Chapter 1

Spaces: Manifolds

Chapter 1. Manifolds

he most intuitive and initially useful topological constructs are smooth manifolds and smooth functions between them. Manifolds are the extension of domains familiar from calculus  curves and surfaces  to higher-dimensional settings.

A topological n-manifold is a space M locally homeomorphic to Rn . That is, there is a cover U = fU g of M by open sets along with maps  : U ! Rn that are continuous bijections onto their images with continuous inverses. In order to do dierential calculus, one needs a smoothing of a manifold. This consists of insisting that the maps

1.1 Manifolds

are smooth (innitely dierentiable, or C 1 ) whenever U \ U 6= ;. The pairs (U ;  ) are called charts; they generate a maximal atlas of charts which specify a smooth structure on M . Charts and atlases are rarely explicitly constructed, and, if so, are often immediately ignored. The standard tools of multivariable calculus  the Inverse and Implicit Function Theorems  lift to manifolds and allow for a simple means of producing interesting examples. Smooth curves are 1-manifolds, easily classied. Any connected curve is dieomorphic (smoothly homeomorphic with smooth inverse) to either R or to the circle S1 ; thus, compactness suces to distinguish the two. The story for 2-manifolds  surfaces  introduces two more parameters. Compact surfaces can be orientable or non-orientable, and the existence of holes or handles is captured in the invariant called genus. The sphere S2 is the orientable surface of genus zero; the torus T2 the orientable surface of genus one; their nonorientable counterparts are the projective plane P2 and the Klein bottle K 2 respectively. The Classication Theorem for Surfaces states that any compact surface is dieomorphic to the orientable or non-orientable surface of some xed genus g  0. The spatial universe is, seemingly, a 3manifold . The classication of 3-manifolds is a delightfully convoluted story [?], with recent, spectacular progress [?] that perches this dimension between the simple (2) and the wholly bizarre (4).
manifolds in this text should be assumed Hausdor and paracompact. The reader for whom these terms are unfamiliar is encouraged to ignore them for the time being. This is a simplication, ignoring whatever complexities black holes, strings, and other exotica produce.
 All

   1 :  (U \ U ) !  (U \ U )

1.2. Conguration spaces of linkages distance to the origin. The n-sphere is an n-dimensional manifold. The 0-dimensional sphere S0 is disconnected  it is the disjoint union of two points. For n > 0, Sn is a connected n manifold dieomorphic to the compactication of R as n ?, follows. Consider the quotient space obtained from R where ? is an abstract point whose neighborhoods consist of ? union the points in Rn suciently far from the origin. This abstract space is dieomorphic to Sn via a dieomorphism that sends the origin and ? to the south and north poles of the sphere Sn respectively.

Example 1.1 (Spheres) The n-sphere, Sn , is the set of points in Euclidean Rn+1 unit

Pn , is dened as the n+1 , with the topology that says neighspace of all 1-dimensional linear subspaces of R borhoods of a point in Pn are generated by small open cones about the associated line. That Pn is an n-manifold for all n is easily shown (but should be contemplated until
Example 1.2 (Projective spaces) The real projective space,
it appears obvious). Projective 1-space, P1 , is dieomorphic to S1 . The projective plane, P2 , is a non-orientable surface dieomorphic to the following quotient spaces: 1. Identify opposite sides of a square with edge orientations reversed; 2. Identify antipodal points on the boundary of the closed unit ball B  R2 ; 3. Identify antipodal points on the 2-sphere S2 . For any n, Pn is dieomorphic to the quotient Sn =a, where a : Sn ! Sn is the antipodal map a(x ) = x . The space P3 is dieomorphic to the space of rotation matrices, SO3 , the group of real 3-by-3 matrices with determinant 1. Among the many possible extensions of projective spaces, the Grassmannian spaces arise in numerous contexts. The Grasmannian Gn is dened as the space of all k -dimensional k subspaces of Rn , with topology induced in like manner to Pn . The Grassmannian is a manifold that specializes to Pn = Gn+1 . 1

1.2 Conguration spaces of linkages

Applications of manifolds and dierential topology are ubiquitous in rational mechanics, Hamiltonian dynamics, and mathematical physics and are well-covered in standard texts [?, ?]. A simple application of (topological) manifolds to robotics falls under a dierent aegis. Consider a planar mechanical linkage consisting of several at, rigid rods joined at their ends by pins that permit free rotation in the plane. One can use out-of-plane height (or mathematical license) to assert that interior intersections of rods are ignorable. The conguration space of the linkage is a topological space that assigns a point to each conguration of the linkage  a relative positioning of the rods up to equivalence generated by rotations and translations in the plane  and which

