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TECHNICAL TRAINING
ELECTRONICS 1

Part:

TechTrainingElectro1EngMed svar-3.ppt

INTRODUCTION
Electron flow The Atom Induction Electric circuit Resistance Static electricity The conductor Ohms law Cable nomogram Kirchhoffs laws Circuits Joules law Measuring Multimeter TRMS Meter resistance Circuit conditions Relay Fuse Circuit breaker Resistor Inductive switch Diode LED Zener diode Capacitor Transistor Work tasks

WHY LEARNING ELECTRONIC?

Why learning electronics?

To be more confident when approaching electrical problems To improve diagnosis time To get it right the first time To improve Customer Satisfaction

ELECTRON FLOW
When electrons flow from one atom to the other in an organised matter, electric current flow exists.

Simply stated Electron flow = electricity.

Electricity is not something that must be gathered or constructed . It is everywhere and in all things. It is only the attracting or repelling force that must be produced or gathered.

This force is called Electro-motive Force E or EMF.

THE ATOM
Is the basic unit of matter. The smallest particle that we can find in a chemical substance is the atom. There are about 115 different atoms, and by combining them to different molecules we can construct all kind of substances. When a substance consists of one or more equal atoms it is called an element. The atom consists of a central, positively charged core, the nucleus, and negatively charged particles called electrons that are found in orbits around the nucleus. Protons and Neutrons are contained in the centre or Nucleus of the Atom. For a neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to the atomic number. Protons have a positive charge. Neutrons have no charge. Electrons have a negative charge. Ordinary electric current is the flow of electrons through a wire conductor. The electron is one of the basic constituents of matter. An atom consists of a small, dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that whirl about it in orbits, forming a cloud of charge. Ordinarily there are just enough negative electrons to balance the positive charge of the nucleus, and the atom is neutral. The outermost electrons of an atom determine its chemical and electrical properties.

THE ATOM
Electrons in each shell has a defined energy. The further the electron is distanced to the nucleus, the higher is the energy in that electron shell. Electrons in the outer shell are not strongly bonded to the the nucleus, and the atom may give up these electrons. Because metals have few outermost electrons and tend to give them up easily, they are good conductors of electricity or heat. In substances like metals, electrons in the outer shell are basically moving freely. Connecting an electric voltage to the metal exposes the charge carriers (electrons) with a force, causing the electrons to relocate according to the polarity.
In a conductor, the electrons will move towards the positive pole. This movement of electrons is called electric current.

Si
Shell 3 Shell 2 Shell 1

Nucleus

Electrons

The electrons are tightly held in shells that contain its maximum number of electrons. If it takes 8 electrons to fill a shell but it has fewer than 8 electrons, the atom will let the electrons come and go with very little force. This is the reason that some elements will conduct easily (their outer valence shell is not full). Copper has a single electron in an outer shell that can hold as many as 32 electrons.

THE ATOM
Electric current is defined by electrons moving in a material. Conductor Electric conductors are materials where the electrons can move between different atoms. Good conductors of electricity are
elements containing less than 4 electrons in their outer rings. Much Current

Semi conductors In a semiconductor there is a limited movement of electrons, depending upon the crystal structure of the material used. The substances first used for semiconductors were the elements germanium, silicon, and gray tin. There are few free electrons compared to conductors. Insulators (dielectric) Is a substance that does not readily conduct heat, sound, or electricity. The electrons are bound and cannot travel between the atoms. Glass, porcelain and plastics are commonly used insulators.

Little Current

No Current

= Electron

INDUCTION
Electromagnetic induction. is the production of an electromotive force (emf) in a conductor as a result of a changing magnetic field about the conductor. Variation in the field around a conductor may be produced by relative motion between the conductor and the source of the magnetic field, as in an electric generator, or by varying the strength of the entire field, so that the field around the conductor is also changing. Since a magnetic field is produced around a currentcarrying conductor, such a field can be changed by changing the current. On figure A and C, the magnet is standing still, the induced voltage (and current) is equal to zero. A
I=0

S
I 0

C
I=0

N
I 0

N
I 0

INDUCTION
By changing the magnetic field about the conductor, there will be produced an electromotive force (emf) in the conductor. The direction on the voltage (and current) is depending on if the magnetic field is increasing or decreasing. The level on the induced voltage is depending on how fast the magnetic field is changing. The level on the induced voltage is depending on how strong the magnetic field is. The direction on the induced voltage is depending on the direction of the magnetic field, (in case it is the north/south pole that is closest to the coil.

INDUCTION

1 cycle

ALTERNATOR

Cycle

THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

A simple electric circuit consists of one power source and one consumer. Example of power sources are: The battery Generates a direct current (DC) by a chemical process. The current is in one direction only, and the battery electrodes may therefore be marked with (+) and (-). The alternator By revolving the coil in a magnetic field, an alternating current (AC) is being induced. The polarity will alternate. The technical direction of current is from plus to minus If the direction of current is defined in a el. schematic, this direction will be in force.
The actual direction of current, (electron current flow) is on the other hand from minus to plus. The electrons move from a negative charged area to a positive charged area.

RESISTANCE
Resistance -property of an electric conductor by which it opposes a flow of electricity and dissipates electrical energy away from the circuit, usually as heat. Optimum resistance is provided by a conductor that is long, small in cross section, and of a material that conducts poorly. There is always a certain resistance in a conductor. There will always be a power loss due to a voltage drop during net movement or flow of electric charge from one point to another or across some boundary. The voltage drop will increase the greater the line resistance is. Usually we are aiming at a low line resistance by choosing the appropriate cable size and material.

