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Unit 012

Ecosystems Services and Ecological foot prints

Structure 012.1. Introduction Objective 012.2. Over view of ecosystem services Conceptual bases Provisioning services Regulatory services Cultural services Supporting Services Self Assessment Questions 012.3. Ecological foot prints Urban foot prints Agricultural foot prints Transportation foot prints Water Prints Self Assessment Questions 012.4. Summary 012.5. Terminal Questions 012.6. Answers

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012.1 Introduction
The previous chapters discussed about the various components of the earth and their composition and functions. The worlds ecosystem and their components provide myriad benefits to people. With the emergence of Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, the concept of ecosystem services gained importance.large notice. Ecosystem services normally consist of features of public goods, such that they are easily available to everybody. Therefore, private motivation to control ecosystem services never brings out their entire value to the public and they are prone to many issues from marketable product uses.

The concept of ecosystem services has received significant attention since the appearance of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystem services generally have the characteristics of public goods, in that they are freely accessible to everyone. As a result, private incentives to maintain ecosystem services do not reflect their full value to society and they often face pressure from more marketable resource uses. ForAround the past two decades, one third of the global mangrove marshes are transformed to use by human beings, including many changed into precious shrimp ranches. A shrimp ranch yielded a commercial profit per hectare of $9,632 in Thailand in 2007. Over the past two decades around a third of the worlds mangrove swamps have been converted for human use, with many turned into valuable shrimp farms. In 2007 an economic study of such shrimp farms in Thailand showed that the commercial profits per hectare were $9,632. However, proper accounting of this figure showed that for each hectare, the government subsidies amount to $to $8,412

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and8,412 and it also involved additional costs of $1,000 for pollution and $12,392 for losses to ecosystem services. (www.economist.com). This led to the resulted in loss ofharm the supply of food and medicine which humans gained from forests, loss of habitats for fish, and low buffering against storms. As a particular shrimp ranch remains productive only for three to four years, further money had to be spent on re-establishing them. later. If it is donecase of for mangroves, put ian extra amount of $9,318 per hectare would be needed.. Eventually the private sectors stand to gain by such operations while people suffer from the burden imposed on them. The overall message is that what advantages only looks so because the profits stay with the private sector whereas problems are reflected on the people in large size, which appears on no particular balance sheet. (The Economist, Oct 2011). Thus nature provides us with countless services which can be tapped for the benefit of mankind. Business provides both goods and services, similarly nature provides us with countless services. These comprised damage to the supply of foods and medicines that people had taken from the forest, the loss of habitats for fish, and less buffering against storms. And because a given shrimp farm only stays productive for three or four years, there was the additional cost of restoring them afterwards: if you do so with mangroves themselves, add another $9,318 per hectare. The overall lesson is that what beneficial only does looks so because the profits are retained by the private sector, while the problems are spread out across society at large, appearing on no specific balance sheet (The Economist, Oct 2011). Just as businesses manufacture both goods and services, so too does nature providing us with innumerable services.

Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:

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discuss importance of natural capital and its role in economic, ecological and social function explain different kinds of ecosystem services conceptualize ecological foot prints of resource utilization

describe how human activities contribute to ecological foot prints in food production, transportation, agriculture etc., 012.2 Over view of ecosystem services Towards the end of 1990s, some ecologists and economists teamed up on an attempt to estimategive value for natures services. In a total, tThey calculated that the value of natures services were to be around $33 trillion per year (Table 1). The value was almost two times that of the total gross development product of all nations at that time. ($18 trillion in 1997). The estimation created a buzz through the world and a liberal amount of controversy. The term ecosystem services was started to be widely used in the ensuing dialogueperiod., and officially recognized the term in a publication iIn 1997, the Ecological Society of America officially clarified that ecosystem services, "refers to a wide range of conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that are part of them, help sustain and fulfillfulfil human life."1 In the late 1990s, a group of ecologists and economists collaborated on an effort to assign value to nature's services. In sum, they estimated that nature's services were worth some $33 trillion per year (Table 1). Since the number was almost twice that of the total gross national products of all countries at the time ($18 trillion in 1997). The finding generated a global buzz and a generous dose of controversy. The term ecosystem services came into widespread use in the ensuing dialogue and, formalizing the term
1

http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com

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in a 1997 publication, the Ecological Society of America explained that 'ecosystem services', "refers to a wide range of conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that are part of them, help sustain and fulfill human life." (http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com)

Every land use decision consists of implied supposition about land value, yet no dollar based figure is assigned. The issue is that the value of services offered by earths ecosystem cannot connect to present economic equations, partially as many benefits are placed outside the marketplace. Such services are regarded as public properties which add countless benefits to human welfare without ever being drawn into the money economy. For example, the production of essential nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous, which is not reflected in any countrys GNP, equals US$ 17 trillion of the US$33 trillion in annual ecosystem. (Table 1) Every land use decision involves implicit assumptions about value, even when no dollar figure is assigned. The problem is that the value of services provided by the Earth's ecological infrastructure does not fit into current economic equations, partly because most of the benefits fall outside the marketplace. Such services are public goods that contribute immeasurably to human welfare without ever being drawn into the money economy. For instance, the cycling of essential nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, which is not reflected in any nation's GNP, accounts for US$17 trillion of the US$33 trillion in annual ecosystem (Table 1). A series of goods and services offered by ecosystems stresses that the biological diversity existing in them is necessary for our economic development and other facets of benefits. In a wide sense, ecosystem services indicate a series of conditions and processes out ofby which natural ecosystems and their components organisms present there supports human life. These services control the growth of ecosystem goods, the natural products that are , harvested or used by humans. sSuch products

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include as wild fruit and nuts, timber, gumame, medicines, natural fiberes, forage and so on. lMost significantly, especially for those in least developed grown economies , ecosystem services initiates help life by controlling necessary processes, such as purification of water and air, pollination of crops, nutrient cycling, production and renewal of soil, and decomposition of wastes, moreover by temperate environmental conditions through stabilizing climate, decreasing the risk of poor climatic conditions, preventing soil erosion and lessening floods and droughts. A stream of goods and services by ecosystems and the biological diversity contained within them is essential to our economic prosperity and other aspects of our welfare. In a broad sense, ecosystem services refer to the range of conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that they contain, help sustain and fulfill human life. These services regulate the production of ecosystem goods, the natural products harvested or used by humans such as wild fruit and nuts, forage, timber, game, natural fibres, medicines and so on. More importantly, particularly for those in less developed economies, ecosystem services support life by regulating essential processes, such as purification of air and water, pollination of crops, nutrient cycling, decomposition of wastes, and generation and renewal of soils, as well as by moderating environmental conditions by stabilising climate, reducing the risk of extreme weather events, mitigating droughts and floods, and protecting soils from erosion.

