Lon arithmctic jrorc--ion- in thc jrimc-

Au-traian `athcmatica Socicty `cctin

2o Scjtcmcr 200o
Tcrcncc Tao (CLA)
1
Additivc jattcrn- in thc jrimc-
`any ca--ica quc-tion- conccrnin additivc jattcrn-
in thc jrimc- rcmain un-ovcd, c
Twin prime conjecture (Lucid, circa 300 LC)
Thcrc cxi-t innitcy many jair- p, p + 2 ot jrimc-
that arc di-tancc two ajart (3, `), (`, ), (11, 13),
(1, 19), . . .
Odd Goldbach conjecture (1!2) Lvcry odd
numcr n i- thc -um ot thrcc jrimc-
2 + 2 + 3, 9 3 + 3 + 3, 11 3 + 3 + `, ctc
Even Goldbach conjecture (Lucr, 1!2) Lv-
cry cvcn numcr n ! i- thc -um ot two jrimc-
! 2 + 2, o 3 + 3, S 3 + `, ctc
Lut thcrc havc ccn -omc dccj rc-ut-, -uch a-
Chens theorem(19oo) Thcrc cxi-t innitcy many
jair- p, p+2 whcrc p i- a jrimc and p+2 i- an amo-t
jrimc (jroduct ot at mo-t two jrimc-)
Vinogradovs theorem(193) Lvcry -ucicnty
arc odd numcr n i- thc -um ot thrcc jrimc-
2
(Liu-\an, 2002) Lvcry odd numcr n > 10
1346
i-
thc -um ot thrcc jrimc- |A-o known tor n < 10
20
|
`L mutijicativc jrocm- in thc jrimc- arc -init-
icanty ca-icr Ior in-tancc, it i- oviou- that thcrc
arc no comctric jrorc--ion- in thc jrimc- ot cnth
thrcc or hihcr
3
Arithmctic jrorc--ion- in thc jrimc-
2
2, 3
3, `,
`, 11, 1, 23
`, 11, 1, 23, 29
, 3, o, 9, 12, 1`
, 1`, 30, !`, o0, `
. . .
`!91!o!!9311 + 2o00!SoSS90n. n 0, . . . , 20
11!1033S`0``3 + !o0909So9!200n. n 0, . . . , 21
(`oran, lritchard, Thy--cn, 199`)
`o2113S3o039 + !!`!o3S09`So0n. n 0, . . . , 22
(Irind, ndcrwood, !oin, 200!)
lt wa- con,ccturcd tor at ca-t a ccntury that thcrc arc
aritrariy on arithmctic jrorc--ion- ot jrimc-. a morc
jrcci-c con,ccturc wa- that tor any k, thcrc i- a jrorc--
-ion ot cnth k ot jrimc- c-- than k' + 1
ln tact, modcrn hcuri-tic- jrcdict onc can owcr k' +1
to (ke
1
/2)
k(
1
2
+o(1))
(Granvic 200o) \c di-cu-- ujjcr
ound- morc at thc cnd ot thc tak
4
Li-tory ot rc-ut- and con,ccturc-
(Laranc, \arin, 10) An arithmctic jrorc--ion
ot jrimc- ot cnth k mu-t havc -jacin divi-ic y
a thc jrimc- c-- than k |ln jarticuar, thcrc arc
no innitcy on arithmctic jrorc--ion- ot jrimc-|
Hardy-Littlewood prime tuples conjecture
(1923) Givc- an a-ymjtotic jrcdiction ot how ottcn
a ivcn additivc jrimc jattcrn occur in thc jrimc-
trom 1 to N. woud imjy twin jrimc, Godach (at
ca-t tor -ucicnty arc n), and ivc aritrariy on
jrorc--ion- ot jrimc- Totay ojcn
van der Waerdens theorem (192) lt thc intc-
cr- arc coourcd u-in nitcy many coour-, thcn
onc ot thc coour ca--c- mu-t contain aritrariy
on arithmctic jrorc--ion- (Ior in-tancc, cithcr
thc jrimc- or thc non-jrimc- contain aritrariy on
jrorc--ion-)
Erdos-Turan conjecture (193o) Any -ct ot jo-i-
tivc intccr- who-c -um ot rccijroca- divcrc- -houd
