GENERALIZED QUADRILATERAL CIRCLE PATTERNS by CASEY ROBERT HUME, B.A.

A THESIS IN MATHEMATICS Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCi:

Approved

Co-Chair])erson of the Committee

Co-Chairpjerson of the Committee

Accepted

Dean of the Graduate School August, 2003

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express gratitude for the generosity of the CSEM Scholarship Program, which was funded through a grant from the NSF and proposed by the faculty of the Colleges of Engineering and -Arts and Sciences at Texas Tech University. .Additionally I would like to thank Dr. Kimberly Drews for her support and encouragement, and luy family, friends and Eisak and Daphne for their concern and enthusiasm (however difficult it may have been to tell Daphne was enthusiastic). The graphics in this paper were produced using Maple.

CONTENTS

.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF FIGURES L 2. INTRODUCTION GENER,AL1ZED QUADRIL.ATERAL CIRCLE PATTERNS 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3. Notation Quadrilateral Circle Patterns Range Construction Possible Benefits

ii iv 1 3 3 3 17 22 23 23 23 . ... 25 29 34 38

CONSTANT ANGLE CONDITION 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Description Necessary and Sufficient Conditions Requiring a// -f a\ = 7r Geometric Radii Condition

4.

EXA.MPLES

BIBLIOGR,APH^'

111

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

.A graphic of the desired properties of a circle pattern .A circle pattern of the identity map Example 2.1 Example 2.2 with 9 = 7r/3. . Example 2.3 and zoom of Example 2.3 E.xample 2.4 beginning circle and four circles One possible extension of Example 2.4 Example 3.1 .A circle pattern for f{z) = 2^/^ with constant angles 7r/2. Another circle pattern for f{z) = z^^^ with constant angles A QCP for f{z) = z^ with constant angles of - / 2 Another QCP for f{z) = 2^ with coii.stant angles A QCP for f{z) = log{z) with constant rr/2 aiiKl* s A QCP for f{z) = ( with constant - / 2 angles. .

4 7 12 14 15 20 21 28 35 35 36 36 37 37

IV

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

.Although much is currently being learned about circle packings and patterns, their usefulness in terms of computation and approximations is restricted by their appUcability. In specific, one of the greatest downfalls to this field of study thus far has been the difficulty of utilizing current techniques in analyzing quasiconformal maps. This has caused much difficulty in several applications of these techniques, such as in the field of brain mapping [3, 12]. This paper seeks to examine some of the basic aspects of circle patterns in order to expand the situations in which these approximations may be utilized, with specific interest in allowing the inclusion of even such quasiconformal approximations. Our method of generalizing circle patterns, herein restricted to generalizing the quadrilateral circle pattern, is achieved by flKll^iIlJ^ entirely un the intersection points of the pattern and using these to derive aiiv additional information required. By doing this, we allow a larger category of patterns, including some modelling quasiconformal mapjs. Following Thurston's Conjet ture [11] and Rodin and Sullivan s subsequent proof [6] that hexagonal c ircle packings can be u.sed to approximate Riemann maps, there has been a flurry of research activity into the depth of the connection between conformal maps and circle packings and patterns. Oded Schram [7] first used circle patterns with combinatorics of a square lattice to approximate entire functions in certain restricted cases (in this paper these conditions are discussed as the result of requiring diagonal circles to be tangent). Bobenko, Hoffman, and Suris [4, 1] loosened Schramm's condition under the hexagonal case to require only that the pattern had a set of global constant angles of intersection. In this thesis, we return to quadrilateral lattices with much looser restrictions than previously considered. In particular we are able to directly approximate quasiconformal maps for the first time. In Chapter 2, we give a definition for a new type of circle pattern constructed

by focusing only on the points of intersection created by the quadrilateral lattice. We also present a sclieme for constructing even the most general examples of such a quadrilateral circle pattern. In Chapter 3, we discuss Bobenko and Hoffman's constant angle condition as it relates to our quadrilateral circle patterns. We also prove that Schramm's tangency condition necessitates the constant emgle condition, giving us another way to force Bobenko and Hoffman's condition for our quadrilateral circle patterns. Chapter 4 presents several classical examples of mappings which have been previously done by the mentioned authors, using other methods. Here these have been constructed utilizing a simple Maple program written based on the work presented in this paper.

CHAPTER 2 GENERALIZED QUADRIL.ATERAL CIRCLE PATTERNS

2.1

Notation

This paper will utiUze the following symbols with the accompanying definitions: Z R <^x = The ring of integers = The field of real numbers

= The field of complex numbers = The extended complex plane (i.e. C U {co} ), also called the Riemann Sphere

' 3 ^e(2) M^)

= = = =

The "positive" root of 2^ H 1 = 0 The conjugate of 2 (i.e. if 2 = x + ly, then 2 = r - iy) i(2-H2) ^(z-z) = -i(2-2)

[21. 22]

= The line segment (or circular arc according to context) joining points 2] and 22.

arg(2)

For 2 = re'*, where r > 0 and ^ R, arg(z) = 6, (uniquely defined only if we restrict to a specific branch of logarithm).

Additional notation will be presented as it is discussed. 2.2 Quadrilateral Circle Patterns

Discretizations of complex functions are sometimes useful as a tool in analysis, especially when the original function is only theoretically possible, and no clear construction is known. By discretizing complex functions carefully, the image of a function may be visualized, so as to provide a clue to understanding the nature of the original function.

Figure 2.1: A graphic of the desired properties of a circle pattern.

.An example of a method of this kind of discretization is the construction of circle patterns. The most general model of a circle pattern is simply a cluster of overlap)ping circles which cover the image of the original function (except perhaps near to the boimdary) by the union of their interiors. This is very similar to the carnival game involving discs which must be dropped to cover a picture on a card. Instead of looking at these very general patterns, we will focus here on patterns having the following properties, which are illustrated in Figure 2.1: 1. Every circle (in the interior of the pattern) has exactly four specified intersection points on it. 2. Every specified point of intersection has at least four circles which pass through it. 3. Every circle (in the interior of the pattern) intersects exactly four adjacent circles in two of these specified points, and exactly four adjacent circles in only one of these specified points. 4. If two circles Ci and C2 intersect in points pi and p2, then the arc [pi,p2] in each circle which lies in the interior of the other circle contains no other specified intersection points.