Conceptual Bases Ecosystem services are categorized into six groups widely depending upon both their ecological and economic functions. They are: Ecosystem services have been grouped into six categories broadly based on both their ecological and economic function. These are:

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Provisioning services The products obtained derived from ecosystems, including genetic resources, food and fiberfibre, and fresh water. Regulating services The benefits obtained from the regulation control of ecosystem processes, including the regulation of climate, water, and some human diseases. Cultural services The nonmaterial benefits people obtain derive from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experience, including, knowledge systems, social relations, and aesthetic values. Supporting services Ecosystem services that are necessary essential for the production of all other ecosystem services. Value (Trillion $US) 17.1 3.0 2.3 2.3 and 1.8

Ecosystem services Soil formation Recreation Nutrient cycling Water regulation and supply Climate regulation precipitation) Habitat Flood and storm protection Food and raw materials Genetic resources (temperature

1.4 1.1 0.8 0.8

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Atmospheric gas balance Pollination All other services Total value of ecosystem services

0.7 0.4 1.6 33.3

Table 012.1 Total value of ecosystem services (Source: Nature, 387(6230):255) Provisioning services These are the products obtained from ecosystems, including: Food and fiberfibre: This includes comprises of the vast wide range of food products derived obtained from plants, animals, and microbes, as well as and also materials such as wood, jute, hemp, silk, and many other products derived obtained from ecosystems. Fuel: Wood, dung, and other biological materials serve act as sources of energy. Genetic resources: This includes comprises of the genes and genetic information used essential for animal and plant breeding and biotechnology. Biochemicals, natural medicines, and pharmaceuticals: Many medicines, biocides, food additives such as alginates, and biological materials are derived obtained from ecosystems. Ornamental resources: Animal products, such as skins and shells, and flowers are used as ornaments, although even though the value of these resources is often frequently culturally determined. This is an example of linkages bonding between the different groupscategories of ecosystem services.

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Fresh water: Fresh water is another example of linkages bonding between different groupscategories in this case, between provisioning and regulating services.

Regulating Services Regulating services provide offer variousmany direct and indirect benefits advantages to humanshuman beings, includingwith clean fresh air and water, pollination, climate weather regulation and disease control (Table 12.2). The maintenance protection of the earths biosphere isn depends based on a delicate subtle balance between these regulating services. Sustainable Persistent ecosystem service delivery relate to lease is baseddepends on the health, integrity and resilience of the ecosystem. The services got obtained from ecosystems should be open to economic analysis such that they should support the productive and consumptive aspects of human beings. This helps in economic valuation. Regulating services consist of both final and intermediate services. The services are discussed in detail below. For economic valuation, the services flowing from ecosystems must be amenable to economic analysis in that they should serve the consumptive or productive purposes of humans. Regulating services of ecosystems can be both final and intermediate services. Following are the details of the services. Air quality Regulation: Trees trap absorb airborne particulate matter and help to improve develop air quality and human health. Air quality regulation is particularly important in the urban context, with rising populations and industrial growth. A study conducted in Tuscon, Arizona estimated that planting 500,000 mesquite trees would remove 6,500 tonnes of particulate matter annually once the trees reach maturity. Tuscon spends approximately US$ 1.5 million on an alternative dust-control program. Thus, the air quality regulation value of each tree in Tuscon is US$ 4.16.

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Biodiversity Regulation: The US Forest Service estimates that replacing the pest control services of birds in forests with chemical pesticides would cost more than US$ 17 per hectare. The cost to US agriculture of replacing natural pest control services by ecosystems with chemical pesticides would be approximately US$ 54 billion annually. Banana plantation in Costa Rica which pays an adjacent forested conservation area US$ 1.00 per hectare annually to provide natural pest control services. Because such costs have not actually been incurred, these estimates represent only the cost of replacing these regulating services and not the actual value of these services.

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Table 012.2 Regulating services

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Pollination: Many economically important species require pollination to produce marketable crops. Yet, hard figures on the economic value of pollination are still lacking. Very few studies have specifically conducted analyses that match the scales at which land-use decisions are made. Estimates Calculations of the annual monetary financial value of pollination vary widelyvastly, from US$120 billion annually for all every pollination service.s. Erosion control: Ecosystems such as forests, wetlands and mangroves help to stabilize soils, reducing erosion. The vegetative cover shelters prevents soil from the force of rain by intercepting rainfall while roots help to maintain the soil structure. Plants growing along shorelines and submerged vegetation near coastal areas regions contribute support greatly extensively in controlling regulating erosion and facilitating sedimentation. The costs associated with erosion include loss of soil productivity for agriculture, damage to roads and other infrastructure, filling in of ditches and reservoirs, reduced water quality and impacts on fish populations. The value estimates of this service primarily reflect the costs associated with sedimentation. Water quality Regulation: Ecosystems such as forests and wetlands help to purify water by stabilizing soils and filtering pollutants from water. The quantity and quality of water flowing through the watersheds are important inputs to agriculture, hydro-power plants, and municipal water supplies. The cost of constructing and operating a water treatment plant to purify the polluted water is a common measure of the value of water purification service. Estimates of water quality values range from US$ 0.26 per acrefoot for electricity generation to as high as US$50 per acre-foot for irrigation and municipal use in US. Waste treatment and processing: Ecosystems play an importanta significant role in the treatment of wastes introduced discharged into the natural environment, but there are some inherent limits restrictions to this waste processing capability. For example, aquatic systems cleanse on averagealmost 80 percent of their global incident nitrogen loading, but this
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intrinsic self-purification capability is being reduced lessened by the loss of wetlands across the globe. As the characteristics of both wastes and ecosystems receiving these wastes vary, environments vary in their capability to absorb and treat wastes. Water-flow regulation: Watersheds capture arrest and accumulatestore water, thereby contributing supportingto the quantity amount of water available and the seasonal flow of water. The so-called albedo effect refers to indicates the process by which vegetation increases raises evaporation of water from the earths surface to causedevelop increased more cloud formation and rainfall. Through this effect, ecosystems dominated by vegetation, such as forest ecosystems, play a significant role in determining rainfall patterns at a regional scale. Vegetation also acts as a sponge, soaking up and storing water when abundant and releasing it slowly during the dry periods. This system of water regulation reduces the impacts of flood and drought on downstream communities. Disease regulation: Ecosystems play an important role in the emergence or resurgences of infectious diseases. Modifications of ecosystems related to infrastructure developments such as dam building or expansion of agricultural irrigation, have sometimes increased the local incidence of vector diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis and arbovirus infections. Natural Hazard regulation: This regulating service relates to the ability of different ecosystems to mediate natural hazards and disruptive natural events. For example, ecosystems regulate the effects of extreme events such as floods, storms and fires by affecting both the probability and severity of events. Soils store large amounts of water and help in preventing or reducing floods and fires. Coral reefs buffer shields waves and protect preserve adjacent coastlines from storm damage. Wetlands attenuate floods by absorbing runoff peaks and storm surges. This regulating service contributes to the safety of human life and protection of man-made infrastructure.