contain aritrariy on arithmctic jrorc--ion- |Thc
-um ot rccijroca- ot jrimc- divcrc- (Lucr, 13)|
Totay ojcn. not cvcn known it -uch a -ct mu-t con-
tain a jrorc--ion ot cnth thrcc
5
(\an dcr Corjut, 1939) Thcrc cxi-t innitcy many
arithmctic jrorc--ion- ot jrimc- ot cnth thrcc Thc
Lardy-Littcwood a-ymjtotic i- a-o corrcct in thi-
ca-c
Roths theorem (19`o) Any -u-ct ot thc intc-
cr- ot jo-itivc dcn-ity contain- innitcy many arith-
mctic jrorc--ion- ot cnth thrcc |Thc jrimc- havc
dcn-ity zcro (Lucr, 13)|
(Szcmcrcdi, 19o9) Any -u-ct ot thc intccr- ot jo-i-
tivc dcn-ity contain- innitcy many arithmctic jro-
rc--ion- ot cnth tour
Szemeredis theorem (19`) Any -u-ct ot thc
intccr- ot jo-itivc dcn-ity contain- aritrariy on
arithmctic jrorc--ion- |lmjic- van dcr \acrdcn-
thcorcm|
(Lcath-Lrown, 19S1) Thcrc arc innitcy many arith-
mctic jrorc--ion- ot cnth tour, whcrc thrcc cc-
mcnt- arc jrimc and onc i- an amo-t jrimc (thc
jroduct ot two jrimc-)
(Lao, 1992) Ior any k, thcrc cxi-t k di-tinct jrimc-
p
1
, . . . , p
k
, a ot who-c avcrac-
p
i
+p
j
2
arc a-o jrimc
6
Green-Tao theorem (200!) Thc jrimc numcr-
contain aritrariy on arithmctic jrorc--ion-
(Grccn, T 200!) Thcrc cxi-t innitcy many jrorc--
-ion- ot cnth thrcc ot Chcn jrimc- (jrimc- p whcrc
p + 2 i- amo-t jrimc)
(T, 200`) Thc Gau--ian jrimc- contain aritrariy
-hajcd con-tcation-
(Grccn, T, 200o) Thc Lardy-Littcwood a-ymjtotic
i- corrcct tor jrorc--ion- ot cnth tour in thc jrimc-,
a- wc a- othcr additivc jattcrn- ot -imiar comjcx-
ity (Thc anaoou- rc-ut tor oncr jrorc--ion- i-
a work in jrorc--)
(T, Ziccr, 200o) Lct P
1
, . . . , P
k
c any intccr
joynomia- with zcro con-tant coccicnt Thcn thc
jrimc numcr- contain innitcy many joynomia
jrorc--ion- ot thc torm n + P
1
(r), . . . , n + P
k
(r)
ntortunatcy, thc twin jrimc and cvcn Godach
con,ccturc- rcmain widc ojcn (thc aovc mcthod-
a -ccm to rcquirc thc jattcrn- to havc at ca-t two
indcjcndcnt jaramctcr-)
7
lrimc countin hcuri-tic-
Lxjcricncc ha- -hown that it i- not tca-ic to try to
nd jrimc jattcrn- (or cvcn individua jrimc-) di-
rccty, tor in-tancc y -omc cxjicit tormua ln-tcad,
onc -houd count thc numcr ot jrimc- or jrimc jat-
tcrn- in -omc ranc (c countin thc numcr ot
twin jrimc- trom 1 to N) Thc main ta-k i- to ct a
non-trivia owcr ound on thi- count
\hic our aiity to count jattcrn- in thc jrimc- i-
-ti imitcd in many way-, our aiity to con,ccturc
what thi- count -houd c i- vcry ood (and uncan-
niy accuratc)
A a-ic -tartin joint i- thc prime number theo-
rem (Ladamard, dc a \acc lou--in, 1S9o), which
-ay- that tor arc numcr- N, thc numcr ot jrimc-
ctwccn 1 and N i- rouhy N/ o N (or morc ac-
curatcy

