Y c ~ r 5 f f r r t I l i r ~ l ~ n 1 1 g ct z r s l r

\ f ~ ~ s e ~ r i rf i isr t

Cr-

1111ri I : r i i l ~ g c s c . I ~ i c h t p ' o t s c l n n t l

ll;rrt<l 1~'LS;IBPO. Scitc 451-$72

CLirlr. Horwnll, Lor ldorz

The Coastal Factor in the Mesolithic Settlement of North-West England

111 this paper nortlr-west Englantl is intcrprctchtl as ilrc irrca that corresponclq \\it11 the rnoc1c'r.n county of CIIIXIIwia. 'l'lris is a rather isolatcd regiorr lying bct\\ccu tlrc l'ennitie iii11s itrrtl thc sect. 'l'lre grealer part of tht. area is iwenpictl hy tlic (:amltr.itl~r .\lountnins which ~,cach liciglrls o l :rl~~iost 1000 rr~elres :tl>o\t- c c ~ r lc\ c.1. rilorrg tlrchir \\estcrn nrargin is a Irarro\\ co;rst:~llonl;tntl (helo\\ CiO rrlctres 0 . 1 ) ) . \\lriclt 1)c~tnectr St. 1 3 ~ ~Ifc.:~tl :u~tl s \\;iltrt.y Islarrtl is rurtbly rrrorc tlratr :3 hrlr. \\itlc. ,U~lrost tl\~~ry\\lrc~rc lo\\l;rnd strip is ct~\c%rcd g1:rcial clcthis by l~osit\, ~ i r : t i ~ ~t~ottI(lt~r* Iy cl:rys ~ I I I C I fl~i\io-gI:~ci:~l s:r~itI\, rctrc;~l il:rgc. of tlic. last glzrciatiot~. \\llic.lr 1.c.cort1 Sorrrc ;i\pt,c.~s of' rc~st,arc-1%~ r ~tlrc T'ostglacial pclr.iotl i o in Ctrml~ria:iru \\(41-:1tl\ aricctl. . I I I irnl)rt~ssivci c 4 1 . i of ~)ollcrrtiiagraitrs lias k)tseri oblainrd from orgarlic tleposits i~rlilliirg1)ogc ;ttrtl l~cttlelioles ;tlong tlrc coastal lonlal~tl ttrrti in tlrcl Inl\rs : r ~ r t l t:rrt]s oI tlrc~rrl)lnntls, nit11 tlic r.t3stilt t1r:rt ilict \ t'pctalion iristory of tlic last 1 :1.000 ycilrs i pr111);rk)IyI ~ I I O \ F in ~riort,(1t~t:tiItlrii~ifor ~ I I V , 11 :trea of coir~~):rr;~l~lt~ 131+itairi(1). \\'ulker. 1966: \I-. l'cvtsi/(, irr ttit~g~ort. I!):(); 1!)'73\. 111 atltlitiorr. s~lrtlicsof I'oi~gl;rci:il to sptlinit~ntii t 1 lo\\-lyirrg arcas atlj:tc~c~nt tlrc coast. partic111:trly :irorintl tlic, lilujor cstu;~ricas,Iia\ c I)cg~uito pro\ itlc i ~ n ~ ) o r t a c\ritlerretb for rclati\ c 5t.n Ic\c4 t4ra1ipt.s ~ t tlu~*i~rg 1:tst 10.000 >c:rrs (11. .I. ?'oolr!/, 1974 : ilrv 1). Illt(l(litl~1.11. J. rroolfy/. t972). Inqt~iririirrto the Ilcsolitl~icsc~tllcxnc~irt ilrc ropiitri of It(q;tn onl? tonrp:tr:iti\ r4y rc~crrrtl 'l'he fiwt discox tlrics y. \31>rcx rn:tclc. I)\, :~m:l!cur collc~ctors nt sites on \i':~hrcxy lsl:\t~tl:\ncl at I)rigg i n tlrc l!)T,O'i ;P. I3rwirrs. .T. I,. IIoblts, 1950: O. Sic.1, volt. .I. 11. \1rrc./)orzrrlrl. 1 !fT,T,l. O\ c r tlxc ~ I p;rct 1.7 ytr:rl.4. I I I : I I ~ II(W sittts I1:ir ~ C C I tlisco\crrtl, tlut: Ii~rgt~ly tIi(. s\ stt~~rr:r~ie orli of ,I. Cl~c.rr!j. S o to ficltl\\ tlot;ril(~tl :rr(Ir:rt~ologic~:il r.c~sc~;rr-cl~ it~~tlcrt;rhcri \\as rrrrtil *t 19'74. \ \ l r t x ~ i t11(. ~ t t ' o j t ~\\liicli i'orrlrs tlrt, baqis of this p a ~ ) ~:I\ ~ r ir~iiiitto(l. It i i 1101 l ~ ~ s s i l ~ \l\(i l' l. r c * r ~ r . t ' t ~ il\no\\l(~tlgc',to [)rt3scrrt ~t : tltbl;ril(.tl I picttir~c~ \I(~solitlric~ oI' ietll(k~~rcv~ttiot'tli-\\(*st in l'rrg1;urtl. 'l'hch p ~ r r l ) o of' tlrc. ~,rt~\c~irt i~ :rl.tic'lt>is to ouilirtc~ l l ~ c1j1vliniiu;11,\rcist~lts of tlte irr\tlztigatio~~l otre inlo
1lrc3 ( l

porlnnt gt'orrlr of silci. :HI([ to offer a ti~ritativc interpret;itiolr of t110se silri irr terrrrs of tlrc.ir ecologic:rl setling. 'l'o a I;rrpe cLxtc,nt. thc analysis is sclt~ctive a ~ r d rc,lics lre;r\ ily rrl?oir lrypotlrcsis and inference. I t is intcrrtlecl only 1l1:tt it slro~rltlIrt-111 to define more precisely to I)(' tlrc l)r.oblt~~r~i iol\etl aiitl s e n t , as a basis for furtIrt.18 incjr~iry.
1)istribntion of sites