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Carbon storage and sequestration: Forest ecosystems play a crucial role in global carbon cycling acting as sink and source. Forests form an active carbon pool that accounts for 60 per cent of carbon storage in the earths land surface. Forests eliminate CO2 from the atmosphere and accumulate the carbon in wooden tissues while growing actively. The rate of absorption of carbon and so the extent of carbon sink, is highest in the beginning stages of regeneration and the rate decreases as forests grow. Forests remove CO2 from the atmosphere and store the carbon in woody tissue when actively growing. The rate of carbon absorption and hence the magnitude of the carbon sink, is greatest in the earliest stages of regeneration and the rate declines as forests mature. Therefore, dynamics of carbon in forest vegetation and soils are significant in terms of global climate change policy frame work. The tropical forests, both moist and dry types, account for approximately 60% of global forests. While covering only 22% of potential vegetation by area, tropical forests have been estimated to account for 75% of the worlds terrestrial net primary productivity. Cultural Services These are considered as the non-material profits human beings acquire from the ecosystem through cognitive development, recreation, reflection, spiritual enrichment, aesthetic experiences, and alsosuch as the following: These are the nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences, including: Cultural diversity. The diversity of ecosystems is one factor that creates impact oninfluencing the diversity of cultures. Spiritual and religious values. Many religions attach connect spiritual and religious values to ecosystems or their components.

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Knowledge systems (traditional and formal). Ecosystems influence theimpact the types of knowledge systems developed generated by different cultures. Educational values. Ecosystems and their components and processes provide create the basis for both formal and informal education in many societies. Inspiration. Ecosystems provide a rich source of inspiration for art, folklore, national symbols, architecture, and advertising. Aesthetic values. Many people human beings find discover beauty or aesthetic values in various aspects forms of ecosystems, as reflected in the support for parks, scenic drives, and the selection of housing locations. Social relations. Ecosystems influence impact the types of social relations that which are established found in particular cultures. Fishing societies, for example, differ vary in many formsrespects in their social relations from nomadic herding or agricultural societies. Sense of place. Many people value the sense of place that which is associated connected with recognized features of their environment, including aspects of the ecosystem. Cultural heritage values. Many societies place put high value on the maintenance preservation of either historically important significant landscapes (cultural landscapes) or culturally significant species. Recreation and ecotourism. People often choose decide where to spend their leisure time based in part on the characteristics of the natural or cultivated landscapes in a particular specific area.

Cultural services are tightly firmly bound connected to human values and behaviour, as well asand also to human institutions and patterns of social, economic, and political organization. Thus Therefore, perceptions of cultural
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services areopinions of cultural services are possiblemore likely to differ vary among individuals andindividuals and communities concerned about vastly compared to the opinion of than, say, perceptions of tthe importance of food production. Supporting Services Supporting services are those that which are essentialnecessary for the production generation of all other ecosystem services. They differ vary from provisioningstipulating, controllingregulating, and cultural services in that which their influenceimpacts on human beingspeople are either indirect or occur happen over a very long time, whereas but changes in the other categories have relatively direct and short-term impacts influence on peoplehuman beings. (Some services, like erosion control, can be categorized grouped as both a supporting and controllinga regulating service, depending based on the time scale and immediacy closeness of their impact influence on people.) For example, human beings do not directly use utilize soil formation services, although even though modificationschanges in this mightwould indirectly create an effect on affect people through the impact influence on the provisioning service of food production. SimilarlyIn the same way, climate regulation is classifiedcategorized as a regulating service becausesince modification in the ecosystem changes can have an influenceimpact on local or global climate based onover time scales relatedrelevant to human decision-making (decades or centuries), butwhereas the generationproduction of oxygen gas (through photosynthesis) is categorized classified as a supporting service assince any influenceimpacts on the concentration amount of oxygen in the atmosphere might would happen only only occur over an extremelyvery long time. Some other examples of supporting services are primary production, production of atmospheric oxygen, soil formation and retention, nutrient cycling, water cycling, and provisioning of habitat.

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Self Assessment Questions 1. Biochemicals and natural medicines obtained from various ecosystems categorized as_________________ (a) Provisioning services (b) Supporting Services (c) Cultural services (d) Regulating services 2. The production of oxygen through photosynthesis is categorized as a supporting service. Say true or false. 012.3. Ecological foot prints The Ecological Footprint (EF) refers to a measure of humanitys demand on nature. It calculates the amount of land and water area that a human population needs to generate the resource it uses and to absorb its carbon dioxide emissions, using existing technology. It determines the level to which human beings are using natures resources than they can regenerate. The components (variables) of sustainable consumption are combined using weighting factors depending on the Earths regenerative capacities for the measured resources. EF is normally provided combined with biocapacity (BC) that determines the bio-productive supply (Figure 12.1). Reserve or deficit (or overshoot for the globe) is the mathematical difference between EF and BC. The renewable resource accounting results in a deficit if the EF is larger than the BC. Compensation of national ecological shortfall can be done either through trade with nations that process ecological reserves or through liquidation of national ecological assets. On the contrary, the compensation of global ecological shortfall cannot be done through trade. Therefore, it is equal to overshoot. From 1970s, humanity has been in ecological overshoot with yearly demand on resources exceeding what Earth can reproduce each year. Now the Earth takes one year and six months to reproduce what we use in a year. Today, when humanity is crossing the terrestrial limits, ecological assets are becoming more important. Every country has its