N
2
dx
log x
) Anothcr way ot thinkin aout
it i- that a numcr randomy -ccctcd trom 1 to N
wi havc a jroaiity ajjroximatcy 1/ o N ot c-
in jrimc |Lxacty what ajjroximatcy mcan- i-
a ood quc-tion - co-cy conncctcd to thc tamou-
Riemann hypothesis - ut wc wont di-cu-- it
hcrc|
8
Thi- arcady ivc- u- a crudc hcuri-tic tor countin
jattcrn- in jrimc- Sujjo-c tor in-tancc onc want- to
jrovc thc twin jrimc con,ccturc Onc coud aruc a-
toow-
(1) lick a numcr n randomy trom 1 to N
(2) Thc jrimc numcr thcorcm -how- that thc jroai-
ity that n i- jrimc i- rouhy 1/ o N
(3) Thc jrimc numcr thcorcm a-o -how- that thc jro-
aiity that n + 2 i- jrimc i- a-o rouhy 1/ o N
(!) A--umin that thc cvcnt- in (2) and (3) arc ajjroxi-
matcy indcjcndcnt, thc jroaiity that n, n+2 arc
oth jrimc -houd c 1/ o
2
N
(`) ln othcr word-, thc numcr ot twin jrimc- trom 1 to
N -houd c rouhy N/ o
2
N
(o) Sincc N/ o
2
N oc- to innity a- N , thcrc
arc innitcy many twin jrimc-
9
ntortunatcy, thc aovc arumcnt i- incorrcct Onc
ca-y way to -cc thi- i- that thc cxact -amc arumcnt
woud -how that thcrc arc a-o innitcy many jair-
ot ad,accnt jrimc- n, n + 1, which i- ccary ta-c'
Thc jrocm i- that thc a--umjtion ot indcjcndcncc
i- too naivc - onc i- a-icay hojin that thc jrimc-
trom 1 to N arc di-triutcd in an uttcry random (or
morc jrcci-cy, a j-cudorandom) ta-hion, with thcrc
cin no corrcation ctwccn thc jrimaity ot n and
thc jrimaity ot (-ay) n+2 Lut thi- i- not thc ca-c,
ccau-c ot a vcry -imjc o-crvation
Odd numcr- arc much morc ikcy to c jrimc than
cvcn numcr-
lntuitivcy, thi- mcan- that it n i- jrimc, thcn n i-
mo-t ikcy odd, and -o n+2 i- odd a-o Thi- -houd
-inicanty incrca-c thc jroaiity that n + 2 i-
jrimc - -o thc two cvcnt- arc not indcjcndcnt (Con-
vcr-cy, it dramaticay dccrca-c- thc jroaiity that
n + 1 i- jrimc)
\hic thi- invaidatc- our caricr inc ot rca-onin, it
i- not hard to modity that arumcnt to accomodatc
thi- ncw o-crvation aout thc jrimc- Thc idca i- to
u-c conditiona jroaiity and indcjcndcncc rathcr
10
than a-outc jroaiity and indcjcndcncc Irom
thc jrimc numcr thcorcm, and thc tact that amo-t
a jrimc- arc odd, wc havc
(a) lt n i- a random cvcn numcr trom 1 to N, thcn thc
jroaiity that n i- jrimc i- nciic
() lt n i- a random odd numcr trom 1 to N, thcn thc
jroaiity that n i- jrimc i- rouhy 2/ o N
11
`ow wc havc a rcvi-cd count tor twin jrimc-
(1) lick a numcr n randomy trom 1 to N Ajjrox-
imatcy 1/2 ot thc timc n wi c cvcn. 1/2 ot thc
timc n i- odd
(23!a) lt n i- cvcn, thcn n and n + 2 havc ony a nciic
chancc ot cin jrimc, -o thc jroaiity that n, n+2
arc oth jrimc -houd a-o c nciic (in tact it i-
zcro)
(23!) lt n i- odd, thcn n and n+2 cach havc a jroaiity
ot aout 2/ o N ot cin jrimc, -o (a--umin con-
ditiona indcjcndcncc) thc jroaiity that n, n+2
arc oth jrimc in thi- ca-c -houd c aout !/ o
2
N
(`) luttin thi- a tocthcr (u-in Layc- tormua), thc
numcr ot twin jrimc- trom 1 to N -houd c rouhy
N |
1
2
0 +
1
2

