LSM 3261 Life Form and Function

This module explores the complex and diverse forms and functions of plants and animals. Each living group shares a common basic structural plan, but contains many members that deviate from the basic design in response to selection pressure of the environment. Knowledge of organismal biology is enhanced through selected topics in morpho-anatomical designs and functional adaptations.

Coordinator d Lecturer C di t and L t Associate Professor Hugh T.W. Tan (Lectures 1 to 7) Lecturer Mr. N. Sivasothi (Lectures 8 to 13)

Hugh Tans Topics for 7 Lectures

1. Introduction to LSM 3261; diversity of life; form and function; plant growth and differentiation 2. Leaf structure and function 3. 3 Stems and plant transport 4. Roots and mineral nutrition 5. Reproduction in plants 6. 6 Growth responses and regulation of growth 7. Review and revision

Lecture 1 Topics
Brief details of module Reference R f Diversity of life Form and function Plant variation The organization of plants Plant tissue and cellular organization Mechanisms of plant growth

Module Details
Visit the IVLE website for the details Only the key points will be covered in this lecture

Brief Details of Module

Teachers References Aims Teaching modes Assessment Websites for learning resources

Teachers
Coordinator and teacher: Assoc. Prof. Hugh T.W. Tan Co-teacher: Mr. N. Sivasothi Co teacher: Chief TA: Ms Xu Weiting

Assoc. Prof. Hugh TAN Tiang Wah

Research
Conservation biology, restoration ecology, plant systematics gy, gy, p y Consultant on environmental projects to government, quasigovernment and private institutions

T hi Teaching
SSS 1207 The Natural Heritage of Singapore LSM 3256 Tropical Horticulture LSM 3261 Life Form and Function BL5230 Invasion Biology(New Module)

Service

Assoc. Prof. Hugh TAN Tiang Wah

Deputy Director Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research Deputy Director, Editor, Nature in Singapore

http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/nis/bulletin2011.html Editor, Raffles Museum Books http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/raffles_museum_pub/raffles_museum_books.html

Advisor for Greening of NUS Campuses and Facilities

Contact details
dbsttw@nus.edu.sg db tt @ d 6516-2717 Room S2-02-03 Pl t Systematics Laboratory at Blk S2 R S2 02 03 Plant S t ti L b t t Level 2 (middle of floor)

Mr. N. Sivasothi
Research Teaching
Otter, mammal ecology Mangrove ecology Freshwater crab ecology LSM 1103 Biodiversity Bi di it LSM 1303 Animal Behaviour LSM 2251 Ecology and Environment LSM 3261 Lif Form and Function Life F d F ti LSM 4262 Tropical Conservation Biology Conservationist Internet resources Habitatnews International Coastal Cleanup

S i Service

Contact details

sivasothi@nus.edu.sg 6516-8869

Ms Xu Weiting
Research
Palm civet ecology

Teaching
LSM1103 Biodiversity LSM3254 Ecology of Aquatic Environments LSM3261 Life Form and Function

Contact details
xuweiting@nus.edu.sg iti @ d 6516-8869

References
Main Text
Solomon E.P., L.R. Berg and D.W. Solomon, E P L R DW Martin. 2011. Biology. 9th ed. (Main text)

Supplementary Texts
Hickman, C.P., L.S. Roberts, A. Larson, H. l Anson lAnson and D.J. Eisenhour. 2006. Integrated Principles of Zoology. 13th ed. Pough, F.H., C.M. Janis and J.B. Heiser. g , , 2005. Vertebrate Life. 7th ed. Ruppert, E.E., R.S. Fox and R.D. Barnes. 2004. Invertebrate Zoology. 7th ed. Campbell, N.A. and J.B. Reece. 2005. h Biology. 7th ed. (More detailed)

General Aims of the Module

Overall aim: Understand the basic relationships between form (anatomy, morphology) and (anatomy function S ifi aims Specific i
Content mastery
Definitions Apply terminology Apply analyse and synthesise knowledge Apply,

Skills
Application of scientific skills Learn independently Communicate: essays, online discussion Think critically Think creatively

Teaching Modes
Type Hours per Session 2 4 2 1 No. of Total Sessions No. of Hours 13 26 3 12 3 6 6 6 Total 50