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individual ecological risk profile: Most of them are running ecological deficits, with Footprints bigger than their own biological capacity. Some of them depend greatly on resources from somewhere else, which are under ever-increasing pressure. In several areas of the world, the implications of ecological deficits can be destructive, and can lead to: resource loss ecosystem collapse debt poverty famine war The Ecological Footprint (EF) is a measure of humanitys demand on nature. It measures calculates how muchthe amount of land and water area a human population requires needs to generateproduce the resource it consumes uses and to absorb its carbon dioxide emissions, using prevailing existing technology. It measures determines the extent level to which humanity human beings areis using natures resources faster than that they can regenerate. The components (variables) of sustainable consumption are aggregated combined using weighting factors dependingbased on the Earths regenerative capacities for the considered measured resources. EF is usually normally presented provided combined together with biocapacity (BC), which that measures determines the bio-productive supply (Figure 12.1). Reserve or deficit (or overshoot for the globe) is the mathematical difference between EF and BC.The mathematical difference between EF and BC is called either reserve or deficit (or overshoot for the globe).

The renewable resource accounting results in a deficit When if the EF is larger than the BC the renewable resource accounting results in a deficit. Compensation of A national ecological deficitshortfall can be compensated

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done either through trade with nations that process ecological reserves or through liquidation of national ecological assets. In contrastOn the contrary, the compensation of global ecological deficitshortfall cannot be compensated done through trade., and is tTherefore, it is equal to overshoot. Since theFrom 1970s, humanity has been in ecological overshoot with annualyearly demand on resources exceeding what Earth can regeneratereproduce each year. It nNow takes the Earth takes one year and six months to regenerate reproduce what we use in a year. In todaythe present days world, where humanity is already exceeding planetaryenvironmental limits, ecological assets are becoming more critical. EachEvery country has its ownindividual ecological risk profile: Many of them are running ecological deficits, with Footprints largerbigger than their own biological capacity. OthersSome of them depend heavilygreatly on resources from elsewheresomewhere else, which are under increasingeverincreasing pressure. In someseveral areas of the world, the implications of ecological deficits can be devastatingdestructive, and can leading to: rResource loss, Eecosystem collapse , dDebt, Ppoverty , fFamine and wWar.

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Figure 12.1 Per-person resource demand (Ecological Footprint) and resource supply (Source:http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/trends/ india/)

Figure 012.2 Ecological Footprint and Human Wellbeing: Africa Report 2006 (Source: http://www.footprintnetwork.org/)

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Urban Foot Prints It is estimated that by Eeach week more than one million people are added to the world's cities. In a short span of time By the year 2000, more than a half of the whole worlds population will be in urban areas. A North American city that comprises 650,000 people may need 30,000 square kilometres of land. That is, a region roughly the size of Vancouver Island present in Canada to cope with only the domestic requirements without including the environmental needs of industry. In the same way, a similar size city in India may need 2,800 square kilometres. Urban density and city expansion have substantial effect on the environment. Artificially created areas which are linked to urban activity create an unusual form of biodiversity and they directly affect the quality of water, soil, air, and land. Rural areas are also under the pressure exerted by urbanisation. The urban ecosystem differentiates itself from natural eco-systems because of the design of artificial environments that change, amongst others, the climate (bursts of heat, less powerful winds) and disturbs the water cycle through water runoff. Air pollution directly affects plants. Following factors harm the development of trees: Noise Vibrations Lack of light Space underground

Canada is one of the wealthiest countries in the world. Its inhabitants have the benefit of enjoying very high material standards by any measure. In reality, ecological footprint analysis illustrates that the total land required to sustain current consumption levels by the average Canadian is no less than 4.3 hectares. It includes 2.3 hectares for carbon dioxide absorption alone (Figure 12.2). Therefore, the per capita ecological footprint of Canadians is about three times their "fair Earthshare" of 1.5 hectares.

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For instance, Bboth Japan and the Netherlands are proud of their positive trade and current account balances that are measured in monetary terms. Their populations are one among the most prosperous on the globe. These countries are densely populated yet relatively resource- (natural capital) poor. Therefore, they are known as stellar economic successes and developing countries held up these countries as models for emulation. At the same time, after estimation we have found that Japan has a 2.5 hectare per capita, and the Netherlands a 3.3 hectare per capita ecological footprint. This estimation presents Japan and Netherlands national ecological footprints about eight and 15 times bigger than their total domestic territories respectively. The noticeable dissimilarity between the physical and monetary accounts of such economic success stories increases complicated developmental questions in a world whose main strategy for sustainability is economic growth. Worldwide sustainability cannot be (ecological) deficit-financed. According to simple physics, all countries or regions cannot become net importers of biophysical capacity. The ecological footprint analysis describes that because of tremendous raise in per capita energy and material consumption that is made possible due to technology and globally increasing dependencies on trade, the ecological positioning of high-density human settlements no longer coincide with their geographic positioning. For survival and growth, twentieth-century cities and industrial sectors bank on a huge and increasingly global hinterland of ecologically productive landscapes. Cities essentially "appropriate" the ecological output and life support functions of remote regions all over the earth through commercial trade and natural biogeochemical cycles. Perhaps the most vital insight from this result is that not a single city or urban region can attain sustainability on its own. In spite of local land use and environmental policies, a prerequisite for sustainable cities is the sustainable utilisation of the global hinterland. The other reason for this dependency is usually the effect of urban populations and cities on the ecosphere and rural environments. In this

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century along with increasing material standards and the spread of consumerism, the huge migration of humans to the cities has turned urban industrial regions into nodes of strong consumption. The richer the city and the more linked they are to the rest of the world, the greater the load it is able to impose on the ecosphere by trade and other types of economic leverage. Seen in this light and contrary to popular wisdom, the apparent depopulation of various rural regions does not indicate that they are being deserted in any eco-functional sense. But, most of the citizens may have shifted somewhere else and the rural lands and ecosystem functions are being utilised in a more intensive manner than ever in the service of recently urbanised human populations.Each week Mmore than one million people populations are added to the world's cities. each week, Band by the year 2000, overmore than a half of the totalwhole world population will be urban. In North American, aA typical North American city with a population of about 650,000 would require 30,000 square kilometres of land. Thisan area is roughly the size of Vancouver Island that is , Canada. The land is required to meet domestic needs alone without even includingcounting the environmental demands of industry. In comparisonOn the other hand, in India a similar size city in India would require 2,800 square kilometres. On the environment, uUrban density and city expansion have significantimportant consequences on the environment. Artificially created areas which are linked to urban activity producecreates an atypicalunusual form of biodiversity and they directly affect affects the quality of water, soil, air, and land. Rural areas are also under the pressure exerted by urbanisation. The urban ecosystem distinguishdifferentiatees itself from natural eco-systems due tobecause of the creationdesign of artificial environments that change, amongst others, the climate such as (bursts of heat, less powerful winds) and disturbs the water cycle that is (water runoff.) Air pollution directly affects pplants. Following factors harm the development of trees: ; nNoise

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, vVibrations , lLack of light and sSpace underground harm the development of trees.