!
o
2
N
| 2
N
o
2
N
.
(o) Thi- -ti oc- to innity a- N , -o thcrc -houd
-ti c innitcy many twin jrimc-
12
Ot cour-c, thi- arumcnt i- a-o incorrcct (thouh it i-
c-- incorrcct than thc jrcviou- onc) Ior in-tancc,
it woud jrcdict innitcy many jrimc trijc- ot thc
torm n, n + 2, n + ! Thc rca-on i- that wc arc not
incorjoratin -omc additiona -tructura tact- aout
thc jrimc-, in thi- ca-c
`umcr- cqua to 1 or 2 (mod 3) arc much morc
ikcy to c jrimc than numcr- cqua to 0(mod 3)
ln tact, wc havc a morc jrcci-c -tatcmcnt (Lirichct
1S3, Sicc-\a-z, 19o3)
(a) lt n i- a random numcr trom 1 to N with n
0(mod 2) or n 0(mod 3), thcn n ha- a nciic
jroaiity ot cin jrimc
() lt n i- a random numcr trom 1 to N with n
1(mod 2) and n 1(mod 3), thcn n ha- jroaiity
rouhy 3/ o N ot cin jrimc
(c) lt n i- a random numcr trom 1 to N with n
1(mod 2) and n 2(mod 3), thcn n ha- jroaiity
rouhy 3/ o N ot cin jrimc
-in thi- ncw intormation, wc can rcvi-c our count
ot twin jrimc- trom 2
N
log
2
N
to
3
2
N
log
2
N

13
Ot cour-c, wc can continuc ad,u-tin thi- count u--
in mod ` intormation, mod intormation, ctc and
otain thc toowin -cqucncc ot hcuri-tic-
lntormation u-cd lrcdictcd ] twin-
lrimc numcr thcorcm
N
log
2
N
] jrimc- mod 2 2
N
log
2
N
] jrimc- mod 2, 3 1.`
N
log
2
N
] jrimc- mod 2, 3, ` 1.!1
N
log
2
N
] jrimc- mod 2, 3, `, 1.3
N
log
2
N
] jrimc- mod 2, 3, . . . , 9 1.32
N
log
2
N
Onc quicky o-crvc- that cach ncw moduu- i- cau--
in c-- and c-- ot an ad,u-tmcnt, and thc jrcdiction
tor thc numcr ot twin jrimc- c-- than N in tact
convcrc- to 2
2
N
log
2
N
, whcrc
2
i- thc twin jrimc
con-tant

p odd jrimc
(1
1
(p 1)
2
) 0.oo01o1S`S . . . .
(Tcchnica joint) Actuay 2
2

N
2
dx
log
2
x
i- a -ihty
cttcr jrcdiction, a- it u-c- thc additiona tact that
-ma numcr- arc a it morc ikcy to c jrimc than
arc numcr- Lut thi- i- a rcativcy minor corrcc-
tion
14
Thi- jrcdiction i- -urjri-iny ood
N 2
2
N
log
2
N
2
2