Chapter 1. Manifolds

assigns neighborhoods in the obvious manner. A neighborhood of a conguration is all congurations obtainable via a small perturbation of the mechanical linkage. The conguration space of a planar linkage is almost always a manifold, the dimension of which conveys the number of mechanical degrees of freedom of the device. Four rods of lengths fLi g4 are linked in a cyclic chain. When one rod is anchored, the 1 system is seen to have one mechanical degree of freedom. The conguration space is thus one-dimensional and almost always a manifold. If, as illustrated, one has a single short rod, then this rod can be rotated completely about its anchor, causing the opposing rod to rock back-and-forth. This linkage is used to transform spinning motion (from, say, a motor) into rocking motion (as in a windshield wiper). The conguration space of the illustrated linkage is S1 S1 , the coproduct or disjoint union of two circles. The second circle comes from taking the mirror image of the linkage along the axis of its xed rod in the plane and repeating the circular motion there: this forms an entirely separate circle's worth of conguration states. Many other familiar manifolds are realized as conguration spaces of planar linkages (with judicious use of the third dimension to mitigate bar crossings). The undergraduate thesis of Walker [?] has many examples of orientable 2-manifolds as conguration spaces of planar linkages. The linkage illustrated in the margin has conguration space a closed, orientable surface of genus g ranging between 0 and 4, depending on the length between the xed ends of the linkage [?]. The reader is encouraged to try building a linkage whose conguration space yields an interesting 3-manifold. The realization question this exercise prompts has a denitive answer (albeit with a convoluted attribution and history [?, ?, ?, ?]):

Example 1.3 (Crank-rocker) The canonical example of a simple useful linkage is the Grashof 4-bar, or crank-rocker linkage, used extensively in mechanical components.

Theorem 1.4.

Any smooth compact manifold is dieomorphic to the conguration

space of some planar linkage.

This remarkable result provides great consolation to students whose ability to conceptualize geometric dimensions greater than three is limited: one can sense all the complexities of manifolds by hand via kinematics. The reader is encouraged to build a few congurable linkages and to determine the dimensions of the resulting conguration spaces.

Example 1.5 (Robot arms) A robot arm is a special kind of mechanical linkage in

which joints are sequentially attached by rigid rods. One end of the arm is xed

1.3. Derivatives

(mounted to the oor) and the other is free (usually ending in a manipulator for manufacturing, grasping, pick-n-place, etc.). Among the most commonly available joints are pin joints (cf. an elbow) and rotor joints (cf. rotation of a forearm), each with conguration space S1 . Ignoring the (nontrivial!) potential for collision of an arm in a convoluted conguration, the conguration space this arm in R3 has the of topology of the n-torus, Tn = n S1 , the cross product of 1 n circles, where n is the number of rotational or pin joints. There are natural maps associated with this conguration space, including the map to R3 which records the location of the end of the arm, or the map to SO3 that records the orientation (but not the position) of an asymmetric part grasped by the end manipulator.

1.3 Derivatives
Derivatives, vector elds, gradients, and more are familiar constructs of calculus that extend to arbitrary manifolds by means of localization. Dierentiability is a prototypical example. A map between manifolds f : M ! N is dierentiable if pushing it down via charts yields a dierentiable map. Specically, whenever f takes p 2 U  M to f (p ) 2 V  N , one has   f   1 a smooth map from a subset of Rm to a subset of Rn . The derivative of f at p is therefore dened as the derivative of   f   1 , and one must check that the choice of chart does not aect the result. It suces to use charts and coordinates to understand derivatives, but it is not satisfying. A deeper inquiry leads to a signicant construct in dierential topology. The tangent space to a manifold M at a point p 2 M , Tp M , is a vector space of tangent directions to M at p , where the origin of Tp M is abstractly identied with p itself. This notion is the rst point of departure from the calculus mindset  in elementary calculus classes there is a general confusion between tangent vectors (e.g., from vector elds) and points in the space itself. It is tempting to illustrate the tangent space as a vector space of dimension dim M that is tangent to the manifold, but this pictorial representation is dangerously ill-dened  in what larger space does this tangent space reside? Do dierent tangent spaces intersect? There are several ways to correctly dene a tangent space. The most intuitive uses smooth curves. Dene Tp M to be the vector space of equivalence classes of dierentiable curves : R ! M where (0) = p . Two such curves, and are equivalent if and only if 0 (0) = 0 (0) in some (and hence ~ ~ any) chart. An element of Tp M is of the form v = [ 0 (0)], where [
] denotes the

