Gametogenesis (1) - Reductional division (meiosis) of a group of cells (gonia) within the animal in order to produce gametes (sex

cells) with only half the chromosome number (haploid) - Female (oogenesis of parent oogonia through growth and meiotic prophase to become an oocyte, then upon the completion of meiosis, an ootid which accumulates yolk to become ova) o Yolk in cytoplasm - Male (spermatogenesis of parent spermatogonia to 4 spermatids, which undergo spermiogenesis to become spermatozoa) Gametes - Female (ovum/eggs from parent oogonia) - Male (sperm from parent spermatogonia) - Came from somatic cells Fertilization (2) - Union of gametes to lead to zygote with restored chromosome number (diploid) from male and female gametes Cleavage (3) - Series of mitoses or cell divisions to give rise to more embryonic cells which make up the multicellular embryo (blastula) - Size of organism doesnt change Gastrulation (4) - Cells of embryo (gastrula) go through various morphogenic movements to give rise to the three germ layers Germ layers - For triploblastic animals o Ectoderm

Mesoderm (missing in diploblastic) Skeletal, muscular, circulatory, reproductive Primordial germ cells sex cells o Endoderm Gastrointestinal, respiratory Organogenesis (5) - The germ layers give rise to the organs and organ systems Growth (6) - Animal increases in size Senescence (7) - Stop of growth Death (8) Ovary - Theca interna (visceral peritoneum) - Theca externa - Oogonia o Hasnt accumulated yolk not that dark - Oocytes o Has darkly staining reddish cytoplasm o Has pigments (brown) o Nucleus or germinal vesicle (lighter) o Nucleoli or germinal spots RNA synthesis o 1 in ovary, 2 is linalabas (external fertilization) - Atretic oocytes o Highly pigmented, degenerating - Vitelline membrane o Outermost lining of each oocyte - Follicle cells o Flattened cells surrounding oocytes

o Found next to vitelline membrane o Nourish oocyte o Secretes estrogen Testis - Visceral peritoneum - Seminiferous tubules - Spermatocysts - Spermatids (spermatogenesis occurs) - Spermatozoa - Spermatogonia - Primary spermatocytes o Leptotene - dyad o Zygotene - dyad o Pachytene tetrad Crossing over occurs o Diplotene/diakinesis - tetrad - Secondary spermatocytes - Sertoli cells o Nourish spermatozoa and spermatid - Interstitial or leydig cells o Secretes testosterone Fertilization - Union of egg and sperm which will give rise to a single cell Cleavage - Rapid division of the cell to produce more embryonic cells - Gives rise to blastula - When 2 regions which form in blastula o Animal hemisphere (melanin darker) o Vegetal hemisphere Blastula - Undergoses gastrulation which involves 3 morphogenic cellular movements

o Invagination sinking in of cells o Involution roll inward o Epiboly spread and envelop - Gives rise to 3 germ layers Organogenesis - Controlled by a series of induction events wherein a nearby structure secretes signalling molecules which induces neighbouring cells to undergo organogenesis - Example: neurulation Neurulation - Development of neural tube or CNS Blastula - Animal hemisphere o Micromeres (small blastomere cells) o Macromeres (larger and fewer cells) - Vegetal hemisphere - Blastoderm (made of blastomeres) - Blastocoels o During blastula stage of development o May still have remnants during early gastrulation Gastrula - Blastopore/germ ring o First indication of gastrulation o Formed by invagination of cells in gray crescent o Invagination becomes pathway for involution of cells above dorsal lip of blastopore o Darkly pigmented cells on animal hemisphere spread and envelope (epiboly) light vegetal cells o Widens in circular manner

Bordered by lateral lips of blastopore involution also occurs - Yolk plug o Yolk plug stage for gastrulating amphibian embryos o Bordered by ventral and dorsal lips o Anus forms where it closes - Dorsal blastopore lip o Rounded inpocketing of cells that bulge externally at one side of gastrula o Borders yolk plug and a small canal that will eventually lead to the archenteron - Ventral blastopore lip o Invaginates yolk-laden vegetal cells o Found at the opposite of the dorsal lip - Presumptive endoderm o Macromeres tucked ventrally o Partially covered by developing ectoderm Part that is not covered is the yolk plug - Archenteron o Primitive gut (gut cavity) o Cavity during gastrulation - Chordamesoderm o Layer of cells above archenteron o Gives rise to notochord and mesoderm - Ectoderm Neurulation - Formation of neural tube (primordium of CNS) - Neural plate stage o Neural plate o Median axial rod o Notochord

Gives support to the embryo nung wala pang vertebral column Will be replaced by cartilage, which becomes bone o Endoderm o Gut cavity o Mesoderm Proliferates and extends laterally between the presumptive epidermis and the yolk-laden endoderm lining the archenteron - Neural groove stage o Neural groove o Neural fold o Notochord o Mesoderm Increased thickness Has penetrated farther ventrally o Endoderm is more distinct from mesoderm - Neural tube stage o Neural tube o Neurocoel o Notochord o Endoderm o Ectoderm o Mesoderm Epimere gives rise to bone and muscles Mesomere Hypomere Somatic mesoderm becomes body wall lining Splanchnic mesoderm becomes visceral organs