N
2
dx
log
2
x
Actua ] twin- N
10
6
o91 S2!S S1oS
10
8
3S910 !!03oS !!0312
10
10
2!902S! 2!11!1 2!12o9
10
12
1.293o 10
9
1.S0o1 10
9
1.S0`9 10
9
Our hcuri-tic anay-i- hinc- on thc jrc-umjtion that,
ajart trom thc oviou- -tructurc in thc jrimc- (that thc
jrimc- arc mo-ty odd, mo-ty cojrimc to thrcc, ctc),
that thc jrimc- chavc a- it thcy wcrc randomy di--
triutcd. in othcr word-, thcrc i- no additiona -ccrct
or cxotic -tructurc in thc jrimc- that woud -ini-
canty acct -uch count- a- thc numcr ot twin jrimc-
c-- than N
Thcrc i- a way to makc thi- jrc-umjtion riorou-. thi-
i- known a- thc Hardy-Littlewood prime tuples
conjecture Thi- vcry -tron con,ccturc woud aow
u- to count virtuay any tyjc ot arithmctic jattcrn in
thc jrimc-, -cttin many ojcn quc-tion-. ut wc havc
no way ot attackin thi- con,ccturc with currcnt tcchno-
oy (Low coud onc di-jrovc a con-jiracy amon thc
jrimc-)
15
Amo-t jrimc-
\hic wc cannot -cttc many quc-tion- aout thc
jrimc-, wc havc a much cttcr undcr-tandin ot thc
amo-t jrimc- - numcr- which arc thc jroduct ot
ony a -ma numcr ot jrimc- louhy -jcakin,
thc anaouc ot thc Lardy-Littcwood jrimc tujc-
con,ccturc i- known tor amo-t jrimc- (thi- tact i-
known a- thc fundamental lemma of sieve the-
ory)
To cxjain why amo-t jrimc- arc ca-icr to contro
than cnuinc jrimc-, ct u- rcca thc ca--ica -icvc ot
Lrato-thcnc- Thi- -icvc ct- u- ocatc a thc jrimc-
ctwccn, -ay, N/2 and N tor -omc arc numcr N,
y thc toowin jroccdurc
(0) Start with a thc numcr- trom N/2 to N
(2) Liminatc (or -icvc out) a mutijc- ot 2
(3) Liminatc a mutijc- ot 3
(`) Liminatc a mutijc- ot ` . . .
(

N) Attcr a mutijc- ot jrimc- c-- than

N arc -icvcd
out, onc i- ctt with thc jrimc- trom N/2 to N
16
Onc can think ot thi- -icvc a- -cujtin thc jrimc-
out ot a i ock (thc intccr- trom N/2 to N) At
thc cinnin ot thc jrocc--, onc rcmovc- vcry arc
and -mooth jiccc- trom thi- ock (thc mutijc-
ot 2, mutijc- ot 3, ctc), and it i- ca-y to -cc what i-
oin on Ior in-tancc, wc initiay havc rouhy
N
2
ccmcnt-. attcr rcmovin thc cvcn numcr- wc -houd
havc rouhy
1
2

N
2
ccmcnt-. attcr thcn rcmovin thc
mutijc- ot 3 wc -houd havc rouhy
2
3

1
2

N
2
ccmcnt-
(y thc Chinese remainder theorem) and -o
torth lt i- a-o ca-y to count thc numcr ot twin-,
arithmctic jrorc--ion-, ctc at thc vcry cary -tac-
ot thi- jrocc--
Lowcvcr, at atcr -tac- ot thc -icvc (c at thc -tcj-
ctwccn

N/2 and

N) onc i- jcrtormin a vcry

arc numcr ot tiny modication- to thc -cujturc,
rcmovin -ma amount- ot non-jrimc- at a timc in
what ajjcar- to c a rathcr random jrocc-- At
thi- -tac wc tcnd to o-c a contro ot what i- haj-
jcnin to thi- -cujturc - tor in-tancc, noody ha-
urcd out how to u-c -icvc idca- to ivc a jroot ot
thc jrimc numcr thcorcm, ct aonc anythin morc
-ojhi-ticatcd -uch a- count twin jrimc-
lt howcvcr onc -toj- thc -icvc ctorc oin a thc
17
way uj to