rths111~ tllts c4Torts of Ioc*alcollcclors, tllc cxistcnce of 1c:tst :it? Itt~solitlriccitt.5 11;ls tto\\ bten cst:~l.jlishtd i l l ('t~nritri:~. \\it11 fc\v cxcrlttioris, tliesc ;rrc co~rfinccl to t11(' strill of c.onst:rl lou 1:tnti hetn ecrr \\'nlney Islntid ;rlrtf St. t3c.c.s IItwl (Fig. 1 ) . Tlre grr:tt majority were rccogrri~c~tl srrrlitct~cor~cc~~rtrntio~is :is of :lr~ifactse ~ p ~ j i ~ ~ ( I by ploi~glrirr~ co:~<tal or (xrosior~. r , llrt-re :Iltptxar to 1~ t\\o irr:tjor. grotrps or sites; orre i r r ill(* :rr(.:r rrca;rr St. 1 h 1 3 (.I. aricl P. J. ('hrrrg, 197:l). :urtl a l:t~.gt,~. r - o ~ ~ p itlre :rrc,a :tronntl t l r ~confluent g i~ c~stu;r~.ic~s 1lrt1 rivc~rs Esh, \lit(, :rnd Irt (D.Sicksort, of .I. 11. .\ltic~l)or,nlcl, l!)T,T,: .I. ('lz~rr?j, \IT. P ~ n r t i i i g t o n . i !)(iT, ; J. ( hcl.rg, I9(i!)). 'l'o cortrc extent tlris tlistriljution putlt%~.rr prctlictnbl(~.sirrre tl~i. is tlrc sector in \\lrielr is 11;ts contcntr:ltetl. \I-lrefic~ltl\tot~l~ I)(TII nrost c~ff(~cti\cly T tlrt'r t11(lstb t \ i o groups rcy)r.cLscxrrttliscxrctc clus~rr5 o sites. or :IF(% s i ~ i r l ) l \ fruptrlct~tso f ari origiri:llly cotrtitltrous tlistrihutio~r,is :I clucstiotr \\iridr 1n:ry only he resolved sur\c,y of tlie arra :r~rtl:In :recurate h v :I rriorc. ~~riiforrrr \\lticl~ :IIY, lilc(4y to ~ ~ s s c ~ s s r ~ r r ~ ~ L l o t ~ t l~ : I C L I J ~ ~ of t11ow lia\(. iriflr~cner(lhot11 t h r location :lntl preservation of site.. pr~c~ic~rt 1.1 itl(,tice. tht first : ~ l t ~ r ~ r e tsecrns tlre a i\ nrol-c lihvly. .\ti equ:tll\- strilcing fe:lturc of tlrv tlist~*il)utiori nrnp is tlrt, :ihst~trc~~ sites from tlrr ~rltl:critL irrtc'rior. O v c ~ of irr~~cli this 7onc, thr cornbiri:rtiorr of to~~ogr;rplrv of :rrrtl c~rosiori pro\ itlcs corrtlitiotrs nlrit~ll :Ire unzuitnhle for Ilrc. 1)rnc~sc,i,\:~tiorr \Ii~soli~lric of ciitti. ('o~rscclircrrtl\. tlic ~ y c i o r !I:$\ : ~ i l r ~ : t ( ~ i (i i~t tl l ( s ; t l l ~ ~ r ~ i i~o ~ Ir I I ~ ~ t r r : r I ~(~11-r . ~ IO ~~~ lt'c.iors. floncx\t3~.. ilrc upl:rrrrls alio i~rcll~tlr art,:rs \\lrr,rc rc~licf is less prorrouncetl, ori \\lridr bl2111ict peat has
:I

\s of

:I[

l',\l,
,011

1:ig. 21

:\ir<l

~ I I l):trtic-t~l:~r
:I,

11i11r t l ~ o win I I I ~ :lri~t

r .

1 11(,~>i.c~~c~iit rr~sc%:t~clrc.o~rc~c~r~~c~tl nit11 \\ r,iirr's is !)I iilr:~rilv

sit(,. loc.:rtc(l
: r ~ ~ c t r r ~ tltc, rtl

l l ~ pro1111 t or

ir~oulllof llre Ili\ cr.

'11111'. c ~ \ i i t ~ i i ( ~ v \Ic*,oIill~ic*4it.s at i.:sArrrc;rls a:rs lit-st rt~c.orclcil flu .I. ( il1~rr.I~!%i!) 1 . '1'110 I I I : ~ , ~ ~ IlI)+r o l ) l ( ~ i ~ ~ s 1% l1ic111 I I : ~ t i ) 1)o f:~cwl in ti111 i r ~ \ t * \ t i g : l ~ iof ~tlr(w sitcb, r<4;1it% i~ r to: ( 1 1 ill(> rt,lati\(:itrtl :~l)sol~~tcx :rgt'\ lltr~cIilTc~rc~rr1 sit(,\: ' 2 ) tlic l c r ~ p l l r ~ 01 I ~ I I :II I~I ( ~ \ ( ~ t \ o i ~ IsS !It(% J ( ~ t cIii~.i;~g I~ivlr tlrt, \it(,\ I r \ I oc.c,1111ii>tl:; LIIV ( I ~ ~ I I ( ~ I I < ~ < I I :i11(1 I I L c,ri1l1 tirr:~t~gc~: I< I I I ( * I I ~ 01' i i i ( l i ~ icIt1:11 410s i.o. I J I P i l i \ t r i l ) t ~ ~ i o ~ l 1111ts. of I I I . I I I ~ ~ I tI .. : 4 1111- s i t l ) ~ i \ f e n ~ e :r(*fi\ ~ i i c s ~of 1111, soci:rl rrrortl)i rt~sl)cri~\iltlr for tllc ~ i t c r ; .) t l r t x r:rc.lor,Y \\i~ic.l~ irrllr~c~~rc.rtl loc':~litt~r of tlrr tlrc. si1t.c: t i ] t l ~ cc\icLrrt l o \\lric-ll t l ~ cprt~scl~t clislriltutiotr

t l t of III(> ri\ vr. l\t~it\\1 1

1=\1\111c-;1/\.

oi

(b~*(-

s~nglestte

group of sltes

fi

land over 250 metres

I<,$! 1 .

l ~ l . l , ~ l l l , , l l t l t l 111<,,>

O \l~~\ollllllt t \It<,\ I l l llI3ri\l-~\\ t t,

l:l\gl<llll~

r.t.flt~c-li 1111% or-igitr:tl ccbttlcrnc>rrt ~ , ; t t l i ~ : , r: ~~t r t l T i the' ~ (,I>\ iro~rtt~(~rri:il cot~tlitioirstllir! 1)r.ck\ i ~ i l ( b ( l ihtri~rg tlrc* .\Icsolitlrir ot~cu~);~~iorrs. . llrt. cttr.ri*trt rt.si~:trt.t~is tllrrcforc. :lirxlctl at provitiirlg 'l7Ir(~ solr~tiorrsto :is nr:rny of tlrcic ~)l.oltlrtrls215 I)oiiil)l(>. 1woje(-t i\ itr its early slngtxs, anti tlrc tl:tttt lli:rl ntac nvui1:rt)lc so far arc s~rrficic'ikt to pcrmii c~niya I?\\ tcstrt:ttivtb obsrrv;ttions ;tilt$ srrggestiotrs to he I H : ~ ~ : ~ f ) o l ~ t C ill(, ir:~ittrc of .\lrsolitlric. occ.rtpatiorr i l l thii :rrc:l.
I I : I ~ I I ~ of P

