 32( 1976) 125.
R.J. B i r d and G.D. G a l v i n , The a p p l i c a t i o n o f p h o t o e l e c t r o n s p e c t r o scopy t o t h e s t u d y o f E . P . f i l m s on l u b r i c a t e d s u r f a c e s , Wear, 37( 1976) 143.
5.19
R.C. Coy and T.F.J. Quinn, The use o f p h y s i c a l methods o f a n a l y s i s t o i d e n t i f y s u r f a c e l a y e r s formed by organosulphur compounds i n wear t e s t s , ASLE Trans, 18(1975) 163.
5.20
G. Levy, R.G. L i n f o r d and L.A. M i t c h e l l , Wear b e h a v i o u r and mechanic a l p r o p e r t i e s : t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f seemingly u n r e l a t e d approaches, Wear, 21(1972) 167. see Ref. 1.5, p. 18. J.T. B u r w e l l and C.D. Strang, On t h e e m p i r i c a l law o f adhesive wear, J. Appl. Phys., 23(1952) 18.
5.21
5.22
5.23
R.D. A r n e l l , A.P. Herod and D.G. Teer, The e f f e c t o f combined s t r e s s e s on t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m m i l d t o severe wear, Wear, 31(1975) 237.
374
5.24
K.-H. Habig, K. Kirschke, W.-W. Maennig, H. T i s c h e r , F e s t k o r p e r g l e i t r e i b u n g und V e r s c h l e i B von Eisen, K o b a l t , Kupfer, S i l b e r , Magnesium und Aluminium i n einem Sauerstoff-Stickstoff-Gemisch zwischen 760 und 2 10-7 T o r r , BAM-Berichte N r . 13, B e r l i n , J u n i 1972. K.-H. Habig, K. K i r s c h k e , W.-W. Maennig, H. T i s c h e r , F e s t k o r p e r g l e i t r e i b u n g und V e r s c h l e i B von Eisen, Kobal t, Kupfer, S i l b e r , Magnesium und Aluminium i n einem Sauerstoff-Stickstoff-Gemisch zwischen 760 und 2 10-7 T o r r , Wear, 22(1972) 373.
5.25
5.26
N.C. Welsh, The d r y wear o f s t e e l . I, The general p a t t e r n o f behaviour; 11. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n and s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s , P h i l . Trans. Roy. SOC., London, A 257(1965) 31. see Ref. 4.89.
5.27 5.28
H. Uetz and J. Fohl, P r u f t e c h n i k b e i einem VerschleiBsystem a u f Grund d e r VerschleiBanalyse, insbesondere d e r thermischen Analyse, VDI-Berichte, N r . 194, 1973, p. 57.
see Ref. 1.5, p. 151 ff.
5.29 5.30
A.A. Reda, R. Bowen and V . C . Westcott, C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p a r t i c l e s generated a t t h e i n t e r f a c e between s l i d i n g s t e e l s u r f a c e s , Wear, 34( 1975) 261.
T.E. T a l l i a n , G.H. B a i l e , H. D a l a l , O.G. Gustafsson, R o l l i n g B e a r i n g Damage A M o r p h o l o g i c a l A t l a s , SKF I n d u s t r i e s , Technology Center, K i n g o f P r u s s i a , Pa, 1974. E.R. Bowen, V.C. Westcott, Wear P a r t i c l e A t l a s , Report No N00156-74c-1682, prepared f o r Naval A i r E n g i n e e r i n g Center, Lakehurst, N.J., J u l y 1976. see Ref. 4.129, p. 252 ff.
5.31
5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 5.36 5.37 5.38 5.39 5.40 5.41 5.42 5.43 5.44
H.C. R i p p e l , D e s i g n i n g f l u i d - f i l m b e a r i n g s by computer, Mech. Engng, (1970) 30. P.B. Davies and R.B. Howarth, H y d r o s t a t i c l u b r i c a t i o n , see Ref. 1.8, p. 308 f f .
C.M. T a y l o r , Unusual b e a r i n g s : a i r and magnetic suspension, I n d . L u b r i c a t i o n and T r i b o l o g y , 24( 1972) 234.
M . I . Anwar and C.M. Rodkiewicz, S l i d e r b e a r i n g w i t h segmented e l e c t r i c f i e l d , Wear, 29(1974) 173. R. K a t t e r l o h e r , Magnetlager auch i m Maschinenbau: Aufbau, Eigens c h a f t e n , Anwendungen, Maschinenmarkt, 81( 1975) 315.
J.L. P o t t e r , The e l a s t o m e r i c b e a r i n g : what i t can do f o r you, Mech. Engng, (1973) Dec, 22. see Ref. 4.131, p. 5-110.
S. Hildebrand, Feinmechanische Bauelemente, VEB V e r l a g Technik,
375
see Ref. 1.6, p. 301 f f . G. Cros and J . - L . P o l t i , E i n i g e t h e o r e t i s c h e und p r a k t i s c h e Gesichtspunkte d e r Reibung, Schweizer A r c h i v , 36(1970) 147.
CHAPTER 6
6.1 6.2 6.3 W.M.J. Schlosser, A c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s t u d y o f a n a l o g i e s o f power t r a n s m i s s i o n s i n machines, Power d r i v e s , (1974) 48 and 49. C.T. W a l t e r s , The dynamics o f b a l l b e a r i n g s , Trans ASME, JOLT, (1971) 1.
D.G. S t e w a r t , J.B. Hunt, R e l a x a t i o n o s c i l l a t i o n s on a machine t o o l s l i d e w a y , Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs, London, Vol. 184 P t 3L, (1969/70) 33.
mechanical aspects,
L. Eaton, F r i c t i o n i n s t a b i l i t y , i n Ref. 1.8, p.147. H.-U. Mittmann and H. Czichos, Analogue computer s t u d i e s o f s t i c k s l i p e f f e c t s , BAM, Berlin-Dahlem, (1976) unpublished. G. Niemann, Maschinenelemente, Bd 1 und Bd 2, S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , B e r l i n , 1961.
E. Radzimovsky and A. M i r a r e f i , Dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f gear systems and v a r i a t i o n o f c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n and e f f i c i e n c y d u r i n g t h e engagement c y c l e , Trans ASME, B, 97(1975) 1274.
G.B. Stanton, Jr., The f u t u r e o f s a f e t y and h e a l t h : a c h a l l e n g e t o e n g i n e e r i n g managers, Trans ASME, J. o f Engng f o r I n d u s t r y , (1976) 761.
6.11
6.12 6.13
6.14
J.V. G r i m a l d i , A p p l y i n g systems a n a l y s i s t e c h n i q u e s i n s a f e t y s i t u a t i o n s , The Center o f S a f e t y , New York U n i v e r s i t y , New York, Apr. 1968, p. 3 1 ff.
R.A. C o l l a c o t t , Mechanical f a u l t d i a g n o s i s and c o n d i t i o n m o n i t o r i n g , Chapman and H a l l , London, 1977, c h a p t e r 2.
6,15 6.16
A l l i a n z , Handbuch d e r Schadenverhutung, A l l i a n z Versicherungs AG, Munchen und B e r l i n , 1. A u f l a g e , 1972, p. 361 and p. 376; 2. e r w e i t e r t e und u b e r a r b e i t e t e A u f l a g e , 1976, p. 645 and p. 695.
P.M. Ku, Gear g a i l u r e modes - importance o f l u b r i c a t i o n and mechanics, ASLE Trans, 19(1976) 239.
6.17
376
6.18 S.O. Rafique, Failures o f p l a i n bearings and t h e i r causes, Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs, London, Vol. 178, P t 3N, (1963/64) 180. 6.19 F.F. Simpson, F a i l u r e of r o l l i n g contact bearings, Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs, London, Vol. 178, P t 3N, (1963/64) 215. 6.20 D. Scott, A. Smith, J. T a i t , G.R. Tremain, Materials and metall u r g i c a l aspects o f p i s t o n r i n g s c u f f i n g Wear, 33(1975) 293.