Coelom primordium of body cavity

Exercise 3 The Tadpole (External Gill Stage) External gill tadpole stage - Tadpoles have limited motility, can respire, have fully functional circulatory and excretory systems - Structures here, which will eventually be replaced once adult, have roles in maintenance and further growth of tadpole o Ex. Frog circulatory system is for circulation of yolk for nourishment in tadpole - Neural tube has transformed into the: o Prosencephalon (forebrain) o Mesencephalon (midbrain) o Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) - Sense organs have started to develop Ectodermal Derivatives - Epidermis o derived from ectoderm o think epithelium covering whole body - Oral suckers - Stomodeum depression CNS - Prosencephalon o Differentiates to form the telencephalon and diencephalon - Prosocoel - Epiphysis becomes pineal gland - Anterior choroid plexus - Telencephalon

- Diencephalon o Will divide into infundibulum and hypophysis - Optic vesicles o Optic cup from neural ectoderm o Optic lens from epidermal ectoderm - Optic recess - Optic chiasma o Where optic nerves from the optic cups enter opposite sides of the brain - Mesencephalon - Mesocoel or aqueduct of Sylvius - Rhombencephalon - Rhombocoel or fourth ventricle o Continuous with mesocoel anteriorly and the central canal of the spinal cord posteriorly - Basal plates - Posterior choroid plexus - Spinal cord - Central canal - Ependymal layer lines central canal - Mantle layer becomes gray matter - Marginal layer becomes white matter - Neural crest gives rise to ganglia, pigment cells and other structures PNS and Sense Organs - External nares or olfactory pits - Olfactory canal - Olfactory epithelium - Internal naris opens to pharynx - Olfactory nerves - Optic cups o inward invagination of optic vesicle - retina

o secsory cells, rods, cones pigmented epithelium o outermost layer of cells of the optic cup optic stalk o pathway for optic nerve o connects eye rudiment to brain trigeminal ganglion Otic vesicle Endolymphatic duct Acoustico-facialis ganglion Glossopharyngeal ganglion

Endodermal Derivatives Archenteron differentiates to form - Foregut differentiates into o Oral cavity o Pharynx o Esophagus o Stomach o Duodenum - Midgut - Hindgut Digestive system Gut region ventral to neural tube always Foregut - Develop from anterior most parts of archenteron - Oral cavity - Pharynx - Esophagus - Stomach Midgut - Yolk-laden - When one follows the stomach until it and the duodenum are lost from view

- Dorsal pancreas o Develops posterior to rudiment of stomach - Ventral pancreas o Eventually fuses with rudiment of stomach to form a pocket-like evagination of duodenum - Liver o Anterior to pocket-like evagination of duodenum o Organ filled with spaces (sinusoids) Hindgut - When one follows midgut until it forms into a small oval section - Differentiates into small intestines and rectum - Cloaca o Entrance of kidney duct at borders - Anus o When cloaca opens posteriorly o Last region of hindgut Respiratory System Pharyngeal pouches - Lateral outpocketings of pharynx - Open externally as gill slits with visceral arches in between - Visceral arches o Bars of tissue which support the gills and blood vessels associated - External gills o found on lateral walls of visceral arches o functional until metamorphosis where respiratory function is shifted to skin and lungs - trachea

bifurcates into thick walled sacs, lung buds Mesodermal Derivatives Mesoderm differentiated into the - epimere o myotome o sclerotome o dermatome o muscles of back - mesomere o excretory o reproductive - hypomere o circulatory o linings of organs and body walls Excretory System Pronephros kidneys Pronephric duct Reproductive System Germinal ridge epithelium - Primordial germ cells o gives rise to gametes - ordinary mesodermal cells o becomes somatic cells of gonad Cirulatory System Heart - ventral to foregut - double walled vescicle suspended within perdicardial cavity Chambers (heart) - bulbus (conus) arteriosus o most anterior o large oral cavity full of RBCs - ventricle o enlarges into more posterior sections

- atrium o dorsal to ventricle o opens into ventricle - sinus venosus o connected posteriorly to atrium o appears dorsal to liver Arteries - truncus arteriosus or ventral aorta - aortic arches o embryonic blood vessels encircling pharynx - afferent branchial vessels of aortic arches o connect with gill capillaries o branchial vessels - efferent branchial vessels of aortic arches o after gill capillaries - paired dorsal aortae o above gill chamber, below vesicle o merge into dorsal aorta - anterior cardinal vein - dorsal aorta o branches into different organs (arteries) o limit is the cloacal opening - caudal artery o the dorsal aorta beyond the cloacal opening Veins - postcaval veins o found in periphery of liver o follows sinus venosus into liver - common cardinal veins o pair of blood vessels that drain into the sinus venosusa o receive blood from the anterior and posterior cardinal vein

- anterior cardinal vein o follows common cardinal vein anteriorly o connects to common cardinal and continues to otic vesicle - posterior cardinal vein o follow common cardinal vein posteriorly o connects to common cardinal and connects to pronephros kidney o supplies tubules of pronephros o seen medial to pronephric duct o merge after cloaca - caudal vein o vein dorsal to cloaca o drains the tail Skeleton, Muscles, and Skin Cartilage - clear, small vesicles with numerous dots in them - chondrocytes - lacuna e - matric Notochord - avail support for development of axial vertebra Sclerotome - loose mesenchyme cells that surround notochord and neural tube - gives rise to vertebral column Myotome - on each side of notochord (light) - gives rise to skeletal muscles dermatome

- gives rise to ethe skin Body Cavities Parietal cavity surrounds gut Peritoneal cavity surrounds gut Visceral pericardium - close to surface of heart visceral peritoneum - apposed to surface of