Canada is one of the world's wealthiest countries in the world. Its citizeninhabitants enjoyhave the benefit of enjoying very high material standards by any measure. IndeedIn reality, ecological footprint analysis showillustrates that the total land required to supportsustain presentcurrent consumption levels by the average Canadian is at leastno less than 4.3 hectares. It, includesing 2.3 hectares for carbon dioxide assimilationabsorption alone (Figure 2). ThusTherefore, the per capita ecological footprint of Canadians is almostabout three times their "fair Earthshare" of 1.5 hectares.? For exampleinstance, Both Japan and the Netherlands both boastpossess positive trade and current account balances that are measured in monetary terms. , and tTheir populations are among two of thee most prosperouswealthiest places on earth. These countries are densely populated yet relatively resource- (natural capital) poor. Therefore, they are known as stellar economic successes and developing countries held up these countries as models for emulation. . Densely populated yet relatively resource- (natural capital) poor, these countries are regarded as stellar economic successes and held up as models for emulation by the developing world. At the same time, after estimation we have found estimate that Japan has a 2.5 hectare per /capita, and the Netherlands a 3.3 hectare per /capita ecological footprint. This estimation which givepresents Japan and Netherlands these countries national ecological footprints about eight and 15 times largerbigger than their total domestic territories respectively. (Note that Table 2 is based on areas of ecologically productive land only.) The markednoticeable contrastdissimilarity between the physical and monetary accounts of such economic success stories raiseincreases difficultcomplicated developmental questions in a world whose principalmain

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strategy for sustainability is economic growth. GlobalWorldwide sustainability cannot be (ecological) deficit-financed;. According to ssimple physics, dictates that not aall countries or regions cannot becomecan be net importers of biophysical capacity. Ecological footprint analysis illustrates explains the fact that as a result of the enormous increase in per capita energy and material consumption made possible by (and required by) technology, and universally increasing dependencies on trade, the ecological locations of high-density human settlements no longer coincide with their geographic locations. For survival and growth, twentieth-century cities and industrial sectors bank on a huge and increasingly global hinterland of ecologically productive landscapes. Twentieth-century cities and industrial regions for survival and growth depend on a vast and increasingly global hinterland of ecologically productive landscapes. Cities necessarilyessentially "appropriate" the ecological output and life support functions of distantremote regions all over the worldearth through commercial trade and natural biogeochemical cycles. Perhaps the most importantvital insight from this result is that not a single city or urban region can achieveattain sustainability on its own. RegardlessIn spite of of local land use and environmental policies, a prerequisite for sustainable cities is the sustainable exploitationutilisation of the global hinterland. The other sidepart of this dependency coin is the impact urban populations and cities have on rural environments and the ecosphere generally. In this century Combined withalong with risingincreasing material standards and the spread of consumerism, the mass huge migration of humans to the cities in this century has turned urban industrial regions into nodes of intensestrong consumption. The wealthierricher the city and the more connectedlinked to the rest of the world, the greater the load it is ablecapable to impose on the ecosphere through by trade and other formtypes of economic leverage. Seen in this light and contrary to popular wisdom, the seemingapparent depopulation of manyvarious rural

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arearegions does not meanindicate that they are being abandoneddeserted in any ecofunctional sense. Whereas But, most of the peoplecitizens may have moveshifted elsewheresomewhere else, rural lands and ecosystem functions are being exploitutilised more intenselyextremely than ever in the service of newlyrecently urbaniszed human populations.

Box 1: Ecological Footprint of London

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Agricultural foot print Food production has successfully diverted many natural landscapes to aid human purposes when compared to any other ecologically important human economic activity. Some of the technology-based developments are: Spread of irrigation Extensive use of fertilizers Pesticides High-yielding crop varieties Field mechanisation Expanding trade

These developments succeeded in maintaining global food production ahead of population rises through the last century, with the most impressive results in the post-WW-II period. In the meantime, today the population has increased to about 6.3 billion, that is, by 152 percent. In 1950, it was 2.5 billion. Agriculture is the biggest component that contributes to a typical population eco-footprint (EF). This should not be any surprise. After transportation, food production such as meat, poultry, fruits, vegetables and grains causes the maximum level of environmental impact related to the average household transportation and food, along with household operations such as heating of space and water, running appliances and lighting that involve between 64 percent and 86 percent of the total ecological impact of household consumption in the various impact categories. A chief component of the food production impact is landscape shift. For instance, about 60 percent of the US land area is granted to crop production or livestock grazing and 45 percent of the nations environment loss or alteration is because of agriculture.

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Area of average cropland of the world used to produce the food items of todays high-income consumers can be as high as 1.5 hectares that is 3.7 acres per capita, which would be four to eight times the cropland needed by the world's poor population. The per capita demand for cropland in Canada is about 1 hectare which is about twelve times that of a typical Bangladeshi or Mozambican. Countries such as Spain, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom that are wealthy have agricultural eco-footprints that are many times larger than their domestic farming land bases. In contrast with the poorer developing countries, these prosperous countries have, so far, funded their extensive food-based ecological deficits with the rest of the world. In fact, nations that are net food importers are more the rule than the exception. In the world almost 183 nations are partly dependent on food imports. Five countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, France and Argentina account for 80 percent of cereal exports and most of the safety net in international food markets. These nations have remarkably high cropland- to-population ratios and comparatively few soil constraints, and utilise intensively mechanised, fossil-energy dependent production techniques. It will be clear from this short discussion of cropland ecofootprints relative to land supply that soil constraints signify a main obstacle to increased food production in the future, mostly for those nations that need it the most. In some cases increasing the total area of cropland is feasible, but may need expansion of agriculture into low-grade land and huge damage to remaining wildlife natural habitat. Transportation footprints In general cars and trucks have a smaller carbon footprint than small aircraft, but a greater carbon footprint than large aircraft (because the amount of carbon dioxide per flight is spread over a greater number of passengers). Rail transportation has a smaller carbon footprint than cars or trucks, and ships have a smaller carbon footprint than rail.