a l i t e r a t u r e survey,
6.21
6.22 J.C. Cluley, E l e c t r o n i c equipment r e l i a b i l i t y , Mac M i l l a n Press, London, 1974. 6.23 R.A. Bones, Designing f o r r e l i a b i l i t y , Engineering, 216( 1976) 798. 6.24 W. Gerisch, Zuverlassigkeit aus philosophischer, mathematischer und ingenieurwissenschaftlicher S i c h t , M a t e r i a l und Technik, (1973) 51. 6.25 Messerschmi t t - B o l kow-Blohm (Herausgeber) , Technische Zuverlassigk e i t , Springer-Verlag, B e r l i n , 1971. 6.26 6. Mathhai , Ober den G l e i t v e r s c h l e i a ungeschmierter Oberflachen, Forsch. Ing. Wes., 30(1964) 1. 6.27 H. Thum, Zuverlassigkeit und VerschleiR von mechanischen Baugruppen, Schmierungstechnik, 3(1972) 139. 6.28 H. Yoshikawa, Fundamentals o f mechanical r e l i a b i l i t y and i t s
a p p l i c a t i o n to'computer aided machine design, C I R P Annals,
T Magdeburg, 16(1972) 289. H 6.30 G. Bergling, Betriebszuverlassigkeit von Walzlagern, Kugellager-Zeitschrift, 51(1976) 1. 6.31 P. Eschmann, B e t r i e b s s i c h e r h e i t und Gebrauchsdauer von Walzlagern, Walzlagertechnik, 13(1974) 3. 6.32 H. P i t t r o f f , Funktionssichere Walzlagerungen f u r Elektromaschinen, Kugel l a g e r - Z e i t s c h r i f t , 51(1977) 10. 6.33 W.J. Bartz, Tribotechnik a l s Grundlage zur Vermeidung van Schaden an Maschinenelementen, Schmiertechni k und T r i bologie,
20(1973) 50. 6.34 G. Fleischer, Der EinfluB der Schmierungstechnik auf d i e Minderung
der V e r s c h l e i a i n t e n s i t a t und d i e Sicherung e i n e r hohen Zuverlassigk e i t , Standardisierung und Q u a l i t a t , 21( 1975) 83.
6,35 M.L. Shooman, P r o b a b i l i s t i c r e l i a b i l i t y an engineering approach, Mc Graw-Hill , New York, 1968. 6.36 N.N., "Darunter kommt a l l e s i n s Rutschen": Moderne E l e k t r o n i k
schafft Arbeitslosigkeit sowohl bei H e r s t e l l e r f i r m e n a l s auch bei den Abnehmern, Der Spiegel, 30(1976) Nr. 51, 87.
311
D.F. Wilcock and E.R. Booser, B e a r i n g d e s i g n and a p p l i c a t i o n , Mc Graw-Hi 11, New York, 1957.
E . E . B i s s o n and W.J. Anderson, Advanced b e a r i n g t e c h n o l o g y , NASA, SP-38, Washington, 1964.
F.E. Kennedy and H.S. Cheng ( E d i t o r s ) , Computer-aided Design o f B e a r i n g s and Seals, The American SOC. o f Mech. Engrs, New York, 1976.
CHAPTER 7
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4
7.5
H. Czichos, T r i b o l o g i s c h e M a t e r i a l p r u f u n g P h y s i k a l i s c h e Grundl a g e n und technisch-wirtschaftliche Bedeutung, Amts- u. M i t t e i l u n g s b l a t t d e r BAM 7(1977) 5. R. Benzing, 1. G o l d b l a t t , V. Hopkins, W. Jamison, K. Mecklenburg, M. Peterson, F r i c t i o n and Wear Devices, 2nd e d i t i o n , ASLE, Park Ridge, 1976. K.R. Mecklenburg, The e f f e c t o f wear on t h e compressive s t r e s s i n t h e sphere-on-plane c o n f i g u r a t i o n , ASLE Trans, 17( 1974) 149. G.H. G o t t n e r , D e f i n i t i o n und E r f a s s u n g e i n i g e r B e g r i f f e z u r Beschreibung des Geschehens i n R e i b s t e l l e n b e i Mischreibung, Schmiertechni k und T r i b o l o g i e , 20( 1973) 22.
E.D. Braun, M o d e l l i e r u n g - e i n e o b j e k t i v e Methode z u r B e u r t e i l u n g d e r Reibungseigenschaften von W e r k s t o f f e n , Schmierungstechni k, Z(1971) 12. J.A. E l d e r , J r . and N.S. E i s s , J r . , A s t u d y o f t h e e f f e c t o f normal s t i f f n e s s on k i n e t i c f r i c t i o n f o r c e s between two b o d i e s i n s l i d i n g c o n t a c t , ASLE Trans, 12(1969) 234.
7.6
7.7 7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11 7.12
G. Salomon, The s i m u l a t i o n o f m a r g i n a l c o n t r o l , Lubr. Engng, 32(1976) 570. H.-U. Mittmann, N. Czaika and H. Czichos, A new d e v i c e f o r simultaneous measurement o f f r i c t i o n f o r c e , normal f o r c e and f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , Wear, 31(1975) 179.
7.13
E. B r o s z e i t , K.H. Kloos, F.J. Hess und E. Wagner, E i n f l u B von Schwingungen a u f d i e V e r s c h l e i R e i g e n s c h a f t e n e i nes Rei bsys terns, Wear, 28( 1974) 395.
H. Czichos und K. Kaffanke, Zur Bestimmung von Grenzflachentemperaturen b e i tri b o l o g i s c h e n Vorgangen, VDI-Z. , 112( 1970) 1491 und 1643.
7.14
R. Holm, E l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t s , S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , B e r l i n , 1967.
H. Czichos, W. Grimmer and H.-U. Mittmann, Rapid measuring techniques f o r e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e a p p l i e d t o l u b r i c a n t a d d i t i v e s s t u d i e s , Wear, 40(1976) 265.
B.B. Seth and T. W i l l i s , Techniques f o r f i l m t h i c k n e s s measurements i n elastohydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n , Trans ASME, Paper 76-Det-79.
A.K. Pogosian, F o r c e c a s t i n g t h e v i a b i l i t y o f f r i c t i o n p a i r s i n a c c e l e r a t e d t e s t s , Wear, 26(1973) 175. S.V. P i n e g i n , A.V. C i c i n a d z e und E.D. Braun, E n t w i c k l u n g s r i c h t u n g e n der M o d e l l i e r u n g z u r B e u r t e i l u n g von Reibungs- und V e r s c h l e i B v o r gangen, Schmierungstechni k, 6 ( 1975) 5.
7.24 7.25 7.26 7.27 7.28 7.29 7.30 7.31 7.32 7.33
R.D. Brown, T e s t methods, i n : Boundary l u b r i c a t i o n , e d i t e d by F.F. L i n g , E.E. Klaus and R.S. Fein, ASME, New York, 1969, p. 241. K. Kutzbach, Reibung und Abnutzung von Zahnradern, V D I - Z . , 70(1926) 999.
see Ref. 4.131, c h a p t e r 26.
p. 202.
379
7.34 7.35 7.36 7.37 7.38 7.39 S.C. Dodson and L.A. Godsave, L u b r i c a t i n g o i l s , i n Ref. 1.7, p. 501. p. 27-8.
G.H. G o t t n e r , Zur Funktionsdiagnose von M a s c h i n e n b a u t e i l e n und -anlagen g e e i g n e t e MeRgroBen, Schmiertechnik und T r i b o l o g i e , 24(1977) 3.
K. Z i e g l e r , Funktionsuberwachung von Maschinen und B a u t e i l e n r n i t H i l f e d e r SchallmeBtechnik, S c h m i e r t e c h n i k und T r i b o l o g i e , 24(1977) 5.
7.40
K.A. Bowen and T.S. Graham, Noise and a n a l y s i s : a maintenance i n d i c a t o r , Mech. Engng, (Oct. 1967) 31.
ALLIANZ, Handbuch d e r Schadenverhutung, 2. erwei t e r t e und u b e r a r b e i t e t e A u f l a g e , Munchen, 1976, p. 672. see Ref. 7.36.
A. Gervb, E i n s a t z r n o g l i c h k e i t e n von R a d i o n u k l i d e n z u r Untersuchung k o n s t r u k t i v e r und s c h m i e r s t o f f a b h a n g i g e r E i n f l u s s e a u f den V e r s c h l e i R von M a s c h i n e n t e i l e n , V D I - B e r i c h t e , N r . 196(1973) 43. W.W. S e i f e r t and V . C . Westcott, A method f o r t h e s t u d y o f wear p a r t i c l e s i n l u b r i c a t i n g o i l , Wear, 21(1972) 27. A.W. R u f f , C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f d e b r i s p a r t i c l e s r e c o v e r e d f r o m w e a r i n g systems, Wear, 42( 1977) 49. D. S c o t t , W.W. S e i f e r t and V.C. W e s t c o t t , The p a r t i c l e s o f wear, S c i e n t i f i c American, 230( 1974) 88.
H. Czichos, MeRtechnische Methoden z u r Untersuchung t r i b o l o g i s c h b e a n s p r u c h t e r W e r k s t o f f o b e r f l a c h e n , Schmiertechnik und T r i b o l o g i e , 21(1974) 25.
7.47
7.48 7.49
7.50
7.51
380
7.55 7.56
R. S t i c k l e r , C.W. Hughes, G.R. Booker, A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e l e c t e d area ECP method t o d e f o r m a t i o n s t u d i e s , Proc. 4 Annual SEM Symp., JJTRJ, Chicago, A p r i l 1971, p . 473.