Lecture Laboratory practical Field trip practical Tutorial

Practicals
Laboratory practicals
LS L b 7 (Bl k S2, Level 3) Lab (Block S2 L l Starts promptly at 2.00 pm with detailed briefing Finishes at 4.45 pm 15 minute break before Tutorial

Field trip practicals

B Botanic Gardens and Si i G d d Singapore Z Zoo Buses leave for site promptly at 3.00 pm for Botanic Gardens Buses return to campus by 5.30 pm p y p Tutorial before field trip

Assessment
All assessments are open book Mark allocation
Continual assessment (40%) Semestral examination (60%)

Continual Assessment
Hugh Tans assignments (20%)
Tutorial 1: Personal particulars form-filling and questionnaire on how you learn (3%); tutorial on Practical 1 Tutorial 2: Structure to function experiment (5%) Tutorial 3:Essay writing (12%)

N. Sivasothis assignments (20%)

A th Arthropod di d dissection (2.5%) ti (2 5%) Setting thinking questions (2.5%) P ti l test (15%) Practical t t

Semestral Examination
Short or multiple choice questions (Tan 30%) Short questions (Sivasothi 20%) Essay question (Sivasothi 10%) E ti (Si thi All questions compulsory q p y Choice within questions for the essay question

Web Resources
For tips on becoming a better learner: Successful Learning website of the Centre for the Development of Teaching and Learning of NUS: http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/success/ http://www cdtl nus edu sg/success/ For tips on improving your English and writing: Useful Links for English Language Learning of the Centre for English Language and Communication: http://www.nus.edu.sg/celc/resources/index.htm For one useful method to organize the large amountof information you are going to be taught: Mind mapping by H.T.W. Tan: http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/success/sl9.htm To learn scientific names, since this module will employ many scientific names of the organisms you will be studying for the form i tifi f th i ill b t d i f th f and function of: Understanding and learning the scientific names of species by H.T.W. Tan and K.-x. Tan: http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/success/sl43.htm

A Warning!
A deceptively simple module S Superficial familiarity with some concepts makes fi i l f ili it ith t k one complacent (leaf, stem, root, tissues, etc.) Must have deep understanding of the topics taught to be able to apply, analyse, synthesise and evaluate (open book examination questions) L t of terminology unavoidable, so no Lots f t i l id bl whining please! Students do fail this module This is NOT a soft option module!

Some Questions Answered in this Module

What is the real reward that awaits martyrs in h i h l d h i i the Islamic heaven? Why cant trees grow taller than they have been recorded? (about 130 m) Can you enlarge your brain by simple actions that anyone can do? s e o ee ce p o ovo c Is a leaf more efficient than a photovoltaic cell at capturing solar energy? What is the largest seed in the world? orld? What is the largest fruit in the world? What is the secret to happiness?

Reference
Solomon, E.P., L.R. , , Berg and D.W. Martin. 2011. Biology. 2011 Biology 9th Edition. ThomsonBrookes/Cole, B k /C l USA
Skim Chapters 28, 30 Read Chapter 33

Diversity of Life
Domain Bacteria
Kingdom Bacteria

Domain Archaea
Kingdom Archaea

Domain Eukarya y
Supergroups formerly under Kingdom Protista g Revision of Kingdom Fungi LSM 1103 Biodiversity Kingdom Plantae = Plants Kingdom Animalia = Animals

Life Form and Function is a very big topic!

Time extremely limited for module Only examples from 2 kingdoms will be considered
For plants, emphasis on angiosperms For animals, emphasis on chordates

If interested in other taxonomic groups, read the other chapters of the main and supplementary textbooks, or see me for extra references

Kingdom Plantae
Non vascular plants Vascular plants p
Seed plants
Phylum Hepatophyta (liverworts) Phylum Bryophyta (mosses) Phylum Anthocerophyta (hornworts)

Seedless plants

Phylum Lycopodiophyta (club and spike mosses) (ferns, allies, ferns, Phylum Pteridophyta (ferns fern allies whisk ferns horsetails)

Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

Phylum Coniferophyta (conifers) Ph l C if h ( if ) Phylum Cyacadophyta (cycads) Phylum Ginkgophyta (ginkgo) Phylum Gnetophyta (gnetophytes) Ph l G t h t ( t h t )