Chapter 1. Manifolds

equivalence relation. The vector space structure is inherited from that of the chart in Rn . A tangent vector coincides with the intuition from calculus in the case of M = Rn . Invariance with respect to charts implies that the derivative of f : M ! N at p 2 M is realizable as a linear transformation Dfp : Tp M ! Tf (p) N . In any particular chart, a basis of tangent vectors may be chosen to realize Dfp as the Jacobian matrix of partial derivatives at p . The next step is crucial: one forms the disjoint union of all tangent spaces Tp M , p 2 M , into a self-contained space T M called the tangent bundle of M . An element of T M is of the form (p; v ), where v 2 Tp M . The natural topology on T M is one for which a neighborhood of (p; v ) is a cross product of a neighborhood of v in Tp M with a neighborhood of p in M . In this topology, T M is a smooth manifold of dimension equal to 2 dim M . For example, the tangent bundle of a circle is dieomorphic to S1  R1 . However, it is not the case that T S2  S2 R2 . That this = is so is not so obvious.

1.4 Vector elds

The formalism of tangent spaces and tangent bundles simplies the transition of calculus-based ideas to arbitrary manifolds; a ready and compelling exemplar (in light of Example 1.9) is the topology and dynamics of vector elds. A vector eld on M is a choice of tangent vectors (p ) 2 Tp (M ) which is continuous in p . Specically,  : M ! T M is a (continuous) map satisfying    = IdM for  : T M ! M the projection map taking a tangent vector at p to p itself. Such a map  is called a section of T M . As in the case of dierential equations on Rn , vector elds can be integrated to yield a ow. Given  a vector eld on M , the ow associated to  is the family of dieomorphisms t : M ! M satisfying: 1. 0 (x ) = x for all x 2 M ; 2. s +t (x ) = t (s (x )) for all d 3. dt t (x ) = (x ).

x 2 M and s; t 2 R;

One thinks of t (x ) as determining the location of a particle at x following tangent to  for t units of time. For M non-compact or  insuciently smooth, one must worry about existence and uniqueness of solutions: such questions are not considered in this text. Smooth vector elds on compact manifolds always yield smooth ows. The dynamics of vector elds and ows is the fundamental overlap between topology and dierential equations.

Example 1.6 (Equilibria) The primal objects of inquiry in dynamics are the equilibrium solutions: a vector eld is said to have a xed point at p if (p ) = 0. An isolated xed point may have several qualitatively distinct features based on stability.

1.5. Braids and robot motion planning The

stable manifold of a xed point p is the set

W s (p) = fx 2 M : tlim t (x ) = pg: !1

For typical xed points of a typical vector eld, W s (p ) is in fact a manifold, as is the unstable manifold, W u (p ), dened by taking the limit t ! 1 in (1.1) above. A sink is a xed point p whose stable manifold contains an open neighborhood of p ; such equilibria are fundamentally stable solutions. A source is a p whose unstable manifold contains an open neighborhood of p ; such equilibria are fundamentally unstable. A saddle equilibrium satises dim W s (p ) > 0 and dim W u (p ) > 0; such solutions are, like the Nash equilibria they encompass, minimax solutions.

(1.1)

Example 1.7 (Periodic orbits) If a continuous-time dynamical system  a ow 

is imagined to be supported by the skeleton of its equilibria, then the analogous circulatory system would be comprised of the periodic orbits. A periodic orbit of a ow is an orbit ft (x )gt 24 satisfying t +T (x ) = (x ) for some xed T > 0 and all t 2 R. The minimal such T > 0 is the period of the orbit. Periodic orbits are submanifolds dieomorphic to S1 . One may classify periodic orbits as being stable, unstable, saddle-type, or degenerate. The existence of periodic orbits  in contrast to that of equilibria  is a computationally devilish problem. On S3 , it is possible to nd smooth, xed-point-free vector elds whose set of periodic orbits is, respectively: (1) all of S3 (e.g., the Hopf eld) [?]; (2) empty [?]; or (3) innite, expressing all types of knotting of loops possible [?]. The dynamics of vector elds goes well beyond equilibria and periodic orbits (see, e.g., [?]); however, for typical systems, the blood-and-bones of periodic orbits and equilibria, together with the musculature of their stable and unstable manifolds, gives the basic structure for reasoning about the body of behavior.