STATIC ELECTRICITY-CHARGES
Positive and negative charges behave in interesting ways. Two things with opposite, or different charges (a positive and a negative) will attract, or pull towards each other. Things with the same charge (two positives or two negatives) will push away from each other. A charged object will also attract something that is neutral. Think about how you can make a balloon stick to the wall. If you charge a balloon by rubbing it on your hair, it picks up extra electrons and has a negative charge. Holding it near a neutral object will make the charges in that object move. If it is a conductor, many electrons move easily to the other side, as far from the balloon as possible. If it is an insulator, the electrons in the atoms and molecules can only move very slightly to one side, away from the balloon. In either case, there are more positive charges closer to the negative balloon. The balloon sticks. (At least until the electrons on the balloon slowly leak off.) It works the same way for neutral and positively charged objects. As you walk across a carpet, electrons move from the rug to you. Now you have extra electrons. Touch a door knob and ZAP! The door knob is a conductor. The electrons move from you to the knob. You get a shock. We usually only notice static electricity in the winter when the air is very dry. During the summer, the air is more humid. The water in the air helps electrons move off you more quickly, so you can not build up as big a charge. As you walk across a carpet, electrons move from the rug to you. Now you have extra electrons. Touch a door knob and ZAP! The door knob is a conductor. The electrons move from you to the knob. You get a shock. We usually only notice static electricity in the winter when the air is very dry. During the summer, the air is more humid. The water in the air helps electrons move off you more quickly, so you can not build up as big a charge. OBS! Things with the same charge repel each other. So the hairs try to get as far from each other as possible. Static electricity is the imbalance of positive and negative charges.

STATIC ELECTRICITY-ESD
Electronic components are susceptible to damage from Electrostatic Discharge (ESD), when an ESD event occurs across their terminals or when electronic parts are exposed to electrostatic fields. Electrostatic Discharge Susceptibility (ESDS) parts can be destroyed by an ESD event regardless of their electrical and ground connections. Components found to be susceptible to ESD include microelectronic devices, film resistors, resistor chips, discrete semiconductors, other thick- and thin-film devices, and piezoelectric crystals. Some common ESDS component types and their relative sensitivities are listed below. Subassemblies and modules containing ESDS parts are usually as sensitive as the most sensitive ESDS part they contain. Device Type Range of Susceptibility (Volts) VMOS MOSFET GaAsFET EPROM JFET SAW OP AMP CMOS Schottky Diodes Film Resistors (Thick, Thin) Bipolar Transistors ECL (PDC Board Level) 500 to 1500 SCR Schottky TTL 30 to 1800 100 to 200 100 to 300 100 + 140 to 7000 150 to 500 190 to 5000 250 to 3000 300 to 2500 300 to 3000 380 to 7800 680 to 1000 100 to 2500

STATIC ELECTRICITY-ESD
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Electrostatic discharge is a single, fast, high current transfer of electrostatic charge that results from: Direct contact transfer between two objects at different potentials, or a high electrostatic field between two objects when they are in close proximity. The prime sources of static electricity are mostly insulators and are typically synthetic materials, e.g., vinyl or plastic work surfaces, insulated shoes, finished wood chairs, Scotch tape, bubble pack, soldering irons with ungrounded tips, etc. Voltage levels generated by these sources can be extremely high since their charge is not readily distributed over their surfaces or conducted to other objects. The generation of static electricity caused by rubbing (or squeezing) two substances together is called the triboelectric effect. Examples of sources of triboelectric electrostatic charge generation in a high RH ( 60%) environment include: Walking across a carpet Walking across a vinyl floor Handling material protected by clear plastic covers Handling polyethylene bags Pouring polyurethane foam into a box ICs sliding down an open antistatic shipping tube 1000 V1500 V generated. 150 V250 V generated. 400 V600 V generated. 1000 V1200 V generated. 1200 V1500 V generated. 25 V250 V generated.

Note: For low RH (<30%) environments, generated voltages can be >10 those listed above. What can be done? Treat floors with static dissipative treatments (benefit of this will probably wear off after a while.) Raise air humidity to 40-50% rh with a humidifier Use an antistatic wrist strap, which connects to your AC ground. Use different Shoes and clothing

STATIC ELECTRICITY-MYTHS
Common ESD Myths. (bedside reading) Technicians believe touching the equipment before working on the equipment is sufficient for ESD protection. TRUTH - This method is probably sufficient until the technician moves or rocks enough to generate more damaging static charges. The wearing of a properly grounded ESD wrist strap ensures that static charges will dissipate to ground. Technicians believe that once the ESD sensitive components are mounted to the circuit boards, they are no longer susceptible to ESD. TRUTH - The chance for damaging circuit board mounted components actually increases because the conductors and leads act as antennas to funnel the static charge directly to the device. It is also difficult to handle CCAs without touching the leads and conductors. Protect the CCA by keeping it in a closed or sealed ESD barrier bag. Technicians believe the only circuit boards requiring ESD protection are those containing complimentary metal oxide semi-conductor (CMOS) devices. TRUTH - Most circuit boards contain CMOS devices since nearly half of the devices manufactured are a variation of CMOS. Protect each CCA as ESD susceptible, and consider all component types just as sensitive to ESD damage as CMOS devices. Technicians believe they have to actually touch the item or component to TRUTH - Many devices are voltage sensitive, particularly the MOS variety; therefore, simple exposure of these devices to the electrostatic fields surrounding a charged object can break down the component. Protection by wearing a grounded ESD wrist strap is required when handling ESD susceptible items. Circuit card assemblies that bench test as good after improper handling have not been damaged. TRUTH - ESD sensitive items can be partially damaged or weakened by exposure to static charges. Damaged or weakened devices can pass operational tests and specifications only to fail prematurely or perform erratically in the field under operational stresses. Shipping and storing CCAs in pink anti-static polyethylene or pink-poly will provide complete and effective static protection. TRUTH - Anti static materials only prevent static charge buildup, but fail to protect pink poly wrapped or bagged CCAs from external static sources. CCAs packaged with pink poly must be placed within an approved ESD barrier material or outer conductive container that provides complete static protection. Only electronic equipment installed in carpeted areas requires ESD protection. TRUTH- Walking across a carpet can create large static charges; tile flooring can also create large static charges and has the same damaging effect to ESD sensitive items. ESD protective equipment and materials should always be used when handling ESD sensitive items. Keeping humidity high around electronic equipment will eliminate static problems. TRUTH - The higher the humidity, the less static charge generation. High humidity however does not prevent static charging from occurring. Heating and air conditioning makes the air drier within controlled environments, maintaining high humidity in conditioned environments requires special equipment. Topical anti-static sprays, waxes, or wipes are permanent and provide complete ESD protection. TRUTH - Topical anti-stats (Staticide) initially provide a limited amount of slow static discharge draining through low-level conductivity on the surface of the items treated. Topical anti-stats do not provide static shielding or protection against the damaging affects of ESD fields. Topical anti-stats are not permanent, they wear out and require reapplication. When using topical anti-stats be careful not to leave untreated bare spots on the materials being treated. Using the correct materials and equipment can prevent ESD damage. TRUTH - The ESD control and prevention materials and equipment are useless without properly trained personnel Placing ESDS devices and or CCAs on the surface of an ESD barrier bag will provide the same ESD protection as a grounded ESD mat. TRUTH - ESD barrier bags do not provide ESD protection to items placed on their surface. Only by keeping ESDS devices and or CCAs inside a closed or sealed ESD barrier bag will complete ESD protection be provided.