Revision of LSM 1103 Biodiversity

Phylum Anthophyta (angiosperms)

Kingdom Animalia
Choanoflagellates Parazoa Eumetazoa
Radiata Bilateria
Cnidaria Ctenophora Platyhelminthes Pl t h l i th Nemertea Nematoda Rotifera Tardigrada di d Onychophora Arthropoda Annelida Molusca Porifera (sponges)

Protostomia

Revision of LSM 1103 Biodiversity

Deuterostomia

Echinodermata Hemichordata e c o data Chordata

Learning Objectives
Learn the meaning of the words: form, morphology, function, adaption Discuss how function is not always easy to perceive for any structure Describe the various functions of the plant body and its constituent parts: organ system, organ, tissue system, tissue, cell Distinguish between herbaceous and woody, plant habits, life history strategy Describe structure and function of
Ground tissues and their cell types Vascular tissues and their cell types Dermal tissues and their cell types

Distinguish between primary and secondary growth Distinguish between apical and lateral meristems To appreciate these concepts
Continuum Artificial (arbitrary) classification Comparison tables

Form
Form = Structure =
Manner of building or construction

Morphology (narrow sense) =

E t External form of an organism lf f i

Morphology (broad sense) = p gy ( )

External form and internal structure (anatomy) of an organism

Function =
Normal and special action of any part of a N l d i l i f f living organism

Adaptation d p o
Definition (in Glossary of main textbook) =
An evolutionary modification that improves an organism s organisms chances of survival and reproductive success

Note conditions of definition

Functions of Structures
Mutations may be
Harmful Neutral Beneficial

St t Structures may have h

No apparent function
o Not yet perceived o Neutral o Vestigial

Function (depending on environment and other factors)

o Sli h l beneficial Slightly b fi i l o Moderately beneficial o Greatly beneficial

Plants Vary in Woodiness

Herbaceous
L k tough structural Lacks h l (woody) parts E.g., most leafy vegetables

Woody y
Have structural components made of lignified ll l i li ifi d cellulosic cell ll walls E.g., trees g,

Halfy herbaceous/woody
Intermediate E.g., papaya

Digression: Concept of the Continuum g p

Often, man-made categories are nodal points g p along a gradient, e.g.,
Totally woody Partially y woody Totally herbaceous (no woody tissues)

Gradient of woodiness OR Gradient of herbaceousness

Plants Vary in Habit

Habit = General form of a plant Types of habit
Herb = Herbaceous ( b b (nonwoody) plant; erect, single or multiple-trunked; usually small-sized Tree = Woody plant; erect, singled-trunked; usually large g y g Shrub = Woody plant; erect, multiple-trunked; usually intermediate sized Climber or trailer = Herbaceous or woody plant; climbing or trailing stem; can be very large

What kind of mechanical property does woodiness confer p p y to stems?

Plants Vary in Life History Strategy

Annuals are herbaceous
Die in one year or less E.g., cocks comb (Celosia cristata)

Biennials
Take two years to complete life cycles E.g., Chinese radish (Raphanus sativus Longipinnatus) Longipinnatus )

Perennials
Can be herbaceous or woody y Have capacity to live more than two years Emergent growth may die back but roots, other underground growth remains alive but usually dormant (i.e., (i e in a low state of metabolic activity) E.g., rain tree (Samanea saman)
The Changi Tree was 76.2 76 2 m tall!

This is the thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana), a member of the mustard family ( y (Cruciferae = Brassicaceae), an important model research organism. Its genome was decoded in 2000 to reveal about 125 million nucleotide base pairs (compare with soya bean, with a genome hundreds of times larger!). This plant has been called an ideal laboratory mouse for the plant world.

Besides a small genome, and genome short life cycle explain why Arabidopsis thaliana was selected as the model plant for plant genetics research (based on what you have just learnt)? h t h j tl t)? (Hint: Amount of space matters in i research labs.) hl b )

If you want to sell as many plants as y yp possible every Lunar New Year, which would you choose: annuals, biennials, or annuals biennials perennials?
Tan, H.T.W. and X. Giam, 2008. Plant Magic: Auspicious and Inauspicious Plants from Around th World. A d the W ld Marshall Cavendish, Singapore. 216 pp.