Note here that we will not be requiring that these specified points of intersection are the only points of intersection, but merely that our pattern will have at least these points of intersection. .All other intersection points are disregarded as we are not requiring that our patterns keep track of all arcs of circles in the domain. - circle with exactly four specified points along it is a special example of a complex A quadrilateral. Recall that a simple closed curve in C is also called a Jordan curve, and a Jordan curve with four identified distinct points is called a quadrilateral (In the following discussion it will sometimes be necessary to distinguish between this definition of a quadrilateral and the typical Euclidean definition, in order to do this, a polygon of four sides will be called a Euclidean quadrilateral). We now endeavor to establish necessary and sufficient conditions for a scattering of points in C to make up a circle pattern. This will enable us to add conditions to find more specific types of patterns. In this interest, observe the following proposition. Proposition 2,1. Given four distinct complex points, z\. 22, 23, and 21 the following statements are pairwise equivalent: 1. zi, 22. 23. and 24 are either collinear or cocircular (in either case they are contained in the same circle in C^).
2. g(2i.22,23,24)R.

3. 3m(z,2j)(|22|' - I24I') +3m(222T)(|2,|' - I23I') = 3m(2,Zi)(|23|' - |24p) + 3m(Z2Zj)(|Zi|' - I24I') -h 3m(232T)(|2,|2 - I22I') + 3m(2,2T)(|22|' - I23H 21I' 21 27 1 I22P 22 2i 1 123^ 23 2j 1 |Z4|^ 24 27 1
= 0.

Proof. (1) <=>. (2) This is a well known result of analysis of the cross ratio on Cooi-) "^^^ (3) Results from simplification and collection of the numerator of the expression 3m(g(2i, 22, ^3. ~4)) = 0. The reverse is true since all four points are distinct, hence (21 - 24) (22 - 23) is nonzero, so we may divide by it. (3) <=> (4) Is a simple, but lengthy exercise of linear algebra and appears as an exercise in [8]. Definition 2.2. Let p he a mapping p-.ZxZ >C D

p{n, m) = p,mThen p is a (local) discrete immersion if: 1. for every {n,m) Z x Z, the figure Pn,m obtained by the union of the segments
\Pn.m,Pn + l,m]< \Pn+l,m, Pn+l.m+l]\Pn+l.m+l> Pn.m+l], (^^d [Pn,m+1, Pn.m] (nOUe of

which are single point.'^. i.e. all four points are distinct) is either: (a) a polygon, in which case C \ Pn.m consists of exactly two components, or (b) a straight line segment between two of the points, in which case each of the individual line segments are considered to be 'sides" of the line. 2. for every (n, m) G Z x Z the set of distinct points
{Pn,m-li P n + l , m - l . P n + 2 , m - l , Pn+2,m, Pn+2,m+l) Pn+2,m+2, Pn-l,m-l/

Pn+l,m+2i Pn.m+2i Pn-l,m+2) Pn-l,m-fl) P n - l , m ,

IS contained entirely within the unbounded component of C\ Pn,m (in the case that Pn,m w a '"e this means that none of the points are actually on Pn,m)-

V1\r\7\ M

1)

I )

W w y V

Figure 2.2: A circle pattern of the identity map.

In other words, each four points of Z x Z which are corners of a unit square are mapped by p to some Euclidean quadrilateral (or line segment). .Moreover, any two adjacent sets of points are mapped to adjacent Euclidean quadrilaterals (or possibly line segments) which have exactly one side in common (where for the linear case, side is explained in the definition). Definition 2.3. A quadrilateral circle pattern (or QCP) is the image of a (local) discrete immersion
p : Z X Z >C p{n, m) = Pn,m

under which the equation

3m(q{pn,m,Pn+l,m,Pn+l,m + UPn,m+l)) = 0

holds true for all (n, m) Z x Z. 7

Thus, by Proposition 2.1(1) each such set of four adjacent points may be joined by a real circle or a straight line. Furthermore, it is clear one may also require versions (3) and (4) of the given condition, with version (4) giving the following corollary. Corollary 2.4. .4 (local) discrete immersionp : Z x Z >C such thatp{n,m) is a quadrUatend cvxle pattern if and only if
\Pn.ml
|Pn + l,m| |Pn,m+l| iPn+l.r/i + ll 2 Pn,m Pn+l,m Pn,m+l p+i,m+l Pn.m Pn+l,m Pn,m+l Pn+l,m+l
1

= pn,m

1 1 1

= 0 for all {n, m) G Z x

Proof. This is an immediate consequence of 2.1(4), but one must note det{.A) {l)"det{Ei E2 E3... En A) where E, are elementary row swapping matrices. Thus if det{A) = 0 then det{Ei "2 E 3 . . . .4) = 0, and the converse is true as well. D

.As a quick remark, it is important to note that the four conditions of Proposition 2.1 are independent of the ordering of the four points, which is easily seen from 2.1(4) and the noted fact of linear algebra from the proof of Corollary 2.4. This will be a fact used later. To see how such a (local) discrete immersion relates to a circle pattern, observe the following method of representation of circles presented by [8] included here without proof Fact: Let 2! be a 2 x 2 hermitian matrix, with complex entries A, B, C, and D (where both .4 and D are real, and B = C). Then 'A B"
(i =

D,

is a matrix representation of the complex circle {z, l) = Azl+Bz 8 + Cl + D = 0.