7.57
H.
7.58
J.B.P. Williamson, Microtopography o f s u r f a c e s , i n : P r o p e r t i e s and M e t r o l o g y o f Surfaces, Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs, London, Vol. 182,
Buckley, S . V . Pepper, W.A. B r a i n a r d , Use o f LEED, Auger e m i s s i o n spectroscopy and f i e l d i o n microscopy i n m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l s t u d i e s , i n : M i c r o s t r u c t u r a l A n a l y s i s - T o o l s and Techniques, ( E d i t e d by J.L. Mc C a l l and W.M. M u e l l e r ) , Plenum Publ. Co, New York, 1973, 241 f f .
7.65
7.66
P.L. Stohr, Nachweis und Analyse von R e a k t i o n s s c h i c h t e n b e i metall i s c h e n R e i b p a r t n e r n i m ReibverschleiB-Modellgerat und i m Verbrennungsmotor, D i s s e r t a t i o n , Eberhard-Karls-Universitat, Fachbereich Physik, Tubingen, 1976.
E.W. M u l l e r , F i e l d i o n microscopy, American E l s e v i e r , New York, 1969.
7.67
CHAPTER 8
8.1
8.2 8.3
A. Pieuchot, J . B l o u e t , R. Gras, M. A l f r e d and R. C o u r t e l , M'ethodologie e t classement des e s s a i s de f r o t t e m e n t e t de l e u r s r ' e s u l t a t s , Mbc. E l e c t r . Oct. 1969, p. 8.
theory
381
8.4
G. Katzenmeier, Das V e r s c h l e i B v e r h a l t e n und d i e T r a g f a h i g k e i t von G l e i t l a g e r n i m Obergangsbereich von d e r V o l l s c h m i e r u n g zu p a r t i e l l e m Tragen (Untersuchungen m i t H i 1 f e von R a d i o i s o t o p e n ) , Kernforschungszentrum K a r l s r u h e , KFK, 1569, Febr. 1972.
8.5
D.H. Buckley and R.L. Johnson, Marked i n f l u e n c e o f c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e on t h e f r i c t i o n and wear c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c o b a l t and c o b a l t - b a s e a l l o y s i n vacuum t o m i l l i m e t e r mercury, NASA TND-2523, Washington, 1964.
J.K. Appeldorn, J.B. Goldniann and F.F. Tao, C o r r o s i v e wear by a t mospheric oxygen and m o i s t u r e , ASLE Trans, 12(1969) 140.
8.6
8.7 8.0
8.9
L.H. Lee ( E d i t o r ) , Advances i n Polymer F r i c t i o n and Wear, Polymer s c i e n c e and technology, Vol. 5 , P a r t s A and 6, Plenum Press, New York, 1974. see Ref. 7.51.
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
8,16
B.J. B r i s c o e , C.M. Pooley and D. Tabor, F r i c t i o n and t r a n s f e r o f some polymers i n u n l u b r i c a t e d s l i d i n g , see Ref. 8.9, P a r t 5A, p . 191. K.H. Habig, R. C h a t e r j e e - F i s c h e r und F. Hoffmann, Zum t r i b o l o g i s c h e n Verhal t e n von O b e r f l a c h e n s c h i c h t e n , d i e d u r c h E i n d i f f u s i o n von S t i c k s t o f f , B o r oder Vanadin i n E i s e n w e r k s t o f f e g e b i l d e t werden, Hartereitechn. Mitteilungen, i n p r i n t . H. Hubner, Unterdruckung s t i c k - s l i p i n d u z i e r t e r Kurvengerausche b e i Eisenbahnschienen d u r c h p h y s i k a l i s c h - c h e m i s c h e Oberflachenbehandlung, D i s s e r t a t i o n , TU-Berl i n , 1973, D83. H. Czichos und H. Hubner, Modelluntersuchungen uber s t i c k - s l i p Vorgange, BAM, B e r l in-Dahlem, (1973), u n v e r o f f e n t l i c h t . G.H.G. Vaessen and A.W.J. de Gee, I n f l u e n c e o f w a t e r vapour on t h e wear of l i g h t l y l o a d e d c o n t a c t s , Wear, 18(1971) 325.
8.20
A. G i l e j i , Bildsame Formgebung d e r M e t a l l e , Akademie-Verlag, B e r l i n , 1967. 0. Pawelski, G. Graue und D. Lohr, Reibungsbeiwert und Temperaturv e r t e i l u n g beim Warmformen von S t a h l m i t verschiedenen Schmiermi tt e l n , S c h m i e r t e c h n i k und T r i b o l o g i e , 17(1970) 120 und 170.
H. Krause und A.H. D e m i r c i , F a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e r e a l t r e n d o f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n o f two e l a s t i c b o d i e s r o l l i n g o v e r each o t h e r i n t h e presence o f d r y f r i c t i o n , i n Ref. 4.1. M. Gierzynska, Problem o f f r i c t i o n i n r o l l i n g and f o r g i n g processes, i n : T r i b o l o g y i n i r o n and s t e e l works, ISI P u b l i c a t i o n , The I r o n and S t e e l I n s t i t u t e , London, 1970, p . 156.
a. 2 1
8.22
List
symbols
Characteristics o f a system (Chapter 2 ) set o f the elements o f a system s e t o f element's p r o p e r t i e s s e t o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n s between elements s t r u c t u r e o f a system inputs o f a system use-outputs o f a system loss-outputs o f a system input-output r e l a t i o n ( t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n )
I 1 General symbols
a
c o e f f i c i e n t o f adhesion radius o f Hertzian contact (see I ) Arrhenius constant geometric area o f contact mantle surface o f a body
a , A
Ac
A , Am
383
Ar
*W
b
B
:1
velocity o f l i g h t r a d i a l clearance general c o n s t a n t damper c o n s t a n t spring constant diameter modulus o f e l a s t i c i t y energy mechanical energy o r work energy o f edge d i s l o c a t i o n
C
d
CS
d
E
AE
A E~
Ee
A ES errergy o f screw d i s l o c a t i o n
E:
f:.W
f
power mechanical power coefficient o f friction force f o r c e o f adhesion f r i c t i o n force normal f o r c e separation force tangential force failure distribution function a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y shear modulus
F FA FF
FN
FS
FT
F(t) 9
G
h
f i l m thickness
384
TI
Planck's constant / 2 n hardness enthalpy electric current counter mechanical e q u i v a l e n t o f h e a t thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y Hamaker c o n s t a n t s parabolic o x i d a t i o n r a t e constant wear c o e f f i c i e n t s c r a c k parameter length o r distance mass torque f r i c t i o n torque a s p e r i t y d e n s i t y p e r u n i t area n2 e l e c t r o n number d e n s i t y gear r a t i o ratio: pressure l o a d / b e a r i n g p r o j e c t e d area maximum H e r t z p r e s s u r e mean H e r t z p r e s s u r e pump p r e s s u r e y i e l d pressure (see I ) e l e c t r i c charge flow r a t e flow r a t e o f mass heat e m i t t i n g area e a t a b s o r b i n g volume
AH
i
i, j
J
k
5'k 2
kP K, K '
KC
I
rn
M MF
n
"1'
N
0
P
pH
pH pP PY P
qe 9 qm
385
91
flow r a t e o f lubricant amount o f h e a t radius (see I ) mean roughness c e n t e r - l i n e - a v e r a g e roughness peak-to-Val 1ey-hei g h t roughness gas c o n s t a n t r e l i a b i l i t y function standard d e v i a t i o n (see I )
Q
r
R
1?