THE CONDUCTOR
Materials which have loosely held electrons are called conductors
Which variable makes an influence on the cable resistance? Length of the conductor. The longer, the greater the resistance. That is because the electrons have to travel further and this takes more energy so the resistance is greater. The cross sectional area. A large cross section will have many more electrons that are able to move through it at the same time. Material specification. Silver,Copper,Gold and Aluminium are all good Conductors of Electricity because they have less than 4 electrons in their outer rings. Temperature. The temperature effects different materials in different ways. Other: (Number of strands, cooling effect, insulation, external interference, etc. Resistivity ( ), is the material specific resistance. The Resistivity in a conductor is given at 20 C. L = conductor length (m) A = cross-sectional area for the conductor (m2 ) = Resistivity ( m) Find the factor from a table R = Resistance ( )

R=

x L/A

Voltage drop on twin cable : A =

2 L I U

OHMS LAW
Ohms law is stating that the electric current i flowing through a given resistance r is equal to the applied voltage e divided by the resistance, or i=e/r. Ohms is the unit of resistance or how hard a conductor resists the flow of electrical current. For any circuit the electric current is directly proportional to the voltage, and is inversely proportional to the resistance.
U=RxI R=U/I I=U/R U = Voltage, measured in Volt (V) R = Resistance measured in ohm ( ) I = Current, measured in Ampere (A)

OHMS LAW

CABLE NOMOGRAM
In order to avoid to calculating the correct cross section on a cable, we can use this nomogram. Ex. 1 is illustrating a connection of a 240 W consumer in a 6V installation, and cable length is to be 4 meters. The nomogram shows a 16 square mm cable, so we choose this cable. Ex. 2 is illustrating a connection of a 480 W consumer in a 6V installation, and cable length is to be 0,5 meters. The nomogram shows a 4 square mm cable, so we choose this cable.
The nomogram is based on a voltage drop: 0,15V on 6V installation 0,3V on 12V installation 0,6V on 24V installation (if based on a copper conductor with Resistivity: 0,017 /m) Ex.: 240W, 6V, 4m, 16mm2: I= 240/6 = 40A U= (0,017 x 4) x 40 / 16 ~ 0,15V

KIRCHHOFFS LAW
Kirchhoff's laws [for Gustav R. Kirchhoff], pair of laws stating general restrictions on the current and voltage in an electric circuit. The first of these states that at any junction of paths, or node, in a network the sum of the currents arriving at any instant is equal to the sum of the currents flowing away. [ I=0] [ I1 + I2 + + In = 0] The second states that at any given instant the sum of the voltages, (electromotive forces) around any closed path, or loop, in the network is zero. [ E + U = 0] [U = U1 + U2 + + Un]
When voltages are opposing as seen above, the difference is the voltage applied to the circuit. In this case 4 volts must be dropped by the resistors to equal the applied voltage.

E = electromotive force, (emf), difference in electric potential, or voltage, between the terminals of a source of electricity, e.g., a battery from which no current is being drawn. When current is drawn, the potential difference drops below the emf value.

SERIES CIRCUIT
In a closed loop, the sum of all voltage drops is equal to the supplied voltage. U1 ( U1 + U2 + + Un ) = U U U2

The current is the same in each component throughout the circuit.

I I = I1 = I2 = = In U

I1

I2

When two circuit elements are connected in series, their effective resistance is equal to the sum of the separate resistances.

R1 U Reff. = R1 + R2 + + Rn

R2

SERIES CIRCUIT VOLTAGE DROP

Voltage drop is a condition that occurs in all circuits. Voltage drop occurs when current flows through a resistance producing work. When there are two or more resistances in one path, the supply voltage divides itself across them.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT
The elements of a parallel circuit are connected so that each component has the same voltage across its terminals. The current flow is divided among its parts, and the total current is equal to the sum of the currents in the individual branches. The total resistance is less than that of the element having the least resistance. Ex. Find the total resistance for the circuit. R1=100 and R2=200 U = U1 = U2 = = Un U
U1
U2

( I1 + I2 + + In) = ITot U

I1
I2

IT

1 1 1 1 = + + .... + RT R1 R2 Rn

R1

R2

1 1 1 = + = 0,0150 RT 100 200

RT =

1 = 66,67 0,0150

PARALLEL CIRCUIT
A Parallel circuit has more than one path for current to flow through. The loads may be side by side and operate independent of each other but are connected to the same power source. In this way each component can have a different current flow through it while operating at full source voltage. An advantage of parallel circuits is that there is no voltage drop between loads and if one load is disconnected the others will continue to operate.