In this representation, if C represents a real circle then that circle has center 7 and radius p which can be expressed in terms of .4, B. C, and D as follows, B = -.4T C = -.4^ = B D = .4(|7|-'-p^) furthermore the determinant A of (!) A = det{) = -A'p'.
(2.4)

(2.1) (2.2) (2.3)

In addition, such circles can be fully classified by the real numbers .4 and A by, .4 5i: 0, A A A .4 = 0, A A < = 0 0 < = > 0 0 0 (A = - 1 5 p < 0 ) straight line 0 (D 7i^ 0) or C (D = 0) real circle point circle imaginary circle p p p > = < 0 0 0

Then, utilizing this notation, we may write each quartet of points based at {n,m) G Z x Z {i.e pn,m, Pn+i,m, Pn.m4i, Pn+i,m+i) in a matrix of formulas suggested by

Proposition 2.1(3).

'

3 m ( p n + i , m Pn,m+l) 4 - 3 m ( p + l , m Pn+l,m + l ) - ^ 3 m ( p + l , m + l Pn,m+1)

-HPn+l.m+l

(|Pn + l,m|

" |Pn,m+l| )

+ P n + l.m (|Pn,m+ll

" |Pn+l,m-fl| )

+Pn,r7i+1 (|Pn + l,m+l|^ " |Pn+l,m| ) j

^(pn+l,m.l

(|pn+l,m|' " K m + l T )

|p+l.m+l P 3 m ( p + i , ^ P , ^ + l ) + |Pn.m+l | ' j ' m ( p + l , ^ p + l , ^ + l ) + | p + l , m | ' 3 m ( p + i , ^ + i Pn.m+l)

+ P n + l . m (|Pn,r.+ i r - | P n + l , m + l | ' ) +P.m+1 ( | P n + l . m + l | ' " | P n + l . m r ) j

which is the result of viewing Proposition 2.1(3) as a quadratic form with variable terms of p,, and | v ^ . Thus we see that ,,,, is indeed hermitian, and represents either a line or a real circle by Proposition 2.1. It represents a line when
3m(p+l,TO P+l,m+l) -I- 3m(p,m+i Pn+l,m) + 3ni(p+i,m+l Pn,m+l) = 0

and thus
Pn+l,m Pn+l,m+l + Pn,m-f 1 Pn+l,m + Pn+l,m+l Pn,m+1 ^ RIf 3m(p+i,, Pn.m+l) + 3m(p+i, p+,,^+l) + 3m(p+i,m+l Pn,m+l) " 0. <2^,,m

represents a real circle. We refer to [8] again to see that the matrices (Ti and (^2 represent the same circle if and only if there exists some A G R\{0} such that (Ti = \2- Thus we affix a specific representation of each of these circles or lines to be called the standard form: 1. For 3m(p+i,^p+1,^+1) -h 3m(p,^+ip+i,,) -(- 3m(p+i ,^ip,m+i) = 0 either

\C where

iq = i
when
IPn+l.m+ll^^TllPn+l.m Pn,m+l) + |Pn,m+l| 3m(p + i,m Pn+l,m+l) + |Pn+l,m| 3m(p+i,m+l Pn,m+l) = 0,

or

_ . 0
C

C
1

10

when
|Pn+l.rn+l| 3m(p+i_,n p ,^i) -|- |p^^.i | 3 m ( p + i , i p+i,,jn.i) + IP-. + l.mj 3 n i ( p + i , , + i Pn,m+l) " 0.

2. For 3m(p+,,, p+i,,+,) + 3m(p,,+i Pn+i,m) + 3m(p+i,^+i p,m+i) ^ 0 use the standard representation

(l
\C

c
D^

Notice that each of these representations are unique, depending only on the values of certain ratios of the matrix entries and by Proposition 2.1(4) and the proof of CoroUaiy- 2.4 each is independent of which three points of each quadrilateral are utilized in the formula. Then if we ensure that no four cocircular points p,,, Pn+i,m, Pn,m+i. and pn+\.,m+\ of the quadrilateral circle pattern p are collinear. we need use only the unique standard representation of each real circle Cn,m as
B

,m ^.m - I ,.

where .4. B, C. and D are defined as

.4 = 3 m ( p + i , m Pn,m+l) + 3 m ( p + i . m Pn + l.m+l) + 3 n i ( p + i , m + l Pn,m+l) B = - - ( PnH-l.m+l (|Pn+l.m| -|Pn,m+ll) (2.5)

--p+i,m (|Pn,m+l|^ " j P n + L m + l D + Pn,m+1 (|Pn+l.m+l|^ " |Pn+l,m| ) j

(2-6)

C=

- ( p + l , m + l (|Pn+l,m|

IPn.m+lj )

+Pn+l,m

( | P n . m + i r " |Pn + l , m + i P ) + Pr.,m+1 (|Pn+l,m+l|

" |Pn+l,m| ) j

(2-7)

D = | p + l , m + l | ^ 3 ' " ( P n + l , m Pn,m+l) + i P n . m + l l ^ 3 m ( p + i , r P + l , m + l ) + |p+l.m|^ ^ m ( p + i , m + l Pn,m+l)(2-8)

11

(] (] 7\ A ^

Figure 2.3: Example 2.1.

Furthermore, we have from (2.2) that

Ifn.m

__
J

(2.9)

while recalling (2.4) we have

'n,m V

-A

(2.10)

J
/

B A

-D

Example 2.1. Takepn,m = (2n-l-H-t(2m-l-l)) and notice that for any four cocircular points p{n, m), p{n + 1, m), p{n, m -I-1) and p{n -I-1, m 4-1) we have (2n 4-1)2-h (2m 4-1)2 (2n-Hi)-I-t(2m-h 1) (2n-H 1) - i(2m-h 1) 1 (2n-H3)2 4-(2m4-l)2 (2n-H 3)-h i(2m + 1) (2n-H 3) - i(2m-H 1) 1
= 0.