AS
S
entropy enthalpy f l o w generation r a t e Sommerfeld number time (see I ) temperature voltage p o t e n t i a l energy v e l oc it y v o l ume wear volume wear r a t e work c o o r d i n a t e s ( i = 1, 2, 3 ) (see I ) surface p r o f i l e height (see I ) d i s t a n c e o f approach o r s e p a r a t i o n
so
t
T
T
U
Au
V
V
"W W
W 'i X Y Y
Z
2 Z
(see I )
(A) a u t o - c o r r e l a t i o n
function of p r o f i l e
pre s s ure -vi s c o s i ty c o e f f i c i e n t radius o f a s p e r i t y curvature s u r f a c e f r e e energy c o n s t a n t (zero-wear model ) gamma f u n c t i o n f r i c t i o n angle difference o f quantities c o n t a c t area wear t r a c k area wear r e s i s t a n c e
ratio:
f i l m thickmess t o roughness r a t i o
failure rate mean o f normal d i s t r i b u t i o n Poisson number c r i t i c a l oxide f i l m thickness density stress o r strength (general) adhesion bond s t r e n g t h y i e l d strength mean d e v i a t i o n o f a s p e r i t y h e i g h t shear s t r e s s
387
tS
shear strength angle (general) potential p l a s t i c i t y index ratio: radial clearance shaft radius angular velocity Nabla operator
Ip
cc1
Jlr
V2= a* + -a+ L 2
ax2
ay2
a22
Laplace operator
Author index
The numbers are reference numbers, composed o f the number o f the chapter i n which an author's work i s r e f e r r e d t o and the running number. The comp l e t e references are l i s t e d on pages 360 t o 381. Abrahamson, E.P. , 5.43 Alfred, M., 8.1 Allen, C.M., 4.134 ALLIANZ, 6.16 Amontons, G., 1.9 Andarel li, G., 4.77 Anderson, W. J. , 6.39 Antler, M., 4.113 Anwar, M.I., 5.36 Appeldorn, J . K . , 8.6 Archard, J . F . , 1.25, 4.5, 4.12, 4.13, 4.19, 4.86, 4.89, 4,144 Arnell, R.D., 5.23 Ausherman, V. K. , 4.147 Avallone, E.A., 4.131 B a i l e , G.H., 5.31 Bailey, J.A., 6.4 Bakashvil i, D. L. , 4.138 Baldwin, B.A., 5.17 Bartz, W.J., 6.33 Barwell, F.T., 5.6 Bayer, R.G., 6.43, 7.17 Beerbower, A., 7.44 Begelinger, A., 4.179, 4.186 B e l l , J.C., 4.134 Bell, G.R., 5.42 7.60, 7.65 Benninghoven, A., Benzing, R., 7.6 Bergling, G., 6.30 Bertalanffy, L. von, 2.1 Berthe. D. , 4.151 B i e l , C., 1.31 Bird, R.J., 5.18 Bisson, E.E., 6.39 Blok, H., 4.85 Blouet, J . , 7.1, 8.1 Bones, R.A., 6.23 Booker, G.R., 7.56 6.38 Booser, E.R., B o l l i n g e r , J.G.. 4.78 Bouchk, Ch., 6.8 Boulding, K.E., 2.2 Bourne, A.J., 6.42 Bowden, F.P., 1.4, 1.17, 1.18, 4.31, 4.160 Bowen, E.R., 5.30, 5.31 Bowen, K.A., 7.41 Boyd, J . , 4.131 Brainard, W.A., 7.61 7.9, 7.23 Braun, E.D., Bremble, G.R., 4.59 4.25, 8.11 Briscoe, B.J., Brdnsted, J.N., 3.9 Broszeit, E., 4.93, 7.4, 7.13 Brothers, B.G., 4.59 Brown, R.D., 7.27 4.30, 4.33, 4.34, Buckley, D.H., 4.36, 4.37, 4.39, 4.50, 4.111, 4.115, 5.11, 7.61, 7.63, 8.5 Bueche, A.M., 4.61 Burton, R.A., 4.97 Burwell, J.T., 1.23, 1.26, 5.22
389
Cameron, A., 1.7, 4.139 Campbell, J.C., 5.5 Campbell, W.E., 4.161 Cannon, R.H., 1.1 Carslaw, H.S., 4.83 Carter, F.W., 4.55 Casimir, H.B.G., 4.24 8.12 Chaterjee-Fischer, R., Charron, F., 4.88 Chaudhari, P., 4.74 4.137, 6.40 Cheng, H.S., Chiu, Y . P . , 4.96, 4.172 Christensen, H., 4.150, 5.7 cizinadze, A.V., 7.23 Cluley, J.C., 6.22 4.112 Cocks, M., C o l l a c o t t , R.A., 6.15 Constantinescu, V.N., 4.170 Coulomb, E., 1.10 Courtel, R., 4.48, 4.77, 8.1 Courtney-Pratt, J.S., 4.45, 4.158 5.19 Coy, R.C., Cramer, B . , 6.37 Creamer, R.H., 6.9 Crook, A.W., 4.66 5.46 Cros, G., Czaika, N., 7.12 Czichos, H., 1.34, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 4.29, 4.46, 4.52, 4.69, 4.90, 4.121, 4.173, 4.174, 4.180, 4.182, 4.187, 6.6, 7.3, 7.5, 7.12, 7.14, 7.20, 7.49, 7.51, 7.57, 8.2, 8.14 Dalal, H., 5.31 Davies, P.B., 5.34 de Gee, A.W.J., 4.179, 4.186, 7.25, 8.15 8.21 Demirci, A.H., de Pater, A.D., 4.1 Depeyrot, M., 2.7 Derjaguin, B.V. , 4.71 Desagulier, J.T., 1.11 Dies, K., 1.21, 5.13 Dimarogonas, A.D., 4.87 d i Prima, R.C., 4.169 Dismant, J.H., 4.72 Dombrowski, E., 6.21 7.34 Dodson, S.C., Dixhoorn, J.J. van, 2.6 5.6 Dowd, J.R., Doubleday, J., 1.33 Donovan, M., 5.42 Dowson, D., 4.136, 4.142 Dumbleton, J.H. , 6.44 D,yer, L.D., 4.64 Dyson, A., 4.143, 4.166 Eaton, L., 6.5 Eisner, E., 4.45 Eiss, N.S., Jr., 7.10 E l d e r , J.A., J r . , 7.10 4.63 Eldredge, K.R., Engel, P.A., 4.91 E r n s t , H., 1.16 6.31 Eschmann, P., Evans, F.J., 2.6 4.103, 5.14 Eyre, T.S., Faurre, P., 2.7 Feder, R., 4.74 Fein, R.S., 4.161, 4.163, 4.175, 4.176, 7.27 F e r r a n t e , J., 4.27, 4.28, 4.81, 7.61 1.27 Feynman, R . P . , Fink, M., 1.20, 5.12 F l e i s c h e r , G. , 3.1, 6.29, 6.34 Flom, D.G., 4.61 Fohl, J., 4.110, 5.28 FOppl, L., 4.57 Forbes, E . S . , 4.154 Friedstrom, S., 5.15 Fuchsel, M., 1.19 F u l l e r , K.N.G., 4.42 Galvin, G.D., 5.18 Gane, N . , 4.40, 4.76 Gardos, M.N., 8.3 4.22 Gatos, H.C., Gerisch, I. d, 6.24 7.46 Gerv6, A,, Gierzynska, M. , 8.22 G i l e j i , A., 8.19 Godet, M., 4.47, 4.151, 7.24 Godfrey, D., 4.156, 4.157 Godsave, L.A., 7.34 G o l d b l a t t , I . , 7.6 Goldmann, J.B., 8.6 Gottner, G.H., 1.36, 7.8, 7.39 Graham, T.S., 7.41 Gras, R., 8.1 Graue, G . , 8.20 Green, A.E., 6.42 4.14, 4.18, 4.152 Greenwood, J.A., Grimaldi, J. V . , 6.14 7.20 Grimmer, W., Gumbel , L., 4.148 G u r l e y i k , M . , 4.105 Gustafsson, O.G., 5.31 Haasen, P., 4.98 Habig, K.-H., 1.34, 4.35, 4.38, 4.90, 5.24, 5.25, 7.16, 7.18, 7.54, 8.12
390
Haddon, W. J r . , 6.13 Halaunbrenner, 3.6. , 4.62 2.13 H a l l , A.D., H a l l i n g , J., 1.8 Hamil ton, G.M., 4.67 Hardy, J.K., 1.13 1.13 Hardy, W.B., Hazzard, R., 5.42 Heathcote, H.L. 4.54 H e i n i k e , G., 4.116 Heinke, G., 7.26 H e i n r i c h , H.W., 6.12 5.23 Herod, A.P., Hersey, M.D., 4.126 H e r t z , H., 4.3 Hess, F.J., 7.13 Higginson, G.R., 4.136 H i l d e b r a n d , S., 5.40 Hironaka,S,, 4.184, 4.185, 5.15 1.25 H i r s t , W., H i r t h , J.P., 4.102 Hofmann, U., 1.20, 5.12 5.15 Hogmark, S., Holland, J . , 4.128 Holm, Ragnar, 1.15, 4.84, 4.159, 7.19 Holm, R., 7.62 Hopkins, V . , 7.6 Hornbogen, E., 4.100 5.34, 7.30 Howarth, R.B., Howells, R.I.L., 4.4 Hubner, H., 8.13, 8.14 Hughes, C.W., 7.56 Hunt, J.B., 6.3 Hunt, R.T., 5.1 H u r r i c k s , P.L., 4.109, 4.118 H u t t e n l o c h e r , D.F., 4.172 I-Meng, Feng, 1.23 Maennig, W.-W., 5.24, 5.25 Mansford, R.E., 5.42 Mathhai, G., 6.26 4.77 Maugis, D., Maynard, D., 5.14 4.96 Mc Cool, J . I . , Mc F a r l a n e , J.S., 4.44 Mecklenburg, K., 7.6, 7.7 Merchant, M.E., 1.16, 8.16 Merwin, J.W., 4.68 Mesarovic, M.D., 2.4 Messerschmitt-Bo1 kow-Blohm, Meyer, K . , 4.116 M i n d l i n , R.D., 4.43 6.10 M i r a f e r i , A., M i t c h e l l , L.A., 4.49, 5.20 Mittmann, H.-U. , 6.6, 7.12, 7.51 2.11 Karnopp, D., K a t t e r l o h e r , R., 5.37 Katzenmeier, G., 8.4 4.41, 4.70 Kendall, K., Kennedy, F.E., 6.40 K e r r i d g e , M., 1.24 4.106, 4.107 Khrushov, M.M., King, T.G., 5.3 Kirschke, K., 1.34, 4.177, 5.24, 5.25 K l a f f k e , D., 7.57 4.142, 7.27 Klaus, E . E . , K l i r , G.J., 2.5 Kloos, K.H., 4.93, 7.13 4.138 Kodnir, D.S., K o s t e t s k i i , B.J., 4.73 Kounas, P.S., 4.87 Kragelskii, I.V., 1.6 8.21 Krause, H., Kreuz, K.L., 4.175 4.89, 4.97, 4.157, 6.17 Ku, P.M., Ku, T.C., 6.43 Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf, D., 4.99 Kutzbach, K., 7.28 4.99 L a i r d , C., Lancaster, J.K., 8.8 Landheer, D., 4.114 Lang, O.R., 4.92 Lee, L.H., 8.9 L e i g h t o n , R.B., 1.27 L e i t n e r , A,, 6.8 5.20 Levy, G., L i n f o r d , R.G., 5.20 Ling, F.F., 4.2, 4.142, L i t t m a n n , W.E., 4.95 Lohr, D., 8.20 4.16 Ludema, K.C.,