Flowering Plant Organization

Organism (e.g., plant) Organ system (e.g., root/shoot system)
O Organ ( (e.g., leaf, root, stem) l f )
Tissue system (e g dermal vascular, ground) (e.g., dermal, vascular
Tissue (e.g., meristematic, epidermis, periderm, collenchyma, parenchyma sclerenchyma phloem collenchyma parenchyma, sclerenchyma, phloem, xylem) C ll ( Cell (e.g., meristematic, epidermal, parenchyma, it ti id l h fiber, etc.)

Flowering Plant Organization

Shoot system
Stem
Axillary bud
Vegetative branch g Reproductive branch Flower Inflorescence

Leaf

Root system
Root
Tap Branch/lateral roots

Plant Organs
Plant organs are functional units that contain all three mature tissue systems (dermal, y ( , vascular, ground) Roots stems leaves Roots, stems, leaves, flower components and fruit are all organs They are continuous; e.g., all vascular tissues ll l i are continuous in a plant they are connected

Can leaves, internodes, nodes, roots be considered growth modules? th d l ?

Lego blocks

Tutorial Assignment 1
Personal particulars of yourself Download soft copy from LSM 3251 IVLE website workbin, CA Assignment folder workbin 3% of the modules marks A gift from me! Useful to find out about your own motivation Hand in hard copy by 1800 hrs of the day of the next lecture, Thursday, 18 Aug 2011(each day l i d late is a 1% penalty!) l !) Upload data of your learning style to this p y g y website: http://tinyurl.com/lsm3261-learningstyle

Singapore Biodiversity Encyclopaedia y p

Useful for many of your modules Buy this now while the special offer is available p Excellent value ($52) for 552 page 552-page book in COLOUR

Plant Tissues
Tissues are groups of cells that form a structural and functional unit and share a common origin

Credit: Brad Mogen/Visuals Unlimited

Plant Tissue Classification

Tissues classified according to cell types

Credit: Carolina Biological/Visuals Unlimited

Simple tissues have 1 cell type

Meristematic Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
Credit: Brad Mogen/Visuals Unlimited

Complex tissues have 2 cell types

Phloem Xylem Epidermis Periderm

Digression: Artificial Classification g

Continuum in various biological characteristics h t i ti Man-made categories are considered artificial g or arbitrary, e.g.,
1 cell type = simple tissue; 2 = complex tissue Why not 3, 4, etc.? Arbitrary designation of simple and complex tissues because
Some tissues are variable, and do not fit neatly only in one of the categories all the time The categories apply most of the time, but not always

The Tissue Systems of a Plant

Dermal tissue system (covering) Epidermis (primary growth) Periderm (secondary growth) Vascular tissue system (transport) Phl Phloem (f d) (food) Xylem (water and mineral nutrients) Ground tissue system (filler) Parenchyma tissue (multi purpose) (multi-purpose) Collenchyma tissue (flexible support) Sclerenchyma tissue (rigid support)

The Tissue Systems of a Plant

Dermal tissue system Vascular tissue system Leaf Ground tissue system Dermal tissue system Vascular tissue system Ground tissue system Stem

Dermal tissue system Vascular tissue system Ground tissue system Root R t

Cell Walls
Cell wall organization
Growing plant cells produce a gp p primary cell wall, which stretches as the cell grows A secondary cell wall may then be produced, inside the primary wall
Strong, thick

Secondary cell walls set limits to cell growth

A porous exoskeleton

Cell Walls
Cell walls are:
Involved in growth (expandability of primary wall allows increase in size) 1st li of defense against invading pathogens line f d f i t i di th Provide signal transduction pathways for cells (carbohydrate and protein molecules in the plant cell walls communicate with other molecules inside d i id and outside the cell) id h ll)

Cell Wall Chemistry

Cell walls contain cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and lignin Cellulose is the major component
Most abundant polymer in the world ~40-60% of dry weight of cell wall Form strong strands of p parallel chains called e c s c ed cellulose microfibrils Cellulose strands are cemented together by hemicellulose and pectins