('ot~c( 11lr;itio11\ of \lt~vbIitlri(*I I ; ~ I ( , I ~ ; I o ( ~ ~ :tIr~ O I I ~ I ~ ~ I I Ift\:~it~r(,. ~ \\111(.11 is (.I(~:r1.1\I(':ts in I)i)~tl(L(~t. 'I I I V lriglrc~~t (+I:I\. t.i~p~rts:il~lt*:I lo\\ (4ifl lroit>t\ iilo~rgt l l ~ t4iff-litit~l.iw io :~t.orrt~i i ~ i ( ~().I)..~ s 15 t~ ;rlilror~glr t l r c x tirc,:rlr Irciplrt OF ihv sit(,\ ;I[ \\ illi:irr~sorr's \lo,\. Alonl, \loc~r.s :tritl I,:~~rglrv I';~rl, is T..; rtrcbtt.t.s. ,, 1 Iic. ts:ricc~tl sl~trr.clirlt~ itlt*rltly rcy,rcbic,nts tlrcb I'ostgl:rc*i:il c,\ Iil l iboast. : I I ~ rr>itri~~(,r r i t : i l o ~ ~tp~ i \p:it,t of the (~11111hriir11 nrust I c'l:ttc lo :r sc~r I('\ k c h \ i,r.:rl iir:ttrc~s lligllcr (rcli~thl t i \ cl?) iir:trr ~)r.c~sc~rt iIc\ ('1. Its full grogr;rpllic;rl P\st~ k(wt 11:11 rrol Iwcxtr t\st:\f~lislrt~tl. ill Llrc, thour.st of rtbl)trl ~ tl;\t:irlt3ta c.clni 1,\t.:r\ atiorts ils position \\as ruappctl 0 ~ 1 :I s ;rl)or~t*5 LIII. I)~~I\\(vII h l ~ c ~ l d : ~ :tn(I tlltt l<i\(>rI<&. IIill 'rl~ I,t-to\\n tIi\tt.iI)atiou of sitcs :it Esl,tnc.als c~or~t*c~sponcls ol% 'I'll(% sit(,\ ~~c~cortlt~tlFig. :\ rnay only h1. :I qrrtitll in E \ t r y c*lost:ly \r ith the remairls o ;i for rnttr slro~*c~lirlc \:rtrrl)lc* crf ~lrr, oripirr:iI tliitribution. 'Ttrc :trc~lr;tcolopic.:\I (Fig. 3. ~ l o w clcvatcil ilhovc sen lc~vrl.The rtlort impor{it111
~ l r t b

I ; t t l t l \ t : ~ ~ ~ l~ i ~ c t .r ( t

RAVENGLASS

nttlemont site po88ibio site 7.5m/25ft contour

A
"")

Fig. '2: I)i\trihution m:tp of Alc~olitliic~ in [Ire irucvt aror~ncillrc' c\ir~:rrytrf t l ~ c hi~rs Ri\cr E\h

1.
I

\ f'

/ I

I
I

I
\\ /-\-

12
' A

--

/ '
/ -

\ ,

/Ir

Langley Park

27iA
>

/A '-b A

Monk Moors

I I
/

/
I
/

/
/

A. A
0

A
W~lltamson Moss s

<\J
3.

/'#
/
/

* ->
I
J

' m

/
/
/

/
'

6A
I I
Skelda HblI
\

A
d,

settlement s ~ t e poss~ble stte area w~th masol~tha and later artitacts

\
/

former shoreline
1 Km

.-

Preaent shoreline

Fig. 3: Distribution of Mesolithic sites at Eskmeals, sllowing their relationship to the former sl~oreline

itlt.\,.\

11:1\

11ot I)rr11

I I ~ I ~ ~ I ) I . I I :1n11 I.
tl118

~ I I C 1)i4(wL~rt ~li\tl-i-

t l ~ t t ~ ) I I I ~ ~ of o \ ~ ~

I ) I I I I I I I I 01 \ i ~ r \I*I*III>I,~\

1):1Itvti11 1 f
(3

I ( ~ C V J I:~~ g r i ( . ~ ~ l t ~ ~ r : : I I ~ I ) I I ~I~l

;kcti\ I [ \ . \lost of t l ~ e . f i 1 1 e l \ II;I\ 1 ) 1 ~ c s i 1 111:t(1t~ 1 ) ) \~il.f;t(~' (.I. c.ollrrtir~g \\ lrc.~.cb I i t r ~ t l lrirs I)rcrr ~)lo~tghrtl ( ltc.r.r!l, ~)cvs.cwlnn~,),o i ~ \ c q i ~ c n ~tI l ~ c r ~ s \ ~ h i t i ~ t l t i\cc'tiol~~ (: y , irrc i~l of Ilrr 'sl~orrlim~' \\l~c~r(b firltl\\ori\ Ira\ I)rr11 r:tr~~ic~tl tro out: ;tn(l on(> 01 tlic cirirl' ol)jccti\cs of f11tut.c \tori\ nil1 \ to c\lc~rd tlre i r ~ t,iiigtttions to thcsr arcas. OIL l)~'cittrk rvitlcnrc. Slirlda Tlill appcnri to n~;rrl< IIIV ~ouLl1r111 ~ I I I ~ of Llrr (listrihi~tiorl: b11l tir(>rv i ~ r r I L flint\ ill tlrc form ol isolateil firltls 01 nrtikrttr. t l ~ n thlrsolithit oc*c~npationc.xtt11tIet1 for* coniitlcrrtblc tlistancr north of 1,ilrlplry I':rrI\ :rtrtl along the L<sl\ altnost as far, :I\ tht. preirrrt tidal litnit (Figs. 2 n11t1 3). .2 syst~tn:ltic s u n e y of tlrc 'slrorclinr', in\-olvirrg both lieltl\\ nlking irrrtl t~xl)lor:rto~*y c'xc;~*:rtion, \lronltl t1irl.r forc re\ cal t l ~ rc?iistc~rr(-t~ many Ire\\ sites, ant1 eorrltl ncll rcsrllt of it1 nn ulnroqt contirrtlous distribution. Otrc of the basic ~ ) ~ * o b l ein\ol\ed in stutlying t l ~ c n~s P\ itlrnrr cc\tttt.es on 11o\\ one defirics n 'iitc'. 'l'l~is is hrst illrrstratctl I)y rcfrrrrrc~rto tlrt. sitnittion ;it .\Ionl, Slonr,, \ i~rrc,tiicrr npj,rrrri I to ;t contiii~iorr~ qcattrr of nr-tif:rc,ti O \ C ~i111 area :rt I(~rst 230 rn. X 130 In., cotrtainirrg :it lea\t t i l e t~lnjor c-onc~t~trtratiot~~. X'rcsitrnat)ly cnc.h ~tlnjor c~ot~i~rntrationy ) r ~ i e l l t:Is Ioc:tli~~(foccupi~tion ~t ;irc:r, but it i\ difficult to line\\ ho\\ nrnny \.;c,rc ocbcrlpietl at one tinrc. SI~oaldthis pattcrli be interpreted as ll~c rcmnins of ;$ single complex settlcmcnt iii\ol\-ing a nuriiher of social group\: or as a series of sitcs rcstrlting :I f r o n ~ sriccessio~lof ocvui)atior-is b y one group of people: or c\.en in terms of 'settlcmrt~tdrift' o\.c%ralr cxtt~utlctl pi'^ iotl o~!oc>ctrpation in\ ol\ i11g a \iugle grorrp:' (:lc:r14y. llrcre :rrc rxrnny altcr.n:t~ivc irrtcrprtst:rtiorli to \\hifir colt\itltsration \\ill ha\ c to 1)e gi\ CII in ftitrrr~researc>lr. For

i\ rrg:~t.thil:I\ t i i:r11g111\ l;iz. ::I. i11

tlrr p ~ ~ ~ i r \lI IrI t I \ . I\:I(.II 111:rior ~ ~ I I ( ~ I ~ I ( :I ~ r ~ ) : ~ r ittrr I r t ~ l ) i ~ r \ ~ ~ ~ t t ~ ~ l iit !I\ \oIi~l