4.161,
7.27
Jackson, A., 4.140 Jaeger, J.C., 4.83 Jahanmir, S., 5.43 7.6 Jamison, W., Johnson, K.L., 4.41, 4.65, 4.68, 4.141, 4.152 Johnson, R.L., 4.34, 8.5 Jones, A.M., 4.10 4.4 Jones, M.H., J o s t , P., 1.37 7.32 Junemann, H., Kaffanke, K., 7.14 K a l k e r , J.J., 4.1 4.172 Kamenshine, J.A., Kannel, J.W., 4.134 Kirmkn, T. von, 4.167
6.25
7.20,
391
Mblgaard, J., 3.5, 3.6, 4.122, Moore, D.F., 4.130 M u l l e r , E.W., 7.67 Munnich, H., 4.146 4.147 Nagaraj, H.S., Nazarenko, P.V., 4.73 Neale, M.J., 5.2 Neumann, J. von, 6.46 Nicholas, J.F., 4.21 Niemann, G., 6.7 Nomarski, G., 7.50 O'Cal laghan, P.W., 4.10 4.131 O'Connor, J.J., O r c u t t , F.K., 4.137, 7.38 Osgood, C., 4.49 5.7 b s t v i k , R., Pandit, S.M., 4.11 Pawelski, O., 8.20 Paynter, H.M., 2.10 6.41 Peeken, H., Peklenik, J., 4.9 Pepper, S . V . , 7.61 Peterson, M.B., 7.6 4.138 Petrousevitch, A.J., P f a e l z e r , P.F., 4.40 P f e f f e r k o r n , G., 7.55 Pieuchot, A., 8.1 7.23 Pinegin, S.V., Pittroff,H., 6.32 Pogosi an, A . K. , 7.22 P o l t i , J.-L., 5.46 Pooley, C.M., 8.11 Poon, S.Y., 4.152 4.56 P o r i t s k y , H., P o t t e r , J.L., 5.38 Probert, S.D., 4.4, 4.10 Pullen, J., 5 . 1 Quinn, T.F.J., 5.16, 5.19, 8.7 Ropohl, G., 2.3 Rosenberg, R., 2.11 Rounds, F.G., 4.162 Rowe, C.N., 4.164, 4.165, 4.175 Rowe, G.W., 4.31, 5.8, 8.18 R u f f , A.W., 7.47 Saibel, 4.171, 5.9 Sakurai, T., 4.183, 4.184, 4.185, 4.187 Salomon, G., 3.2, 4.181, 7.2, 7.11 4.138 Salukvadze, R.G., Sanborn, D., 4.147 Sanders, J.L., 5.42 Sandor, G.N., 4.87 Sands, M., 1.27 Sass, F., 6.8 Schey, J.A., 8.17 Schlosser, W.M.J., 3.7, 6 . 1 Schmaltz, G., 4.23 4.94 Schouten, M.J.W., Schultze, G.E.R., 4.75 Schwarzman, V.Sh., 4.138 6.20, 7.36, 7.48 S c o t t , D., Seely, S . , 2.8 S e i f e r t , W.W., 7.47, 7.48 Seireg, A., 4.15 7.21 Seth, B.B., Sethuramiah, A., 4.183 Shooman, M.L., 6.35 S i b l e y , L.B., 4.172 S i e b e l , E., 1.22 S i k o r s k i , M.E., 4.32 Simpson, F.F., 6.19 S i n d l i n g e r , N.E., 4.172 Skinner, J., 4.76 Smilga, V.P., 4.71 6.20 Smith, A., Smith, J.R., 4.27, 4.28 1.30 Sommerfeld, A . , Stanton, G.B., 6.11 Stewart, D.G., 6.3 S t i c k l e r , R., 7.56 7.66 Stohr, P.L., Storp, S., 7.62, 7.65 Stout, K.J., 5.3 1.23, 5.22 Strang, C.D., S t r i b e c k , R., 1.29, 4.17 1.34, 4.155 S t u d t , P., Suh, N.P., 4.101, 5.43 Summers-Smith, D., 1.38 Suratkar, P.T., 4.11 Tabor, D., 1.4, 1.17, 1.18, 4.16, 4.20, 4.25, 4.40, 4.42, 4.44, 4.51, 4.58, 4.60, 4.63, 4.160, 8.11
7.59
Rabinowicz, E., 1.5 Radzimovsky, E., 6.10 6.18 Rafique, S.O., Reda, A.A., 5.30 Reimer, L., 7.55 R e t i , L., 1.12 Reynolds, O., 1.28, 4.53 Rhee, S.R., 6.44 4.108 Richardson, R.C.D., Rigney, D.A., 4.102 Rippel, H.C., 4.127, 5.33 4.41 Roberts, A.D., Rodkiewicz, C.M., 5.36 5.47 Raemer, E . ,
392
T a i t , J., 6.20 T a l l i a n , T.E., 4.96, 4.153, 4.172, 5.31 Tao, F.F., 8.6 5.35 Taylor, C.M., Taylor, G . I . , 4.168 5.23 Teer, D.G., Tevaarwerk, J . , 4.141 Theyse, F.H., 4.133 Thiessen, P.A., 4.116 Thorna, J.U., 2.9, 3.8 Thomas, T.R., 4.7 Thum, H . , 6.27 Tischer, H., 5.24, 5.25 Tolansky, S., 7.52 T o l s t o i , D.M., 4.79 Tomlinson, G . A . , 1.14 Tremain, G.R., 6.20 Tripp, J.H., 4.14 Trumpold, H., 7.53 Tyler, J . C . , 4.97 Uetz, H., 5.28 4.104, 4.105, 4.110,
7.13 Wagner, E., Walters, C.T., 6.2 Wedeven, L.D., 4.132. 4.145 W e i l l , A.R., 7.50 Weingraber, H. von, 4.8 Weiter, E.J., 4.15 Wellinger, K., 4.104, 4.105 Welsh, N.C., 5.26 Westcott, V.C., 5.30, 5.31, 7.47, 7-48 Westlake, F.J., 4.139 Wheeler, D.R., 7.64 4.6, 4.19, 5.3 Whitehouse, D.J., Wiegand, H., 7.4 Wiener, N., 2.12 Wilcock, D.F., 6.38 Williamson, J.B.P., 4.18, 5.1, 7.58 W i l l i s , T., 7.21 W i l l n , J.E., 5.4 Winer, W.O., 4.147 Wooley, J.L., 5.16 Wortmann , J., 4.82 Wu, S.M., 4.11 Yoshikawa, H . , 6.28
Vaessen, G.H., 8.15 Vingsbo, O., 5.15 Vogelpohl, G., 1.32, 4.129, Volz, J., 5.10
4.149
Zaat, J.H., 4.114 Zerbe, C . , 7.31 Z i e g l e r , K., 7.40 4.26 Ziman, J.M., Zudans, Z., 4.127
393
Subject index
Abrasion, .- t h r e e body, 113 - two body, 113 A b r a s i v e c u t t i n g , 353 A b r a s i v e wear mechanisms, 112 A b r a s i v e wear r e s i s t a n c e o f s u r f a c e c o a t i n g s , 323 A c o u s t i c waves, e m i s s i o n o f , 9 1 Across v a r i a b l e s , 19 A c t u a t o r s , 351 Adhesion, bonding mechanisms, 58 -. c o e f f i c i e n t , 63 - hypothesis o f f r i c t i o n , 5 - i n r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n , 86 -. i n s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n , 78 -. o f s o l i d s , 59 - parameter, 68 Adhesive wear mechanisms, 119 Adhesive wear r e s i s t a n c e o f s u r f a c e c o a t i n g s , 323 A l l o y i n g elements, i n f l u e n c e on adhesive wear, 121 Almen t e s t , 276 A l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n s t o mechanical systems, 240 Amontons-Coulomb laws, 73, 79 Amsler t e s t , 276 A n a l o g i e s between systems, 19 Analogue computer, use i n s t i c k - s l i p s t u d i e s , 218 Analogue system elements, 217 Analysis o f t r i b o - t e c h n i c a l systems, 302 Anchor-buoy b e a r i n g , 326 Anti-wear (AW) a d d i t i v e s , 159, 165
Archard, - wear c o e f f i c i e n t , 262 - wear law, 100 Area o f c o n t a c t , 53 Aromatic hydrocarbons, 158 A t t r i t i o n , 41 Audio pick-ups, 352 Auger e l e c t r o n spectroscopy (AES), 293 - a p p l i c a t i o n example, 188 Auto-correlation function o f s u r f a c e p r o f i l e , 52 B a l l and r o l l e r b e a r i n g s , 351 B a l l -and-screw mechanisms, 351 Band brakes, 351 Band c l u t c h e s , 351 B a t h - t u b f a i l u r e r a t e curve, 240 B e a r i n g area curve, 51 B e a r i n g bushing design, 210 B e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s , s i m u l a t i ve t e s t i n g o f , 268 Bearings, c o m p i l a t i o n o f , 351 B e l t d r i v e s , 351 Bevel gears, 351 B i b l i o g r a p h i c work i n t r i b o l o g y , 356 B i n d i n g e n e r g i e s i n adhesion, 66 Black-box d e s c r i p t i o n , 25, 29 B l a s t i n g , 353 B l o c k brakes, 351 B l o k temperature t h e o r y , 94 B o l t s e t s , 351 Bond graph methods, 20 B o r i d i n g , 208, 322 B o r i n g , 353 Boundary l u b r i c a t i o n , 156