N - -ay it onc ony -icvc- uj to cvc

N
1/100
in-tcad - thcn wc havc ccn ac to kccj con-
tro ot cvcrythin (Actuay wc havc to makc thc
-icvc morc tancy to do -o, ut ct u- inorc thi- tcch-
nicaity) Thc catch, ot cour-c, i- that thc -icvc now
contain- amo-t jrimc- in addition to cnuinc jrimc-
- in thi- ca-c, wc -ti havc numcr- with uj to 100
jrimc tactor- Lowcvcr, it turn- out that thc -ct ot
amo-t jrimc- arc ony midy arcr than thc -ct ot
actua jrimc-. whcrca- thc numcr ot actua jrimc-
trom 1 to N i- rouhy N/ o N, thc numcr ot a-
mo-t jrimc- otaincd y -icvin uj to cvc N
1/100
i- -omcthin ikc 100N/ o N
lcccnt work ot God-ton and Ydrm ha- madc thc-c
hcuri-tic- quitc jrcci-c. a- onc -trikin ajjication,
it i- now known that thc aj p
n+1
p
n
ctwccn ad-
,accnt jrimc- can c a- -ma a- o(o p
n
) innitcy
ottcn (God-ton, Ydrm, lintz, 200`)
18
To -ummari-c -o tar
lrimc numcr- havc -omc oviou- -tructurc (thcy
arc mo-ty odd, cojrimc to 3, ctc) \c dont know
it thcy a-o havc -omc additiona cxotic -tructurc
Lccau-c ot thi-, wc havc ccn unac to -cttc many
quc-tion- aout jrimc-
Amo-t jrimc- (-uch a- tho-c cncratcd y a jartia
-icvc ot Lrato-thcnc-) havc thc -amc oviou- -truc-
turc a- thc jrimc-, ut arc known to c othcrwi-c
randomy di-triutcd (in thc -cn-c that thin- ikc
thc numcr ot amo-t twin jrimc- matchc- thc natu-
ra hcuri-tic-) Thc numcr ot amo-t jrimc- cxcccd-
thc numcr ot actua jrimc- y a con-tant tactor
(-uch a- 100, dcjcndin on onc- jrcci-c dcnition ot
amo-t jrimc)
ln cncra, noody ha- urcd out how to u-c thi-
intormation on amo-t jrimc- to dcducc intormation
on actua jrimc- Lowcvcr, it turn- out that tor a tcw
-jccia tyjc- ot jattcrn- - mo-t notay arithmctic
jrorc--ion- - it i- jo--ic to ju thi- o Thi- i-
ccau-c ot a dccj and jowcrtu thcorcm known a-
Szemeredis theorem
19
Szemeredis theorem (19`) Lct A c a -u-ct
ot thc intccr- Z ot jo-itivc (ujjcr) dcn-ity Thcn
A contain- aritrariy on arithmctic jrorc--ion-
Thi- rc-ut wa- con,ccturcd y Lrdo- and Turan in
193o Thc rcmarkac thin aout thi- thcorcm i-
that onc i- ivcn amo-t no intormation on A othcr
than that it i- arc, and yct thi- i- -ti cnouh to
torcc A to contain aritrariy on jrorc--ion- ln
contra-t, jattcrn- -uch a- twin- n, n+2 do not havc
thi- jrojcrty. tor in-tancc, thc mutijc- ot 3 ha- a
dcn-ity ot 1/3 ut contain- no twin-
Thi- imjortant thcorcm now ha- many dicrcnt jroot-
a cominatoria jroot (Szcmcrcdi, 19`), an crodic
thcory jroot (Iur-tcncr, 19), a Iouricr-anaytic
jroot (Gowcr-, 199S), and a hyjcrrajh jroot (`ac-
lod-Schacht-Skokan,Gowcr- 200`) A thc jroot-
arc non-trivia Thi- i- utimatcy ccau-c thcrc arc
two cxtrcmc ca-c- tor what a -ct A can ook ikc
(-tructurcd and j-cudorandom), and in cach ca-c thc
arithmctic jrorc--ion- mu-t c otaincd in dicrcnt
way-
20
lrorc--ion- in thc jrimc-
`ow wc can -kctch how onc nd- jrorc--ion- in thc
jrimc-
lt i- convcnicnt to work with thc von `anodt tunc-
tion N R, dcncd y -cttin (n) o p
whcn n i- a jowcr ot a jrimc p, and zcro othcrwi-c
Thi- tunction can c thouht ot a- a wciht tunction
tor thc jrimc-. it i- natura ccau-c ot thc idcntity

