Introduction and Overview

HIST*1250

What is Science?
something done by scientists? If so, how do we define a scientist? Were Plato and Aristotle doing science? Are there different kinds of science? what we mean by science, or doing science is contingent on the time and place were talking about.

What is Science?
terms like atom, gene and species have changed over time so have scientific movements like Newtonianism, or Darwinism Society determines what science is at any given time and place. science is a human enterprise- the people who do it are always part of the surrounding society the type of science theyre doing is always part of society

Influence of Science
Biography of the Millenium (2000) #10 Galileo Galilei ; #9 Nicolaus Copernicus ; #8 Albert Einstein ; #7 Karl Marx ; #6 Christopher Columbus ; #5 William Shakespeare ; #4 Charles Darwin ; #3 Martin Luther ; #2 Isaac Newton ; #1 Johann Gutenberg.

Influence of Science II
Science is one of the most important influences in our lives Directly, through discoveries and technology Indirectly, through recommendations Scientists say

Margaret Mead
Pioneering anthropologist Best known for studying life in Samoa Also worked with children, got them to draw pictures to show their underlying prejudices

Science Clichs
Objective Disinterested Dispassionate Quest for Truth Nerdy Progressive

Scientific Discoveries
Word betrays assumptions finding something that already existed, but no-one had found before. Early accounts of science presented as voyages of discovery. But in order to discover them, you have to voyage out to find them

Defining science
From scientia: a body of knowledge there was a science of brewing beer, a science of tanning leather, a science of illuminating manuscripts Theology was Queen of the Sciences. scientia vs. techne, knowledge versus craft (know-how) Techne: something you do with your hands, lower-class

Science versus Engineering

A continual theme running through the history of science Reflects the pure/applied, scientia/techne split Which has a bigger impact on our lives? Engineering inherently conservative, science less so

Changing Science
For most of the Middle Ages there was no split between theology and science Science was knowledge that was deduced from self-evident principles, and theology received its principles from the source of all principles, God. In every way, theology was superior to the other sciences

Changing Science
By the 14th century the ideas of science and theology began to be separated theologians began to argue that human knowledge was much more narrowly circumscribed often exploited the omnipotence of God in order to undercut the arrogance and pretension of human reason. motive was to enhance the dignity of God at the expense of human reason, and in place of rationalism in theology, they promoted a kind of fideism.

Science and Religion Today

Often seen as antagonistic Scientists seen as atheistic Believers seen as nave, anti-science A gross over-simplification Being allied with science can be a negative Being a believer can be a negative Is there really a conflict? Is there any solution?

Traditional World View

Ideas of a Golden Age, an Edenic past Implied things today cant be as good as they were. Obviously we dont have the knowledge or technical skills they had in the past Aristotle was seen as an unchallengeable authority. If you knew he was right, why would you bother testing him? So when he said different weights fell at different speeds, it was simply accepted

Why?
an authoritarian society tends to accept the words of authority figures Aquinas modifies Aristotle to make him the official philosopher of the Catholic Church. impact of Roman ruins, roads. Tangible proof of our descent. Very different from our modern, progressive view

The Renaissance
a rediscovery of lost artistic and engineering skill. Not primarily new creations or discoveries, largely restoration. showed the possibility of change, improvement Indirectly led to a challenge of authority

Why Here, Why Now?

why did the scientific revolution happen when it did? discovery of new sources of knowledge, challenges to established authority. Islamic scholars, Chinese innovations Renaissance led to a new confidence Humanism the view that Man is the measure of all things

 the Renaissance led to a new confidence, the recovery of lost authority gradual discovery of mistakes in the classic sources. willingness to test the conclusions of authorities discovery of the New World. New peoples, new attitudes, new discoveries, none of which were mentioned in the authoritative sources like Aristotle or the Bible. If the authorities didnt include these, what else might be missing?