 Hemicellulose varies in composition

Hemicellulose, Pectin and Lignin

Some are polymers of -1-4 glucoses with side-chains of the 5-C sugar i h id h i f h 5C xylose Lie flat against the cellulose fibrils

Pectins are polymers of galacturonic acid

A id pectins are long molecules Acid ti l l l Neutral pectins act as linking molecules between acid pectins, glycoproteins and hemicellulose l t i d h i ll l polymers Act as embedding glue

Lignin is very hard, tough

Chemistry is not fully elucidated P l Polymer of complex, amino-acid f l i id derived monomers Creates strong, durable cell walls

Ground Tissues

Parenchyma C ll h Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Parenchyma
I an active, living tissue Is ti li i ti Simple tissue (1 cell type) Parenchyma cells have thin cell walls Is evident as softer parts of a plant; the pith of a herbaceous plant; the edible part of fruit such as apples or a tuber such as a potato Multiple functions of parenchyma cells (like Swiss army knife) ll (lik S i k if )
Some are photosynthetic Storage for important biological molecules starch, oil droplets, water Storage for plant hormones, resin, enzymes Can differentiate into other cell types such as during wound healing

Potato tuber cells

Sclerenchyma
At maturity, cells are often dead t it ll ft d d Simple tissue (1 cell type) C ll have both primary and Cells h b h i d secondary cell walls (thick walls) hence not very flexible Hard parts of stems (e.g., bamboo), bamboo) roots and leaves, leaves fruits, seeds Functions of sclerenchyma cells (rigid support; like granite chips or steel rods in concrete)
Sclereids: hard cells found in nuts, fruits, leaves Fb Fibers: l long tapered cells that d ll h occur in patches or clumps Sclereids S l id
Credit: Carolina Biological/Visuals Unlimited

TS

LS

Collenchyma
Living cells at maturity Simple tissue (1 cell type) Primary walls are unevenly thickened, very thick in corners not uniformly distributed distributed, usually appear as strands pp y Provides support in nonwoody plant organs (flexible support) Found in petioles of celery (Apium graveolens)

TS LS

Credit: Arnold Karpoff/Visuals Unlimited

TS celery collenchyma

Cell Walls of the Ground Tissues

Distinguished by their chemical composition
P Parenchyma cell walls h ll ll
Mainly composed of cellulose S ll amounts of pectin and hemicellulose Small f i d h i ll l

Collenchyma cell walls

Much more pectin, esp. in thickened regions

Sclerenchyma cell walls y

Contain relatively large quantities of lignin, in addition to pectin, hemicellulose and cellulose

Digression: Comparison Tables g p What s Whats a good way to learn about somewhat similar entities like the three tissues collenchyma, parenchyma and sclerenchyma?

Vascular Tissues

Xylem Phloem

Phloem
Functions include: Conducts water and photosynthates from the leaves to the rest of the plant Continuous throughout the plant body

Xylem
Functions include: Conducts water and nutrients from roots to the rest of the plant Support for the stem Continuous throughout the plant body

Phloem
Cell types include: Sieve tube member/element/cell Companion cell Fiber Parenchyma

Xylem
Cell types include: Tracheids Vessel member/element/cell Fiber Parenchyma y

Complex tissue (2 cell types) Complex tissue (2 cell types)

Phloem Cell Types

Sieve tube element Companion Fiber cell Parenchyma cell
For mostly lateral conduction of water and p photosynthates y

For conduction of Controls sieve For water and tube element and structural photosynthates assists in moving support p photosynthates in y and out of sieve tube element

Phloem Cell Types

Sieve tube element
Combines with other sieve tube elements to form the sieve tube

Companion Fiber cell

Not applicable

Parenchyma cell

Not Combines with applicable other parenchyma cells to form rays

Phloem Cell Types

Sieve tube element
Alive at maturity y At maturity lacks nucleus and other organelles but has t l h cytoplasmic i connection with other sieve tube elements and companion cells

Companion cell
At maturity has nucleus and cytoplasmic connections (plasmodesmata) ( l d t ) with sieve tube element

Fiber

Parenchyma cell
Alive at maturity y At maturity has cytoplasm and nucleus

Alive at maturity Dead at maturity y At maturity, only has primary and secondary cell walls, lacking ll l ki cytoplasm and nucleus