d|n
(d) o n tor a n 1, 2, 3, . . .
(thi- i- a-icay thc tundamcnta thcorcm ot arith-
mctic in di-ui-c)
To nd jrorc--ion- ot cnth k in thc jrimc-, onc i-
a-icay cd to try to otain owcr ound- tor avcr-
ac- -uch a-
1
N
2
N

n=1
N

r=1
(n)(n + r) . . . (n + (k 1)r).
ln contra-t, Szcmcrcdi- thcorcm aow- u- to owcr-
ound quantitic- -uch a-
1
N
2
N

n=1
N

r=1
f(n)f(n + r) . . . f(n + (k 1)r)
21
ut ony whcn f i- oundcd, non-ncativc, and ha-
arc mcan i- non-ncativc with arc mcan, ut
i- untortunatcy not oundcd
Lowcvcr, u-in a -tructurc thcorcm (motivatcd y
arumcnt- in crodic thcory and cominatoric-) onc
can -jit into a -tructurcd comjoncnt
U

, and a
j-cudorandom comjoncnt
U
(thc dcnition ot thc-c
tcrm- wa- motivatcd y arumcnt- in Iouricr ana-
y-i-) Thc j-cudorandom comjoncnt
U
turn- out
to c nciic (motivatcd y arumcnt- in hyjcr-
rajh thcory) Thc ta-k i- thcn to undcr-tand thc
-tructurcd comjoncnt
U

`ow wc u-c thc intormation aout thc amo-t jrimc-

Thcrc i- an anaouc ot thc von `anodt tunction
tor thc amo-t jrimc-, which wc ca . it i- a ittc it
icr than a-o -jit- into a -tructurcd jart
U

and a j-cudorandom jart

U
, ut ccau-c thc amo-t
jrimc- arc -o j-cudorandomy di-triutcd (cxccjt tor
-omc oviou- irrcuaritic- duc to mod 2, mod 3, ctc
which can c ca-iy dcat with), thc -tructurcd jart

ot turn- out to c vcry -imjc - in tact, it

i- a-icay con-tant Thcrc i- thcn a comjari-on
jrincijc that imjic- that thc -tructurcd jart
U

ot i- oundcd - which ct- onc ajjy Szcmcrcdi-

22
thcorcm
23
Quantitativc ound-
A thc arumcnt- hcrc can c madc quantitativc,
and wc in tact know that thc r-t jrorc--ion ot
jrimc- ot cnth k ha- cntric- c-- than
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
100k
.
lcca that thc con,ccturcd ujjcr ound i- in tact
k' + 1 (or (ke
1
/2)
k(
1
2
+o(1))
)
Thi- i- a towcr ot -cvcn cxjoncntia- Two ot thcm
comc trom thc numcr-thcorctic j-cudorandomnc--
ound- on thc amo-t jrimc- Iour comc trom thc
c-t known ound- on Szcmcrcdi- thcorcm (trom
work ot Gowcr-) Thc a-t onc comc- trom thc -truc-
turc thcorcm
24
lt thc licmann hyjothc-i- i- truc, wc can rcmovc onc
cxjoncntia
25