1.5 Braids and robot motion planning

A dierent class of conguration spaces is inspired by applications in multi-agent robotics. Consider an automated factory equipped with mobile robots. A common goal is to place several such robots in motion simultaneously, controlled by an algorithm that either guides the robots from initial positions to goal positions (in a warehousing application), or executes a cyclic pattern (in manufacturing applications). These robots are costly and cannot tolerate collisions. As a rst step at modeling such

Chapter 1. Manifolds

a system, assume the location of each robot is a mathematical point in a space X (typically a domain in R2 or R3 ). The conguration space of n distinct labeled points on a topological space X , denoted Cn (X ), is the space ( n ) n (X ) = C X
;
= f(xi )n : xi = xj for some i 6= j g: (1.2) 1
1

The set
, the pairwise diagonal, represents those congurations of n points in X which experience a collision  this is the set of illegal congurations for the robots. Of course, in practice, robots are not point-like, and near-collisions are unacceptable. From the point of view of topology, however, removing a suciently small neighborhood of
gives a space equivalent to Cn (X ), and the conguration space Cn (R2 ) forms an acceptable model for robot motion planning on an unobstructed oor. There are applications for which labeling the points is important, with warehousing, in which robots move specic packages, being a prime example. However, in some settings, such as mobile security cameras in a building, anonymity is not detrimental  any camera will do. The unlabeled conguration space, denoted UCn (X ), is dened to be the quotient of Cn (X ) by the natural action of the symmetric group Sn which permutes the ordered points in X . UCn (X ) = Cn (X )=Sn : This space is given the quotient topology: a subset in UCn (X ) is open if and only if the union of preimages in C(X ) is open. Conguration spaces of points on a manifold M are all (non-compact) manifolds of dimension dim Cn (M ) = n dim M . The space Cn (S1 ) is homeomorphic to (n 1)! disjoint copies of S1  Rn 1 , while UCn (S1 ) is a connected space.

is very relevant to mobile robot motion planning (e.g., on a factory oor); it is also among the most topologically interesting conguration spaces. Consider the case of n robots which begin and end at xed congurations, tracing out non-colliding routes in between. This complex motion corresponds to a path in Cn (R2 ), or, perhaps, UCn (R2 ), if the robots are not labeled. (If the path has the same beginning and ending conguration, it is a loop, an image of S1 in the conguration space.) How many dierent ways are there for the robots to wind about one another en route from their starting to ending locations? The space-time graph of a path in conguration space is a braid, a weaving of strands tracing robot paths. A deformation in the motion plan equals a homotopy of the path (xing the endpoints), which itself corresponds to moving the braid strands in such a way that they cannot intersect. From this, and a few sketches, the reader will reason correctly that there are innitely many inequivalent motion plans between starting and ending congurations.
2

Example 1.8 (Braids) The conguration space of points on

1.6. Transversality

both in modeling complex mechanisms or automated guided vehicles. One of many useful techniques for controlling robotic systems to execute behaviors and avoid collisions is to place a vector eld on the conguration space and use the resulting ow to guide systems towards a goal conguration. The task: given a conguration space X and a specied goal point or loop in X , construct an explicit vector eld on X having the goal as a global attractor, so that (almost) all initial conditions will ow to and remain on the goal. Programming such a vector eld is a challenge, requiring explicit coordinate systems. Additional features are also desirable: near the collision set (e.g.,
from Equation (1.2)), the vector eld should be pointed away from the collision set. For example, consider the problem of mobilizing a pair of robots on a circular track so as to patrol the domain while remaining as far apart as possible. This can be done by means of a vector eld on C2 (S1 ). Coordinatize C2 (S1 )  T2 as f(1 ; 2 ) ; 1 6= 2 g. The reader may check that the following vector eld has f1 = 2  g as an attracting periodic solution and f1 = 2 g as a repelling set:

Example 1.9 (Navigation elds) The use of conguration spaces in robotics is widespread,

_ _ 1 = 1 + sin(1 2 ) ; 2 = 1 + sin(2 1 ):
All initial conditions evolve to this desired state of circulation on S1 . This is an excellent model not only for motion on a circular track, but also for an alternating gait in legged locomotion, where each leg position/momentum is represented by S1 . One reason for specifying a vector eld on the entire conguration space (instead of simply dictating a path from initial to goal states) is so that if the robot experiences an unexpected failure in executing a motion, the vector eld automatically corrects for the failure. Enlarging the problem from path-planning to eld-planning returns stability and robustness. This technique has been successfully applied in visual servoing [?], in robots that juggle [?], in automated guided vehicles [?], and in hopping- [?], walking[?], and insectoid- [?] robot locomotion. This approach to robot motion planning makes extensive use of dierential equations and dynamics on manifolds of conguration spaces.