I -

\\ i i l ~t l ~ c rt.\olir-ccs ;r\;ril;rk)lr. it 11:ts rot i ) r t ~ 1)o\\ilbl~. ~i to :rttrrrll)t lltr iolirl t\c.ir\irlion of' irny intli~itln;rl iilr. So firr, iri\r\tig:~tio~ii 11:1\rhec~t~ (Y)II&II~(Ito 1i111i1r(l ;IIT:I\ of ir \III:III 11tttirl)'r of \it(,\, \ \ ~ L I I tlrtl ~ I I L ( ~ I I I ~ ~ I 011of I t;lirriiig \ r ~ E f i c ~ i t ~ r i;rmplrs of :trcl~:teologic;ti ~ l a t nto nit1 rt tirr i ~ l l c r ~ ~ r r t a t iof ~ thc sitc iystcXlxr :\s a \\liolc. :t11(1 o l of a lo hr :ll,it> lo :rsstts~the. ~)otrtrti:~l t l ~ c w n for frrrtlrcr ~.rsr:~r.clr. I<\t:r\ ittiorrs \\ crtL c a n ictl out orr t\\ o iitra at 1lo11li hloors \\lridr ;rrcx situittctl on opposite siclcs of :I S I I I : ~ ~ s ~ ~ ~ l ) i l > ~in t ~l~ r~fornler \horrline ,Fig. 3, t~ ii t i t sit(.\ I :rritI 21. i t r i t l on :I thirtl sitc at \I-illiamsotr's hlois [Fig. 3, sitr 3). On cxnel~ site tllc excavation n n s tlcliI)ctbntt4> :tinrrtl 211 tire area \vith tlrc grcatcst tlcnrity of ;rrtifac.ts. 'l'his \\;IS tlcterntitlctl by ~)relinriniri.ysersics of trit piti t l ~ g regttlar intt~rvalsntsrois the site. Itlcoliat (.:rl tc~clrriic~r~i~s( ~ eplo>rtl orr tlir thrrc' \ites. ant1 id1 T\(>I. ~l t l ~ cc\c.:~\:~trtl~n:ttrxt.i:rl \\:I\ \ ~ r t - s i t > \ ctl~rotrglx;I rncslr \i/r of :I r1i.111. boil plrosplratc all;rlysii :\lit1 rrr:rgnctic s ~ ~ t . \ c y \ir r r \ alio trscd ill tlrc>iri\rstig:~tions. in tllc 1 1 o ~ x ~ oltt:rining 01 inforrtration ;~t)out l ~ c rrall clistriblrtion of tlrartl~s.pit\ t c)\ :~trti f o r ~ n c ~ * rnitltleri areas. Thi\ is prob:~bly tllr first time that t l ~ c wtccliniques Ira\ c been nl)j)licd o u hlrsolitlric sites in 13riLain. f-Io\rtkvcr, they \\,ere carriccl o t ~ t oti ntr i>spcr.inrctltalbasis, ant1 the rc\itlts \\ill rlcctl to be tcstctl b y fnrthcr eucn\ ation.

S c t t l r ~ r ~ t s~i r ~ t xc
111 c~orrritlering tlw tlit~~clisioni itttli\itlt~nl \itcls. it is of uscful to try to relate the (1:rta from ~:il~riicais tliosr to

ESKMEALS Monk Moors Site 1

I)~.c*sc-~~t(~tt 11> \Irll;rrs for o ~ l ~ c.\fvsoliil~ic. *r ii1t.s irr H~ki~tlirl I['. ,\fe//(~rs.1 !li{i, 'l.:~l)lo11. of 111csit('$ :tL llolil\ .\loors ancl I)c*ter~rrinirrg tlrv 1Yilli:~mson's AIoss, i)ascvl on tlw ovn-till tlistr~ibutionof artif:~cts. prrsents \evchr:tl tliflicirltirs. In tlre firit place. s only a Fr:rction of the : I ~ P ; Iof c:ic.l~ sile 1 1 ~ bcfsn cxr:rvattd. .It Lfonk Sloors thckrc i i the additional yro1)lrm hecn tl1:1t parts of Sites I ant1 2 l ~ : i ~ ~ c ol)scburetl by inodrrrl struc.turcs. (:onseclumtly. it I ~ a s 1)c.cn possihlc to not ctsl:iblislr the prccisc limits of the nrtifoot scatters. IIoxc>\tLr. rstinlales of t l ~ cmil~iinturrs i ~ c t\x--o iitr5 can of in be mattc on tlics hasis of the arbifact totals rc~cortlcct thr. test pits. If the settlcmtwt is artitrnrily defined as the area metrc, over \vhic.ll :it-tif;~c,l drnsitier c.xcecd .YO per squt\rtB then the approxiniatc tlimcr~siorlsof Jlonk IIoors Site 1 arc, 33 m X 1.5 m . \vhilc those of tllc bite at 1Yillinm. son's lross nrc. 22 In X 21 1n. In both cnsc5 the settlenient :trtla is larger thal that recor(le(l at Star Carr ( I S5 squilrc mctr+es).

I . 'l'l~e tlistril~utior~ 11e:lrthh :rucl stal\c 11oli.r corof ~ of r(\sl>on(ls~ i t h I I C liiglt~stcfe1i5iti(>s ilrtif:trts I.CCOP(IC(I in from 11te 5ite. 'rile fil~dsr ~ c o r ( l e ~ 1 t l ~ ctest pit5 indic,;rte that the tot:il nlrrnher of artifacts I)clr square metrc tlvcrc:~ses r:itht,r s11:lrpIy beyond (he 11iai11extavatecl i1I'e:l. 2. In ;III artb;l wlricl~ iii prone to high windq. there would I)(. a ccrt:rin adv:lnt:~ge in positioning a hut or s11eltt.r so that it offered minin~uin rcsistiince to the wintl. It is pe~bhapssignificant that thc long :isis of tlir ni:~iri p r o ~ ~of features coincides nit11 the direction of p tlie prevailing winds ifrorn south-weqt to north-east), although the rc~lationslrip ltctween past and present (+limntic contlitions can only be inferred. Structural fcatures of a diflerent d~aractermere revrillctl by linlitc3cl area oscavatious of the other sites. a Jlonlc Jloors 2 ~~rotluced shallow, irregular 'pit' 2.5 m. n lorig X 0.6 r . \\id(,. but no c-learly defioect hearths or. slake 1101~s..similar ft.sture has heeri partially excaI \ ; ~ t e don tlic sitc at \Yilliamsori's Iloss. Further inwstigittions of the iite complex at Eslimeals arc therrforc