Phloem Cell Types

Sieve tube Si b element
End walls are sieve plates

Companion Fib C i Fiber cell

Not applicable Not applicable

Parenchyma P h cell
Not applicable

Phloem fiber cap Primary phloem Secondary phloem

Xylem Cell Types

Tracheid
For conduction of water and mineral nutrients and structural l support

Vessel element
For conduction of water and mineral nutrients and structural l support

Fiber
For structural support pp

Parenchyma cell
For mostly lateral conduction of water and mineral i l nutrients and storage

Xylem Cell Types

Tracheid
Not applicable

Vessel element
Combines with other vessel elements to form the vessel

Fiber
Not applicable

Parenchyma cell
Combines with other parenchyma cells to form rays or vertical i l (axial) parenchyma strands

Xylem Cell Types

Tracheid T h id
Dead at maturity At maturity, only has primary and secondary cell walls, lacking cytoplasm and nucleus. No secondary wall at pits.

Vessel V l element
Dead at maturity At maturity, only has primary and secondary cell walls, lacking cytoplasm and nucleus. No secondary wall at pits.

Fiber Fib
Dead at maturity At maturity, only has primary and secondary cell walls, lacking cytoplasm and nucleus

Parenchyma P h cell
Alive at maturity At maturity has cytoplasm and nucleus. nucleus

Xylem Cell Types

Tracheid T h id
Not applicable

Vessel V l element
End walls are perforated or absent at maturity

Fiber Fib
Not applicable

Parenchyma P h cell
Not applicable

Secondary xylem Primary xylem

Dermal Tissues

Epidermis P id Periderm ( (covered later )

Epidermal Cells

Ground epidermal cells Guard cells Trichomes

Ground Epidermal Cells

Unspecialized live cells Usually nonphotosynthetic; clear covered with a waxy cuticle Cells tightly connected (right); prevents water loss or entry

Guard Cells
A stoma (plural, stomata) is a type of pore Guard cells are found on either side, open usually during , p y g day; close at night and during drought
Opening/closing mechanism covered in lecture 2 Closed Open

Credit: Carolina Biological/Visuals Unlimited

Guard cell

Guard cell

Trichomes
Trichomes = Outgrowths hairs Vary considerably in size Functions include:
Stinging hairs Some leaf trichomes used to discourage herbivory Some used to eliminate salt Some thought to increase reflection to reduce stem/leaf temperature Root hairs are a type of trichome, , increase surface area to increase uptake of nutrients
Credit: RMF/Visuals Unlimited

Trichomes on an Arabidopsis thaliana leaf.

Meristems
Plant growth involves
Cell division C ll elongation Cell l ti Cell differentiation

Occurs locally unlike in locally, animals

Places of growth called meristems g Meristems made of cells that form new cells by mitosis

Apical meristems i l i
Elongation of the stem or root

L t l meristems Lateral it
Increase in girth Only seen in gymnosperms and woody dicots Periderm, woody stem or root

Mechanisms of Growth
Primary growth (apical growth)
Elongation of the stem or root All plants show this kind of growth

Secondary growth (lateral growth)

Increase in girth Only seen in gymnosperms and woody dicots and rarely, some large, woody monocots

Primary Growth: Root

Elongation of the plant occurs at apical meristems, which are located at the tips of roots and shoots and within buds of stems

Credit: Biodisc/Visuals Unlimited

Primary Growth: Shoot Apex

Shoot apexes (also, apices) have apical meristematic tissue Inside the shoot apex, dome of apical meristem apex Bud primordia, which can grow into buds, have meristematic tissue

Explain how cultivated trees may get their branches shortened or removed? How about the case for wild trees growing in forests?

Secondary Growth
Secondary growth, the increase in girth, occurs at lateral meristems Extends along the length of the stem except at tips
Vascular cambium
Thin continuous cylinder within stem/root Between bark and wood Cells divide, adding more cells to the wood Thin cylinder of meristematic cells located in outer bark Divide to form cork cells on the outside, 1 or more layers of cork parenchyma cells on the inside h ll h i id

Cork cambium

Bark

All tissues located outside of the vascular cambium l bi Made of cork cells, cork cambium and cork parenchyma