On University Teaching

Charles J. Higgins, Ph.D. Dept. of Finance/AIMS ne CIS Loyola Marymount University 1 LMU Dr. Los Angeles, CA 90045-8385 chiggins@lmu.edu 310 338 7344 September 17, 2011

4th draftfor preliminary review and comment.

On University Teaching Charles J. Higgins, Ph.D.

Chuck Higgins has taught graduate and undergraduate courses in the College of Business Administration at Loyola Marymount University Los Angeles since 1982. He was the first member of the faculty to receive a second Graduate Faculty Member of the Year Award.

WHEN I started teaching at LMU some thirty years ago, I made a

substantial review of the literature associated with teaching at the university level. As contrasted to the abundant literature for elementary and secondary level education, there was a relative paucity of literature examining the pedagogy of teaching at the collegiate level. That has changed within the last decade. However, this newer literature has often examined specific aspects, procedures, or methods instead of teaching as a whole or as a gestalt.

Preparation Syllabus as a Contract

Each course has a syllabus which serves as a contract for a given course. As such, it should be binding upon the scheduled requirements and presentations as well as describing some possibly foreseen exigencies. The former would include date specific requirements as to examinations, meeting times, other performance measurements, grading procedure, readings, and office hours. For the latter, one can specify the consequences and procedures regarding missed work, behavior, and any contingencies/ reservations regarding possible changes to the syllabus. It may include warnings and/or proscriptions regarding testing procedures, attendance, and behavior and/or classroom decorum. It is my practice to prohibit alphanumeric display devices during examinations, to warn about cell phones, beepers, chewing gum for undergraduates, and to note specifically the final examination time and date.

Linear Language and Time/Non Linear Learning

A classroom presentation and a syllabus are usually both constructed and delivered in some order which is linear. Recognition that some learning may be stymied by such a paradigm is warranted. Some topics require more than one pass; some require previews and revisits in different contexts. It is my practice to provide some review on the first, introductory class meeting. Likewise, I provide a terse preview of some of the more difficult material to be seen later in the semesterit provides a sufficient warning to students who are in need of such a warning and likewise acts diminish anxiety when such material is dealt with later. A courses text usually is linear in format as found in the table of contents and may provide an outline for course syllabi. A sequence other than that (perhaps with some omitted chapters and/or repetition of others) may be better for teaching purposes. Do contemplate that many topics, chapters, and class meetings will include revisits and summaries of past materials and previews of materials to come. Included in the planning for each class meeting is a likely summary of the last meetings topic and materials and a likelihood that the class meeting will end with a preview of the next topic including thought problems (in lieu of and/or in addition to homework) which provoke a basis/foundation for the next topic.

Teaching the Tough Stuff First

An approach Ive grown to prefer is to tackle the difficult material early as possible. The teacher who gets to the crux of the material the class meeting shortly before the final examination reminds me of the librarian who will does everything to keep you from getting the book you want. Ive found that the learning from the difficult material tackled earlier is bettered by the numerous mistakes encountered therein. I do statistics and the Capital Asset Pricing Model early; in learning languages I seek the faux amis (false friends or misleading cognates) and irregular usages early on.

Presentation
First Day The first class meeting is a students first impression of you. Be it MacGregors theory X and Y, a military-officer training model, or bad cop/good cop, the transition from the initially formal and firm to the subsequently informal and relaxed should be considered. The initial perception should be that of clear boundaries, expectations, and behavior resulting in a confident student and faculty. Only after such a confidence is established, can rewarding deviations flow there from. Rules and negative

