EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

2. DC MOTORS
2.0 Objectives
The objective of this chapter is to introduce the following topics related to dc motors: Different types of dc motors and their characteristics Starting and speed control of dc motors Braking methods Efficiency and testing Applications

2. 1 Introduction
The dc motor is similar to a dc generator; in fact, the same machine can act as a generator or a motor. In a generator the emf generated is greater than the terminal voltage, whereas in a motor the generated emf, known as counter emf or back emf, is less than the terminal voltage. The motor converts electric energy to mechanical energy, the reverse process is that of the generator. DC generators are rarely used, but the dc motors are widely used in many industrial applications that demand a high degree of flexibility in the control of speed and torque.

2.2 Counter emf (Back emf) in dc motors

When a dc supply is connected to the dc motor, current will flow through the armature conductors. The commutator changes the direction of the current so that the conductors under the south pole carry current in one direction while all conductors under the north pole carry the current in the opposite direction. The current carrying conductors experience a force, which will turn the armature. With the armature rotating in the magnetic field, the armature conductors generate emf. Thus the motor simultaneously acts as a generator. Naturally, motor action is stronger than generator action. The generated voltage opposes the supply voltage, thus limiting the armature current. The armature current will be limited to a value just sufficient to take care of the developed power needed to drive the load. The armature current of a dc motor is given by
Ia = VL Ec A Ra (2. 1)

where VL = line supply voltage Ec = counter (generated) emf. It is obvious that the counter emf is proportional to the speed of rotation and the field flux. When the motor is at rest, the counter emf is zero and so the starting current is given by Istart = VL/Ra (2.2)

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

2.3 Classification of dc motors

Like generators there are in general four types of dc motors; separately excited, shunt, series and compound. When the supply voltage to a motor is constant, there is no practical difference in behaviour between the separately excited motor and the shunt motor. Therefore the characteristics of the shunt motor are applicable to separately excited dc motor also. The circuit diagrams of shunt, series and compound motors are shown in Fig. 2.15.

2.4 Mechanical power and torque

The induced emf of a dc machine is given by E c = kg n = k (2.3) The electrical power supplied to the armature, which is converted to mechanical power (mechanical power developed), is Pd = EcIa W (2.4)

Fig 2.1 Circuit diagram of dc motors: (a) Shunt motor; (b) Series motor; (c) Compound motor, long shunt. We know that T = Pd (2.5) where T is the torque developed. Therefore the torque developed by the dc motor is given by T = EcIa/ = k Ia (2.6)

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

2.5 Speed of rotation

From eqn.2.3
S p e ,en d = E c V L I a Ra = k g k g (2.7)

From the above equation it is clear that the speed of rotation of a dc motor is directly proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the field current (flux).

2.6 Shunt motors

2.6.1 Load characteristics (Terminal characteristics) Consider a dc motor running at no-load. If a mechanical load is suddenly applied to the shaft, the motor begins to slowdown. This causes the counter emf to decrease, resulting in a higher armature current and a corresponding higher torque. When the torque developed by the motor is exactly equal to the torque imposed by the load, then the speed remains constant. From (2.7) it can be seen that the speed of a shunt motor is directly proportional to counter emf and inversely proportional to flux. As the flux remains almost constant the speed and the armature resistance is very low the speed stays relatively constant (changes by 5 to 15 percent from no-load to full-load). As load current increases the torque developed also increases linearly (Refer to (2.6)) since the field flux remains almost constant. Typical and speed-current characteristics are shown in Fig. 2.2. Torque current characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin. The torquespeed characteristic will be similar to torquecurrent characteristic.
With AR No AR T No AR With AR

Ia

Ia

(a) (b) Fig. 2.2 (a) Speed-current characteristic of dc motors (b) Torque-current characteristic of dc motors The flux and hence the back emf (counter emf) of a dc machine is nonlinear function of its magnetomotive force (mmf). Therefore, anything that changes the mmf in a machine will have nonlinear effect on the back emf and hence on the speed and torque