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Personal Transport Footprint: A footprint analysis Southwest England states that computation of a personal transport ecological footprint considers the energy that is essential for manufacturing, maintenance and fuel for various types of transport such as aeroplanes, trains and cars. In 2001, the personal transport ecological footprint for a Southwest resident was 2.6 million Gha (0.53 Gha per person), and accounted for 10 percent of the total ecological footprint of the area. The largest element was car travel. It accounted for 79 percent of the personal transport ecological footprint and 85 percent of the distance covered. Air transport had the second largest ecological footprint at 15 percent, even though it was only 5 percent of the distance covered. The air transport ecological footprint is high because of the energy input required for flying, mainly at take-off and landing (http://www.steppingforward.org.uk/ef/perstrans.htm). Utilisation of bio-diesel cuts down the discharge of carbon. Companies should begin using bio-diesel to secure the surroundings in addition to the life time of the vehicle. Opting for regular servicing keep you informed about the energy consumption and provides the benefit of extra mileage. Utilisation of Electric, Diesel Hybrid and LPG vehicles decreases carbon discharges.

Business should plan route such that it reduces traveling time.Food production has effectivelysuccessfully divertedrerouted moreadditional natural landscape to human purposereasons than any other ecologically significantimportant human economic activity. Some of the technologybased developments are: Spread of irrigation Extensive use of fertilizers

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Pesticides High-yielding crop varieties Field mechanisation Expanding trade

These developments succeeded in maintaining global food production ahead of population rises through the last century, with the most impressive results in the post-WW-II period. In the meantime, today the population has increased to about 6.3 billion that is by 152%. In 1950, it was 2.5 billion. Meanwhile, of course, the human population has increased by 152% from 2.5 billion in 1950 to about 6.3 billion today. Agriculture is the biggest component that contributes to a typical population eco-footprint (EF). Agriculture contributes one of the largest components to a typical population eco-footprint (EF). This should not be be noany surprise. Next toAfter transportation, food production such as (meat, poultry, fruits, vegetables and grains) causes the greatestmaximum level of environmental impact associaterelated with the average household transportation and food, together along with household operations such as (heating of space and water, running appliances and lighting) compriseinvolve between 64% and 86% of the total ecological impact of household consumption in the several various impact categories. A majorchief component of the food production impact is landscape alterationshift. For exampleinstance, about 60% of the US land area is dedicategranted to crop production or livestock grazing and 45% of the nations habitatenvironment loss or alteration is due tobecause of agriculture. Area of world-average cropland of the world used to produce the diets crops of todays high-income consumers can be as high as 1.5 hectares that is (3.7 acres) per capita,. TypicallyUsually the poorest of the worlds poor people required that cropland four to eight times the cropland required by

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the poorest of the worlds poor. The per capita demand for cropland in Canada s per capita demand for cropland atis about 1 hectare which is about twelve times that of a typical Bangladeshi or Mozambican. WealthyProsperous countries such aslike Spain, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom have agriculturalfarming eco-footprints up to several times largerbigger than their domestic agricultural farming land bases. Unlike In contrast with the poorer developing countries, these wealthyprosperous nationcountries have, so far, financed funded their considerableextensive food-based ecological deficits with the rest of the world. ActuallyIn fact, countries nations that are net food importers are more the rule than the exception. In the world Mostalmost of the worlds 183 nations are partiallypartly dependent on food imports. FJust five countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, France and Argentina account for 80% of cereal exports and most of the safety net in globalinternational food markets. These countries nations have exceptionallyremarkably high cropland- to-population ratios and relativelycomparatively few soil constraints, and useutilise intensively mechaniszed, fossil-energy dependent production methodtechniques. It should will be clear from even this briefshort discussion of cropland eco-footprints relative to land supply that land soil constraints representsignify a majormain barrierobstacle to increased food production in the future, particularlymostly for those countries nations that need it the most. In some cases Iincreasing the total area of cropland is possiblefeasible in some cases, but would may requireneed expansion of agriculture into inferiorlow-grade land and massivehuge damage to remaining wildlife natural habitat. Transportation footprints In general cars and trucks have a smaller carbon footprint than small aircraft, but a greater carbon footprint than large aircraft (because the amount of carbon dioxide per flight is spread over a greater number of passengers). Rail transportation has a smaller carbon footprint than cars or trucks, and ships have a smaller carbon footprint than rail.
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Personal Transport Footprint: A footprint analysis Southwest England The calculation of a personal transport ecological footprint takes into consideration the energy required for manufacturing, maintenance and fuel for different modes of transport, such as cars, aeroplanes and trains. In 2001, Tthe personal transport ecological footprint for a Southwest resident in 2001 was 2.6 million Gha (0.53 Gha per person), and accounted for 10% of the total ecological footprint of the regionarea. The largest component element was car travel. It, which accounted for 79% of the personal transport ecological footprint and 85% of the distance travelledcovered. Air travel transport had the second largest ecological footprint at 15%, althougheven though it was only 5% of the distance travelledcovered. The air travel transport ecological footprint is high due tobecause of the energy input required for flying, particularlymainly at takeoff and landing (http://www.steppingforward.org.uk/ef/perstrans.htm). UtilisationUsing of bio-diesel cuts down on carbon emissiondischarge. Companies mustshould startbegin using biodiesel to safesecure the surroundings in addition to the life time of the vehicle. Opting for Rregular servicing. It will tell you about the energy consumption and will benefitgain extra mileage. Utiliszation of Electric, Diesel Hybrid and LPG vehicles will reducedecrease carbon emissiondischarges. Scheduling route to reduce traveling time. The businessCompanies should schedule route in a fashion manner that it reduces the time of travelingminimize traveling time.