The rsc~:n-a~c~ct arca located on boulder cl:~y.beneath sites a shallo~vlayer of 'plouglisoil'. The occupation horizon has suffered consitler:~ble clisturbanco as a resull of ploughing nntl ;irtifici:ll clminage. Severtllelcss. structural features relttling to the llcsolithic occupation were identified on all tl~ree sites. I he most intl)ortant cvidencr was recover'ed from lIonk Aloors 1. The grouucl plan (Fig. 4 ) rrveals a n elongated oval ar~.;ingcrneutof hearths awl stalie lioles. covrring a n ;Ires rorlgfil?; '7 nl. X 2.4 m. ( ~ I Uarc-shi~pecl dtapressiorl near to one encl of thc group may have been the. site of a line of stalces). The hearths wcre regularly spaced about 1..5 metres apart, and occupied shallow depressions between 60-80 cm. across. The slake lioles \\-ere up to 20 crn. deep and 10 em. across. n;trrowing to a point. >lost pcnctratcd the ground at a slight angle. and one hole still held a pointed, carborlized fragment of wood (oak) - presumably the remains of the originid stake. Close to tile north-eastern limit of the escnr:~tion. and. isolated from the main gr.oup of featul-es, there n-cre further tr-aces of fire associated with stalie holes. Tlie interpretation of these features is com1)licated by sampling problems. Only part of the occupation area was investigated: while the extent of modcrrl clisturbancc on the site rnay nleatl that only partial traces of thr original structures ha\ e bccn preservctl. ,further diffii cully is that of knon inp \\lictller the sur\7i\-ing features relate to a singlc pcrioil of occupation, or to a succession of occr~pations. 'fhere is a ceneral tcndthncy on tlrc part o arcllaeoE logists to explain tht: occurrence of hearths. pits :n~cl sl:tlie lloles on Slesolithic sites in terms of huts or shelters. tllthouglr the mnge OF po~siblcinterpretations is 111uc.h grclater. Ethnographic ohsen ationr suggest that, suth fenturcbs could tlleoretically rcsult fronl a !vide variety of tlort~esticor cconoinic activities, inclutling the prt,l)aration. preicrx-ation and storage of food, and the curing of animal hides. Io\vr\er, assuming that the fcaturcs on Slonli lloors J are the product ol n single rpisotli? of oecirpalion. there may be sonic. slight justific~ltion in rcyarding the main group :is the remains of some for111 of 'li\ irrg structure' :
r 7

MONK MOORS Site 1

Exc. area 112 rn2 Sample 628

MONK MOORS Site 2

Exc. area 52 rn2 Sample 217

WILLIAMSON'S MOSS

Exc. area 3 2 m2 Sample 139

Fig. 5: IIistogninis of I-elativc fwquencic~ retouctied tools or i n thc csc;i\:ttetl llint assernhlagcs

:t~.(,;ts. tlrch srrggosiion i i tIr:rt t 1 1 ~t \ iricntsc frorrt southliLri\ to ic'l<l :I \\ rtltt r:trrpcb of \It solttlric~ I ' c ~ r ~ r rc,s. ;I\r \\ ( i t (:trlrrl)t*i:i t.cl:ttc~ \\ llolly to tltc 1,:rter llcsolithic. tliorrglr !lrr signific*;cnc.r> tlrocc~on :rn\ orrcl site 111n\7 of of only I)(, :~l)prtlt.i;~t(,(iINVI co~np:ir:lti\ (I:rt:r II:I\ I ) ~ ~ ~ ~ I I 'I'lrc ?rotlrtLtb /lint for ~ l t ef+:sl\tneals inclustries was \\ s111:rll ~)cltl)lt~shiclr occur i r k shingle tlrposits along the \\ ol)t:titrt~tl 11.o11r s(.ritls ol rlrorr. ct\~i,nsi\cL 1,*c.:r\ :rtiorrs. :I co:tst. 'I'l~is is tlrc only suitilt)lc raw material available I llc, iI~sir:il)ilit\ of II:I\ ing (.otlrpl(~tt~ grotrrr(1 1)1:111s 201. toc:ill> :tlrtl is tountl o n :rll lli~solithitrsiteb along tttc :I larptk nrtrrrl)cr of st~lllc~rnc of sit1ril:tr ngt'. \\it11 lht. nt\ co:tst:tl Io\\l:~i~cl. I'shxnrals a \ c r y small percclrtage .\t 1)ossihility of ~c~cogt~isinp ~r~p~sl:ir l);ittrr~rs ;\itliin LIIP of :ix~if:tcts is rn:1(1(, frorxt fine-graainecl volcanic tuO, evirl:tt:+. Ir:ts fi)c~%n ;rtrrpl> tl(~rriol~str;rtcil) It'. Sc~u*t~li 1, ' 1!17:1. dc~rtl? I ~ o n rtllc s;lrnil sourtc.. On sonre of t h t sites near p. 402 1.1. St. 1'rc~c.stlrc proportioir of artifacts rnatle from tuff is 1111rc.11 11igIlt r i,l. :rnd I '. J. Okerrg, 1973); but there is sro c\iclcirc.c~ that irilatttl sources of this ~iiaterial were rr~iliz(.tl i)y thr ll(~solithirjtopulation, as they were for I!I(> stotli1 itrtlnstric~i Itor11 thc Esltrrrc~itli si1t.5 ilto\\ :tn the p ~ o t l u t ~ t i oof storrc axes in the later prehistoric r~ o\c>r:tll r<~sc~rrlblnncc~ tc>rrrrs of typology. tt>c'll~rolog\ in ~ of ~\ ; t r ~ lr t i ~tr~ittvri:rl. .i s t r i k i r ~l(,:~tt~r(l tkt(>; ~ ~ s ( ~ n r I ) l ; ~ g (pcr ioti. 1'11t. tl6t)it;tgcz fro111 tilt. c s c ~ ~ v : ~ tsites includes large ed frotlr Monk \loor\ :~rrtl \\'ilIi:tmson's lloss is tlrt c.lost' ntl~nbc~rs 'sc.:rl:lr cort%s' (Fig. 7,9.101. Thcsc are corm of of sirrtil:~rity in i11(~r.rl:rti\cx f r r c~ut~rrc-ic~s clilit~rcrlt c~itlcon fl:rlic.s or split pcahblcs. \ ~ i t htraces of percussion orr parics of r*t~totrcltc~tl tools Fig. 5). :\lic.roliths :rrc by far oy,)osirlg crltls. TIrt, c~ntls arc usually batterecl and I I I ( ~ 111o5t r~r~tn(>rotis irnpl~~tn(11t~. 'I'ltf~~(~ sigrlifi(*:rnt are sylintc~r'c.tl. \\it11 il:tht% rcrno\;rli, \isible on one or both ptol)o1tior1< of sc.r:tl)(rs: hrtt otllc'r' ~ o o l st~sriitll> fountl f'i~t~~s. I.:\l)(~r*itt~c~rr~:tl stndit's hii\t' 411o\v11 that cores of on \ I t solithi(*site\. \II(.II :I\ httrins. pitbrc.(,rs :SII(I srrr:rt(~I tlris l\ind :\I.(, ~ t o~lrrc.i~l ~ l l t .ftipolar ilaking ti~chniyue, r 1)y (x l)ln(li~s.:1t (I 1)rcst\11t in onl) \ PI > , r r ~ : t I l qt~:lrttitie,i. (;OI \\lricIl in\ oL\ 6.5 holtlirrg tllc (.ore vrrtii*ally or1 a statio:rxt>s :rir(l typic.;tl I I I : I I I I I ~ : I ( ~ ~ I I I I:t11(1 s l ~ : ~ r j ) ~ r ~ 11;1I\r,s ~I~ irrg rl:tr'y irrr\il ;111(l striking tilt. top of it rcpeittpcily nit11 n irrt. c orispic~rrortil?: r t ) i c ~ l r t . I~;~rrrtrrc~r~~tot~t~ \\'/tit<>. 1968: ' 1 I f . Secvcotner, (,I. 1'. 1. ,, I ltc rtticrolitlts 'l:ig. ( I : c*orrrt)ri\c> ~~:rrtgc. -S:trro!\ :i of ~,c~rs.c.ornr~r.l. 'l'Ir(. rrt:iiil :t<lvatltage~ this method are of l3l:t(lt~. I'or111s in \\!~i(,li ii~ic.ro-t~i;tt~glt~s ~ ( I o t ~ ~ i:11- i r t t ~ . ~)r~ rt t l i i r t i t ~,~~cxlr~c.cs ntunbt~rs of usable flakes allows Iirrgc tllouglr t1rt~r.c. irrc irt\;rr~i:tl)iys~tritll~)crc~t~rltngc~s of 'l3ro:rtl \ 1.r.y i,nritll ;iic,c.-s of nr;ltt>rial to he ~vorkecl. IUlatlt~' rrtic.rolitlrs. inc~lrrtlinp sirrrltlth oirlit~ircly pitr~rtt'tl I'll(% p ~ c w n t ct t f ical:~r corcs, together \vith a few points. 'S'hc c,itrlic\t r;itlioc;rri.>ofi cl:i~t.b for 'S:rrro\\ 1I:tkt~~ \\lriolt sl~o\\I)rrlt)s OF pcrc8ussion on both proxirnal ~ ~ I : I ( I P ' i nrIr~stri(~s nor t t ~ ( ~ r Er>gl;rr~(l irt n (.lnst(br :rron~rd ant1 tlis~:tl c ~ t i t l s . irl(lic.:ttti titzit the 1)ipotar flaking techof (i700 b.(*.."ntttl tlrtx~c,; I ~ Pintlit~:rtiorts t11:tt intlrist~it~s nicjut, \$:I\ :tn irtrportittr~ rlrrrtc~iit in the llcsolithic inlllis typch c'orltirruc~(1 I)(' rl1:111rif:1c~lrrrt'cj to tltl~ouglrorrt tlrca clrrstriei :kt I*:~Lrrtc~:rls. E.:\itlcntly, the ntajor factor rletcr1 : i i t ~ -1)!1:1\t, of I ~ I V1 it~solitltic.( I < . \[. J < t ( 01);. l!E3: l97(i: ~tlitlirrp its list. \\:I\ ~ I I C I I : I ~ I Z ~ C the iWat\material of I-', .\lcl/rtrs. I!);'t). .\ttc~rrpts to jtro\ itlt. :I rl~orc~ c~Ia1)or:rtt~ ~ I I I : I I I j)('l)t)l('s. S(irIirr or(^ O C C I I ~ on most llesolithic il clrronologic~:rl fr:~rut,\\orl\ to18 tlrtbsts irrtlus~t+ic>sl Iir.il;lirr 5itt.s in sou~lr-\\c~it ~irrlbri;~. ( :inti Ilavc :tlso been recogIi:r\c so far iltt\t \tilt1 littit. snc.1.tLsi H. %r,it.sttr. It. \I. rtisc-tl in ;~csc~rrrl~iitgt~~ ;\l~.solithic shell middens in frotn Jctt-obi. 1!)73). sor~tlt-\\<'st S(.otI:itttl \I'. .\lrllctrs, S. Pizyr~e. 1971).3 I t sc\orrts liLt4y tllirt I)ipol;lt* fl:tLiirg \\:is ;I \\idt>sprcatl terlt~ricltrc,irt :i1.1~:rsn11i.1.t. pc\ltt)lcs ncrc tlrc rriai~t sonrcc of fliil,irlg rn;tlr~ri:tl. p:rvlic-rrl;triy itlong tkrr \\cstcXrncoast of Iiritaitr.
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I . \I;rt*irrc~ iwirtlitio~rs\ \ e r r t~st:~bli~lieil along