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

of the machine. If we neglect the saturation effect of magnetization curve then the relations will be linear. In most discussion the saturation effect is neglected. 2.6.2 Speed control of shunt motor There are two methods of speed control of shunt motors, namely armature control and field control. Armature control According to (2.7), if the flux per pole is kept constant (field with fixed excitation), the speed depends only on the counter emf or mainly on the supply voltage (Armature resistance being very small). One way to control the speed of a dc motor by armature control is to place a resistance in series with the armature. The voltage drop in the resistance reduces the armature voltage. This method enables us to reduce the speed below its nominal speed. This is only recommended for smaller machines because a lot of power is wasted in the resistance. Also the speed regulation is poor for a fixed setting of the resistance. Another way to control the speed by armature control is to vary the supply voltage to the armature by solid state devices such as thyristors. For armature voltage control, the flux in the motor is constant, so the maximum torque in the motor is Tmax = k Ia,max (2.8) This maximum torque is constant regardless of the speed of the motor. Since the power output is given by P = T , the maximum, power of the motor at any speed under voltage control is directly proportional to the operating speed. Field control According to (2.7), we can also vary the speed of a dc motor by varying the field flux. If the line supply voltage is maintained constant the speed is inversely proportional to the flux, . This method of speed control is frequently used when the motor has to run above the normal speed. To control the flux we vary the field current by connecting a rheostat in series with the field. Under this type of control, as the increase in speed is achieved by decreasing the flux, the induced torque limit must decrease in order to keep the armature current within limit. Since the torque limit decreases as the speed increases, the maximum power out of a dc shunt motor under field control is constant, while the maximum torque varies as the reciprocal of the motors speed.
Tmax Tmax constant Pmax constant Va Control Rf Control nbase Pmax Tmax constant Pmax =Tmax Rf Control Speed, n Pmax constant

Va Control nbase

Speed, n

Fig. 2.3 Power and torque limits as a function of speed under armature and filed controls

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

2.6.3 Reversing the direction of rotation The direction of the rotation may be reversed by reversing either (1) the armature connection or (2) the shunt and series field connection (but not both). 2.6.4 The effect of an open field circuit If the filed is open-circuited the field flux will drop down to the residual flux and the back emf would also drop. This will cause a large armature current and the resulting induced torque would be quite a bit higher than the load torque. Therefore, the motor speed will increase to a large value. The motor speed keeps going up unless a corrective action is taken. Example 1 A 240-V shunt motor runs at 850 rpm when the armature current is 70 A. The armature circuit resistance is 0.1 . Calculate the required resistance to be placed in series with the armature to reduce the speed to 650 rpm when the armature current is then 50 A. Solution Initial counter emf at 850 rpm, Ec1 = 240 70x0.1 = 233 V Counter emf at 650 rpm, Ec2 = 233x650/850 = 178.2 V The total voltage drop in the armature circuit VL Ec = 240 178.2 = 61.8 V The total armature circuit resistance = 61.8/50 = 1.236 The additional resistance to be added = 1.236 0.1 = 1.136 Example 2 A 240-V shunt motor runs at 800 rpm at no-load. Determine the resistance to be placed in series with the field so that the motor runs at 950 rpm when taking an armature current 20 A. Field resistance is 160 and the armature resistance is 0.4 . Assume that the pole flux is proportional to the field current. Solution At no-load assume armature current is zero. Therefore Ec = 240 V The field current, If = 240/160 = 1.5 A At the changed speed the armature current = 20 A Therefore, counter emf at 950 rpm, Ec = 240 20x0.4 = 232 V As speed, n = k Ec/If
n' E c ' I f = ; therefore n Ec I f ' 950 232 x1.5 = 800 240 xI f '

If = 1.221 A The total field circuit resistance = 240/1.221 = 197 The resistance to be added to the field circuit = 197 160 = 37 .