consequences promote stress and stress does not promote learning. Thus a firm/formal first impression promotes confidence in both student and faculty, and a subsequent stress free learning can occur only after such confidence has been established. Minor, but relevant considerations also include how one dresses, where one is vis--vis the lectern, and what will be the range of terminology. These are all relevant for a formal-then-informal presentational shift. One can start the semester in a suit and tie and end the semester in a sports shirt and jeans. This applies not only across the semester, but also to each class meetings presentation. If one relies on the lectern, then leave it to make important points (or vice versa). The opening remarks should/could be formal and centered and then deviate there from. I do something else on the first day of class. Not only do I explain what is expected of each student, but I also explain what they should expect of me. These include an explanation that I lecture to complement the text instead of merely regurgitating the text, that I provide my expertise, and that I use a Socratic teaching methodwith an explanation of what that entails. I note that I do speak rapidly and that we will cover a lot of material, but that I also repeat material frequently in different terminologies/examples and that students should not hesitate to ask for further explanations which still counts positively toward class discussion. The reader here will note that I am trying to convey a similar experience herein by using other similar words/phrases/ terms seamlessly, back to back. Attendance/Behavior/Expectations I do not tell students that I do not regularly take up class time for attendance or role call (save the obligatory confirmation of the registrars class lists)I let them quietly consider as a possibility. It is my teaching philosophy that the test will out, that I am dealing with adults, and that attendance is their prerogativealthough I dont tell them that. Moreover, I view it as my job to provide a teaching environment that should make a student want to attend each class meeting. The paramount task is to provide an exciting and enjoyable teaching environment. For the Socratic discussion aspect, I explain that any student contribution and/or question will be viewed positively as long as it is relevant and not disruptive. Warnings Sometimes students test ones boundaries and push ones buttons whether they intend to do so or not. And consider that sometimes the more vexatious students may just be reflecting ones own hidden aspects or concerns. They need a warning instead of scolding the first and second time

for each occurrence of concern. Sometimes positive humor instead of negative scolding is more beneficial. Some examples follow: if a student is reading material not relevant to the class, try a gentle jokefor a student reading a newspaper, ask the student for a sports score or the weather in some obscure locale, for a second occurrence just pick up the material without missing a beat or other acknowledgmentand move it to the lectern for later return to the student. If a student talks often with a neighbor, I do not act unless I can hear it. But if can hear it, I do act because not only is it rude and non business like, but also interrupts my train of thoughtand on the third occurrence I will say so as such. The first occurrence of annoying student talking, I will complete a humorous response for the neighbor or given the circumstances I will say a question perhapsmore as a statement, subsequently I will just merely say up here please. The third time, I just merely say thats three and just continue. For those instances beyond three, I try other types of unexpected behaviorbeing out of character really catches their attention. Study Techniques One might presume it to be too late to teach study techniques to college studentsboth undergraduates and graduates. These techniques include mnemonics which I utilize throughout the semester, other memory tricks, and even limericks. I suggest that they consider that kinesthetic (muscle) memory in that the act of writing stores information, that simple cue cards are still effective in college (even opposite the morning throne), as well as verbal rehearsal which stores information in yet another memory location, and that reverse order review, and reviewing what you do not know are all effective study techniques. Studies have shown that approximately one quarter of students learn respectively better by: doing, in groups, visually, and/or on their own. Bright students learn better often on their own and vice versa for group learning. I make a point of using various methods. Ill have them temporarily group in twos (or threes) assisting each other; another time individually perform calculations by hand; another by watching a video I made; and another time by distributing graphics of various results or requisite equations.

Opening/Overlap Topics The opening of each class meeting should have some hook, reference, or method of entering a students world. It can easily be an observation upon a recent news event, a joke, or interplay with some of students prompting the interest/envy of other students. Then shift to review of the material from the previous class meeting; it may include a solution to the previously assigned thought problem. Likewise, at the end of each class meeting, allow enough time to preview and prompt interest in the next meetings material. It is often here that I unofficially assign the next periods thought problem. This process allows three passes at set of topics on three different occasionsthe preview, the main course, and then the review. Old School Graphics/Chalk/Font Shift I have tried nearly every type of aid to instruction. Prepared video tapesoften thirty to sixty minutes in lengthprovide the same material that can be summarized in far less timeand if the video is effective then the professor is made useless. Assign the video outside of class time. I have made my own shorter internet video summaries. Friends dont let friends use PowerPoint is a phrase I have used. There is little difference between (and little benefit beyond) a first grade reading class and PowerPoint presentation read word for word. If there are bullet points, they should be headings or topics, not sentences. I like to point out that in a twenty part plus video series I made (DrCinvests) that runs some two hours and has easily some 100 graphics, there are only four graphics therein containing lists. Further, consider that PowerPoint be replaced entirely by handouts as such. The blackboard chalk talk, still seems tried and true. The real time parallel to the students note taking is timed to the professors writing on the blackboard. This is not the case with overhead projections including both PowerPoint and prepared slides, either of which is comprised of text and graphic projections. The text and graphics can/should be provided in the form of handouts, and thus you continue to maintain eye-to-eye contact and the lights stay on! There is a predilection to start in the center of the blackboarddont! Start at the left (if the written language does so as in European languages) and sequentially move to the right allowing, and noting, spaces/gaps as is appropriate. I ask the students whether they are ready before I erase previous blackboard portions while leaving the remaining later portions still visible. The usage of the blackboard can be more effectively utilized with