tht. ' f o r ~ ~ t c r ~liorcliric~' (luring the early Litl;~nticperiod (zone YII ;ll. b e t \ ~ c ~ ~ r i 5100-4800 b . ~ . .\t this time thc rl~oi~ttr tlir' I\i\er 1 :k \\as lot.atc.tl to the north of of 4s Ytw l)iggi~i.

2. . \ ~ . o t ~ ~ i ( l l ~ c tficrr~\v;I\ a t;li:rt~gt.to c)~iiet.lx~aekislt /IS00 .

\\;rtcxr. cwntlitioris. 'I'llc growtlr of snntl or shingle bnnlts, or. t i r t ~ form;rtion of all oll'cl~or-clxlrricr. protected the 'slrorc~linc~' frorrl t l i c ~ t3flrc~s of high entrgy waves, tli\ rr titrg thc hi\er Esk south\~arrispast Alonk Rloors i~ncl \Villi:~~nsnr~'s lo^\. The arcs in front of the 'shorelir~c' thcr~cforc~ Itrcarlre parat of the estuary. This episotlt, \\:I\ ptr11:rps initiatfltl hy a relative fall of sea It,\ (4.

3, llcgilirling around 4400'4300 b.c. there was a renewed

pti;lcie (or phasei) of marin(. inundation and deposition, ill \\lricli resr~lt(%il the gro\\rlh of a complex series of s a ~ ~ t l sliinglt. ridptx 'r'he r i l e r n a s gradi~ally ant1 divert( ct ilortllr~;trii\. and by tlie end of the llesolithic (at tlie latest) 11;rd r c s ~ ~ m ta l course north of Newbiggin. t

4. Strbsequc'xitly, an cstcnsivt system of sand dunes de\

,\I I-:.;Lmcals, 1111%:ri.tx:x I ) c ~ t \ \ c i ~tlicl l)rchsc,tit r eo;r\t arid tirt. 'ft)r~~tti~r cliort4inc~' i 4 o ( ' c ~ ~ l ) iI)?~ d:1 \t'rit'\ of l~rico~r\oli( c / ; r ~ i ~ ( l~cvliltrt~~rt\ .~\hic.lt lr:t\t. :~ci~trn~rrl:1tc~t1 rc~s~rlt :I\ of rt,lati\ cs (4i:tirgc-. in s ~ a el ( I \ cr tli(, 1trs1 7000 y t ~ i r s kc,\ stltciy (I;+. 9). 0 1 1 tlitb L):isi, of :I l~relir~iin:r~~y i ~ ftliese to cteposit\. it is po~<iOlc prtx\ctrt ;1 tcxtrtnti\ c. outlit~r,of tilt> nrctirx i ~ r ~ \ i r o ~ ~ r ~~ (~ 1 ~t :: t11:rt ~ l~:t\t, t:~k(,~i r ~ ~ r ~ Ir g ~ ~ s l>laco in the :tr.ik;t (1111,iirg pt>rio(l \.\I. .I. ' P o o l c ~ ! / ('. 13ortsc~ll. iliib . .I. .\lntslictll. lorthcor~~ilrcli :

cloprtl on top of thew marine deposits. T h e xnigratiotr of tlic clrincs has contributed to the northward ilt~tlcctionof ttic Esk - a process ~vhichis still continuing.