JOULES LAW
The relation between effect (power), current and voltage is called Joules law, and given by the formula P = U x I. Watt [for James Watt], (W), Unit of power, or work done per unit time, equal to 1 joule per second. It is used as a measure of electrical and mechanical power. One watt is the amount of power that is delivered to a component of an electric circuit when a current of 1 ampere flows through the component and a voltage of 1 volt exists across it.

P=UxI
W =U Q =U I t W P= t U I t =U I P= t
1 W = 1 Nm/s = 1 J/s = 1,35962 x 10-3 HP (metric) 1 HP = 735,499 W 1 HP (US/UK) = 745,700 W

P = power, measured in Watt (W) U = Voltage, measured in Volt (V) R = Resistance measured in ohm ( ) I = Current, measured in Ampere (A) Q = Electric charge in Coulumb (C) t = Time (s)

JOULES LAW

MEASURING
Voltmeter Measuring the voltage in a circuit, we use a volt meter. Always clamp your test pins parallel to the component you wish to measure. The measurement can be made anywhere on the circuit without affecting the voltage level. (Provided that you have a multimeter with good quality). Ammeter (Amp meter) To measure the current in a circuit, we use a Ammeter. Always clamp your test pins in series to the components you wish to measure. (Except an clip-on ammeter). Ohm meter Instrument used to measure the electrical resistance of a conductor. It is usually included in a single package with a voltmeter, and often an ammeter. Always clamp your test pins in series to the components you wish to measure. Whenever testing resistance, the circuit must be without voltage!

MULTIMETER
Most modern multimeters are digital and traditional analogue types are destined to become obsolete.
Here is how a typical measurement are made in typical digital multimeter nowadays: DC voltage: The A/D circuitry in the multimeter is designed to directly show DC voltage values typically in few volts range. For higher voltages the input voltage is divided by a voltage divider network. For lower voltages the voltage is amplified with amplifier. AC voltage: Basically same idea as the DC measurement, except that the input voltage is rectified somewhere in the process. DC current: Input current is run through a known low ohm resistance, which converts the input current to a small voltage drop. This voltage is fed to the DC voltage measurement circuitry. AC current: This is measures in the same way as DC current, except that the voltage is fed to the AC voltage measurement electronics. Diode test: A low current (typically less than 1 mA) is fed to the measurement leads (output voltage limited to few volts). The voltage between measurement leads is measurement with DC voltage measurement electronics. Resistance measurement: An accurately known low current (varied depending on ohms range) is fed to the measurement leads. The voltage (directly proportional to the resistance connected) between measurement leads is measured. Some multimeters can have some of the following functionalities in addition to the basic ones described above: Continuity tester: Works like the resistance measurement, if the voltage between measurement leads is lower than a specified value (usually 50 to 300 ohms) it would make the beeper to signal. Frequency: Input signal is converted to square wave first. The multimeter has either pulse counter (count pulses for one second gives output in Hz) or frequency to voltage converter. Capacitance: Feed known frequency low amplitude signal through the capacitance. Measure the AC current which go through the capacitor. Other option is to measure the capacitor charge and discharge times. Temperature: Voltage from thermocouple sensor is amplified and processed. Then the result is fed to DC voltage measurement electronics.

METER RESISTANCE
THE EFFECT OF METER RESISTANCE
All meters have resistance. The value of this resistance depends upon the voltage range selected. A typical moving coil meter has a SENSITIVITY of 20,000 ohms per volt. This means that when the 1 volt range is selected the meter has a resistance of 20,000 ohms. When the 10 volt range is selected it has a resistance of 200,000 ohms and so on. When the meter is connected to a circuit to measure voltage, this resistance will affect the circuit and therefore the accuracy of the measurement obtained. In Fig.1 the voltage across each resistor can be calculated. (see the page on voltage dividers). However, it can be shown that since the resistors are of the same value then the battery voltage divides equally across them, and the voltage across each will be 15 volts. Now if we set the meter to the 20 volt range to measure this voltage, its resistance will be 20 x 20,000 = 400,000 ohms = 400k. If we connect it across the top resistor, as in Fig.2 then we have two 400k resistors in parallel. Calculating the result of this gives us 200,000 ohms and the circuit looks like Fig.3 The voltage will now divide to give 10 volts across the top resistor and 20 volts across the lower resistor. The meter will indicate 10 volts when we know that it should indicate 15 volts. Similarly, connecting the meter across the lower resistor will again indicate 10 volts. It appears that there is 10v + 10v = 20 volts across the two resistors, when in fact there is 30 volts. To obtain the most accurate results, set the meter on the highest range possible. This means that its resistance will be highest and have least effect on the circuit.

Digital meter have a very high resistance, typically 10 Mega ohms on all ranges, and the readings obtained are more accurate than those obtained using a moving coil meter. When buying a new meter look for a sensitivity greater than 20,000 ohms/volt.

TRMS
True RMS (True Root Mean Square) = True effective value Definition of TRMS: In a circuit whose impedance consists of a pure resistance, the rms value of an AC wave is often called the effective value. For example, if an AC source of 100 volts rms is connected across a resistor, and the resulting current causes 50 watts of heat to be dissipated by the resistor, then 50 watts of heat will also be dissipated if a 100-volt DC source is connected to the resistor. Remember that an average responding multimeter will exhibit substantial errors when measuring other wave forms as sine waves, as shown below.
AC resistance Z = U/I AC resistance in the coil = XL

XL R

Z 2 = X L + R2

The RMS voltage of a pure sine wave is Peak voltage / 2

The approx. parameters of a 230VAC waveform are summarized in the table below
Averag e voltage RMS Voltage Peak Voltage (V) Peak to Peak Voltage (2V)

Calculating Actual RMS Voltage:

If you have a 'true RMS' voltmeter, the meter measures the instantaneous voltage at wave 0regular time intervals. On a graph, the little vertical lines along the sine 650 230 325 represent the points in time where the voltage is measured. The microprocessor in the voltmeter then 'squares' all of the voltages at each point and adds the squared values together. It then calculates the average (mean) from the squared values. And finally... it calculates the square root of the average (mean) value.