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

2.6.5 Starting of a shunt motor If we apply full voltage to stationary shunt motor, the starting current in the armature will be very high (because the counter emf is zero) and the machine will be burnt. All dc motors must, therefore, be provided with a means to limit the starting current to reasonable value, usually between 1.5 and twice full-load current. One method is to place a rheostat in series with the armature. The resistance is gradually reduced as the motor accelerates and is eventually eliminated when the machine has attained full speed. In modern practice, a starting resistor is made up of a series of pieces, each of which is removed from the motor circuit in succession as the motor speeds up, in order to limit the current in the motor to a safe value while never reducing it too low a value for rapid acceleration. Figure 2.4 shows a shunt motor with a three-segment starting resistor that can be cut out of the circuit one segment at a time by closing the contactors 1A, 2A, and 3A. To design a motor starter, the size and number of resistor segments necessary to limit the starting current to its desired bounds should be picked up, as a first step. The second step is to design a control circuit that shuts the resistor bypass contacts automatically at the proper time to remove those parts of the resistor from the circuit.
Rstart Ra 1A 2A 3A

Fig. 2.4 A shunt motor with a starting resistor Some older dc motors use manual starters wherein the resistances are gradually cut out of the circuit by an operator. Two such manual starters namely threepoint starter and four-point starter are shown in Fig. 2.5.

Fig. 2.5 (a) Three-point starter (b) Four-point starter

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

The selection of the size and number of resistor segments needed for an automatic starter is explained by means of an example below. Example 3 A 100-hp 250-V, 350-A shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.05 . An automatic starter circuit is to be designed for the motor. The starter should limit the motor starting current to twice its rated value and the resistance stage is cut when the current falls to the rated value. How many stages of starting resistance are needed and what is the resistance of each step? At what voltage should each stage of the starting resistance be cut out? Solution The starting resistor must be selected so that the starting current is twice the rated current. As the motor starts to speed up, an internal generated voltage Ea will be produced and the current flow to the armature is reduced. When the current falls to rated current, a section of the starting resistor must be taken out to increase the starting current to twice the rated value. As motor continues to speed up, Ea continues to rise and armature current again starts to fall. When the current falls to rated current again, another section of the starting resistor must be taken out to increase the starting current to twice the rated value. This process is repeated until all the segments of the starting resistor is cut out. How many steps are required to accomplish the current limiting? To find out, define Rtot as the original resistance in the starting circuit. Rtot = R1+ R2+ R3 + . . . + Ra (2.9)

Let Rtot,i be the total resistance left in the circuit after i stages of resistances have been cut out, i.e., Rtot,i = Ri+1 + . . . + Ra (2.10)

To limit the starting current to Imax (in this example Imax = twice the rated current)
Rtot = VL I max

(2.11)

At the first stage, resistance R1 must be switched out of the circuit when the current Ia falls to V Ec Ia = L = I min (In this example Imin = rated current) (2.12) Rtot After switching R1 out, the armature current must jump to
Ia = VL Ec = I max Rtot ,1

(2.13)

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

At the time of switching the speed and hence the back emf cannot change instantaneously. Therefore from (2.12) and (2.13),
I min Rtot =V L E c = I max Rtot ,1

(2.14) Hence Rtot ,1 =

I min Rtot I max

(2.15)

By direct extension the resistance left in the circuit after nth stage is switched out is
Rtot ,n I = min I max Rtot
n

(2.16)

The starting process is completed when Rtot,n is less than or equal to Ra. At this point Ra can limit the current to the desired value all by itself. At the boundary where Ra = Rtot,n
Ra = Rtot,n I = m in Rto t I m ax
n

Ra Rto t

I = m in I m ax

(2.17)

n=

R ln( a I ln( min

Rtot

)
(2.18)