Zeitgeist
imagine what it would be like to be a student in the last decade of the 1400s: explorers had discovered a new world, and were sending back new samples of plants and animals, which had never been dreamt of. Artists, writers and philosophers were hard at work creating the Renaissance. Michelangelo, Leonardo and Columbus were all contemporaries. no longer just looking back to the glories that were Rome, but looking forward to the glories that might be discovered.

Francis Bacon
former Lord Chancellor of England, disgraced and forced to resign interested in science as a new source of knowledge and power. A philosopher, not a scientist (though he did die conducting an experiment) divided natural science into physics (observable) and metaphysics (the underlying causes)

Bacons Approach
recommended observation and experimentation Testing science by experiment is analogous to torturing a suspect to get him/her to confess value of the inductive approach Different value of observations. A positive observation is less valuable than a negative one. knowledge is power. Not simply concerned with knowledge for philosophical reasons.

Salomons House
idea of a technocracy. A research lab that would deign to share its discoveries with society. Science as a self-regulating structure. long-standing tradition in the West of withdrawing from society in order to seek out esoteric knowledge. Monks and ascetics pursue this approach. But also artists and musicians. The idea of the artist working alone, late into the night in a garret is a very popular one. Bacons ideal was for scientists to withdraw from society and become a self-regulating organization.

Middle Kingdom
Bacon: 4 key inventions Gunpowder Paper-making Printing Magnetic Compass All developed originally in China

Islamic Influences
Islamic scholars not only retained lost Greek writings, they contributed their own research and commentary More than 900 words adopted from Arabic because English had no equivalent Alchemy, alcohol, algebra, algorithm, alkali, azimuth, borax, camphor, elixir, ghoul, lilac, lemon, lime ... Zenith, zero

Sources of Innovation
1-Need: necessity is the mother of invention innovators see a technical need, such as the need for better lighting or a better way of preserving food, and are stimulated to do research toward that end. Wallis Carrier

Sources of Innovation II
2-Serendipity the attempt to discover one thing leads to another by accident. William Perkin was trying to find an artificial source of the drug quinine when he happened to discover that the sludge he was working with contained valuable dyes. Oersteds attempt to prove that electricity had no impact on a compass needle proved exactly the opposite.

Sources of Innovation III

3-Unrelated developments sometimes, discoveries from a completely different field can revolutionize another area of research. development of the spinning wheel and the horizontal loom dramatically expanded the amount of linen being produced. This slashed the price of cloth and led to more people throwing away old rags. These rags revolutionized the production of paper, allowing the printing press to take off.

Approaches to Science
inductive versus deductive Experimental versus theoretical Pure versus applied

Induction
A process of knowing based on repeated observation of phenomena The sun has come up every morning in recorded history: therefore its likely to come up tomorrow morning No assurance: strictly a probability argument Assumes nature is regular, repeating: it has to be

Danger of Induction

Deductive Approach
Based on logic Typical of mathematics Provides assurances youre right ... If the assumptions are correct Socrates is a man. All men are mortal. Therefore, Socrates is mortal A feature of Aristotle

Theory versus Experiment

Theory deals with ideal situations: do they apply to the real world? Involves assumptions, simplifications, ignoring certain elements Experiments are inherently artificial: control the variables Can an experiment be extrapolated to the world at large? Computer models?

Pure vs. Applied Science

pure science: science for its own sake An uninterested search for knowledge applied science: the practical side of things How can science be used in a practical way? Applied science often looked down on Reflects the scientia/techne split

Why study science?

Bacon: knowledge is power! Aristotle: knowledge is its own goal Social function: trendy Natural Theology: God created the Earth and all its creatures. Therefore, to study nature is to understand Gods will: science is a form of devotion. A form of argument that doesnt rely on divine texts

Paradigms
A view on how the world is set up Paradigms define how we understand the world Everything is filtered through the paradigm When the paradigm shifts, everything shifts

Paradigm Shifts
our eyes once opened we can never go back to that old outlook But in each revolution of scientific thought new words are set to the old music, and that which has gone before is not destroyed, but refocused. Arthur Eddington