Self Assessment Questions 3. Ecological footprint evaluates humanitys demand on nature:

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say Yes or No 4. Rapid land use changes in a city may leads to sharp rise in ____________. a) Ecological foot prints b) regulatory services c) cultural services d) supportive services 5. Hybrid vehicles and LPG vehicles usage may reduce ____________. a) Carbon emissions b) water pollution c) soil pollution d) business opportunity Water Footprint The concept of water footprint has been developed to have an indicator of water use relative to its consumption by people. The volume of water needed for the production of the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of the country is known as the water footprint of a country. The virtual water concept is closely related to the water footprint concept. The volume of water required to produce a commodity or service is called virtual water. International trade of commodities implies flows of virtual water over large distances. The water footprint of a country can be measured with the help of domestic water resources, reduction of the virtual water flow that goes out of the country and addition of virtual water flow that come into the country. The volume of water used from domestic water resources to produce the goods and services consumed by the people of the country is known as internal water footprint of a country. The volume of water used in other countries to produce goods and services imported and consumed by the people of the country is known as external water footprint of a country. The study aims to compute the water footprint for each country of the world for the period 1997-2001. The use of domestic water resources includes water use in the sectors like: Agricultural

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Industrial Domestic

The calculation of the total volume of water use in the agricultural sector is done on the basis of total quantity of crop produced and its corresponding virtual water content. The calculation of the virtual water content (m3/ton) of prime crops is done on the basis of crop water requirement and produce. The requirement of crop water for each crop is calculated with the help of the method developed by FAO. The calculation of the virtual water content of crop products is done on the basis of product fractions that include tons of crop product obtained per ton of primary crop and value fractions that include the market value of one crop product divided by the total market value of all crop items for consumptions that is obtained from one main crop. The calculation of the virtual water content (m3/ton) of live animals is done on the basis of the virtual water content of their feed and the volumes of drinking and service water consumed throughout their existence. The calculation of the virtual water content of livestock products is again done on the basis of product fractions and value fractions. Virtual water flows between countries are obtained from statistics on international product trade and the virtual water content per product in the exporting nation. The worldwide volume of water used for crop production is 6390 Gm3/yr. It includes both effective rainfall and irrigation water. Generally, livestock products have higher virtual water content than crop products. For instance, the worldwide average virtual water content of maize, wheat and rice (husked) is 900, 1300 and 3000 m3/ton respectively, but on the other hand, the virtual water content of chicken meat, pork and beef is 3900, 4900 and 15500 m3/ton respectively. But the virtual water content of products strongly differs from place to place, depending upon: Climate Technology adopted for farming

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Corresponding yields

The worldwide volume of virtual water flows associated with the international trade in commodities is 1625 Gm3 per year. About 20 percent of these virtual water flows is related to the industrial product trade and remaining 80 percent is related to the trade in agricultural products. The worldwide water footprint is about 7450 Gm3/yr, which is 1240 m3/cap/yr. The dissimilarities between nations are large. For example, the USA has an average water footprint of 2480 m3/cap/yr, whereas China has an average footprint of 700 m3/cap/yr. Following are the four major factors that determine the water footprint of a nation: Volume of consumption (related to the gross national income) Consumption pattern (for example, high versus low meat consumption) Climate (growth conditions) Agricultural practice (water use efficiency)

The nations with a comparatively high rate of evapotranspiration and a high gross national income per capita have huge water footprints, such as: Portugal (2260 m3/yr/cap) Italy (2330 m3/yr/cap) Greece (2390 m3/yr/cap)

The above discussed case often results in large consumption of meat and industrial goods. Some nations with a high gross national income per capita can have a comparatively low water footprint because of favourable climatic conditions for crop production. For example the United Kingdom has 1245 m3/yr/cap, the Netherlands has 1220 m3/yr/cap,, Denmark has 1440 m3/yr/ca and Australia has 1390 m3/yr/cap. Some nations can demonstrate a high water footprint due to high meat ratios in the diet of the people as well as high consumption of industrial products, such as the USA (2480 m3/yr/cap)

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and Canada (2050 m3/yr/cap). Global water reliance is significant. About 16 percent of the global water use is not for producing domestically consumed products but for exporting products in the global market. Globalisation of trade increases the global water interdependencies.The water footprint conceptidea has been developed in order toto have an indicator of water use in relation tocompared with consumption of people. The water footprint of a country is defined as t The volume of water needed for the production of the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of the country is known as the water footprint of a country. The virtual water concept is Cclosely linkedrelated to the water footprint concept is the virtual water concept. Virtual water is defined as tThe volume of water required to produce a commodity or service is called virtual water. International trade of commodities implies flows of virtual water over large distances. The water footprint of a nationcountry can be assessmeasured by taking the usewith the help of domestic water resources, subtractdeduct the virtual water flow that leavedeparts the country and add the virtual water flow that entercome intos the country. The internal water footprint of a nation is tThe volume of water used from domestic water resources to produce the goods and services consumed by the inhabitantspeople of the country is known as internal water footprint of a country. The external water footprint of a country is tThe volume of water used in other countries to produce goods and services imported and consumed by the inhabitantspeople of the country is known as external water footprint of a country. The study aims to calculatecompute the water footprint for each nationcountry of the world for the period 1997-2001. The use of domestic water resources compriseincludes water use in the sectors like: the aAgricultural , iIndustrial and dDomestic sectors.

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The calculation of Tthe total volume of water use in the agricultural sector is calculatedis done on the basis of based on the total volumequantity of crop produced and its corresponding virtual water content. The calculation of Tthe virtual water content (m3/ton) of primaryprime crops is calculated done on the basis ofbased on crop water requirements and yieldsproductions. The requirement of crop water requirement ofor each crop is calculated with the help of using the methodologymethod developed by FAO. The calculation of Tthe virtual water content of crop products is calculated based ondone on the basis of product fractions (that include ton of crop product obtained per ton of primary crop) and value fractions that include (the market value of one crop product divided by the aggregatetotald market value of all crop productitems for consumptions deriveobtained from one primarymain crop). The calculation of Tthe virtual water content (m3/ton) of live animals is calculated based ondone on the basis of the virtual water content of their feed and the volumes of drinking and service water consumed duringthroughout their lifetimeexistence. The calculation of the virtual water content of livestock products is again done on the basis ofbased on product fractions and value fractions. Virtual water flows between nationcountries are deriveobtained from statistics on international product trade and the virtual water content per product in the exporting countrynation. The globalworldwide volume of water used for crop production, including both effective rainfall and irrigation water, is 6390 Gm3/yr. It includes both effective rainfall and irrigation water. In generalGenerally, livestock products crop products have lower higher virtual water content than crop products livestock products. For exampleinstance, the globalworldwide average virtual water content of maize, wheat and rice (husked) is 900, 1300 and 3000 m3/ton respectively, whereasbut on the other hand, the virtual water content of chicken meat, pork and beef is 3900, 4900 and 15500 m3/ton respectively. HoweverBut, the virtual water content of products strongly varies differs from place to place, depending upon:

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tChe climate , tTechnology adopted for farming and cCorresponding yields.