394 B o u r r e l e t f r o n t a l , 78 Boussinesq problem, 48, 147 Bowden-Tabor t h e o r y o f f r i c t i o n , 76 B r i t t l e solids, f r i c t i o n of, 81 Brushing, 353 Cam-and-fol 1owers , 352 Cam d r i v e s , 351 Cam-tappet wear r e d u c t i o n , 335 C a r b u r i z i n g , 208, 322 Carter-Poritsky-Foppl s l i p i n r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n , 83 Case s t u d i e s o f t r i b o l o g i c a l s o l u t i o n s , 315 Casting, 352 C a v i t a t i o n wear, 103 Chain d r i ves, 351 Check-list f o r tribo-mechanical systems, 303, 309 Chemical conversion c o a t i n g s , 208 Chemical r e a c t i o n s i n boundary l u b r i c a t i o n , 162 Chemical vapour d e p o s i t i o n (CVD), 206 Chemisorption, 161 C h i p l e s s c u t t i n g , 353 C1 assi f i cation, - o f mechanical systems, 35 o f systems, 2 1 o f t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g systems, 350 o f wear, 102 C l e a n i n g o f t e s t specimens, 252 Clock-works, 352 Coefficient , o f adhesion, 63 - o f f r i c t i o n , 4, 73, 308, 317 - o f wear, 262 Cohesion o f s o l i d s , 59 Cold-welded j u n c t i o n s , 119 Comminution, 352 Components t e s t i n g , 272 C o n d i t i o n m o n i t o r i n g techniques, 277 Cone c l u t c h e s , 351 Con t a c t , - area, 53 - area i n t r i b o - t e s t i n g , 253 - area t o w e a r - t r a c k area r a t i o , 267 f a t i g u e , 108 mechanics, 47 p h y s i c s and c h e m i s t r y , 56 - p r e s s u r e , H e r t z i a n , 49 - p r e s s u r e i n t r i b o - t e s t i n g , 253 - processes, 47 Contaminants, 57 d i s p e r s a l o f , 72 i n f l u e n c e on f r i c t i o n , 8 1 Control, - methods, 248 o f operating variables i n tribo-testing, 254 Conveyors, 352 Cou 1omb-f r ic t i o n , - laws o f , 73 - v a l i d i t y o f , 316 C o v a l e n t adhesion bonding, 58 Corrosion, f a i l u r e d i s t r i bution o f , 239 Crack i n i t i a t i o n and p r o p a g a t i o n , 109 Crank d r i v e s , 351 Creep, f a i l u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f , 239 Crystal structure, i n f l u e n c e on adhesion, 63 i n f l u e n c e on adhesive wear, 120 C u t t i n g , 353 C y b e r n e t i c s , 21
Data banks, 315 Data sheet f o r t r i b o l o g i c a l systems, 309 Deep drawing, 352 D e l a m i n a t i o n t h e o r y o f wear, 111 Description o f tribo-engineering systems, 310 Oesi gn, - o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems, 242 p r i n c i p l e s o f redundancy, 243 D e t e r i o r a t i o n modes, 239 D i b e n z y l d i s u l f i d e , 159 Die, 347 Diffusion, c o a t i n g s , 208, 321 f a i l u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f , 239 D i s c brakes, 351 D i s c c l u t c h e s , 351 D i s l o c a t i o n processes, i n f r i c t i o n , 89 i n wear, 110 D i s s i p a t i v e systems, 16 D i s s i p a t i v e processes, i n c o n t a c t mechanics, 54 i n f r i c t i o n , 87 DOCUMENTATION TRIBOLOGY, 356 Donor-acceptor h y p o t h e s i s o f m e t a l l i c adhesion bonding, 6 1 Dowson-Higginson formula, 151 Drawing, 346, 352 Dredging, 352 D r i l l i n g , 353 D u r a t i o n o f t e s t i n g , 256 Dynamics , o f p h y s i c a l systems, 1 o f tri bo-mechanical systems , 215
396
E a r t h moving u n i t s , 352 E f f i c i e n c y , 222 - i n f l u e n c e o f f r i c t i o n and l u b r i c a t i o n , 226 - o f t r a n s l a t i o n screw, 225 - o f wedge d r i v e system, 225 E f f o r t v a r i a b l e s , 19 E l a s t i c contact, - d e f o r m a t i o n , 48 - displacement, 70 E l a s t i c h y s t e r e s i s , 55 - i n r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n , 84 E l a s t i c waves g e n e r a t i o n , 54 Elastohydrodynamic (EHD) l u b r i c a t i o n , 146 E l a s t o m e r i c b e a r i n g , 204 E l a s t o s t a t i cs, 48 E l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t s , 352 - r e s i s t a n c e measuring t e c h n i q u e s , 262 - f a i l u r e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f , 341 E l e c t r o n c h a n e l l i n g p a t t e r n (ECP) technique, 289 E l e c t r o n gas, 60 E l e c t r o n i c s t r u c t u r e o f m e t a l s , 61 E l e c t r o n probe m i c r o a n a l y z e r IEPMA), 291 E l ec t r o n sca t t e r i ng f o r c hemi ca 1 a n a l y s i s (ESCA), 293, 296 - a p p l i c a t i o n examples, 190 Electroplating, 208 E l e c t r o s t a t i c adhesion, 58 Elements o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems, 305, 354 Emission o f f r i c t i o n a l energy, 9 1 Energy, - balance, 18 - d i s s i p a t i o n , 56, 87 - t r a n s a c t i o n s , 36 ENPORT computer program, 20 E n t r o p y g e n e r a t i o n due t o f r i c t i o n , 38 Equidensi t i e s o f i n t e r f e r o g r a m s , 288 E r o s i o n , 103 a b r a s i o n , 114 - f a i l u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f , 239 Exo-el e c t r o n e m i s s i o n (EEE) , 92 E x p o n e n t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , 236 E x t e r n a l l y p r e s s u r i z e d b e a r i n g s , 200 Extreme p r e s s u r e (EP) a d d i t i v e s , 159, 165 investigations o f electrical c o n t a c t s , 341 - modes, 239 modes o f gears, 230 o f b a l l b e a r i n g s , 237 o f D i e s e l engine u n i t s , 237 o f e n g i n e e r i n g systems, 228 r a t e , 235 s u r f a c e , 172 F a l e x t e s t , 276 F a s t e n e r s e t s , 351 F a t i g u e , 105 failure distribution, 239 f a i l u r e i n r o l l i n g c o n t a c t , 108 Ferrography, 284 F i e l d i o n microscopy (FIM), 293, 299 F i l i n g , 353 Film-thickness-to-roughness r a t i o , 153 Flanges, 351 F1 ash t e m p e r a t u r e , 94 F l e x u r a l b e a r i n g s , 205 Flow v a r i a b l e s , 19 F l u i d f i l m s , 200 F o r g i n g , 346, 352 Force t r a n s d u c e r , 258 Four b a l l t e s t , 276 Fracture, - failure distribution, 239 - processes i n adhesive wear, 121 - processes i n s u r f a c e f a t i g u e wear, 109 F r e t t i n g wear, 127 Friction, 1 - adhesion h y p o t h e s i s o f , 5 - c o e f f i c i e n t , 4, 73, 317 - c o e f f i c i e n t , formal representat i o n , 308 - dampers, 351 - d r i v e s , 351 - energy e m i s s i o n processes, 9 1 - i n boundary l u b r i c a t i o n , 163 - i n s t a b i l i t i e s , 215 - measuring t e c h n i q u e s , 257 - processes, 69 - r o l l i n g , 81 - roughness h y p o t h e s i s o f , 4 - s l i d i n g , 73 - studies, h i s t o r i c s o f , 3 - t e s t methods, 250 - t e s t r i g s , 252 F r i c t i o n a l h e a t , 94 F u l l - s c a l e t e s t s , 277 Function, - o f a system, 17 - o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems, 27, 211 F u n c t i o n a l f a i l u r e s , 227
169, 175
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Gamma d i s t r i b u t i o n , 238 Gear, c o u p l i n g s , 351 f a i l u r e modes, 230 t e s t r i g s , 273 Gear t r a i n , - i d e a l f u n c t i o n a l behaviour, 212 - network r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , 213 Geometry o f t e s t systems, 252, 265 Gouging abrasion, 114 G r i f f i t h theory, 111 G r i n d i n g abrasion, 114 Guides, 351 Gyroscopic bearings, 351 Junction, growth, 71 - interfacial,