I lii~s.tiit. eviticricc suggests that there was a relati\-ely ltrief period Ltctnccn ca. 4800-4300 b.c., during which
a c.onsit1erablc scc5tion of the 'former sfloreline' was p:\rt of :tri c.;tuaiint> enviro~i~uent. Thereafter, parts of the 'stlorc~linc' \ \ e r . ~ progressi\ely cut off from estuarine effects.

Years B.F?

Fig. X : Hel<tti\c~ \en Ic\ cl t li.ri~gt'. itr xtt)rtli-\\r~stErtyI,~r,rl i:tftc.r If. J. Toir1r.y. 1976). Thc contllrtiorii line crir\t. \Iron., t l t t s inu.rcinrc.i~1l lrwli titlc Ic\(.l: Ilrt, (lot-(la\l~ tr line curve s h o ~ s tlic ~rio\c~norit nit.,tr~tttlc I<.\ 1.1 vr

...................... ...................... ..................... ...................... ....................... ...................... ....................... ....................... ........................ ........................
\

Langley Park

Monk Moors

........... .......... ...........

Williamson's Moss

break-of-slope on sand or gravel

A g e of tlte s i t e s ];or c.c.ologic.al reasons. it is trmpting to correlate the Alrsolithic occupatio~~ the 'formcxr shoreline, with this of c~stuarincpllasc,. Ari chstu:r~.inc situation woultl hitve offc,rect ;I nurrrher of atl\.ant:tges to a tiuntirig ant1 gatllerirlg j)opul;tlion. In tlte first pI:\ce. it is i l rel:rti\~cly shclterrtl location where \vi\vtb i~etionis iniriimi~l,in c.ontr:tst lo full rffrrts of the open coast which is exposed to t l l ~ storm witvtas. Furtlrrrnlore. potrntial foot1 rrsourrc1s j)robi~C)Iy otbrur in p r e a t t ~ahrrtitl:rnre :rntl \.:trirty in :l typical estuitry. than in most other c ~ ~ a ~ enviro~trrients. tiil In order to tch.;t this hypothesis. r:~diocarbortdale< ar+c. rqrquir'td for i~ litrgt1 number of sittbs. So far., datt.s i~ro only :t\-nili~blefor .\lonl\ JIoors I. 'l'hrse suggest thirt 5000-4.500 I~c.4,whir11 tlt' age' of this site falls I)tltw,c~t~~t p i< not inrol~sisicnt\\ ith t lie ir~trrprt-tatio~rt ~ tfol.\vartl. l'hrrr~fol~r, ;I working I.iypothcsis, it i s suggestrtl ns that tltc rt~nin ~)hastlof .\lcsolithic ocvttpation ; ~ t Eslk~neals c.oincitletl wit11 the [)(.riot1 tlur*i~ig u~lticllthe 'formci* sllon~linc'\\as pitrt of the I;sk wtuary. Subsistence Food wpplv is likely to have been the tnajor factor inflrrenc-ing tlic lo(-ation ant1 clur.:ttion of .\lesolithic* setilvntents. ,Illy interpretation of tire site c,ompl(.s ;kt I:skrnr:~ls rnust thclclfort-. involve. a consitlcration of o subsistcnre. S direct el-itlencc. for the iubsiitenc.c. activities of tht. 31t~solitltirpopul:ttiort, in t11e forrii of ;rniniill or vc~petahlcrrlttains, has ytXt been revoverctl. The follo\ving disc.nssiort rclics ~rlilinly upon infcrtbnces tlraw~i froni itn interprcltation of thr ecologic:tl background to the llrsoli thic ot~cupatiort.

R c h l a t i v e i n ~ p o r t a n c e of plant resourtcs

arlimal

and

In lhitnin, tlie \vitlely-held view that AIesolithir groups wercb prim:rrilv hunters who relict1 upon large nlammals for their food sul)ply, ~veceived its initial impetus from G. ('lark's interprrtatiou of Star Carr (G. Clark. 1954: 1972). llore ~~ecerrt work o n prehistoric subsistence has co~lc~enlr:~tecl the rcile that wild plant foods might on have. played in the. ~It~solitliic econorriy. Some authors havtb supgestrcl t11:rt plants :*re likely to have provided thc I)ulli of the food supply of T,ater Mesolithic populations ' I ) . L. Clarlie. 1!)76: P. Jlellars, 1!)76, p. 375 f.). I hc main arguments that have been put forward arc: 1. 'l'ltat \omtX rnotlcrn proups who are traditionally regitrdctl as 'tin~ltt~rs' (such its the Kung Hushnlen and the .\ustr;~lian ahoriginri). iti fact obtain most of tht:ir food fron~plants ( R . U. L,fle, I. DeVorr, 1968). 2. 'l'liat the clrcidr~t>us foresls of the .itlatltic aeriod. in north-west llurope would have provided an abundance of potc.nti;il plant I'oods (rools, nuts, berries, fungi, preens. ctc. - ~ ) c ~ h a ass rnany as 300 edible species); p itnci that gathering in this en\-ironment would have 1,cen f:rr t~torc1)roclrt(~tivc than hunting (D. I,. Clark, 1976, p. 457 f.). I here is nnlplt documentation in the ethnographic rcc-ord tliiit the gtthering of a wide range of plant foods fornretl part of the subsistence activities of the majority of r8cce1it hunters itnd gathcrsers; ancl archaeological evidcnve from north-\rest Europe suggests that wild plants \vert. regularly t~iiten by hlesolithic groups. IIowcver, thr central ihsue is not \vhcther plants were utilisetl by Jlt solitliic groups. but how much emphasis was placed upon t l m as a source of food! ~ (:omp:~risons made with groups such as the Kung
r
3

.,

Table 1 (:onlpoqition of animals espectrd to hare been important in tlte Atrsolithic rcononly at Eslimeals (per 100 g. raw edible foot1 rtor~r~ally c~nsitler~tl wilste i b also indic:lted as portions). l'hc proportion of cncl~
-

'To t:tl

Water
0

Protein
OI ' ,

Iiat 0'
0

Carbohydratt,
O ', I

Waste

Reference 1
1
1

J )eer Wild (luck .\rzas ltoschcr\

-'17

('0

68.3
(i1.L fi2.6

20..i

14.4
13.8 l3.'i 11.3

0
n

53
42
35

21.1

'33
217
168

Sirlmot~
Sninzo scrlar I.:rls .Irtguilln angirillo \ l :tcS(.rc.l Scortzhc~r srtr~nbru<

