Q.1 Write a note on the functions of management..

Ans. According to Henry Fayol, To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, & to control . Whereas Luther Gullick has given a keyword POSDCORB where P stands for Planning, O for Organizing, S for Staffing, D for Directing, Co for Co-ordination, R for reporting & B for Budgeting. But the most widely accepted are functions of management given by KOONTZ and O DONNEL i.e.Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling.

For theoretical purposes, it may be convenient to separate the function of management but practically these functions are overlapping in nature i.e. they are highly inseparable. Each function blends into the other & each affects the performance of others.

Planning It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of action & deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined goals. According to KOONTZ, Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do & how to do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be . A plan is a future course of actions. It is an exercise in problem solving & decision making. Planning is determination of courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways & means for accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Planning is necessary to ensure proper utilization of human & non-human resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.

Organizing It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and developing productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals. According to Henry Fayol, To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel s . To organize a business involves determining & providing human and non-human resources to the organizational structure. Organizing as a process involves: Identification of activities. Classification of grouping of activities. Assignment of duties. Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility. Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships. Staffing It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing has assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in size of business, complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o staffing is to put right man on right job i.e. square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. According to Kootz & O Donell, Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles designed un the structure . Staffing involves: Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching, choose the person and giving the right place). Recruitment, selection & placement. Training & development. Remuneration. Performance appraisal. Promotions & transfer. Directing It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the enterprise which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the achievement of organizational goals. Direction has following elements:

Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the act of watching & directing work & workers. Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates with zeal to work. Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this purpose. Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences the work of subordinates in desired direction. Communications- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding. Controlling It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation if any to ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure that everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to predict deviations before they actually occur. According to Theo Haimann, Controlling is the process of checking whether or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if necessary, to correct any deviation . According to Koontz & O Donell Controlling is the measurement & correction of performance activities of subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being accomplished . Therefore controlling has following steps: Establishment of standard performance. Measurement of actual performance. Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if any. Corrective action.

Q.2 Discuss any two learning theories in detail. Ans. There are two types of learning wherein direct reinforcement is not the causal mechanism; rather, the so called social element can result to the development of new learning among individuals. Social Learning Theory has been useful in explaining how people can learn new things and develop new behaviour by observing other people. It is to assume, therefore, that Social Learning Theory is concerned on observational learning process among people A. Basic Concepts 1.Observational LearningThe Social Learning Theory says that people canlearn by watching other people perform the behavior. Observational learningexplains the nature of children to learn behaviors by watching the behaviorof the people around them, and eventually, imitating them. With the BoboDoll experiment(s) ,Bandura included an adult who is tasked to actaggressively toward a Bobo Doll while the children observe him. Later,Bandura let the children play inside a room with the Bobo Doll. He affirmedthat these children imitated the aggressive behavior toward the doll, whichthey had observed earlier

After his studies, Bandura was able to determine 3 basic models of observational learning, which include:

a. A Live Model, which includes an actual person performing behaviour. b. A Verbal Instruction Model, which involves telling of details and descriptions of a behaviour. c. A Symbolic Model, which includes either a real or fictional character demonstrating the behaviour via movies, books, television, radio, online media and other media sources.

2.The state of mind (mental states) is crucial to learning. In this concept,Bandura stated that not only external reinforcement or factors can affect learning and behaviour. There is also what he called intrinsic reinforcement, which is in a form of internal reward or a better feeling after performing the behaviour (e.g. sense of accomplishment, confidence, satisfaction, etc.)3.

Learning does not mean that there will be a change in the behaviour of an individual. B. Modelling Process The Modelling Process developed by Bandura helps us understand that not all observed behaviours could be learned effectively, nor learning can necessarily result to behavioural changes. The modeling process includes the following steps in order for us to determine whether social learning is successful or not

Step 1: Attention Social Cognitive Theory implies that you must pay attention for you to learn. If you want to learn from the behaviour of the model (the person that demonstrates the behaviour, then you should eliminate anything that catches your attention other than him. Also, the more interesting the model is, the more likely you are to pay full attention to him and learn. Step 2: Retention Retention of the newly learned behaviour is necessary. Without it, learning of the behaviour would not be established, and you might need to get back to observing the model again since you were not able to store information about the behaviour. Step 3: Reproduction When you are successful in paying attention and retaining relevant information, this step requires you to demonstrate the behaviour. In this phase, practice of the behaviour by repeatedly doing it is important for improvement. Step 4: Motivation Feeling motivated to repeat the behaviour is what you need in order to keep on performing it. This is where reinforcement and punishment come in. You can be rewarded by demonstrating the behaviour properly, and punished by displaying it inappropriately.