57
Kirman v o r t e x s t r e e t , 167 Khrushov diagram o f a b r a s i v e wear r e s i s t a n c e , 116 K i r c h h o f f s laws, 19, 212, 217 Kramer e f f e c t o f e x o - e l e c t r o n s , 92 Lamellar solids, f r i c t i o n o f , 81 Laminar f l u i d f l o w , 167 Lap1ace e q u a t i o n , 201 Lapping, 353 L i m i t s o f l u b r i c a t i o n , 166 Load a p p l i c a t i o n methods i n t r i b o t e s t i n g , 254 L o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y , 165, 170 Long range f o r c e s , 59 Low energy e l e c t r o n d i f f r a c t i o n (LEED), 293, 295 Lubricant, f i l m t h i c k n e s s , measuring methods, 264 - s e l e c t i o n procedure, example, 332 supply, m o n i t o r i n g o f , 281 - t e s t methods, 274 - types, 157 Lubri c a t i o n , - modes, 130 - o f mechanical systems, 33 - studies, h i s t o r i c s o f , 8
Hamaker constants, 60 Hardness, i n f l u e n c e on wear, 115, 192 Heat g e n e r a t i o n i n f r i c t i o n , 38, 267 Heathcote-sl i p i n r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n , 83 H e r t z t h e o r y , 49 H i e r a r c h y o f systems, 15 Hinges, 351 Human, - j o i n t s , 351 t e e t h , 352 - v e i n s , 352 Hydrocarbons, 157 Hydraul ic d r i v e s , 351 Hydrodynamic 1u b r i c a t i o n , 132 H y d r o s t a t i c b e a r i n g s , 200 Hypoid gears, 351
Impact wear, 103 I m p u l s i v e c o n t a c t , 54 Inertia, p r i n c i p l e of, 4 Information, g e n e r a t i o n systems, 350 r e p r o d u c t i o n systems, 350 t r a n s m i s s i o n o f , 27 I n f r a r e d pyrometer, 259 I n j e c t i o n moulding, 352 I n n e r s u r f a c e l a y e r s , 57 Interfacial , - bonding, 57 - s l i p , 54 I n t e r f e r e n c e microscopy, 286 I n t e r r e l a t i o n s between t h e elements o f t r i b o - t e c h n i c a l systems, 306
Machinery c o n d i t i o n m o n i t o r i n g , 246, 277 Magnetic, c h i p d e t e c t o r s , 283 - f i e l d s , 202 - suspension b e a r i n g s , 202 Magnetohydrodynami c (MHD) b e a r i n g s , 202 Malfunctions , - o f e n g i n e e r i n g systems, 246 - o f l i v i n g systems, 246 M a n u f a c t u r i n g processes, 345 M a r t e n s i t i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , 194 Mass balance, 41 Material, f o r m i n g systems, 350 l o s s e s due t o wear, 195 quantities i n tribo-testing, 257 s e l e c t i o n procedure, example, 326 - t r a n s a c t i o n s , 40 - t r a n s p o r t a t i o n systems, 350 Maxwell model o f v i s c o e l a s t i c i t y , 55 Mean t i m e t o f a i l u r e , 235
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Mechanical, c a l c u l a t i n g machine, 241 c l o c k , 241 - e f f i c i e n c y , 221 equipment r e l i a b i l i t y , 234 .- f a u l t s , 229 - q u a n t i t i e s i n t r i b o - t e s t i n g , 257 - systems, c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f , 35, 350 M e t a l l i c adhesion bonding, 58 Metal-working, 345, 348 Methodology f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f f r i c t i o n and wear problems, 315 M i c r o - c o n t a c t areas, 53 M i c r o - c u t t i n g processes, 112 Microdisplacements, 73 M i c r o p r o c e s s o r s , 241, 278 Micro-slip, 54 i n r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n , 82 M i l d wear, 99 M i n i n g , 352 Mixed l u b r i c a t i o n , 154 Monolayer a n a l y s i s techniques, 293 Motion, 1, 4 - i n f l u e n c e o f f r i c t i o n on, 215 - t r a n s m i s s i o n systems, 350 - types, 304 M u l t i p o r t system, 214
O p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s , 30 - conditions f o r proper choice of, 244 - i n t r i b o t e s t i n g , 251 - o f t r i b o - t e c h n i c a l systems, 304 O p t i c a l microscopy, 286 O p t i m i z a t i o n o f dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems, 221 Outer s u r f a c e l a y e r s , 57 Oxygen, i n f l u e n c e on boundary l u b r i c a t i o n , 190, 314 Packings, 352 P a r a f f i n i c hydrocarbons, 157 P a r t i a l elastohydrodynamic (EHD) lubrication, 155 P e t r o f f ' s formula, 8 Phonons, e m i s s i o n o f , 9 1 Photons, e m i s s i o n o f , 92 P h y s i s o r p t i o n , 160 P i n - o n - d i s c t r i b o m e t e r , 265, 313 P i p e l i n e s , 352 P i s t o n - c y l i n d e r assemblies, 352 - c o n d i t i o n moni t o r i n g , 282 - f a i l u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , 237 P i t t i n g o f gears, 232 P i v o t b e a r i n g s , 351 - l u b r i c a t i o n o f , 332 P l a n e t a r y gears, 351 P l a n i n g , 353 P l a s t i c c o n t a c t processes, 55 P l a s t i c deformation i n r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n , 85 P l a s t i c i t y i n d e x , 55, 101, 179 P l o u g h i n g component o f s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n , 77 Poisson s t a t i s t i c a l process, 238 P o l i s h i n g , 353 P o l y e t h y l e n e (HDPE), f r i c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f , 317 Polymer-steel s l i d i n g p a i r s , f r i c t i o n o f , 316 P o l y t e t r a f l u o r e t h y l e n e (PTFE) , f r i c t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f , 317 Power, balance, 37 - c i r c u l a t i n g p r i n c i p l e , 274 - screws, 351 - t r a n s m i s s i o n systems, 350 P r e l i m i n a r y displacements, 73 P r e s e n t a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h data, 312 P r e s s i n g , 346, 352 P r i n t i n g u n i t s , 352 P r o f i 1ometer t e c h n i q u e , 289 P r o p e r t i e s o f t h e elements o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems, 306
Naphthenic hydrocarbons, 158 Navier-Stokes e q u a t i o n s , 135, 138 Needle b e a r i n g s , 351 Network, - t h e o r y , 18 - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f gear t r a i n system, 213 - representation o f n-port system, 214 Newtonian f l u i d s , 134 N i t r i d i n g , 208, 322 No-contact t i m e f r a c t i o n , 167 Noise, - measuring t e c h n i q u e s , 258, 279 - r e d u c t i o n , example o f , 338 - spectrum o f w h e e l - r a i l system, 338 Nomarski o p t i c a l microscopy, 286 Non r e t a r d e d van d e r Waals f o r c e s , 59 Normal d i s t r i b u t i o n , 236 No-wear c o n d i t i o n s , s o l u t i o n s f o r , 199 Off-shore bearing a p p l i c a t i o n , O i l i n e s s aqents, 158 O l e f i n i c hydrocarbons, 158 O l e i c a c i d . 159 O n - l i n e m o n i t o r i n g techniques, 326
277
398