the usage of well printed lettering, the shifting of fonts or size for major and minor topics, and the usage of a different blackboards (or space) for digressions. Count in Threes/Thrice Told/Third Times the Charm Every main point, idea, equation, and so on should be summarized three times using different terminology at each iterationat introduction, during the main idea, and then at summation. Likewise, for each new term I try to use three different wordingsformal, informal, and slang or comic. Freedom from Notes Reading from prepared notes is not teaching. On one occasion, I accidentally took the wrong set of notes to a class. Afterwards, both my better and lesser students noted that it was one of the best lectured classes that they had attended. I still take my prepared materials to class, but now I have weaned myself from the hoary notes. This is not easy until one has built up a sufficient repertoire. But do try to get away from the lectern and from the prepared notes. It obviously makes one more communicative. Interactions/Socratic/Did I Answer Your Question The Socratic approach is more than the asking of yet another questionit is the give and take, the ferreting out, and the profound pondering providing an efficacious Socratic teaching method. I have seen a study which notes that the Socratic method increases recall by a factor of six. But the approach requires focus and more than posing even more questions, but answers as well. It requires the professor to tease out the shy, to tame the boisterous, and the ability to steer the interplay to the required understanding. Some students always raise their hands for recognition, some others rarely do. I permit rapid interplay of students who do not raise their hands. However I give primary recognition to those who raise their hands first with a statement to that effect. One should allow three seconds for any major question pauseone second for the student to ponder a question, another second for the student to formulate a response, and a third second for the student to initiate the volition to implement a reaction. During these three second pauses, look each students facethe reasons why become self evident. I find it beneficial to ask the student whether I did indeed answer/respond to the inquiry if it was particularly important to me or them.

20 Minute Breaks/Pauses/Digressions Studies have shown that the mind needs a break or pause approximately every twenty minutes to digest new information. This has not been lost on media advertisingradio and television has shifted from shorter commercial breaks toward this longer cycling of twenty minute breaks. I periodically pause to provide major summary and/or digression (I label them as such) and/or joke or to make other observations. I have seen another study that says that humor increases recall by a factor of three. Gestures/Position/Voice-Enunciation A good teaching experience can/should be good theater. Each gesture should contain informational content. When I make major topic shifts, I announce them as such. As previously noted, counting items/topics is very useful. And when counting items from some list, display the respective number of digits. Likewise, aimless/repetitive gestures are counterproductive. Consider using one hand instead of two hands for gesturing. Let each hand convey very specific informational content. Indeed I have very specific points in certain lectures where I direct the students attention to my hands in order to convey a very specific concept (namely company As debt and equity as thumb and little finger versus company Bs debt and equity on the other hand). Ones position in the classroom is noteworthy. I return to the center front, a formal position, when making major points, summaries, and assignments. Verbal enunciation is easily underestimated in terms of its importance to ones teaching effectiveness. A good practice is to generally make a point of fully pronouncing every consonant, vowel, and thus syllable of every word. Consider how you or another would/should pronounce the following words: etcetera, interest, amateur, nuclear, and so on. Ad Hoc/Unexpected/Unpredictable Dont be too predictable. It keeps things interesting and benefits both extremes of the student profile. It is particularly useful both with the recalcitrant or bored and as well with the motivated or smug. Treat each student fresh and anew at each class meeting; dont carry previous interactions on to the next class meeting. Real Time Approximations/With vs. Not At For presentations using numbers, I try to use fresh/realistic/current numbers each time a computation is to be demonstrated. This requires