CIRCUIT CONDITIONS
There are a number of terms used to describe various circuit conditions, some are normal and some refer to specific circuit faults. These terms are: Closed circuit Open circuit Shorted circuit Short to ground

1. Closed Circuit When the circuit provides a continuous path from a power source to an electrical load and back to the power source, it is called a closed circuit (or a completed circuit).

CIRCUIT CONDITIONS
2. Open Circuit If a circuit is broken by any means, such as opening a switch or cutting a wire, it is called an open circuit and current will cease to flow. This is a normal condition for most circuits since they need to be switched OFF at various times. It can also be an abnormal condition such as when a wire is damaged or a switch fails to close properly.

CIRCUIT CONDITIONS
3. Shorted (Short) Circuit A short circuit means that the original circuit has been shortened to some degree. An example of this would be when the insulation in the windings of a coil has broken down causing the windings to touch together or become shorted. This will cause a greater than normal current flow, resulting in an increase in operating temperature and a reduction in the effectiveness and life of that coil.(A fuse may also blow).

CIRCUIT CONDITIONS
4. Short to Ground A short to ground occurs when a wire or terminal contacts the frame of a vehicle or ground. Movement wearing away insulation or a wire being squashed by the assembly of another component can cause this. A short circuit will cause a large current to flow and the fuse to blow.

RELAYS
A relay is a switching device operated by a low current circuit which controls the opening and closing of another circuit of higher current capacity. Relays allow a high current consuming component to operate with minimal voltage drop by keeping the length of the high current carrying circuit to a minimum. Applying voltage to the relay coil causes a electromagnetic action to occur. This action changes the contacts from their normal position. Relays may be divided into four types 1.Normally open 2.Normally closed 3.Transfer types 4.Mixed types

RELAYS
1. 2. 3. A normally open (N.O) relay will not allow current to flow through its contacts. The contacts of a normally closed (N.C) relay are closed in the rest position, allowing high current to flow through the contacts. A transfer relay has two operational states, it will allow current to flow from one circuit to another when its windings are not energised and then redirects current to another circuit when energised. In the relay schematic below, SW1 is open and the windings are switched OFF. Current will flow from terminal # 3 through the contacts and out of terminal # 4. A mixed relay is used to open and close two separate circuits.
Flow Flow
4 5 1 3 2

4.

Mixed type Flow

Transfer type

SW 1

Battery

SW 1

Battery

FUSE
A fuse is generally inserted into an electrical circuit for 1 of 2 reasons, either to protect the power source which includes the wire that connects the power supply to the electrical device, or to protect the electronic equipment. The electronic equipment manufacturers specify a fuse rated to open the electrical circuit before damage can be done to the device or open the circuit if the electronic device fails in some way (electronic devices may pull excessive current when they fail). If a fuse larger than the specified fuse is used, a small mistake when installing the equipment may cause catastrophic failure of the equipment. WHEN, not if, WHEN you're thinking of replacing a blown fuse with a higher rated fuse ask yourself if you know more than the engineer who designed the equipment. Don't get in a hurry when installing electronic equipment. Take the time to go get the right fuse. 50 cents for a fuse is better than $50 labour plus the cost of the replacement parts for a repair job. Fuse Opening Time A fuse does not blow when the current reaches its rated current. It is designed to pass its rated current without opening. A fuse will take varying times to blow under different conditions. A fuse will pass significantly more than its rated current for a very short time. It may take 10 minutes or more to blow a fuse at 25% over its rated current.

CIRCUIT BREAKER / FUSE

A circuit breaker's function is, like a fuse, to break a circuit path when a predetermined amount of current is passed. The picture shows the simplified version of a self-resetting circuit breaker. In this device, the current flows from the battery terminal, through the bi-metal strip and then to the other terminal. The bi-metal strip is made of two different types of metal, which have different coefficients of expansion. This means that one will expand more than the other when the rise in temperature is the same for both pieces. In this case, the two metals are bonded to each other. (Now keep in mind that this is a simplified diagram). When the strip heats up from the current flow through it, one type of metal expands more than the other. In this case, the black metal expands more than the red and the strip tends to bend upward and disconnect the contacts. You can see that the metal starts to bend as the current increases. When the temperature reaches a given point, the piece will snap into the open position and the current flow will stop. The bi-metal strip is stamped into a special shape, which causes the 'snap' action. This will assure that there is EITHER a solid connection OR a complete disconnect. You can see a similar snap action in the top of some soda cans. If you push down on the top it starts to bend downward. After the pressure reaches a certain point, the top will snap down. If you release the pressure slowly, the top will snap into its original position. This is what happens when the bi-metal strip cools in the breaker.

When a fuse blows (even one that has been perfectly capable of handling the current requirements of a given piece of equipment), many people will replace it with a fuse of equal size without thinking (which isn't necessarily a bad thing). Then, if it instantly blows again, they go to the next larger fuse size (now, that IS a bad thing). They don't think for a minute that the fuse that just blew was the same as the one that worked fine for a long time. They don't think that something just might have changed which is now causing the equipment to pull significantly more current.