I max

Solving the above equation for n and rounding up to the next integer value, we will get the number of stages.
I min = 0.5 and Rtot = VL/Imax = 250/700 = 0.357 I max So from (2.18) n = 2.84 Therefore, number of stages required will be 3

In this problem, the ratio

The total resistance at the time of starting Rtot = R1+ R2+ R3 + Ra = 0.357 From (2.15) Rtot,1 = R2+ R3+ Ra= 0.357 x 0.5 = 0.1785 Similarly Rtot,2 = R3+ Ra = 0.08925 Therefore, R1 = 0.1785 ; R2 = 0.08925 ; R3 = 0.03925 The first stage resistance R1 is cut out when the current reaches Imin = 350 A. From (2.12) 350 = (VL Ec)/Rtot = (250 Ec)/0.357 and hence Ec = 125 V Therefore, the first stage resistance R1 is cut out when Ec = 125 V The second stage resistance R2 is cut out when the current reaches Imin = 350 A again. That is 350 = (VL Ec)/Rtot,1 = (250 Ec)/0.1785 and hence Ec = 187.5 V Therefore, the second stage resistance R2 is cut out when Ec = 187.5 V

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

Similarly, the third stage resistance R3 is cut out when Ec = 218.75 V When the third stage resistance is cut out the armature current is given by Ia = (250 218.75)/0.05 = 625 A which is less than the allowed max current of 700 A The armature current variation during starting will be as shown in Fig. 2.6.
700 A

350 A

t1

t2

t3

Fig. 2.6 Armature current during starting Once the starting resistances have been selected, the method of closing the shorting contacts to ensure that the resistances are closed at the correct moment should be incorporated. One scheme using the time delay relays is shown in Fig. 2.7. In the figure fuses (F1, F2, F3, F4), push button switches (stop, start), relay coils (circles) and relay contacts (parallel lines). The contacts are of two types, normally open and normally closed contacts. OL represents overload trip device and TD represents time delay relay which will operate after a present time delay. M is the main relay. FL is the field circuit relay which will operate and disconnect the supply to main relay when the field current reduces to a very small value. The sequence of operation begins when the start button is pressed. The time delay relays are set to operate at time t1, t2 and t3.

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

Fig. 2.7 A dc motor starting circuit using time delay relays

2.7 Series Motor

A dc series motor has a field winding connected in series with the armature circuit as shown in Fig. 2.8. The series field will have a relatively few turns. In a series motor, armature current, filed current, and load current are the same. The voltage current relation is given by VL = Ec + Ia(Ra + Rsr) (2.19)

Ra Rsr Ea+

+ VL

Fig. 2.8 The equivalent circuit of a dc series motor

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

2.7.1 Load Characteristics (Torque-speed characteristic) In series motor the flux is directly proportional to the load current (armature current), at least until saturation is reached. As the load on the motor increases flux increases too and hence the speed of the motor decreases. In series motor T = k Ia ; = cIa ; Hence T = kcIa2 (2.20) In other words, the induced torque is proportional to the square of the armature current. We have seen earlier that the relation between speed and back emf is given by Ec = k As flux in the series motor is proportional to armature current Ec = kcIa Also, Ec = VL Ia (Ra + Rsr) (2.22) (2.23) (2.21)

From (2.20), (2,21) and (2.23)

=
Ec V I a ( Ra + Rsr ) = L = kcI a kcI a VL kc T Ra Rsr kc

(2.24)

Notice that for an unsaturated series motor the speed is inversely proportional to the square root of the torque. This ideal speed-torque characteristic is given in Fig. 2.9.

