1 ACCESSORY GLANDS OF DIGESTION 1.Gland Classification 2.Capsule and Septae 3.Secretory Portion 4.Duct System 5.Blood Supply 6.

Nerve Supply Structure 1. Gland classification - compound tubuloacinar (tubuloalveolar) gland - serous or mixed glands, depending on the type of secretory cells 2. Capsule and septae - a dense irregular collagenous connective tissue makes up its capsule from which septae arise to divide the gland into lobes and lobules - in the connective tissue are found the excretory ducts along with the blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves. Also found are the IgA -producing plasma cells. 3. Secretory portion - pyramidal-shaped serous or mucous cells with basally located nuclei arranged around a lumen, connected to an intercalated duct - serous acinus is likened to a grape attached to its stem - mucous tubule is cylindrical - release a primary secretion, resembling extracellular fluid which is modified in the ducts to produce the final secretion serous demilunes - mucous cells form tubules, but their ends are capped by serous cells; found in submandibular glands myoepithelial cells - form the initial portion of the duct system, lie parallel to the length of the duct basket cells

MAJOR SALIVARY GLANDS

3 pairs of large salivary glands PAROTID SUBMANDIBULAR OR SUBMAXILLARY SUBLINGUAL - these glands along with the numerous small glands associated with the oral cavity, secrete saliva into the mouth thru the ducts (after mechanical, thermal, chemical, psychic, or olfactory stimuli due to presence, or anticipated presence of food) - the minor salivary glands(located in the mucosa and submucosa of the oral cavity) secrete 5-10% of the total daily salivary output, but they account for about 70% of the mucus secretion. Function: Secretes saliva- the major salivary glands produce approximately 700-1100 ml of saliva /day Components of Saliva: 1. amylase commence digestion of 2. maltase carbohydrates 3. lysozyme part of the oral anti4. peroxidase bacterial system 5. lactoferrin 6. immunoglobulin A(IgA)-immune defense mechanism, against oral bacteria Importance of Saliva 1. Constantly moistens and lubricates the oral mucosa and the ingested food 2. Aids in cleaning the mouth of food debris 3. Moistens food to ease swallowing and to stimulate the taste buds 4. Because of the presence of amylase and lingual lipase, causes predigestion of carbohydrates & lipids, respectively 5. Serves as oral anti-bacterial defense thru the germicidal protective substances 6. Has buffering function and forms a protective pellicle on the teeth by means of Ca binding proline-rich salivary CHONs 7. Helps maintain fluid balance Structure

2 - well-developed branched myoepithelial cells surrounding the secretory portion - prevents distention of the secretory end piece during secretion when intraluminal pressure is increased - more associated with sublingual glands 4. Duct system a. Intercalated ducts - lined by squamous or low cuboidal epithelium with myoepithelial cells - originating from the acini and drain to the intralobular / striated ducts b. Striated duct - lined by simple columnar (contains basal striations representing vertically oriented mitochondria in the basal compartments for rapid ion and H2O transport) c. Intralobular ducts -grouping of striated ducts d. Interlobular duct - initially lined by stratified cuboidal epithelium but distally lined with stratified columnar epithelium e. Intralobar Interlobar f. Terminal duct (principal) 5. Blood Supply - Rich Vascular Supply - The basal rate of blood flow to salivary glands is 20x greater than the flow of blood to the skeletal muscle. 6. Nerve Supply -ANS

PANCREAS
Produces digestive enzymes in its exocrine portion and a number of hormone in its endocrine portion (islet of langerhans) A. EXOCRINE PANCREAS 1. Pancreatic acinar cells 2. Pancreatic ducts 3. Pancreatic secretions B. ENDOCRINE PANCREAS 1. Islet of langerhans 2. Islet cells 3. Islet hormones A. The exocrine pancreas is a serous compound tubuloacinar gland 1. PANCREATIC ACINAR CELLS a. pyramidal serous cells arranged around a central lumen b. possess a round basal nucleus, abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), an extensive Golgi complex, numerous mitochondria and many free ribosomes. c. zymogen (secretory granules) - membrane-bound and densely-packed in the apical region of pancreatic acinar cells. - contain enzymes and proenzymes packaged in the GOLGI COMPLEX. d. basal plasmalemma has receptors for cholecystokinin and acetylcholine. 2. PANCREATIC DUCTS a. Initial intra-acinar portion of the intercalated ducts is formed by centroacinar cells, which are low cuboidal with a pale cytoplasm b. INTERCALATED DUCTS INTRALOBULAR DUCTS INTERLOBULAR DUCTS MAIN (ACCESSORY) PANCREATIC DUCT C. fuses w/ THE CBD( common bile duct ) AMPULLA OF VATER major duodenal papilla DUODENUM

The acinus, intercalated duct and striated duct together, constitute the SALIVON, the functional unit of a salivary gland. Comparative Table of Major Salivary Glands