RESISTOR
The resistance value can be printed on the component as a numeric character, or marked on with different colour rings around the resistance. The value is given by for rings. The first two rings, states a number, 1 99. The third ring states the number of zeros that has to be added to the first two numbers. The fourth ring states the tolerance value, from 1 10%. Read the resistance value by means of the colour codes. Verify the value with an ohmmeter.
Precision Resistor Color Codes Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Color Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White Gold 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1st Digit 2nd Digit3rd Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Band 4 Multiplier 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000 100,000,000 x 0.1 5% 1% 2% 3% 1% 0.10% 0.01% 0.00% Band 5 Band 6 ToleranceReliability

Resistor Color Codes Band 1 Band 2 Color Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White Gold 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1st Digit 2nd Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Band 3 Multiplier 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000 100,000,000 x 0.1 5% 1% 0.10% 0.01% 0.00% Band 4 Band 5 Tolerance Reliability

9 1,000,000,000

9 1,000,000,000

INDUCTIVE SWITCH
Proximity Switches allow the user to detect the presence of material without having to make physical contact. Inductive sensors are used when the target is metal. These are the most widely used switches in industry today. Proximity switches are available in either Shielded or Unshielded versions. Shielded versions will detect metal only at the sensing face. Unshielded versions usually have a larger sensing range, but the drawback is that they will detect metal around the sensing head. This means that the surrounding area (normally 3 times the switch diameter, and twice as deep as the sensing range) must be free from metal objects. Inductive proximity switch:
NBN4-12GM50-E0 (Easy Ramp)

This is a NPN element: (Gives a negative signal) Neg. Signal on (4). Operating current: 0200mA Operating voltage: 1030V Power supply to L+ and LNo load supply current: Max. 17mA

An inductive proximity switch consists of 4 main components: coil, oscillator, detection circuit and solid state switching device (transistor in DC switches, thyristor in AC switches). The oscillator creates a high frequency field that is emitted from the sensing face. When a metal target enters that field, eddy currents are induced in the metal target (hence the term INDUCTIVE). Energy is required from the oscillator to maintain the eddy currents in the target. As the target enters the sensing range of the sensor, the energy required becomes too great for the oscillator, and it stops. The detection circuit senses this and signals the switch to change state. After the metal target leaves the sensing range, the oscillator resumes functioning, and the switch returns to its normal state (either Normally Open or Normally Closed).

DIODE
The Diode is a two-terminal electronic device that permits current flow predominantly in only one direction. A diode has a low resistance to electric current in one direction and a high resistance to it in the reverse direction. This property makes a diode useful as a rectifier, which can convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). When the voltage applied in the reverse direction exceeds a certain value, a semiconductor diode breaks down and conducts heavily in the direction of normally high resistance. When the reverse voltage at which breakdown occurs remains nearly constant for a wide range of currents, the phenomenon is called avalanching. A diode using this property is called a Zener diode. It can be used to regulate the voltage in a circuit. (See Zener diode). When voltage is applied to a diode and current is flowing through the diode, there will be approximately a 0.6 volt drop across the diode. Rectifier Anode Cathode

Conducting direction

LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) produces light as current passes through it; some LED's can act as the light source of lasers. The emitted colour selection is somewhat limited. The most commonly available colours are red, green, amber, yellow, blue and white. The red, green, yellow and amber have a working voltage of approximately 1.8 volts. You can refer to the data sheet for each LED to find the exact value. The actual working voltage is determined by the breakdown voltage of the particular semiconductor material.
When using an LED in a circuit, the exact working voltage is not extremely important. The most important thing is the current flow through the LED. A series resistor must limit the current through the diode. An LED has a specified maximum continuous current rating. Most LEDs can pass 20 milliamps continuously without damage but it is not necessary to use the maximum rated current. An LED will light with much less current. The difference between high current and low current will be the brightness of the LED. To decide what resistor value is needed, you subtract the working (forward) voltage from the power supply voltage and divide that number by the desired current flow.

ZENER DIODE 1
Zener diodes are generally used for voltage regulation. The diodes are used with reverse polarity when compared to their rectifier counterparts (you hook them up backwards to make them work properly). All diodes have a point at which they will conduct current when sufficient reverse voltage is applied. Most diodes are damaged when the reverse voltage reaches the breakdown (or avalanche) voltage. Zener diode circuits have a current limiting resistor in series with the diode as part of their design. The other end of the resistor is connected to the cathode of the zener. The other end of the zener, the anode, is connected to ground. If the zener diode is a 5.1 volt zener, the voltage on the cathode of the zener will be very close to 5.1 volts. The voltage is going to be close the rated zener voltage. You can sometimes get the voltage very close to its rated zener voltage by varying the value of the resistor. This changes the current flow through the diode. Symbol

ZENER DIODE 2
If you look at the curve, you can see that a change in current (near the breakdown voltage) corresponds to a small change in the breakdown voltage. This type of circuit is good for use as a voltage reference but it is not very good to supply regulated voltage to circuits that draw a large amount of current.

CAPASITOR
A capacitor is an electronic device which consists of two plates (electrically conductive material) separated by an insulator. The capacitor's value (its 'capacitance') is largely determined by the total surface area of the plates and the distance between the plates (determined by the insulator's thickness). A capacitor's value is commonly referred to in microfarads, one millionth of a farad. It is expressed in micro farads because the farad is such a large amount of capacitance that it would be impractical to use in most situations. A capacitor works basically as a resistor that is depending. The capacitor is used to store charge in an electrical circuit. You may also say that it is used to limit sparks or remove unwanted electrical pulses in a circuit. A capacitor functions much like a battery, but charges and discharges much more efficiently (batteries, though, can store much more charge). Some capacitors are called electrolytic, meaning that their dielectric is made up of a thin layer of oxide formed on a aluminium or tantalum foil conductor. A capacitor has a value of one farad when it can store one coulomb of charge with one volt across it.

C= =

Q = U
0 r

A (n 1) l

C = Capacitance F Q = Electric charge C U = Voltage V = Permittivity F/m

0

These capacitors are often used to stabilize a pulsating direct current. The capacitors have a defined conducting direction and are marked positive and/or negative, (as a battery).

= Permittivity vacuum F/m

Electrolytic capacitor

CAPASITOR
Non-polarized fixed capacitor A non-polarized ("non polar") capacitor is a type of capacitor that has no implicit polarity - it can be connected either way in a circuit. Ceramic, mica and some electrolytic capacitors are non-polarized. You'll also sometimes hear people call them bipolar capacitors. Polarized fixed capacitor A polarized ("polar") capacitor is a type of capacitor that have implicit polarity -it can only be connected one way in a circuit. The positive lead is shown on the schematic (and often on the capacitor) with a little "+" symbol. The negative lead is generally not shown on the schematic, but may be marked on the capacitor with a bar or "-" symbol. Polarized capacitors are generally electrolytic. Note that you really need to pay attention to correctly hooking a polarized capacitor up (both with respect to polarity, as well as not pushing a capacitor past its rated voltage). If you "push" a polarized capacitor hard enough, it is possible to begin "electrolyzing" the moist electrolyte. Modern electrolytic capacitors usually have a pressure relief vent to prevent catastrophic failure of the aluminium can (but don't bet your eyesight on this).