1.6 Transversality
Genericity is often invoked in applications, but seldom explained in detail. Intuition is an acceptable starting point: consider the following examples of generic features of smooth manifolds and mappings: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Two intersecting curves in R2 generically intersect in a discrete set of points. Three curves in R2 generically do not have a point of mutual intersection. Two curves in Rn generically do not intersect for n > 2. Two intersecting surfaces in R3 generically intersect along curves. A real square matrix A is generically invertible.

10 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Chapter 1. Manifolds Critical points of a R-valued function on a manifold are generically discrete. The roots of a polynomial are generically distinct. The xed points of a vector eld are generically discrete. The conguration space of a planar linkage is generically a manifold. A generic map of a surface into R5 is injective.

Some of these seem obviously true; others less so. All are provably true with precise meaning using the theory of transversality. Two submanifolds V; W in M are transverse, written V J W , if and only if,

Tp V  Tp W = Tp M 8 p 2 V \ W:

(1.3)

Otherwise said, the tangent spaces to V and W span that of M . For example, two planes in R3 are transverse if and only if they are not identical. Note that the absence of intersection is automatically transverse. A central theme of topology is the lifting of concepts from spaces to maps between spaces. The notion of transverse maps is the rst of many examples of this principle. Two smooth maps f : are transverse, written f J g , if and only if:

V !M

and

g:W !M
(1.4)

Dfv (Tv V )  Dgw (Tw W ) = Tp M 8f (v ) = g (w ) = p:

This means that the degrees of freedom in the intersection of images of f and g span the full degrees of freedom in M . Note that submanifolds V; W  M are transverse if and only if the inclusion maps V : V ! M and W : W ! M are transverse as maps. Likewise, a map f is transverse to a submanifold W  M if and only if f J W . This mapcentric denition does not constrain the images of maps to be submanifolds. This is one hint that dierential tools are ecacious in the management of singular behavior. A point q 2 N is a regular value of f : M ! N if f J fq g. This is equivalent to the statement that, for each p 2 f 1 (q ), the derivative is a surjection  the matrix of Dfp is of rank at least n = dim N . One benet of transversality is that localized linear-algebraic results can be pulled back to global results.

Theorem 1.10 (Preimage Theorem). Consider a dierentiable between smooth manifolds. If f J W for W  N a submanifold,
submanifold of

map then

M of dimension
dim

f :M!N f 1 (W ) is a
(1.5)

f 1 (W ) = dim M + dim W

dim

N:

1.6. Transversality

11

The proof of the Preimage Theorem relies on linearization and a simple fact from linear algebra: for a linear transformation T : U ! V ,
dim ker

T = dim U + dim coker T

dim

V:

(1.6)

This provides an eective means of constructing manifolds without the need for explicit charts: it is often used in the context of a regular value of a map. 1. The sphere Sn is the inverse image of 1 under f : Rn+1 ! R given by f (x ) = kx k.

It is a manifold of dimension n = (n + 1) 1 + 0. Tn n 2. The torus is the inverse image f 1 (1; : : : ; 1) of the map f : Cn ! Rn given by f (z ) = k =1 kzk k. Its dimension is n = 2n n + 0. 3. The matrix group On of rigid rotations of Rn (both orientation preserving and reversing) can be realized as the inverse image f 1 (I ) of the map from n-by-n real matrices to symmetric n-by-n real matrices given by f (A) = AAT . The 1 1 dimension of On is n2 2 n(n + 1) + 0 = 2 n(n 1). 4. The determinant map restricted to On is in fact a smooth map to the 0-manifold S0 = f1g. As such, SOn , as the inverse image of +1 under this restricted det, is a manifold of the same dimension as On , which is therefore seen to be a disjoint union of two compact manifolds.

In the above examples, the transversality condition is checked by showing that the mapping f has a derivative of full rank at the appropriate (regular) value. Such regularity seems to fail rarely, for special singular values. This intuition is the driving force behind the Transversality Theorem. A subset of a topological space is said to be residual if it contains a countable intersection of open, dense subsets. A property dependent upon a parameter  2  is said to be a generic property if it holds for  in a residual subset of   even when that subspace is not explicitly given. For reasonable (e.g., Baire) spaces, residual sets are dense, and hence form a decent notion of topological typicality.
For M and N smooth manifolds and W  N a submanifold, the set of smooth maps f : M ! N with f J W is residual in C 1 (M; N ), the space of all smooth (innitely dierentiable) maps from M to N . If W is closed, then this set of transverse maps is both open and dense.

Theorem 1.11 (Transversality Theorem).