3 parenchymal cell: hepatocyte 3. EXOCRINE PANCREATIC SECRETIONS a. ENZYME-poor alkaline fluid - release in large quantities by the intercalated duct cells - release is stimulated by secretin ( and possibly in conjunction with acetylcholine ) - probably neutralizes the acidic chyme as it enters the duodenum b. DIGESTIVE enzymes - synthesized and stored in the pancreatic acinar cells - release is stimulated by cholecystokinin previously known as pancreozymin ( and possibly in conjunction w/ acetylcholine ) - Secreted as enzymes or proenzymes that must be activated in the intestinal lumen. - ENZYMES include pancreatic AMYLASE, pancreatic LIPASES, RIBONUCLEASE and DEOXYRIBONUCLEASE - PROENZYMES include TRYPSIN, CHYMOTRYPSIN, CARBOXYPEPTIDASE and ELASTASE. B. ISLET OF LANGERHANS ( endocrine pancreas ) 1. richly vascularized spherical clusters ( 100 to 200m in diameter ) of endocrine cells surrounded by a fine network of reticular fibers. - scattered among the acini of the exocrine pancreas in an apparently random fashion. 2. ISLET CELLS - are of several types that can be differentiated from each other only be immunocytochemistry or by use of special stains. - they produce several polypeptide hormones but each cell type produces only one hormone. 3. Comparison of Secretory Cells in Islet of Langerhans. LIVER u the largest and heaviest gland ( 1.5 kgs or 3 lbs) -fresh specimen: dark red or reddish brown due to its rich blood supply - location: beneath the diaphragm, just behind the right costal arch receives all materials absorbed from the intestinal tract both exocrine and endocrine bile produced is partly secretion and partly excretion I. Stroma Glissons Capsule - thin fibroconnective tissue covering the liver - covered by peritoneum except at the bare area (superior & posterior surfaces) - arising from the capsule is the fibroconnective tissue skeleton made of collagenous fibers and some fibroblast, within the liver substance Porta hepatis - transverse fissure on the inferior surface of the liver, where the portal vein, the hepatic artery, the hepatic ducts and lymphatic vessels enter. II. Blood supply a. Portal vein - brings nutrient-rich blood from the intestinal tract, pancreas and spleen; 7080% of the livers blood b. Hepatic artery - supplies O2- rich blood from the abdominal aorta; 20-30% of the livers blood c. Hepatic vein - union of several sublobular veins from the central veins, draining into the inferior venacava III. Liver lobules 1. Classic liver lobule (hepatic lobule) - structural unit of the liver - polygonal mass made of liver plates or cords radiating like spokes from the central vein with the portal canals at its corners a. central veins - smallest radicles of the hepatic veins at the center of a hepatic lobule - sinusoids drain into the central vein then into the sublobular vein which join to form collecting veins that drain to the inferior vena cava b. portal area (3-6 per lobule) - portal canal or portal triad - contains the portal vein, hepatic artery, bile duct and lymph vessels c. liver sinusoids - blood vessels found in betwe en liver cords/plates whose basal lamina is incomplete due to fenestrations and gaps - diameter is 9-12um (>capillaries)

4 - flow of blood is from the periphery to the central vein; near its termination is a sphincteric mechanism that controls blood flow - lined by endothelial type & Kupffer cells Endothelial" type cells - small, elongated with dark-staining nucleus & cytoplasmic processes - has few organelles but numerous micropinocytotic vesicles - fenestrations in the attenuated cytoplasm & gaps between cells Kupffer cells - phagocytic (stellate) cells of Kupffer - 15% of hepatocytes - actively phagocytic, with larger, paler nucleus and extensive cytoplasm; on endothelial lining of the sinusoids - numerous in the periportal area where they are most active - in time of need, its number is increased by differentiation of the endothelial cells Functions of Kupffer cells: 1) remove debris & cellular fragments 2) metabolize aged RBCs 3) digest Hb to form bilirubin 4) secrete CHON for immunologic processes 5) destroy bacteria in the portal blood d. Space of Disse (perisinusoidal space) - interstitial space between liver cells and sinusoidal endothelial cells - for active metabolic exchange between the liver and blood; may play an important role in lymph production - contain reticular & collagen fibers to maintain the architecture of sinusoids, & short microvilli of hepatocytes to provide large surface area for absorption & secretion - also contains mesenchymal cells which prefer to store Vitamin A - AKA of the mesenchymal cells: 1) pericyte 4) Itos cell 2) lipocyte 5) fat-storing cell 3) extravascular reticular cells Functions of Itos cells: 1) uptake, storage & release of retinoids 2) synthesis & secretion of CHONs and proteoglycans 3) secretion of cytokines 4) regulation of the sinusoidal lumen diameter in response to regulators, e.g. prostaglandins, thromboxane A 5) probably responsible for formation of reticular and collagen fibers 6) in fetal liver, this may be the stem cell for hemopoiesis 2. Portal lobule - a triangular area whose 3 apices are neighboring central veins and whose center is the portal canal - consists of structures draining bile into the bile duct of that portal area 3. Hepatic acinus of Rappaport - functional unit of the liver - a diamond shaped-area encompassing triangular sections of 2 adjacent liver lobules (central veins are its apices); divided by the portal canal branches transversely between the 2 lobules IV. Liver parenchymal cells - hepatocytes - large, polygonal cells( 20-35um) with 1 or 2 centrally located nuclei - arranged as branching perforated plates or cords between which are sinusoidal spaces; the plates/cords extend from the periphery of the classical lobule to the central vein in a radial fashion - contain basophilic bodies which are aggregates of rough ER in the cytoplasm (where several CHONs, e.g. albumin & fibrinogen, are synthesized) - smooth ERs in the hepatocytes are responsible for the processes needed for inactivation or detoxification of substances, as oxidation, methylation and conjugation - up to 50 Golgi complex per cell; its functions include lysosome formation, secretion of plasma CHON, lipoChON and glycoCHON - small but numerous mitochondria are scattered in the cytoplasm (associated with glycogen storage) hepatocyte lysosome - important in the turnover and degradation of intracellular organelles peroxisomes or microbodies - enzyme-containing organelles are abundant; its functions are: 1) oxidation of excess fatty acids 2) breakdown of H2O2 (generated by oxidation) 3) breakdown of excess purines to uric acid 4) participates in the synthesis of cholesterol, bile acids, & some lipids used to make myelin