Plates

Unit table 1pF = 10-12 F = 1/1000 000 000 000 1F = 10-6 F = 1/1000 000 1mF = 10-3 F = 1/1000

Terminal

Terminal Insulator

TRANSISTOR
The transistor generally has 3 terminals. The control NPN terminal is called the base. The other 2 terminals are k known as the emitter and the collector and they carry virtually all of the current flowing through the transistor. b There are 2 basic configurations of bipolar transistors, one is an 'NPN' the other is a 'PNP'. The two are very e similar. The biggest difference is the direction of current flow through the collector and emitter. + On an NPN transistor, the base must have a positive voltage with respect to the emitter. + By varying IB , we can control a large current through IK .The transistor uses a small current to control a larger current, a little like a relay. The transistor function can also be looked on as to diodes connected together like on the picture to the right. A transistor needs to have a small amount of voltage difference between the base and the emitter. The required voltage is usually about 0.6 volts. PNP k b e

TRANSISTOR
The pictures clearly shows the directions of the current.

+ + -

TRANSISTOR
The transistor is being used in many different electrical applications. The transistor uses a small current to control a larger current, a little like a relay. Some of the advantages with the transistor, is that it works much faster compared to a relay, has no moving parts, and no breaker contacts that can get burned. You can also adjust the conductance, (not only ON/OFF). Compared to the relay, the transistor doesnt take overcharges very well and it is not as flexible regarding the size of the control current in relation to the working current. In order to use a weak signal, RB for handling a high working ULOAD current, there are often being UB used several transistors connected to each other. The NPN transistor to the right is used as a switch. UKE

WORK TASKS

WORK TASKS AND TEAMWORK

DEVIDE INTO TEAMS 2-3 PERSONS ON EACH TEAM

THE LEARNING PYRAMIDE

Average learning Factor

Lectures Reading Audio visual (see/hear) Demonstration Discussion group Learning by doing (practice) Teach others / Immediate use of knowledge

5% 10% 20% 30% 50% 75% 90%

BREAK
CORRECT PROCEDURE FOR THE RECTIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS

THEORY & PRACTICE

Theory put into practice You will be making practical lab tasks, making electrical circuits combined with theoretical calculations on different circuits.

WORK TASKS -INSTRUMENTS

If you connect the multimeter to the circuit, according to the picture on the right, what can be measured? How do you hook up an ammeter in a circuit? Which value does the instrument show? U = 14 V Multimeter 4,7 k

If you connect a multimeter to this circuit, what can be measured? How do you hook up the voltmeter in the circuit shown to the right? Which value does the instrument show? U = 14 V R1 = 4,7 k R2 = 1 k R2 R1

WORK TASKS RESISTANCE

Connect according to the figure. Measure the voltage over the bulb.

Unscrew the bulb. What is the voltage over the bulb now?

12V

What can we learn based on this experience?

1k ohm 12V/0,2A

WORK TASKS SERIES

Connect according to drawing A, use a 12V/0,2A bulb, and change the voltage between 0 and 10V. What happens? Connect according to figure B, E = 10V. How strong is the light illuminating when using: 47 100 470 Why? Connect according to figure C, U = 10V. How strong is the light illuminating now, and why? What do we name this kind of circuit and which rule applies for the total resistance. C 100 470 B R A

WORK TASKS SERIES

Set the input voltage to exactly 12,00 Measure and calculate every part voltage and make the note in the table below. Sum up all part voltages and note this on the bottom of the table.
A

U Measured U Calculated UAD UAB UBC UCD Total: U AB + U BC + U CD = -----

470 B 1k C 4,7 k D

WORK TASKS PARALLEL

U = 10V R1 = 47 R2 = 100 R3 = 470 Bulb = 12V/0,2A resistance. How Make the connection, and use only the 470 does the lamp illuminate?

Add only the 100 resistance. How strong is the light illuminating now? Now, add on the 47 illuminating now? Why? resistance. How strong is the light
R1 R2 R3

What do we name this kind of circuit and which rule applies for the total resistance.

WORK TASKS PARALLEL

Set input voltage to exact 16,00 V Measure and calculate each part current and make the note in the table below. Sum up all part currents and note this on the bottom of the table, IR1, IR2 and IR3 . UAC = 16,00 V R =1k R1 = 4,7 k R2 = 470 R3 = 1 k
A R

IMeasured ICalculated UR UR1 UR2 UR3 Total: IR1 + IR2 + IR3 =

R1 R2

R3 B

WORK TASKS POWER

What is the heating effect for the total circuit? EAC = 16,00 V R =1k R1 = 4,7 k R2 = 470 R3 = 1 k
A R R1 R2 R3 B

Which heating effect is produced by each part resistance?

What is the voltage supplied, when the 20 k hot-wire emits approx. 5 mW?

a) What is the resistance when it emits 9W and we have supplied 30V to the circuit? b) Connect the resistance, calculated from task a) into the circuit, turn on the power. What happens to the resistance?

WORK TASKS THERMIC RESISTANCE

Measure and fill in the missing values. Calculate and fill in the resistance of the bulb and the three resistances. A) Why is there a difference between the measured and the calculated resistance? U = 12,00 V Bulb = 12V/0,2A 100 47 100 B) Why is it important to understand this phenomena, and can you come up with practical examples for this. IMeasured Rcalc RMeasured

Bulb

Resistances

WORK TASKS RELAY

Based on what you have learned about induction, Explain why, on some relays that a diode is connected in parallel to the relay coil.