Prow f o r m a t i o n , Punching , 353 121 Secondary i o n mass spectroscopy ( S I M S ) , 293, 296 Seizure, 119, 167 Severe wear, 99 Shakedown l i m i t i n r o l l i n g , 85 Shaping, 353 Shoe-on-ground, 351 S h o r t range f o r c e s , 59 S i mu1 a t ion, methods, 248 o f s t i c k - s l i p behaviour, 218 S i m u l a t i v e t e s t i n g , 264 - o f b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s , 268 schematic o u t l i n e o f , 270 S1 ideways , 351 S l i d i n g b e a r i n g s , 351 S l i d i n g f r i c t i o n , 73 S1 i p - r i ng assembl i e s , 352 S l i p systems i n c r y s t a l s , 66 S o l u b i l i t y o f m e t a l s and t r i b o l o g i c a l behaviour, 63, 120 S o l u t i o n s o f t r i b o l o g i c a l problems, 315 Sommerfel d, c o n d i t i o n , 141 number, 143 Sound, emission o f , 91, 338 Spalling fatigue failure i n r o l l ing c o n t a c t , 108 S p e c t r o g r a p h i c o i 1 a n a l y s i s procedure (SOAP), 282 S p i n d l e s , 351 Spinning, 352 S p l i n e s , 351 Spur gears, 351 Squeeze t e r m o f Reynolds e q u a t i o n , 139 Staining, f a i l u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f , 239 S t a r v a t i o n o f l u b r i c a n t , 152 S t e a r i c a c i d , 159 S t i c k - s l i p e f f e c t s , 215 analogue computer s i m u l a t i o n , 218 i n w h e e l - r a i l system, 338 Storage o f f r i c t i o n a l energy, 89 S t r a i n gauges, 258 S t r a i n h a r d e n i n g due t o f r i c t i o n and wear, 192 S t r e t c h t e r m o f Reynolds e q u a t i o n , 139 S t r i b e c k curve, 130, 219 Structure, o f a system, 16 o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems, 30, 176, 305 Subsurface c o n t a c t shear s t r e s s e s , 107
Q u a r r y ing , 352 Quinn's theory o f t r i b o o x i d a t i v e wear, 124 Rack-and-pinions, 351 R a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r methods, 283 R a y l e i g h d i s t r i b u t i o n , 236 Real a r e a o f c o n t a c t , 53 Reduction, o f f r i c t i o n - i n d u c e d noise, example, 338 o f severe wear, example, 335 Redundancy, 242 o f mechanical systems, 243 Relays, 352 Re1ia b i 1 ity, 234 - f u n c t i o n , 235 - o f mechanical equipment, 234 Rep1acement o f mechanical systems, 241 Requirements f o r p r o p e r f u n c t i o n a l behaviour, 240 Research d a t a p r e s e n t a t i o n , 312 Retarded van d e r Waals f o r c e s , 60 Reynolds, - c o n d i t i o n , 141 e q u a t i o n , 139, 147, 155 * - number, 167 - s l i p i n r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n , 82 Roll ing, c o n t a c t f a i l u r e , 108 - f r i c t i o n , 81 - i n metalworking, 346, 352 Rope d r i v e s , 351 Roughness, - hypothesis o f f r i c t i o n , 4 - o f surfaces, 51 Runni ng- in , o f b e a r i n g s u r f a c e s , 182 - schedules, 185 Rusting, f a i l u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f , 239
SAE t e s t , 276 S a f e t y o f e n g i n e e r i n g systems, 228 Sawing, 353 Scale f a c t o r s i n s i m u l a t i v e t r i b o t e s t i n g , 267 Scanning e l e c t r o n microscopy (SEM) , 289 S c u f f i n g , 119, 167 - i n c i p i e n t , 171 o f gears, 233 Seals, 352
399
S u p e r p o s i t i o n o f wear mechanisms, 127 Surface, c o a t i n g s , 208 c o m p o s i t i o n , 57, 186, 190 composition i n v e s t i g a t i o n techniques, 291 c o n t o u r maps, 291 energy, 67 energy c r i t e r i o n , 196 f a t i g u e wear mechanisms, 105 i n v e s t i g a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , 286 preparation i n tribo-testing, 252 roughness, 51 roughness i n EHD l u b r i c a t i o n , 170 s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s , 191 'topography, 51, 180, 181 topography measuring techniques, 286 S w i tches , 352 Sys tem, concept, 14 definition, 16 dependent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 65, 265 .- f u n c t i o n , 16, 27, 211, 303 .- h i e r a r c h y , 15 independent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 65, 274 methodology, 300, 315 m o d e l l i n g techniques, 18 structure, 16, 30, 176, 242, 305 t e a r i n g , 25 T i l t i n g pad b e a r i n g , 134 Timken t e s t , 276 Topography o f s u r f a c e s , 5 1 Transactions o f q u a n t i t i e s i n systems, 21, 30 T r a n s i t i o n s i n l u b r i c a t i o n modes, 168, 171 Transmission o f m o t i o n , i n f l u e n c e o f f r i c t i o n , 215 T r i b o - c h e m i c a l wear mechanisms, 123 T r i bo-engi n e e r i ng systems, c o m p i l a t i o n o f , 350 Tribology, - d e f i n i t i o n , 11 - g e n e r a l t h e o r y , 24 - h i s t o r i c a l development, 3 - meaning o f , 11 T r i b o l o g i c a l processes, 33, 45 , 307 - i n f l u e n c e on t h e f u n c t i o n o f mechanical systems, 211 - i n f l u e n c e on t h e s t r u c t u r e o f mechanical systems, 176 T r i b o l o g i c a l systems d a t a sheet, 301, 309 T r i b o l umi nescence , 92 Tribo-mechanical system, d e f i n i t i o n , 27 T r i b o m e t e r , 4, 248 T r i b o m e t r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 251 T r i bometry, 248 T r i b o - p r o c e s s diagram, 32 T r i bo- t e s t i n g , 248 Turbulences, 167 T u r n i n g , 353 Two-port system, 214 T y p e w r i t e r u n i t s , 352 T y r e and road, 352
Tangential forces i n contact processes, 69 Tape r e c o r d e r heads, 352 T a y l o r v o r t e x f l o w , 167 Technical f u n c t i o n s o f t r i b o - m e c h a n i c a l systems, 27, 211, 303, 350 Temperature, c o n t r o l l e v e l s f o r b e a r i n g s , 280 e f f e c t s i n EHD l u b r i c a t i o n , 153, 170 measuring techniques, 255, 259 .- r i s e s due t o f r i c t i o n , 94 Test, d u r a t i o n , 256 - methods, 248 T e s t i n g , 248 full-scale, 277 o f l u b r i c a n t s , 274 o f machine elements, 272 Thermal, - e f f e c t s due t o f r i c t i o n , 94 -. q u a n t i t i e s i n t r i b o - t e s t i n g , 257 -. t r a n s a c t i o n s , 38 Thermocouples , 259 Through v a r i a b l e s , 19
400
55
Washers, 352 Wear, 2 c o e f f i c i e n t , 262 - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , 7, 102 - d e b r i s , 189 - i n boundary l u b r i c a t i o n , 164 - m o n i t o r i n g techniques, 281 - p a r t i c l e s , 122, 197, 198 processes, 97 processes, s u p e r p o s i t i o n o f , 127 q u a n t i t i e s , 261 - q u a n t i t i e s , formal representation, 308 - r e d u c t i o n , example, 335 - r e s i s t a n c e , d e f i n i t i o n , 114 - r e s i s t a n t c o a t i n g s , 207, 321 - studies, h i s t o r i c s o f , 6 t e s t methods, 250, 262, 281 - t e s t r i g s , 252 t i m e behaviour, 195, 235
Weaving, 352 Wedge d r i v e , 222 Wedge t e r m o f Reynolds equation, 139 W e i b u l l d i s t r i b u t i o n , 238 Well d r i l l i n g , 352 Wheel and r a i l , 338, 352 Workpiece d i e i n t e r f a c e , 347 Work, t r a n s a c t i o n s , 36 t r a n s m i s s i o n systems, 350 Worm gears, 351 W r i t i n g u n i t s , 352