5 liver glycogen - depot for glucose; mobilized if the blood glucose level falls below (N) Hepatocyte surfaces: 1. Surface facing the space of Disse - with microvilli to increase surface for transfer of materials between hepatocytes and blood - site where endocrine secretions leave hepatocytes & enter the liver sinusoid 2. Surface closely applied to surface of adjacent liver cell 3. Surface partially separated from an adjacent cell to form a bile canaliculus Limiting plate or Limiting hepatocytes - sheet of smaller modified hepatocytes (1-cell thick) lying against the periportal connective tissue; perforated by blood vessels & branches of the bile ducts Space of Moll - separates the limiting plate from the connective tissue of the portal area V. Bile Flow ( exocrine function) Bile canaliculus - 1st portion of the bile duct system which are small tunnel-like expansions of the intercellular spaces between adjacent liver cells without any lining epithelium Bile ductule or canal of Herring - junction found between bile canaliculi and bile ducts, near the periphery of a hepatic lobule -liver cells are replaced gradually by smaller, lighter cells-ductule cells- with distinct basal lamina - lumen of the ductule eventually joins that of a bile duct at the portal area Bile duct - intermediate-sized vessel at the portal area lined by cuboidal epithelium; receives bile from the canal of Hering - nearer the porta hepatis, they enlarge, now lined by columnar epithelium, and fuse to form the hepatic ducts Bile from hepatocytes Bile canaliculi Bile ductule Bile duct Left & right hepatic Ducts VI. REGENERATION - liver shows remarkable degree of regeneration after injury - hepatocytes are capable of both hypertrophy and hyperplasia - bile ducts actively proliferate - after continuous or repeated damage to hepatocytes for a period of time, the multiplication of cells is followed by a marked increase in the amount of connective tissue (cirrhosis) VII. FUNCTIONS - the liver is a detoxifying gland; thus, is susceptible to damage from absorbed toxic materials Functions of the liver: 1. Secretory- synthesizes bile, CHO, CHON,etc. 2. Excretory- releases waste & even harmful substances for ultimate evacuation 3. Exocrine- releases bile through the duct system 4. Endocrine- releases plasma proteins, etc, directly into the circulation 5. Metabolite storage- stores glucose in the form of glycogen; lipid in the form of triglycerides 6. Vitamin storage- vitamin A is stored 7. Gluconeogenesis- amino acids, lipids are converted into glucose, catalyzed by enzymes 8. Glycogenolysis- in fasting state, hepatocytes respond to glucose- poor blood by breaking down glycogen & releasing it as glucose 9. Amino acid deamination- results in the production of urea (transported thru the blood to the kidney, where it is excreted) 10. Detoxification- inactivates various drugs, noxious chemicals & toxins, by enzymes such as oxidase system thru the process of oxidation, methylation or conjugation 11. Hemopoiesis- in the fetus and newborn GALLBLADDER Communicate with the common hepatic duct via the cystic duct which originate at the neck of the gallbladder Has a muscular wall whose contraction, stimulated by cholecystokinin, forces bile from its lumen into the duodenum. THE WALL HAS 4 LAYERS: 1. mucosa simple columnar epithelium and a richly vascularized lamina propia. Empty gallbladder displays highly convoluted folds. 2. muscle layer thin, oblique layer of smooth muscle cells.

6 3. connective tissue layer dense irregular collagenous connective tissue; presence of nerves and blood vessels. 4. serosa covers most of the gallbladder but adventitia is present where the organ is attached to the liver. FUNCTION: The gallbladder concentrates, stores, and releases bile.