(2n-H 1)2 4-(2m 4-3)2 (2n4-1)-H i(2m + 3) ( 2 n - H ) - z(2m4-3) 1 (2n 4-3)2 4-(2m 4-3)2 (2n 4-3) 4-i(2m 4-3) (2n-h 3) - z(2m-h 3) 1 12

Thus by Prvposition 2.1(4) this foiyns a quadrilateral circle pattern and by (2.5)(2.8). .4 = 4 B = - 8 ( n - h l ) + 8(m + l)z C = - 8 ( n 4-1) - 8(m 4- l)i D = 4(4n^ 4- 8n 4- 3 4- 4m2 + 8m 4- 3) = 8(2n'-' 4- 4n 4- 2m2 -|- 4m 4- 3) and thus by 12.4). (2.9) and (2.10) we have C In.m = - - = 2 ( n 4 - l ) 4 - 2 ( m 4 - l ) i .4 A = ^ -

= 2(2n2 + 4u + 2m2 -^ 4m -h 3) - 4(n + 1)^ - 4(m + 1)^

= -2

and

= ^/2.

This example may be generalized to the QCP p{n, m) = (an4-c) 4- {am)i for some Q 6 R \ {0} and c G C Such a quadrilateral circle pattern would be the discrete

analog of the mapping / : C > C with /(z) = QZ 4- c. It is clear that the mapping / and the QCP p both consist of a dilation by the real number Q and a translation by the complex number c. In fact, p is the restriction of / to Z x Z.

13

Figure 2.4: Example 2.2 with 9 = 7r/3.

Example 2.2. Let p{n, m) = e'*(n 4- mi) for fixed 9 eR. n2 -h m2 (n-H 1)2-I-m2 n2 4-(m4-l)2 e'*(n 4- mi) e*((n 4-1)4-mi) e'(n4-(m4-l)i)

Then since

e-'*(n - mi) e-*((n 4-1) - mi) e-**(n - (m4-l)i) 1 1 =0

(n4-l)2 4-(m-Hl)2 e*((n4-l)-K(m4-l)i) e'^Hn + I) - {m + l)i)

by Proposition 2.1(4), this is a quadrilateral circle pattern, and to locate the centers of the circles, as well as the radii, we apply the same (2.4) and (2.5) through (2.10) to find A= \
i$

B = -(2n4-l-(2m4-l)i) C = -^(2n4-l4-(2m4-l)i) D = n^ + n-i-m'^-i-m 14

,-ie

rwu/^
v^
and
oe

'* >s)sl

Figure 2 5: Example 2.3 and zoom of Example 2.3.

7,^ = ( 2 n + l 4 - ( 2 m + l ) 0 and
^n.Tn

*~

.-^

hence

_ _i_

This example correspionds to the mapping / : C C with f(z)

= ('"z.

This

c <jrresp.jnrlence is exactIv like the previous example, in that again, p is simply the restriction of / to Z x Z. E x a m p l e 2 . 3 . Let p{n,m) since n* -Hm2 (n-t-lj^'-m^ n*^4-(m^l)2 (^l/> + (m+l)2 n-* -I- mi (N-H l)'4-^^^ n'4-(m4-l)i (-|-l)' + (m4-l)i 15 n - rm (n 4 - 1 ) ' - m i n^ + {711-\-l)i (n 4-1)'^ 4-(m + l)z i 1 1 1 = 0. = n^ 4- mt. Then this forms a QCP by Proposition 2.1,

Again we wish to locate the centers and radii of the circles, so we apply the same (2.4) and (2.5) through (2.10) to find A = 3n2 4- 3n 4- 1 ^ = ^ ^ =^ [(n + 1)' -n' + (2m -h 1) ((n -h 1)^ - n') i]

[( + 1)' - n - (2m 4-1) ((n -h 1)^ - n') i]

D = n^{n + \f ((n -h 1)^ - n^) -^ 3nm(nm + n + m 4-1) and ln,m = 2 ((" + 1)' + (2m 4- l)i) and An.m = ^ hence Pn,m = V^-A, 1 = - V9n^ 4- 187i3 -I- lo/i^ + 6n 4- 2. (9n'' 4- ISn^' -|- iSn^ + 6n 4- 2)

This example shows one example of a QCP which does not restrict itself to only four intersection points. .As long as only the four specified points of intersection are considered we may still utilize the pattern to model some mapping which maps the specified intersection points appropriately. .Notice that, unlike the other patterns, this example corresponds to a quasiconformal map /(z) = {D\e{z))^ 4- i3m(z). In general, we wish to utilize quadrilateral circle patterns to discretize a mapping / : C > C by restricting its domain to Z x Z. However, for many possible reasons, this may not be possible. For example, the function may have singularities at some complex integer points, or the function may be multivalent. Examples 2.1 and 2.2 show that if we are unable to use Z x Z as the domain of our QCP, we may instead consider the image of Z x Z under the mapping / : C > C 16

with f{z) = 02 4- 6 for any o G C \ {0} and any 6 G C. By making this new set the domain for our desired QCP, we ma>- be able to avoid the difficulties that the complex integer points created. Thus the created QCP would actually correspond to the composition of the desired function with /(2). For some other QCP's, it ma>- be necessary to restrict ourselves to subdomains of Z X Z in order to eliminate the difficulty associated to the multivalent functions. This is done e.xactly as expected by omitting from the domain all points which lie directly on the desired branch cut and not considering the mapping of an>- quadrilaterals which would intereect the branch cut. 2.3 Range Construction

For most complex functions, there will be no QCP possible. For Mobius functions everv- set of cocircular points in Z x Z will be mapped to a set of cocircular points in C x , hence a QCP will always be possible. Of interest, however are general conformal mapjs and quasiconformal maps, for which we would like to find a QCP. These, however may not necessarily map any particular set of cocircular points in the domain to a set of cocircular points in the range. It may be possible, by carefully selecting points of C to construct a QCP based loosely on the desired function. This method of constructing a QCP by selecting its range, point by point, is called range construction and the general algorithm is outlined below. We will utilize some terminology borrowed from tiling, since the construction of a pattern requires the introduction of a beginning circle and requires that all adjacent circles be completed prior to working on any circles further away (creating a method ver\- similar to tiling the plane with circles). This will allow the entirety of the pattern to be constructed, in accordance with the necessary conditions as explained in [2]. We will call the circle which we begin with our origin circle, and we shall call each successive layer around the origin circle a corona. 1. Select two points in the complex plane, call them Zi and 22.