Fig. 2.9 The torque-speed characteristic of a dc series motor When the series motor starts up, the armature current is higher than the normal, with the result the flux also greater than normal. Therefore the starting torque of the seriestedmotor is considerably greater than that of a shunt motor. At light ra loads the armature current and the flux are small. The weaker field causes the motor to run faster than the normal speed. At no-load the speed may rise to a dangerously high value. For this reason we never operate a series motor at no-load. T T
ra ted

Tstart

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

2.7.2 Speed control The speed of the series motor is controlled either by changing the terminal voltage of the motor or by inserting a resistor in the motor circuit. If the terminal voltage is increased the speed will increase for a given torque. (Refer to (2.24)). The speed control by insertion of resistor will produce a large power loss in the resistor and hence it is used only for intermittent periods during the start-up of some motors. The variable terminal voltage can be obtained easily by SCR-based control circuits.

2.8 Compound motors

Similar to compound generators compound motors also have cumulative or differential compounding. Two types of connections namely long-shunt connection or shunt-shunt connection are also possible. The characteristics of the motor will mainly depend on the type of compounding. The torque-speed characteristics of a cumulatively compounded motor and a differentially compounded motor are given in Fig. 2.10.
speed Differentially compounded

Fig. 2.10 Torque-speed characteristics of compound motors

Series

The techniques available for the control of speed in a cumulatively compounded dc motor are the same as those available for a shunt motor. The differentially Cumulatively compounded compounded motor is almost never used.
Shunt

2.9 Efficiency calculations

ra ted

To calculate the efficiency of a dc motor all the losses in the machine must be calculated. The five types of losses occurring in dc machines have been explained in Chapter 1. These losses are subtracted from the input of the motor to calculate the T T the power output and hencerated efficiency. Example 4 A 10-hp, 230-V shunt motor takes a full-load current of 40 A. The armature and field resistance are 0.25 and 230 , respectively. The mechanical losses are 380 W. Calculate the efficiency of the motor.

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

Solution Input power Field current = 230/230 = 1 A Field copper loss Armature current = 40 1 = 39 A Armature copper loss Mechanical losses Total losses Power output (9200 990) Efficiency = 8210/9200 = 89.24 % = 230 x 40 = 230 x 1 = 9200 W = 230 W 380 W 380 W 990 W 8210 W

= 392 x 0.25 = = = =

2.10 Testing
2.10.1 Swinburnes Test (No-load test) In this test the machine is run as a shunt motor on no load at rated speed with rated applied voltage. The rated voltage V, the no load current I0, and the filed current If are measured. The armature resistance Ra is measured by conducting a separate blocked rotor test. As the no load current is very small it is assumed that the no load input to the machine is equal to the core plus mechanical losses. Therefore the core losses plus mechanical losses are given by Pc + Pmech = V(If + I0) (2.25)

For a shunt motor, the input to the machine at an armature current, Ia is given by Pi = V(If + Ia) The armature copper loss = Ia2 Ra Therefore, the power output is given by Po = V(If + Ia) V(If + I0) - Ia2 Ra Therefore, efficiency of the motor is (2.28) (2.26) (2.27)

P V(I f + I 0 ) + I a R a = o = 1 Pi V(I f + I 0 )

(2.29)

When the machine is running as a generator the power output is given by Po = V(Ia If) The power input is (power output + losses) Pi = V(Ia If) + V(If + I0) + Ia2 Ra = V(Ia + I0) + Ia2 Ra (2.31) (2.30)

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

Therefore

P V(Ia - I f ) V(If + I 0 ) + I a R a G = o = = 1 2 2 Pi V(Ia + I 0 ) + I a R a V(Ia + I 0 ) + I a R a

(2.32)

The value obtained for efficiency by this method is usually greater than the actual efficiency. 2.10.2 Kapp-Hopkinson Test A more accurate method of predicting the efficiency is the Kapp-Hopkinson Test, in which two similar machines are mechanically coupled and electrically connected back-to-back as shown in Fig. 2.11. IL IfB IB B IA A IfA V