The proof of this theorem relies heavily on Sard's Lemma: the regular values of a suciently smooth map between manifolds are generic in the codomain.

Example 1.12 (Fixed points of a vector eld) The xed point set of a dieren-

tiable vector eld on a compact manifold M is generically nite, thanks to transversality. Recall from 1.4 that a smooth vector eld is a section, or smooth map  : M ! T M with  ((p )) = p for all p 2 M . The zero-section   T M is the set f(p; 0)g of all zero vectors. The xed point set of  is therefore the preimage  1 ( ). For a generic perturbation of , this set is a submanifold of dimension
dim Fix() = dim

M + dim M

dim T M = 0:

12

Chapter 1. Manifolds

A 0-dimensional compact submanifold is a nite point set. With more careful analysis of the meaning of transversality, it can be shown that the type of xed point is also constrained: on 2-d surface, only source, sinks, and saddles are generic xed points (cf. 3.3).

Example 1.13 (Beacon alignment) Consider three people walking along generic smooth
paths in the plane

R . How often are their positions collinear? One considers the map f : C (R ) ! R which computes
2 3 2

the (signed) area of the triangle spanned by the three locations at an instant of time:

f (v1 ; v2 ; v3 ) = det [v2 v1 ; v3 v1 ] :

This map has zero as a regular value, and Theorem 1.10 implies that the set of collinear congurations is a submanifold W = f 1 (0) of C3 (R2 ). A set of three paths is a generic map from R (time) into C3 (R2 ). It follows from Theorems 1.11 and 1.10 that, generically, one expects collinearity at a discrete set of times, since
dim

+ dim W

dim C3 (R2 ) = 1 + 5

6 = 0:

This, moreover, implies a stability in the phenomenon of collinearity: at such an alignment, a generic perturbation of the paths perturbs where the alignment occurs, but does not remove it.

1.7 Signals of opportunity

Applications of transversality are alike: (1) set up the correct maps/spaces; (2) invoke transversality; (3) count dimensions. This has some simple consequences, as in computing the generic intersection of curves and surfaces in R3 . Other consequences are not so obvious. The following theorem states that any continuous map of a source manifold into a target manifold has, after generic perturbation, a submanifold as its image when the dimension of the target is large enough. How large? The critical bound comes, as it must, from the proper transversality criterion and a dimension count:

Theorem 1.14 (Whitney Embedding Theorem).

Any continuous function

f :M! M is

between smooth manifolds is generically perturbed to a smooth injection when

dim

N > 2 dim M .

Proof. The conguration space C2 M = M  M

a manifold of dimension 2 dim
C2 f : C2 M
2

M.

The graph of

M of two distinct points on induces a map

!C M N N

(x; y ) 7! (x; y; f (x ); f (y )):

1.7. Signals of opportunity

13

The set of points on which f is non-injective is (C2 f ) 1 (C2 M 
N ), where
N  N  N is the diagonal. According to the appropriate! transversality theorem, generic perturbations of f induce generic perturbations of C2 f . From Theorems 1.10 and 1.11, the generic dimension of the non-injective set is:
dim C2 M + dim(C2 M 
N ) dim(C2 M  N  N ) = 2 dim

dim

N < 0:

Thus, there are no self-intersections, and the result is a smooth submanifold. A simple application of Whitney's theorem, due to Michael Robinson [?] informs a problem of localization via signals. Consider a scenario in which one wants to determine location in an unknown environment. Certainly, a GPS device would suce. Such a device works by receiving signals from multiple satellite transmitters and utilizing known data about the transmitters to determine location, within the tolerances of the signal reception. This sophisticated system requires many independent components to operate, including geosynchronous satellites, synchronized clocks, and more, all with nontrivial power constraints. Though wonderfully useful, GPS devices are not universally available: they do not operate underwater or indoors; they are unreliable in urban canyons; the need for satellites and synchronized clocks can limit availability. There is no reason, however, why other signals could not be used. In fact, passive signals  arising naturally from TV transmissions, radio, even ionospheric waves induced by lightning strikes []  provide easily measured pulses with which to attempt to reconstruct location. There is a small but fascinating literature on the use of such signals of opportunity to solve localization and mapping problems. The following is a simple mathematical model for localization via signals of opportunity. Consider a connected open domain D  Rk which is a k -manifold. Assume there exist N transmitters of xed location which asynchronously emit pulses whose times of arrival can be measured by a receiver at any location in D. Given a receiver located at an unknown point of D, do the received TOA (time of arrival) signals uniquely localize the receiver? Consider the signal prole mapping T : D ! RN which records the TOA of the (received, identied, and ordered) transmitter pulses. If we assume that the generic placement of transmitters associated with this system provide a generic perturbation to T within C 1 (D; RN ), then the resulting perturbation embeds the domain D smoothly for N > 2k . Thus, the mapping T is generically injective, implying unique channel response and the feasibility of localization in D via TOA. For example, this implies that a receiver can be localized to a unique position in a planar domain D using only a sequence of ve or more transmission signals, globally readable from generically-placed transmitters. Note: it is not assumed that the signals are perfectly spherical, nor does the receiver compute any distances-to-transmitters. In practice, it may be most feasible to realize a localization scheme a posteriori, performing a reconstruction of the receiver location after-the-fact. ! This follows from the more general multi-jet transversality theorem [?, Thm. 4.13]