17

2. Either: (a) Select any real number p G [1/2 [22 - 2i|, 00) and construct one of the two circles (distinct if p # 1/2 I22 - 211) passing through zi and 22 with radius p. Select, on the circumference two points 23 and 24 which are pairwise distinct in the set {21, 22, 23,24}. Or (b) Select a third point 23 G C\ {0(23 - 2I)|Q G R } and use this third point in equations (2.5) through (2.8) along with Zi and 22 to determine the circle o,o- Then select k G R\{0,1} and solve the equation 9(24, 21, 22,23) = k for 24 to determine the last point on the circle. \'arying this k will allow us to alter the shape of the quadrilateral and thus will allow us to construct approximations to quasiconformal maps. 3. Select any one of 2], 22. 23. 2) and label it poo- Continuing counterclockwise around the circle label the other points respectively pio, Pi,i and po,i. It is necessary to create such an origin circle in this process, in order to admit unrestricted continuation, as in the monodromy theorem for circle patterns [2, 9, 10]. The construction continues in coronas about the origin circle as follows: 4. Either: (a) Choose six appropriate positive real numbers to serve as the radii of the circles in the first corona, noting that the four circles adjoining more than one point of the origin circle must have radii larger than or equal to one half the Euclidean distance between the two points of intersection. The four comer circles must have radii larger than zero. Affix each of these appropriately to the points po,o, Po.i, Pi,o, and p i j . Identify the eight intersection points of these circles which are not included in (to,o- Now choose, for each comer circle, one point in the arc which lies outside of all 18

adjoining circles. Now label these four points and the eight intersection points of the circles appropriately, counterclockwise according to Z x Z. Or (b) For each edge, for excimple look at [po,o,Pi,o] of Co,o choose one point in the half plane of C divided by {a(po,o - Pi,o) JQ: G M} containing neither Pi,i nor po,i. Utilizing our earlier methods, call this point 23 and select any number k G (oc,0) U (0, cx)) and let Z4 be the solution to the equation ^(-^.Po.o-Pi.OT^a) = k. Beginning with po,o, label the new points po,-i and Pi.-i. respectively, moving counterclockwise. Here the numbering system is clearly mimicking ZxZ. Label these eight points appropriately. For

each of the following four ordered sots of points: ^l = {Pl,2,Pl,lP2,l}

52 = {P-1.1,P0,1,P0.2}

53 = {P-i,o.Po,o.Po.-i}
^4 = {Pl,-l.Pl.O,P2,o}

select possibly different kj G (l,oc) for each ; = 1,2,3,4 (these are arbitrary within this range of R which corresponds to the appropriate arc of each circle). Then for each j , if the points in Sj (in appropriate order) are p*, / = 1,2,3 for j = 1.2,3,4, then let Zj be the solution to the equation qizj.p\p^,j^) = kj. (Note that the ordering mentioned is not necessary,

but in any different ordering, the choice of kj must reflect the location of the new point on the appropriate arc of the circle.) Finally, label each of the four points {ZX,Z2,Z3,ZA} appropriately according to their placements.

Each successive corona is built on the last beginning with any outer section of the previous corona's quadrilaterals and continuing to choose fc's in appropriate intervals 19

/
-1 V

\
-*

**
4

' ""--^.^

\%

Figure 2.6: Example 2.4 beginning circle and four circles.

b
\i>--TZ">-^ 4 f

of R until that side has been filled in and continuing onto the next side until the only remaining unlabelled points are the four on the corner arcs of each new corona. Example 2.4. This example is far from a complete example, but it does illustrate the process through the first corona. (We shall use method (b) throughout the example since it illustrates the point by point construction more explicitly.) Initially, let po,o = 0 and pi,o = 1 and choose pi.i = 1 4- 2i. Selecting k = 2 and solving the equation 9(z,0,l,l4-2i) = 2 gives
2 =

- 3 4-4t

which we label po.i- Thus our circle o,o w drawn upon the points {0,1,1 4- 2i, ( - 3 440/5}. Next, select the point pi._i = - 3 i and again use k = 2 and solve the equation 9(z,0,l,-3t) = 2 which gives z=

-9-6z 13

which we label po.-i- i^ow the circle Co.-i w drawn upon the points {0,1, - 3 i , (-9 6t)/13}. 20

/ T "^

V N / .-^^y""'^ ^~~"^-. " 5

/ /

\ \

\ \

-4-

Figure 2.7: One possible extension of Example 2.4.

Moving to the right, select the point p2,i = 2 and set k = 5. Solving the equation 7(2,2.1 + 2/. 1) = 5 gives

39 4-3t 34

which we label p2,o- H'e then draw the circle Cj.o upon the points {2,1,1 4- 2i, (39 43)/34}. The other sides are done similarly. The circle 1,-1 now must be drawn upon the points {-3i. 1, (39 4- 30/34}, but we require the fourth point of the quadrilateral, so choose k = 2 again to solve the equation 9(2,-3z, 1, (39-^ 3z)/34) = 2

to find
z = which we label p2^-\ 21 41l4-54i "313

2.4

Possible Benefits

-Although the range construction of quadrilateral circle patterns can be tedious, it allows the quadrilateral circle pattern to discretize and "graph" the discretizations of even quasiconformal maps [5, 12]. However, in the quasiconformal QCP the arcs of the circles are not necessarily the images of the arcs of the domain circles, and in general will not be. .As explained in the range construction, we may select appropriate %-alues for the cross ratio of each quadrilateral in order to control the quasiconformality factor of the QCP. If points are chosen carefully, it is possible even to construct a QCP of a map / which has singularities. By composing the desired function with a function consisting of some function fo{z) = az -\-c for selected a G C \ {0} and c G C, we may carefully displace all domain points away from singularities, and then by restricting our domain along appropriate branch cuts, we may attempt to map the new points via / and create a QCP. The most common subclass of the generalized QCP tn be studied are those which have certain types of uniformity running throughout. The most important ofthe.se is the constant angle condition.