Explain the process and what will happen when we turn the power on, (activate the relay) and then off (deactivate the relay).

Connect the multimeter to 85 and 86. Set the multimeter on Min/Max record, 1ms and set the range to 4000V (1000V). Connect and disconnect the power plug(set the power supply to 12V). Read the Min/Max values recorded. Explain your findings.

WORK TASKS TRANSISTOR

NPN transistor as a switch Given information: HFE = 100 Iload = 1 A UKE = 0,5 V UB = 10 V UBE = 0,5 V HFE = IK IB

RB

RL UB
UKE

Calculate and fill in the missing values. URL = ? RL = ? Ib = ? RB = ? PRL = ? (Load effect on RL)

WORK TASKS TRANSISTOR

NPN transistor as a regulator Estimate a serial resistance between base and source to protect the transistor. U source = 10V, Imax (load) = 0,2A Connect a 12V/0,2A light bulb and use the NPN transistor to adjust/variate the light intensity on the bulb. U source = 10V Use the multimeter and measure the resistance when there is no illumination. What is the Max/Min resistance?

WORK TASKS ZENER DIODE

Connect according to fig. 1 and set the power to exactly 4,5V. Verify that the buzzer gives a tone. Turn off the power and connect according to figure 2. Set the power to exactly 4,5V. Does the buzzer sound now? Increase the voltage to 5,5V. Does the buzzer sound now? Explain the results and your findings from task 1, 2 and 3. Fig. 1

Fig. 2

NOTES

PARALLEL

ANSWERS
INSTRUMENTS 1. Current 2. In series with the circuit 3. I= 14/4700=3mA 4. Voltage 5. In parallel to the component 6. Icircuit= 14/(4700+1000)=0,0025A UR2=1000 x 0,0025 =2,5V RESISTANCE Dersom vi har en krets og kontrollerer kabler, brytere, kontakter o.l. ved mle med et multimeter, s kan vi bli lurt til tro at kretsen er intakt og iorden SERIES 1. Illumination changes 2. Good Glowing No light 3. More resistance => less current through the bulb 4. Further more resistance => less current going through the bulb 5. Serial circuit Sum R=R1+R2+Rn SERIES I=12,06/(4,7k+1k+470) I = 0,002A

1. No illumination! 2. Glowing! 3. Illuminates good! 4. The total resistance in the circuit has been reduced! 5. Parallell circuit 1/Rtot = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + .. + 1/Rn PARALLEL IMeasured UR UR1 UR2 UR3 12,31mA 0,8mA 7,82mA 3,7mA

RELAY En del releer har blitt utstyrt med en diode som er koblet parallelt med spolen. Dioden sitter der for hindre at releet skal indusere spenningspulser nr strmmen til spolen brytes. Nr vi har en spole med ett magnetfelt som endrer seg vil det induseres en spenning i spolen. Strmretningen vil vre motsatt av den som bygger opp magnetfeltet. Ved hjelp av dioden lades strmmen ut over spolen. Induksjonen kan komme opp i flere tusen volt, (ref. statisk elektrisitet p vinyl/tepper etc. 250-35000V). Selv 10V kan skade sensitive halvledere.

ICalculated 12,31mA UBC =300x0,0123 =3,7 I=3,7/470=0,8mA I=3,7/470=7,8mA I=3,7/1000=3,7mA TRANSISTOR URL = Ub-UKE = 10-0,5 = 9,5V RL = URL / Iload = 9,5 / 1 = 9,5 ohm Ib = Ik / HFE = 1 / 100 = 10 mA RB = URB / IB = (UB-UBE) / IB = 9,5 / 10 x 10-3 = 950 ohm PRL = 9,5 x 1 = 9,5Watt

Itot= U / RAB + RBC RBC=1/RBC = 1/4,7k + 1/470 + 1/1k = 300ohm RAB = 1k ohm ITOT= 16/(1000 + 300) = 12,31mA Total: IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = 0,8+7,82+3,7=12,31mA POWER 1. P=U x I = 16 x 12,31 = 0,2W 2. PR1: UAB= 16-3,7 = 12,3V => PR=12,3 x 0,01231 = 0,15W PR1=3,7 x 0,8mA = 0,003W PR2 = 3,7 x 7,8x10-3 = 0,029W PR3 = 3,7 x 3,7x10-3 = 0,014W (Kontroll: 0,014+0,029+0,003+0,1500,2 =ok 3. P = U x I = U x U/R = U2/R = P U2 = P x R => U=SQRT(P x R) = SQRT(0,005 x 20000) = 10V 4. P=UxI = UxU/R = U2/R => R=U2/R = 302/9 = 100 ohm 5. The resistance gets hot! THERMIC RESISTANCE

TRANSISTOR Spenning 10V UB Ik= 0,2A (strm gjennom pra) HFE IK/IB => IB = 0,2/40 = 0,005A basestrm Basemotstanden RB (10-0,5)/0,005 = 1900 ohm Husk at RB m ligge i mellom (RB=2Kohm) Vi har n tilnrmet full effekt. Ved Total motstand = 150K + 2K gir dette intet lys i lyspra (det gr faktisk 50mA gjennom pra)

ZENER 1. Summeren lager lyd 2. Nei 3. Ja 4. Nr spenningen overstiger zenerverdi ledes strmmen gjennom zener og til summer

U Measured UAD UAB UBC UCD 12.06V 0.93V

U Calculated ----470 x 0,002=0,94V

1.93V

1000 x 0,002=2V

1. The heat causes increased resistance! The bulb illuminates by current measuring, but not by resistance measuring. 2. Imeasured Rcalc RMeasured Bulb 212mA 56.6ohm 5 ohm Resistances 48mA 250 ohm 12/0,049=245

9.2V

4700 x 0,002=9,4V

Total: U AB + U BC + U CD = 0,94+2+9,4=12,06V

3A. When the bulb is off, there is little resistance in the filament, and when on high resistance.

TRMS

Cut off here

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