sufficient familiarity so that feasible answers are forthcoming and that the computation is not too cumbersome. I share with my students the real time computational procedures/shortcuts/tricks while computing an answer. Thus the presentation is not merely a transcription of previous and thus tedious computations. And if a previous set of computations merits review, then provide it in a handout. Likewise, real time fresh numbers provide a corresponding parallel real time student writing experience. Note this approach means the presentation is done with studentsnot at the students. Forthright/Open/Why Rightly or wrongly, I chose to be open with my students regarding my disposition, why some material was treated in a certain manner/fashion as opposed to another, and how and why I am using a certain teaching technique/method/procedure instead of another. In other words, I try to make the experience transparent which also accrues some empathy and trust. Politically Correct The English language, particularly in academic settings, needs careful attention. Gender neutral or fair third person usage can be problematic. While it takes a bit of practice, I sometimes use the alternating he/she hers/his format, shifting back and forth, as in: When the stock brokerage client finds the SIPC sign, she is insured against the loss of the invested securities, but he is not insured against the loss of the value of the invested securities. Positive Restatement and Listening Class is style under pressure (attributed to John F. Kennedy) is a guiding principle when dealing with problem studentsof both extremes. Miscommunication is often a root many difficulties; the miscues being a likely fault of both sender and receiver. It is human nature that we often construe the most negative/threatening interpretation to any communicationbe it correctly comprehended or otherwise. Thus an effort to find a positive interpretation and to repeat, in different words/ terminology, the other persons words will often minimize any potential negative spiral and likewise ameliorates the learning experience. Of course this also inculcates student trust.

Examinations
How to Study/What You Dont Know/Study Backwards Advising students what is a likely examination question is self evident. As previously noted students can be advised of how to study. Repeating variations thereof are meritorious during any review sessions. These include a number of multiple approaches. The act of writing notes and rewriting the relevant components thereof stores the information/ knowledge in the kinesthetic (muscle) memory and visual memory. For certain students, I suggest that they might sub vocalize (say to themselves) the items thus storing the stuff in another memory site. Other suggestions are to further study/review only the material that the student does not know, and then to repeat this process iteratively until completion. Another suggestion is to review the material in reverse a chronology; it provides a different perspective starting with the freshest material first. Mnemonics A mnemonic device is an aid/trick/reminder/association which jogs ones memory. Some these include familiar abbreviations, analogies, pictograms, rhymes, and even melodies. I use them on particularly difficult material. Non Repetitive Repetition The assiduous reader will note my usage of multiple terms in this piece. It is intentional as a demonstrative tool/device/exemplar. In the classroom such a device is particularly helpful, and as noted previously, I strive to use three approachesformal, informal, and/or comic, anecdotal, or slang. I often find that when comprehension has failed, that a different terminology is not only helpful but necessary. Multiple Choice Exams vs. Other Testing Methods Multiple choice exams exist in only two places in the real world: who you marry and what you order at a bar. Multiple choice exam prompts recall and not a test of learning. Further they are not realistic in that in the real world one rarely faces predetermined choices. Process and Partial Credit My subject area has a strong mathematical component and thus is process oriented. Designing examinations to capture the process is a particularly important aspect in examination design. Thus I note clearly to the student that a mere arithmetic mistake will not count negatively if all the

precursor work is made evidentand vice versa. This minimizes to a degree some number/test anxiety and I trust better measures student ability and comprehension. Likewise for spelling and grammar, I advise the students before the examination that I do not generally take off for spelling and grammar, but I that I will still correct such errors. I believe that this again promotes a better testing environment/evaluation/performance while the student still benefits from the corrected errors. Grading For grading examinations and post test reviews I start with a formal/ authoritarian/theory X approach which slowly transforms to an informal/friendly/theory Y approach. That is to say, start the examination review with a formal/theoretic approach and then shift to an informal/familiar approach later. Thus, grading and the return of examinations are first approached in a formal manner and then shift gradually toward an understanding and more humane presentational style. Teaching after the Exam Some material is better dealt with after the examinations. These include counterintuitive and/or more complex matters and/or the exceptions to the rules. The examination provides a springboard to a higher level of understanding beyond the scope of the examination as such. Thus a judicious postponement of certain matters/materials/concepts/terms may still be in the lesson planbut dealt with afterwards.

Conclusion
This article was meant to provide insights into a number of approaches to teaching in higher education. It was meant to be a gestalt/big picture as opposed to the educational/pedagogic research which is often too narrow in scope, dimension, or application. For those in different fields and/or for those with differing styles, this may or may not be of substantial benefitor it may. It may not generalize to all, but at a minimum I believe it to be beneficial to someespecially to the newer teachers. As one who has served as a mentor, I have perceived a need for such work as this.