22

CHAPTER 3 CONSTANT ANGLE CONDITION

3.1 Description

The constant angle condition requires that each intersecting pair of circles intersect in one of two angles, ay and o// throughout the pattern. Also, it is necessary that the angle an be the intersection angle between all pairs of circles (in,m and +i^m, while the angle QV is the intersection angle between all pairs of circles (in,m and Cn^m+i.As such, requiring the constant angle condition reduces some of the parameters of the choices during range construction. We now introduce some additional notation which will ease the explanation. For a given quadrilateral circle pattern and, for each {n,m) G Z x Z, the circle , along with its first corona will be called a patch. The set of circles
1 ^ + 1 , m i Cn,m + 1- ^ n - l . m - 'J^.rn-l- " f i . m /

in each patch are called a flower with center (tn,m and four petals. It is common to order these, so that the center circle of a flower is numbered 0, while the petals are numbered clockwise 1 through 4. 3.2 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

Let us begin by utilizing our previous terminology to describe what the constant angle condition is and what is necessary to force a QCP to satisfy it. Let

1 c[
and ' 1 G ^02 I>2, be two circles as described in Chapter 2, intersecting in distinct points zy and 22. Then by 2.5 through 2.10 d has center 71 = -Ci and radius Pi = ^ ^ ^ 7 = yJ\Cif - Dx and 2 has center n = -C2 and radius p2 = \/-^2
23

= \]\C2\ - ^2-

If < = l7i - 72I ^ = |c,-r2| then, referring to [8] we apply the law of cosines to find that c^' = p? + /)] - 2pip2 cosu, u.' G (0, n) (3.1)

m which ^ is the supplement of the angle of intersection of these circles. Let

a = 7T u;

then
u,' =
T Q T

hence (3.1) may be rewritten as 6^ = p] + p^-2piP2Cos..' = P\+ p\2pxP2Cos(n - <i)

= P? + P2 ^ 2pi/A2(OS(Q).

Thus
<J2 _ 2

.2

ri,.ia) = "

P^-P'
2plp2 _ _

^ ( C i - c 2 ) ( r : - r : ) ^ A i + A2
2^fK:^2 gives the intersection angle a hftwccn circles Cj and 2. Note that if we allow Zj =22, then we have . .
rosia) =
2piP2

(pi - P2)' H =1
24

P\-PI

and Q = 0, since by the definition of the quadrilateral circle pattern we may not allow intersection angle n as this would leave no outer arc upon which to place the final three points on the inner circle. Thus every intersection angle in a quadrilateral circle pattern must come from the interval [0,7r). Definition 3.1. .4 quadrilateral circle pattern satisfies a constant angle condition for angles OH and aye (0,7r) if for every (n,m) G Z x Z the circles n+i,m and <in,m have intersection angle an and the circles n,m+i and dn.m have intersection angle
ay.

In other words, if B 'n,m Dn and we define the horizontal and vertical angle functions

cos(Q//(n,m)) =
I I \\ COS ( Q v ( n , 77))) =

'Pn,mPn-^\,m r- 'i,m "" C ri,m + l ' ^n,m : '-^ : -Pn,mPn,m+l

' -A,, ,,, + 1

(3.2)
. (3.3)

then both 3.2 and 3.3 are constant functions. W^e adjust the range construction method to include the constant angle function by simply choosing an and ay (or their cosines) and selecting, at each step, the radii which wiU allow the appropriate angle. This ver>' general construction is not as useful immediately, however, as some more specific examples of the constant angle condition. 3.3 Requiring a// 4- Qv = T T

If, in addition to the constant angle condition, we require that the angles a// and ay are supplementary angles, we force each pair of diagonal circles to be tangent. So each circle ^^rn is tangent to all of (t+i,n+i, _i,+i, _i,_i, and (E_i,_i.

25

This condition produces the extra benefit that any such pattern is made up of two packings which are joined at certain common points. The fact that all diagonally adjacent circles are required to be tangent forces each of the two sets of diagonal circles (One including the circle (To.o and the other including (Lx,o) to consist ccMiipletely of tangent circles, hence be a packing. L e m m a 3.2. Every QCP which rcqums that pairs of diagonal circles be tangent satK<ji(s the constant angle condition. Proof Let p be a QCP requiring all pairs of diagonal circles be tangent. Then,

c^xaniine a single flower of the pattern with center Co and petals Ci. iTj. 3, and | Let an be the intersection angle of circles 0 and (Ei. Since Ci and C2 are diagonal, they are tangent. Hence the inttMsection angle ay between circles (To and 2 must be supplementary to Q//. Furthermore, circles > and 3 are tangent, hence the intersection angle between circles (To and 3 must be supplementary to Qv . and thus must be equal to an By assumption (^4 is tangent

to both C: and 3. and thus the iiitcscction angle hrtwc.n cin Ics (EQ and Ci must be supplementary to Q//. Thus the iiitcrsct tion anglr between cirdcs (To and (T.i must be equal to ay. Extending this to the flowers with centers (Ti, 2- 3, and (T, shows that all angles in one direction must be equal to c.,/. while all other angles must be equal to QV-. Similarly, this extends to the entire pattern, and therefore p satisii<s the constant D angle condition. L e m m a 3.3. Two circles
(t, =

are tangent to ejich other if and only if \Ci - r ' i i = Pi 4-P226

Proof

Since \Cx - C2I is the distance between circles \ and Cj, if they are taiif^cut,

this distance must be equal to the sum of the radii. If the distance between the circles 1 and x is equal to the sum of their radii, then there exists some point 2 G Ci fl 2 such that the equation above satisfies that p and the two centers of the circles are collinear, and by our equations it is clear that p must fall in between the two centers. This happens only when the two circles are tangent. P r o p o s i t i o n 3.4. .4 QCP unth C = 1 Bn,r CD

c
=

Siitisfit\< the con.<tant angle condition with constant angles Q// and ay. Q// 4- n\if and only if both of
\Cn,m ~ C'n + l.m+ll = Pn.m + Pn^l.m + l \Cn,m - C'_i,m-n| = Pn.m "^ Pn-l.m+1

TT

hold for every {n,m) Proof

G Z x Z.