Q.3 Explain the classification of personality types given by Sheldon. Ans. INTRODUCTION Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations. The word "personality" originates from the Latin persona, which means mask. Significantly, in the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask was not used as a plot device to disguise the identity of a character, but rather was a convention employed to represent or typify that character.

DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY Personality is the outcome of a continuous personal quality development process. The role of personality becomes clear in a particular situation. Personality is recognized in a situation. It is the result of personal quality interaction in a particular condition. The major determinants of personality of an individual are given below: Biological Factors Cultural Factors Family Factors Social Factors Situational Factors

1. Biological Factors Heredity: It refers to physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be inherent. It plays an important part in determining an individual's personality. Heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's personality is the molecular structures of the genes, which are located in the chromosomes. Recent research studies shows that young children lend strong support to the power of heredity and finding shows that some personality traits may be built into the same genetic code that affects factors like height and hair color. Brain: Brain is the second biological approach to determine personality. It plays an important role in determining personality. Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB) and Split brain psychology results indicates that a better understanding of human personality and behavior might come from a closer study of the brain. The definite areas of the human brain are associated with pain and pleasure. Research study shows that these things are true.

Biofeedback: It is third biological approach to determine personality. Physiologists and psychologists felt that biological functions like brainwave patterns, gastric and hormonal secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure and skin temperature were beyond conscious control. Recent research shows that these functions can be consciously controlled through biofeedback techniques. For this purpose, individual can learns the internal rhythms of a particular body process through electronic signals that are feedback from equipment which is wired to body. In this process, the person can learn to control the body process through questions. It is one of the interesting topics to do future research work in personality.

Physical Features: It is third biological approach to determine personality. It is vital ingredient of the personality, it focus an individual person's external appearance which also determined the personality. Physical features like tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white. These physical features will be influenced the personal effect on others and also affect self concept of individual. Recent research studies shows that definitely this features influence to individual personality in an organization. In totally, heredity would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience can be altering them through creation of suitable environment. Apart from this, personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity. There are other factors also influenced to determining personality. 2. Cultural Factors "Each culture expects, and trains, its members to behave in ways that are acceptable to the group. To a marked degree, the child's cultural group defines the range of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and the values and personality characteristics that will reinforce and hence learned". -Paul H Mussen Cultural factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual personality. It refers to traditional practice, customs, procedure, norms and rules and regulation followed by the society. It significantly influence to individual behavior compare to biological factors. Cultural factors determine attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition, cooperation, positive thinking, team spirit, and a host of the human being and discharge his/her duties towards valuable responsibilities to society. Western culture influence to Indian society. It is best example of the cultural factors also determine the personality. 3. Family Factors Family factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual personality. Family consists of husband and wife and their children's. Family role is very important for nurturing and personality development of their children. Family will be guided, supervised, take care of all family members, cooperation, 52

Organizational Behaviour coordination and cooperation in work and also explained the role and responsibilities towards the family, society and real life. Family either directly or indirectly influence to person for development of individual personality. 4. Social Factors Social factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual personality. It involves the reorganization of individual's in an organization or society. It refers to acquiring of wide range of personality by acquiring and absorbed by themselves in the society or an organization. Socialization process is starting from home and extending to work environment in an organization or society. It focuses on good relationships, cooperation, coordination and interaction among the members in the society or an organization or a family. In totally, environment factors consist of cultural factors, family factors, and social factors. 5. Situational Factors Situational factors also influence to determine of personality. Situational factors are very important to change the individual behaviour in a different circumstance at different situations, it also influence to personality of individual person. In general term, personality is stable and consistent and it does change in different situations. The Interaction of Personality and Situational Factors are outlined: Strong situational pressures Personality may not predict behaviour Example: enforcement of rules Weak Situational pressures Personality may predict behaviour Example: Customer sales representative A strong situation can overwhelm the effects of individual personalities by providing strong cues for appropriate behaviour.
SHELDON S THEORY According to Sheldon there is a link between physiological traits and characteristics of an individual with his behaviour. There are basically three types.

1.Endomorphy - focused on the digestive system, particularly the stomach (endoderm); has the tendency toward plumpness, corresponds to Viscerotonia temperament tolerant, love of comfort andluxury,extravert.