The globalworldwide volume of virtual water flows relatedassociated to the international trade in commodities is 1625 Gm3 per /year. About 280% of these virtual water flows is related to the industrial product trade and remaining 80% trade in agricultural products., while the remainder is related to industrial product trade. The globalworldwide water footprint is about 7450 Gm3/yr, which is 1240 m3/cap/yr. The differencedissimilarities between countries nations are large. For example,: the USA has an average water footprint of 2480 m3/cap/yr, whilewhereas China has an average footprint of 700 m3/cap/yr. Following are Tthe four major factors that determineing the water footprint of a countrynation are: Vvolume of consumption (related to the gross national income) ; cConsumption consumption) pattern (e.gexample. high versus low meat

; cClimate (growth conditions); and aAgricultural practice (water use efficiency).

The countries nations with a relativelycomparatively high rate of evapotranspiration and a high gross national income per capita (which often results in large consumption of meat and industrial goods) have largehuge water footprints, such as: Portugal (2260 m3/yr/cap) , Italy (2330 m3/yr/cap) and Greece (2390 m3/yr/cap).

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The above discussed case often results in large consumption of meat and industrial goods. Some countries nations with a high gross national income per capita can have a relativelycomparatively low water footprint due tobecause of favourable climatic conditions for crop production. For example, such as the United Kingdom has (1245 m3/yr/cap), the Netherlands has (1220 m3/yr/cap,), Denmark has (1440 m3/yr/cap ) and Australia has (1390 m3/yr/cap). Some countries nations can exhibitdemonstrate a high water footprint because ofdue to high meat proportionratios in the diet of the people and as well as high consumption of industrial products, such as the USA (2480 m3/yr/cap) and Canada (2050 m3/yr/cap). InternationalGlobal water dependencyreliance is substantialsignificant. About An estimated 16% of the global water use is not for producing domestically consumed products but products for export in the global market. With increasing gGlobalisation of trade will increase the, global water interdependencies are likely to increase.

012.4 Summary
Let us recapitulate some important points discussed in this unit: Ecosystem services refer to the benefits got by people from ecosystems. These services are broadly categorised into six classes based on their ecological and economic function. Ecosystem service approach incorporates the value that humans obtain from healthy ecosystems into decision making. It clearly links nature to the well-being of humans and other structures conservation efforts in terms of the services, or benefits, that an ecosystem gives under various scenarios.

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Once humanity identifies this link, and the value offered to them by a given ecosystem, the impetus for conservation is realisedborn. Further, these services have the potential to affect the business practices and policy for the populated regions of the world where traditional conservation cannot work. Even though complete full conservation in mostthese regions may not be unfeasible, key ecosystem services and function can be sustainedEcosystem services are the benefitprofits people obtainacquire from ecosystems. These services are broadly categorized into six classes based on their ecological and economic function. Ecosystem service approach incorporates the value that humans deriveobtain from healthy ecosystems into decision making. It clearly links nature to human well-beingcomfort and framestructures conservation efforts in terms of the services, or benefits, that an ecosystem providegives under different various scenarios. Once humanity recognizeidentifies this link, and the value provideoffered to them by a given ecosystem, the impetus for conservation is born. Further, these services have the capability to affect policy and business practices for the populated areas of the world where traditional conservation cannot work. Even ifEven though full conservation in these arearegions may be impossible,unfeasible key ecosystem services and function can be maintainsustained..

012.5 Terminal Questions

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1. Write a note on conceptual basics of ecosystem services. 2. Discuss in detail about role of regulating services on human health. 3. List out some of the provisional services. 4. Write short note on Ecological foot prints. 5. How water footprints would be helpful to attain sustainable development.

012.5 Glossary
Ecological footprint (EF): It calculates how much bioproductive area (whether land or water) the people would require to produce on a sustainable basis the renewable resources it consumes, and to absorb the waste it creates, using prevailing technology. Biocapacity (BC): It calculates the bioproductive supply that is accessible within a particular area (e.g. of arable land, pasture, forest, productive sea). Virtual water: It is defined as the volume of water required to manufacture a product or service. Ecological footprint (EF): It measurecalculates how much bioproductive area (whether land or water) thea populationpeople would require to produce on a sustainable basis the renewable resources it consumes, and to absorb the waste it generatecreates, using prevailing technology. Biocapacity (BC): It calculates measures the bioproductive supply that is availableaccessible within a certain particular area (e.g. of arable land, pasture, forest, productive sea). Virtual water: It is defined as the volume of water required to producemanufacture a commodityproduct or service.

012.6 Answers

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SAQ 1. (a) Provisioning services 2. Yes 3. Yes 4. (a) Ecological foot prints 5. (a) Carbon emissions

Terminal Questions 1. Refer section 012.2.1 2. Refer section 12.2.3 3. Refer section 12.2.2 4. Refer section 12.3 5. Refer section 12.3.4

References
1. WEHAB (2002), A Framework for Action on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Management, Water, Energy, Health, Agriculture and Biodiversity Working Group Report, contribution to the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August 4 September 2002. United Nations, New York. 2. UNEP (2010) Guidance Manual for the Valuation of Regulating Services, ISBN: 978-92-807-3131-6, Publishing Services Section, UNON, Nairobi-Kenya, 3. Ecosystems and their services, http://www.maweb.org/documents/document.300.aspx.pdf

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4. Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2006, (http://europa.eu) 5. A resource flow, and ecological footprint analysis of Greater London, www. citylimitslondon.com 6. Rees W and M Wackernagei 1996, urban ecological footprints: why cities cannot be sustainable and why they are a key to sustainability, environ impact assess rev 1996;16:223-248 7. Rees W The Eco-Footprint of Agriculture:A Far-fromThermodynamic)-Equilibrium Interpretation In The Eco-Footprint of Agriculture: A Far-from-(Thermodynamic)-Equilibrium Interpretation 8. Water footprints of nations, Volume 1: Main Report 2004, UNESCOIHE Delft P.O. Box 3015, 2601 DA Delft, The Netherlands 9. http://www.economist.com/node/15321193

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