This follows immediately from l.immas '5 2 and 3.3. = 3n -h 477it then .since 3u 4- 47nj 3(n -1- 1) 4- 47777 3n-h 4(771 4-1)1 'Mu 3ri - 4771/ ^ 1) - l'7i7 37i-4(m+l)/ 3(n - 1) - 4(m 4-l)i 1 1 1 1 = 0

E x a m p l e 3 . 1 . Lit p(n,m) I 9n^ - 16m2 '){n ^ 1)^ ^ 16m2 971-+ 16(m ^ 1)2

9(n - 1 ) ' 4 - 1 6 ( m + 1)2 3(n + 1) + 4(m + l)i

p is a QCP and thu.s by (2.-5) through (2.10). ur find A = 12 B = - 1 8 ( 2 7 1 - 1)4-2-1(27/) + 1)7 6' = - 1 8 ( 2 n + l ) - 2 4 ( 2 7 7 7 + 1)) D = 108(n2 + n) + 192(77)' + 77)).

27

( ) ( ) ( ) T'

IXJX ''X' '

'
1 \ 1 \ 1 \ /

I ) 1 J 1 r T "/

\.y

\y

\/

Figure 3.1: Example 3.1.

Hence, -25
^n.m

ln.m = 3\n+^^
Pn.m.

4-2f2m4-lji

Thus for the horizontal angle an and the vertical angle ay we have
COS(QW) = and

25
2^

COS(QV) =

which is constant for a// n, m G Z x Z. 28

3.4

Geometric Radii Condition

Another subclass of QCP with the constant angle condition is created by imposing criteria upon the radii of the circles of the QCP This creates a pattern of circles in which radii are the geometric mean of the radii of opposing petals of the flower centered on them. .As a special case of a theorem from [4], we may state the following. Corollary 3.5. The quadrilateral circle pattern p satisfies the constant angle condition with angles an and ay if and only if arg
= 0
A

Pn.m

J \

Pn,m J \

Pn.m J \

Pn.m J

for all (n, m) G Z x Z. This corollary is a consequence of notation only, and is otherwise identical to Bobenko and Hoffmann's theorem under the special case that one of the angles equals zero. This condition is identical to the condition

Pn.m

) \

Pn.m / \

Pn.m / \

Pn.m

- sufficient condition for this is stated in the following proposition. We first must A give one trivial Lemma. Lemma 3.6. For any positive I'cal number 7,
-, 4- - > 2. 1

Proof Begin with the property of real numbers that for any real number 7 (7-lf>0 and expand this and rearrange to find 7^ 4- 1 > 27. 29

Since 7 > 0, dividing through by 7 gives

7+->2. 7
D Proposition 3.7. Suppose for all (n, m) G Z x Z and QCP p,
_

Pn+l.mPn-l.m Pn,m

and
2

Pn,m+lPn.m-l Pn.m'

Then p satisfies the constant angle condition. Proof. Expanding the condition of Corollary 3.5 and using the assumption that
Pn+l,m Pn.m Pn-\.m Pn.m _ Pn.m+l Pn.m Pn,m-\ Pn.m _ .

gives

L\

Pn.m

Pn.m J \

Pn.m

Pn.m J J

and looking at the expression on the right hand side we find that since e-^-f-e' = 2iRe(e'") and | e ^ | < 1, then
e-io ^e'"
>-2

with equality if and only if Q = T which, by definition cannot occur in a QCP. Thus, T since both an, cky G (0,7r), 29\e{e'") > -2

30

and 2fHe(c'"* ) > - 2 hence by Lemma 3.6

e ~ ' 4- e***" -\- ^ " " ' + ' ^. ^ n , m - l \ Pn.m Pn.m J

I _.^ \

Pn.m+l Pn.m

Pn,m-1 \ Pn.m /

> - 2 4- 2 = 0,

since
Pn.m+l \ Pn,m / _ Pn.m-1 Pn.m

Similarly.
\ Pn.m Pn,m /

and therefore the product is also positive.

Note that angles o// and ay are unrelated during this entire construction. If we stipulate that an 4- ay = n, then our pattern will satisfy both of these conditions simultaneously. It is specifically this type of pattern which we present a range construction for. 1. Select Zx and 22, distinct complex numbers, and let d = |2i 22I. Select positive real numbers ro,r// G [d/2, ->c) with at most one of them equal to d/2. 2 Construct one of the two possibly distiiut circles pcissing through Zi and 22 with radius TQ and label this circle the origin circle ir,j,i Construct one of the two possibly distinct circles passing through 21 and 2^ with radius r//, and label this circle ifl. If TQ = r// these circles should be chosen such that tlicy are not identical. Then the points Zx and 22 should be labelled in an appropriate manner as, pi,o and p i i , not necessarily respectively. 3. Choose r\ G (0, ocj and construct this circle tangent (outside) to (Zx.o at pix with radius ry. Label this circle Co,\ and label the other intersection point of 0,1 and (Io,o as po,i.