Fig. 2.11. Connection diagram for Kapp-Hopkinson test Machine A is run up to normal speed as a motor with machine B unexcited. Excitation to machine B is then connected and the field current adjusted so that the induced voltage is equal to the system voltage. Machine B is then connected to the system; increasing the excitation of machine B while decreasing the excitation of machine A so that the speed is unchanged, machine A can be made to operate as a motor while machine B is operating as a generator. In this situation, the supply voltage provides total losses. Assume to be efficiency of each machine, it follows that Generator input = Motor output = (motor input) = VIA Generator output = VIB = (Generator input) = 2 VIA I = B Therefore, VIB = 2 VIA IA

(2.33)

When the efficiencies of the two machines are not the same, the efficiency is calculated as follows. The total fixed losses of the system is given by P = VIL (IA2 RAa + IB2 RBa) (2.34) where RAa and RBa are the armature resistances of machine A and B respectively. The fixed loss of each machine is (P/2), because the machines are similar. With the input power of the motor being (VIA + VIfA) and the output power from the generator being VIB, the efficiency is given as

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

Motor efficiency = 2 ( p / 2) + I A RaA + VI fA Output of Motor Motor Losses =1 =1 (2.35) Intput of Motor Intput of Motor V ( I A + I fA ) Generator efficiency = VI B Generator Output Generator Output = = Generator Intput Generator Output + Losses V ( I B + I fB ) + ( P / 2) + I B 2 RB which can be written as Generator efficiency = 1

( P / 2) + I B RB + VI fB V ( I B + I fB ) + ( P / 2) + I B RB
2

(2.36)

2.11 Breaking methods

When a large dc motor is coupled to a heavy industrial load, it may take a very long time to come to rest once the power supply is disconnected. This lengthy deceleration period is often unacceptable and hence we must apply a breaking torque to stop the motor quickly. Applying mechanical friction is one way to stop the machine. A more elegant method consists of circulating a reverse current in the armature, so as to break the motor electrically. The electrical breaking methods are: (1) Dynamic breaking, (2) Regenerative breaking and (3) Plugging. 2.11.1 Dynamic breaking In this method, the supply to the armature of the motor is disconnected keeping the field excitation unchanged and the armature terminals are immediately connected to an external resistor. As the motor continues to run with field excitation on, it will now act as a generator and the induced voltage E will circulate an armature current. This current flows in the opposite direction to the original armature current. This reverse current produces reverse torque and the machine will come to stop quickly. In practice, the value of the external resistor is chosen such that the initial breaking current is about twice the rated motor current. As the motor slows down, the induced voltage reduces. Hence the armature current and breaking toque become smaller and smaller. Some times mechanical breaking is combined with dynamic breaking to stop the machine quickly. 2.11.2 Regenerative breaking In dynamic braking the kinetic energy of the machine is dissipated in the resistor. Regenerative breaking is similar to dynamic breaking but the energy is pumped back to the mains. For this purpose the induced voltage of the machine during breaking must be greater than the mains voltage. Therefore this method can be used only in cases the speed of the machine is greater than the rated speed while breaking or there should be a possibility to adjust the mains voltage to a value less than the induced voltage. 2.11.3 Plugging

EET2046 Energy Conversion II Chapter 2 DC Motors

We can stop the motor very quickly by using a method known as plugging. It consists of suddenly reversing the armature current by reversing the terminal voltage V t of the source. As soon the voltage is reversed, the net voltage acting on the armature circuit becomes (Ea + Vt). This net voltage will produce enormous reverse current, perhaps 50 times greater than the full-load armature current. This large current may damage the motor. To prevent this, we must limit the reverse current by introducing a resistor in series with the reversing circuit. When the machine reaches zero speed we must immediately open the armature circuit, otherwise it will begin to run in reverse direction.

2.12 Applications of dc motors

Shunt motors are suitable for applications requiring constant speed and where accurate control of speed or position of the load is required. Specific applications are fans, conveyor drives, machine tools, packaging etc. Series motors are used on equipment requiring a high starting torque. They are suitable to use in traction, electric cranes and hoists. Compound motors are used when high starting torque compared to shunt motors are required.