Endomorphic Body Type:

y y

soft body underdeveloped muscles

y y

round shaped over-developed digestive system

Associated personality traits:

y y y y y y y y

love of food tolerant evenness of emotions love of comfort sociable good humored relaxed need for affection

2.Mesophorphy- focused on musculature and the circulatory system (mesoderm), has the tendency towards muscularity, corresponds to the Somatotonia temperament courageous, energetic, active, dynamic, assertive, aggressive, risk taker

Mesophorph Body Type:

y y y y y

hard, muscular body overly mature appearance rectangular shaped thick skin upright posture

Associated personality traits:

y y y y y y y y

adventurous desire for power and dominance courageous indifference to what others think or want assertive, bold zest for physical activity competitive love of risk and chance

3.Ectomorphy focused on the nervous system and the brain (ectoderm) - the tendency towards slightness, corresponds to Cerebrotonia temperament artistic, sensitive, apprehensive, introvert

Ectomorphic Body Type:

y y y y y y

thin flat chest delicate build young appearance tall lightly muscled

y y

stoop-shouldered large brain

Associated personality traits:

y y y y y y y y

self-conscious preference for privacy introverted inhibited socially anxious artistic mentally intense emotionally restrained

Q.4 What are the factors influencing perception?

Ans. Perception can be defined as a process by which individuals select, organize and interpret their sensory impressions, so as to give meaning to their environment. Perception is a complex cognitive process and differs from person to person. People's behavior is influenced by their perception of reality, rather than the actual reality. In comparison to sensation, perception is a much broader concept. Sensation involves simply receiving stimuli through sensory organs, whereas the process of perception involves receiving raw data from the senses and then filtering, modifying or transforming the data completely through the process of cognition. The processes of perception consist of various subprocesses such as confrontation, registration, interpretation and feedback. Though people are continuously exposed to numerous stimuli, they tend to select only a few of them. The principle of perceptual selectivity seeks to explain how, and why people select only a few stimuli out of the many stimuli they keep encountering at any given time. Perceptual selectivity is affected by various internal set factors and external attention factors. Some of the internal set factors are learning, motivation and personality. External attention factors include environmental influences like intensity, size, contrast, repetition, motion, novelty and familiarity. Sometimes, different individuals may perceive the same thing differently. Differences may arise due to factors associated with the perceiver (attitudes, motives, expectations, etc.) or the situation (time, place, etc.) or the target (novelty, background, sounds, size, etc.). Perceptual organization focuses on the subsequent activities in the perceptual process after the information from the situation is received. The various principles of perceptual organization consist of figure-ground, perceptual grouping, perceptual constancy, perceptual context and perceptual defense. The principle of figure-ground states that perceived objects stand out from their general background. According to the principle of perceptual grouping, people tend to group several stimuli together into a recognizable pattern. People usually tend to group stimuli together on the basis of closure, continuity, proximity or similarity. Even if a person is not able to obtain sufficient information to arrive at a decision, he tries to close the gap by grouping the available information with the information from his past experience. This is called the principle of closure. Sometimes people tend to think only in a particular direction. This is called principle of continuity. It may also happen that people may group the stimuli based on their proximity and similarity.

According to principle of perceptual constancy, there are some things which are perceived alike by all people, irrespective of the factors influencing perception. It provides a person a sense of stability in this changing world. Perceptual context provides meaning and value to stimuli with respect to a particular context. According to the principle of perceptual defense, people tend to resist information that is emotionally disturbing or clashes with their personal convictions or cultural values.

Social perception is concerned with how individuals perceive one another. The primary factors that lead to social perception are the psychological processes that lead to attribution, stereotyping and halo effect. Attribution refers to the way in which people explain the cause of their own behavior or others' behavior. If a person's behavior can be attributed to internal factors such as personality traits, motivation or ability, then it is called dispositional attribution. If a person's behavior is attributed to external factors, such as a machine or being under the influence of others, then it is referred to as situational attribution. Stereotyping and the halo effect are common problems in social perception. When an individual is judged based on the perception about the group to which he belongs, it is termed as stereotyping. When people draw a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic, it is known as the halo effect. The process by which people try to manage or control the perceptions other people form of them is called impression management. It is used by employees in organizations to favorably impress their boss and move up the hierarchy. Perceptions have a crucial role in individual decision-making in organizations, by affecting both the decisions as well as the quality of the decision. The decision taken by an individual is a complex process involving the intake of data, screening, processing, and interpreting and evaluating of data, based on the perception of the individual.