31

4. By Proposition 3.7, the circles -x.o and (To.-i must have radii rl/rn and /'o/'i , respcvtively. Then construct circle -X.Q tangent to (To.i at po,i with radius ''o/'"//, and construct circle (To.-i tangent to (Ti.o it pi,o with radius To/rv. 5. Now select r^ G (0, A. ) and construct the circle tangent to (To.o at pi,i with radius rp- Label this circle \^. 6. Label the intersection points of 1,1 with (Eo.i and 1,0 as p2,i and pi,2, respectively. 7. To continue this construction, for each {n,Tn) G Z x Z. construct the circle , tangent to the appropriate circle at the appropriate point with radius
mn-(m+n)+I n-mn m-mn mn Pn.m T^O '^H ' ^V '^D /n i\ W"^^

and label all points of intersection appropriately. Proposition 3.8. Thi pn nnusly (/UH 11 construction yu ids a QCP which satisjiis thi con-1ant angle condition. Proof. For each n,m, the circle (t, has radius p., defined in (3.4). Then
/ v2 2mn-(2m+2n)+2 _2n-2mn ,2m-2mn _2mn /o c\

(Pn.m) = TQ and

ry

-rp

[6.0)

_ {m(n-l)-(m + n-l)+I) + (m(ri^l)-(m+n+l)+l) P n - l . m P n + l , m '"o | M - l - m ( n - l ) ) + ( n + l - m ( n + l))

' '"//
{m-m(n-l))+(m-m(n-^l))
'"v

m{n- 1 ) + m ( n + l ) 2mn-(2m+2n)+2 2n-2mn ^2m-2mn _2mn

= To = {Pn.mf

r^

ry

rp

32

and similarly,
Pn,m-lPn,m+l ~ vPn.m)

Hence, by Proposition 3.7, this construction yields a C^CP satisfying the constant angle condition. D

Since the range constructed pattern is uniquely determined by the choicc>s of the real numbers d = \zx z^]. TQ, r//, ry and rp. after selecting an orientation for the first two circles, and since any pattern constructed as described satisfies the constant angle condition, it should be possible to express the two angles a^ and ay. which are constant in such a pattern, in terms of only the numbers d, TQ, r//, ry. and rp. Furthermore, these five independent numbers along with the beginning orientation fully deteraiine the entire construction of the QCP Thus any QCP constructcHl using the same numbers is identical up to some Euclidean transformation of the plane.

33

CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES

Certain patterns in complex analysis are typically tried first in order to show the strength of the circle patterns. .Among these are powers of 2, and log{z) [4, 1]. Example 4.1. .4 circle pattern for f{z) = z"^!^. In this pattern we will restrict our domain away from zero by composing this function with the function g{z) = 2 -t- 1/2 -t- 1/2. Figure 4-1 has constant angles equal to n/2, while Figure 4-'^ has also been composed with a regular quasiconformal mapping similar to the mapping ustd in Example 3.1 in order to give a pattern with constant angles which are not perpendicular. Example 4.2. Here we show two different circle patterns for f{z) = c' Figure

4-3 1^ done with constant angles equal to IT/2 whilt Figure 4-4 '' composed with a quasiconformal map m order to make thi constant angles differ from 7r/2. Example 4.3. .4 circle pattern for f(z) = log(z). .Again, we take cure to translate the center of the first circle to the ongm befori beginning. Excmiple 4.4. .4 circle pattern for f {z) = e'. Here, since this mapping is entire, we do not need to n -tnct our domain away from singularities.

34

1 5

-v..
/ V
^

05

7r
I
/'* \
/^ / ^^

0 (Ls

-05

Figure 4.1: .A circle pattern for f(z) = z^l^ with constant angles 7r/2.

06

/
1 1

/ "

/ 1

02

1 ^^

^1
/

0>

"* I /

'

-02

Figure 4.2: Another circle pattern for /(z) = z2/3 with constant angles.

35

Figure 4.3: .A QCP for f{z) = z^ with constant angles of 7r/2.

6;

-6

Figure 4.4: Another QCP for /(z) = z2 with constant angles.

36

1-

as

0 \0.4 o . e o i

fl^JjBi*^LA*UiAca( 2i

-05

-1

Figure 4.5: A QCP for f{z) = log(z) with constant 7r/2 angles.

Figure 4.6: A QCP for f{z) = e' with constant 7r/2 angles.

37

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1] .A.I. Bobenko and Wi.B. Suris, "Hexagonal Circle Patterns and Integrable Systems: Patterns with the Multi-Ratio Property and Lax Equations on the Regular Triangular Lattice," preprint. 2] .Alan F Beardon and Kenneth Stephenson, "The Uniformization Theorem for Circle Packings," Indiana Univ. Math. J. 39 (1990), 1383-1425. 3] .A.I. Bobenko and T. Hoffman, "Conformallv Symmetric Circle Packings," Experimental Math. 10 (2003), no. 1, 141-150.' 4] _. "Hexagonal Circle Patterns and Integrable Systems: Patterns with Constant Angles," Duke Math. J. 116 (2003, no. 3, 525-566. 5] O. Lehto and K.I. Virtanen, Quasiconformal mappings in the plane, second ed., Springer-\erlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New \'ork, 1973. 6] Burt Rodin and Dennis Sullivan. 'The Convergence of Circle Packings to the Riemann .Mapping," J. Differential Geometry 26 (1987), 349-360. Oded Schramm, "Packing Two-Dimensional Bodies with Prescribed Combinatorics and .Applications to the Construction of Conformal and Quasiconformal Mappings," Ph.D. thesis, Princeton, 1990. Hans Schwerdtfeger, Geometry of Complex .\umbers: Circle Geometry, Mobius Transformations, Non-Euclidean Geometry, Dover, .New 'S'ork, 1979. [9] Kenneth Stephenson, .Notes for Seminar in .Analysis, Fall 1993 and Spring 1994, University of Tennessee. [10] _. .Notes for Seminar in .Analysis, Fall 1997 and Spring 1998, University of Tennessee. [11] W'ilHam Thurston, "The Finite Riemann .Mapping Theorem," 1985, Invited talk, an International Symposium at Purdue University on the occasion of the proof of the Bieberbach conjecture, March 1985. [12] G. Brock Williams, ".A Circle Packing Measureable Riemann .Mapping Theorem," preprint.

38

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