The eyes dont have it

How do we see? Blind spots Necker cubes Brains impose order Eyes look. Brains see. Very similar in science Our preconceptions shape our observations

Thomas Kuhn
Influential philosopher of science Postulated the idea of a paradigm shift Science consists of long, static periods followed by moments of upheaval Over time, bits of information that dont fit the existing paradigm begin to stack up Eventually a new paradigm is needed

Incommensurability
You cant believe two opposing paradigms What was believed in the previous paradigm is incommensurate with the current one They cant both be right Example: Wegener

How new paradigms spread

Convert existing scientists Convert the next generation: then wait for the fogeys to die off Kuhn held the latter view Not always true: some paradigms shifted more easily than others Keep an eye out for paradigm shifts

Karl Popper
Philosopher What is a science? Looked for an element that would be common to all scientific pursuits How to differentiate? Important in a world where science is authority Idea of falsifiability

Falsifiability
Scientists dont try to prove something true They try to prove things are false If they fail to prove it false often enough, maybe its true This approach sets science apart from other pursuits A science must be falsifiable, or it isnt science

Just Quibbling?
What does it matter? 2005: Dover, Pennsylvania Trial over teaching Intelligent Design in schools Advocates: claimed ID was a science, should be taught in science classes Critics: claimed ID was not a science How to define science?

Hawkings View
Science is a model-based way of viewing the world Scientists use models to envision how something works They then test that model If the model holds up, we trust it more. If not, we abandon it.

Science in Popular Culture

Very important influence on public perceptions Traditional portrayals of mad scientists Many studies looked at the Frankenstein complex Fears over scientific power/authority Contrast with Bacons vision

Impact of pop science I

1966 Milwaukee School of Engineering asks students Why do you want to be an engineer? More than half gave the same reason

Impact of pop science II

The CSI Effect Noticed by lawyers in the US Jurors expect forensic science evidence, even when it isnt necessary Also tend to over-emphasize its importance

Impact of pop science III

Japan: a world leader in robotics for decades When interviewed, many Japanese roboticists cite the same inspiration Tetsuwan Atomu (Mighty Atom) Originally a manga series (1951-68), then anime (1963-1966)

Science on the Box

Scientists omnipresent on TV Big Bang Theory, Bones, Fringe, House, NCIS, NCIS: LA, CSI, CSI: NY, CSI: Miami, Lie To Me Scientists as forces for good (or at least order) Technology as magic What impact will this have on future scientists/society?

Approaches to History
1) Heroic: historical change is a result of individual genius. Edison invented the electric light, Bell invented the telephone, the Wright brothers invented the airplane. But no inventor produces an invention out of nothing. Could the Wright Brothers have invented the airplane without an internal combustion engine, or without the contributions of others who had studied glider flight? The engine itself is conditional on a whole series of discoveries and inventions

2) Thematic split up history into subjects. But theres no telling where a given discovery or innovation will be classified. Some discoveries may go into two different paths. Should gunpowder be part of the history of chemistry? The history of warfare? The history of construction? Gutenbergs development of movable typeface is as much a matter of metallurgy or textiles as it is the history of literacy.

3) Periodic split history up into sub-units by specific dates. events often overlap. And the end-points are always arbitrary. dealing with scientific and technical matters, theres no clear cut-off. People didnt stop using Middle Ages technology just because, by the calendar, its now the Renaissance.

Whig History
All these approaches tend to leave us with a linear, inevitable view of history. In the history of science, discoveries are often presented as only a matter of time, or at the very least, progressive towards truth. Danger of seeing previous generations as stupid

The Inductive View

Pretty much everything weve believed in science has been wrong or at least not completely right Why should we assume today is any different? The inductive argument suggests we shouldnt be complacent

Contingency
no foreseeing what impact a scientific or technological innovation will have Consider the WWW originally devised to allow particle physicists to share information now have people who are living virtual lives online, or using the web to allow them to do jobs theyd never have done before.

Things to remember
Scientists=people Diversity of views Danger of establishing scientists as other