14

Chapter 1. Manifolds

This result is greatly generalizable [?]. First, one may modify the codomain to record dierent signal inputs. For example, using TDOA (time dierence of arrival) merely reduces the dimension of the signal codomain by one and preserves injectivity for suciently many pulses. Second, one may quotient out the signal codomain by the action of the symmetric group SN to model inability to identify target sources. This does not change the dimension of the signals codomain: the system has the same number of degrees of freedom. The only change is that the codomain has certain well-mannered singularities inherited from the action of SN . It follows from transversality that any reasonable signal space of sucient dimension preserves the ability to localize based on knowledge of the image of D under T . Transversality and dimension-counting provide a critical bound on the number of signals needed to disambiguate position, independent of the types of signals used.

1.8 Stratied spaces

The application of Whitney's Theorem to signal localization in the previous subsection is questionable in practice. Signals do not propagate unendingly, and the physical realities of signal reection/echo, multi-bounce, and diraction conspire to make manifold theory less than applicable in this setting. The addition of signal noise further frustrates a dierential-topological approach. Finally, the assumption that D is a manifold is a poor one. In realistic settings, the domain has a boundary: signals are bouncing o of walls, building exteriors, and other structures that, at best, are piecewise-manifolds. One approach to this last diculty is to enlarge the class of manifolds. A k -manifold with boundary is a space locally homeomorphic to either Rk or Rk 1  [0; 1), with the usual compatibility conditions required for a smoothing. The boundary of D, @ D, is therefore a manifold of dimension k 1. Many of the tools and theorems of this chapter (e.g., tangent spaces and transversality) apply with minor modications to manifolds with boundary. Yet this is not enough in practice: further generalization is needed. A k -manifold with corners is a space, each point of which has a neighborhood locally homeomorphic to { } x 2 Rk : xi  0; i = 1; : : : ; m ; for some 0  m  k , where m may vary from point to point. A true manifold has m = 0 everywhere; a manifold with boundary has m  1. The analogues of smoothings, derivatives, tangent spaces, and other constructs are not dicult to generate. The boundary of a manifold with corners no longer has the structure of a smooth manifold, as, e.g., is clear in the case of a cube I n = [0; 1]n . Note however, that such a boundary is assembled from manifolds of various dimensions, suitably glued together. Such piecewise-manifolds are common in applications. Consider the solution to a polynomial equation p (x ) = 0, for x 2 Rn . An application of transversality theory shows that the

1.8. Stratied spaces

15

solution set is, for generic choices of coecients of p , a manifold of dimension n 1; however, nature does not always deal out such conveniences. Innumerable applications call for the solution to a specic polynomial equation. The null set of a polynomial, even when not a true manifold, can nevertheless be decomposed into manifolds of various dimensions, glued together in a particular manner. There is a hierarchy of such stratied spaces which deviate from the smooth regularity of a manifold. An intuitive denition of a stratied space is a space X , along with a nite partition X = [i Xi , such that each Xi is a manifold of dimension dim Xi = ni . Some control over how these manifolds are pieced together is needed but not integral to this discussion: a stratied space is a piecewise-manifold. Typical examples of stratied spaces include singular solutions to polynomial or real-analytic equations. More physical examples are readily generated. Recall the setting of planar linkage conguration spaces. The 4bar mechanism gives a 1-d manifold, except when the lengths satisfy L1 = L3 and L2 = L4 . In this case, the conguration space is a pair of circles with singularities  either two or three depending on whether or not all the lengths are the same. These singularities have physical signicance: they correspond to congurations which are collinear. Upon building such a linkage, one can feel the dierence as it passes through a singular point.

Notes
1. Homeomorphic manifolds are not always dieomorphic. In dimensions three and below, they are. Each Rn has a unique smooth structure except n = 4, which has an uncountable number of exotic smoothings. Spheres S7 have exactly 27 distinct smooth structures [?]. It is unknown if S4 has non-standard smoothings. 2. A manifold is orientable if it has an atlas such that all transition maps    1 between charts preserve orientation (have determinants with positive derivative). The projective plane P2 and Klein bottle K 2 are well-known non-orientable surfaces. 3. It is instructive and highly recommended to build a complex mechanical linkage and investigate its topology la main. For planar linkages, at cardboard, wood, metal or plastic with pin joints works well. For 3-d linkages, the author uses wooden dowels

16

Chapter 1. Manifolds
with latex tubing for rotational joints. Unfortunately, no higher spatial dimensions are available for resolving intersections between edges in spatial linkages. With practice, the user can tell the dimension of the conguration space by feel, without trying to compute (past dimension 10, discernment seems to fail). Other tools of advanced calculus follow in patterns similar to those of derivatives, including dierential forms, integration of forms, Stokes' Theorem, partial dierential equations, and more. The reader unfamiliar with calculus on manifolds should consult one of the many excellent introductions [?, ?], some tuned to applications in mechanics [?, ?]. Transversality is a topological approach to genericity. Probability theory oers complementary and, often, incommensurate approaches. There are some phenomena which are topologically generic, but have small (even zero?) measure in a desired probability measure. Caveat lictor. One must be careful in proving genericity results, as the specication of a topology on function spaces is required. The Transversality Theorem works with the C r topology, for r 2 N or r = 1. Tweaking the topology of the function spaces allows for relative versions, which allow perturbations to one domain while holding the function xed elsewhere. Higher derivative data associated to a map f : M ! N is encoded in the r -jet j r f taking values in a jet bundle J r (M; N ). This j r f records, for each p 2 M , the Taylor polynomial of f at p up to order r . As always, the computations are done at the chart level and shown to be independent of coordinates. The Jet Transversality Theorem says that, for any submanifold W  J r (M; N ) of the jet bundle, the set of f : M ! N whose r -jets are transverse to W is a residual subset of C 1 (M; N ). The study (and even the denition) of stratied spaces is much more involved than here indicated. Various forms of the Transversality Theorem apply to stratied spaces [?]; they are sucient to derive a form of Whitney's Theorem on embeddings and allow for unique channel response in a transmitter-receiver system outtted with corners, walls, and reections.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Exercises

1.1. Compute the dimension dim Gn of the Grassmannian. k 1.2. What is the conguration space of a 4-bar linkage in R3 ? Remember to factor out the action of the Euclidean group (translations and rotations). What happens in the degenerate cases having collinearities? 1.3. What is the conguration space of a unicycle riding on the plane R2 ? What is the conguration space of an airplane in R3 ? [Do not include velocities, only consider positions and orientations, constrained by allowing motion only to turn or to move forward.] 1.4. Can a planar mechanical linkage admit a conguration space that is non-orientable? 1.5. Compute the homeomorphism types of C2 (R3 ) and C3 (R3 ). 1.6. Show that UC2 (S1 ) is homeomorphic to a Mbius band (without boundary). This example is the basis for various musings about perceptions of musical chords [?]. One assumes a topology on the space of frequencies of notes yielding S1 (octaves are identied). A chord is considered to be a point in a conguration space of points on

Exercises

17

a circle. For musical chords, these congurations are unlabeled. 1.7. Consider the conguration space of a ray in R3 based at the origin: it is homeomorphic to S2 , naturally. Remove K disjoint compact balls from R3 (none containing the origin) and consider the resulting conguration space of rays which may not intersect any of the balls. Find examples for which the resulting conguration space is not connected. 1.8. The codimension of a submanifold V  M is codimM W = dim M dim W . Restate Theorem 1.10 more concisely in terms of codimension. 1.9. Use codimension and transversality (and some ridiculous physical assumptions) to argue which is the more dangerous situation in which to nd oneself: a mineeld, a tornado storm, or a hurricane? 1.10. Use transversality to prove that polynomials with real coecients generically do not have repeated real roots. 1.11. Modify the proof of Lemma 1.12 to show that a self-map of a compact manifold f : M ! M has, generically, a nite number of xed points. 1.12. Prove that the boundary of a manifold with boundary is a manifold of codimension one. 1.13. Instead of TOA or TDOA signals, assume DOA (direction of arrival), in which the receiver in Rk detects the direction (point in Sk 1 ) of each transmitter. How many transmitters must be heard (as a function of k ) to ensure disambiguation? What goes wrong in the case k = 1? [?]