2'..5
16.6

78.3
K.2

33
46
47 67

2 1
L
1

[!LO
19.fi

12.2 6.9
0.3

I91
146 79

.\I nllrl
.l/ugil c.rphnlcis 1' lountlrrs IJloticttt h ~ /lrsus s
(:act

72.G
$1.3

16.7
J 5.li

(;crdus n~orrltlrn

81.2
78.6

0.3
2.2

78
95

6'3
80

1 1

>lussc~lx
d M ~ j t i lrrl~clis ~~.s 14.11
'l'akcn as Itcin~lrer(I). K . \\-art, it. L. Jitvrrill. I!)63) 1 1). f<. \\.ntt it1111 -1. L. L\lc,rrill. lC)(i:l:2 13. .I. \Ic('~/rtc.r I I I ~E. \I. \\'i(ldoa,,so~~. : i960

I'able 2 Composition of edible plants occur1,ing in deciduous w-oodlaild ant1 salt marsh hi1)itats portions)
-

nt

l<skmc,ils 1,l)rr 100 p. raw cdihlc

Watrr

Protein
Oo

Fa1
O o

O,b
Acorns Quercus robur Hazel nuts Corljlus sp. ~fushrooms Agaricus rampestris Blacl~berries Rubus sp. Gooseberries Ribcs uva-crispa Cnb apples ~VIalus sylvcstris \Vatercrc\s A7asturtiumoffieinale Dock Rumrx sp. Sea kale Cramhe rnaritimn
13.9

---

clrail:~ 1)le (.arbolrvdraie o, 0

-

Kt*i~ls.
- -

\\'astr
O n

Tiefercnre

--

7 .O

4.G

67.8 6.8
0

053
398

20 66 '13

41.1

9.0

36.0 Tr
Tr

2 2
2

91.5
82.0 89.9
81.1

1.8
1.3 1 .L
0.4 2.9 2.1

7
0

6.4 3.4
17.2

0
1

Tr
0.3

2
2

r)8

23

91.2 90.9 95.G

Tr 0.3 Tr

0.7 4.3 0.6

15

2
1
'2

28

26

1.4

1 D, K. iT7att and A. L. Illerrill. 1963; 2 R. -1. Jfc( once nnd E:. Ji. \I-idtlocr.son. 196% 3 F. S. Hijwnv. 1953 Bushmen are potentially misleading. If ethnographic analogies are to be meaningful, thcy must ba drnwn from groups in comparabl~ ecological situations. \vho have access to a similar range of pottbntinl food resources. There is no suggestion in the t~thnographicliterature thal hunters and gatherers living in cool temperate areas of the world attempted to subsist primaril?. on plant foods. Recent interpretations of llesolithic subsistence llave not been sequel to the development of a clcar understanding of the nutritional significanc.r of the a\-ailitble food resources. h comp:~rison of the footl energy (Calories) provideti by animal ant1 vegetable foods fot~ncl in cool temperate environments indicates that therc are considerable differences among the v;~r.ionskinds of animals and plants (Tables 1 and 2). Most of the edible plants found in tc~inpeiLnte tleciof duous forests are extremely poor sour*cbes food r n c ~ g y . especially fungi, green rt.getat)les ;tntl laost bel*rirs. Thrir protein content is usually mud1 lower than that of meat or fish, and much of the carbohydr*:ttc they contain is often in forms n hich cannot ht, ahsorb~tlb~ the human digestive system. This is the casr particularly wit11 wild green vrgetnbles. It follows that the quantities of most vt>gct;ihle foods that \\-ould be rcquirccl to sustain (,\-en small groups for long periods of time, would hc enorn~ous! For esnmplc,, in order to at.hievck the necessary r:~loric intake, an active achllt male woultl rcqrrire cilher 50 kg. of ~ ; I W sen kalc, 57 kg. of vild nrushrooms, 10 kg. of hlilckber-ries, or more than 6 kg. of crab apples, per thy. 'l'he amount of energy that would ~leecl to bc' cspt~ndrtlin order to obtain snch massive q~~;intiiies \voultl. in lnost cast3s, bc. prollibitivr. r I he oonclr~sion that oncl has to tlraw on nl~tritional grounds alonr. is [hat unless srr~~plen~cn~c~tl hy co~lsitlcr:ll)le clu:itltities ol' r11c:rt or lish. :I \xiltl p1:rnt t1ic.t would
7

h:t\.c Iwrn lotally in;lrleqr~:itt. I'lant lootls in north-wst Kuropc \\oulcl simply not h;\ve ~)ro\--itlecl sufficicwt n i ~ u r o ~ of nprotcin irl the Ilesolithic- diet. ~ t I ho usefulness of thest. tdihle pliints is furlher 1-estricic,tl bv tbc facl that they art, onlv avail:tblr ovclr a li111itcbt1pcriotl of tlrc> ye;Ir-. Sril)plios of vegotnblc~footls \voulcl ha\ e bcol grentlv rt~tluctvl clltl.ing the ~vintcr nlonths. r\c.orns and llaztd nut\ ;Ire among tht> few viahlta foocl plan I S that \\ orrld Ila\ c bee11 11-itlrl\- nvailahle it1 Iiritiliii (1111'inf: the I.atc,r. I\lcsolitl~ic," but they coultl only Ir:ivc been collt.ctt.cl in cluantity Tor ;I few 11-eeks of tht. yei~r..Both :warns ;mtl Ilaxt~lnuis wclhe regularly ten by incliar~tribe5 i n teml)ernt(>Sol*th .\lncritba, but ~ ~ o \ v t ~ c ~ v rt.i I hrr- I'orr~)a siitplc foot1 (11. E. IDri~q~r, tlitl I\-. C. Jlnssey. 19,571. 1 . I,. Cltrrke (1976. p. $58) has prcsc~ntedsomv over1 of optinlistic osti~ri;~tes ilrc rtlihle protluctik ity of t e n c~s:~nll,lc. Ilis sugpc.stion th:it ~)cv:\tc% woodliir~tl. ~~~isrtl-oak-Sorc.hl cort~rrtorllyyicltl T,00 kg. of hxzc4 will i~ I):iw(I npon st:~tistic.spronuts per Ilc~ctal~c~(>vitl~ritly \.icletl 1)y I;. S. Ilou~cs ( 1 %33. p. IS4 ). 'T11t.sc figurcs, Iio\\e\ cr. rc4:ttt' to c.ulti\ ; t t c ~ l h;tzc4 trtw pro\\-n in or~,IIAP(J\ in S ~ I I I ~ I - ( - : I S I E~~glantl. \vllc,rc I ' ( ~ I I I ; I P pruning, tltnnnting, pro~c~ctiol~ from iiiwrt pest\. : I I I C ~ sclecti\e l)rcetlinp, 11;tvc. c.orrll)iut.tl to itlcrc~i~st~ l)r~oclr~ctivily con\itlcr:~l)l?-.Yicltls of hn7t.l nuls ul~der thrscl conditions
r
7

17013

pc~ctctl fro111shrubs gram ing i 11 rnirturc oak l'ores~s. i\rgliing fro111 c.tllnopritl>l~ic. rsitrnplc~\. I ) . I,. ('1ar.k~ 11i1si \ l ~ o l)ut foi*~ili.(l 1101 ('1 suggestion ~ltnt1)rackcn tht* rhizo~nes (I-'tc~*icliur~~ nqi~ilim~nt) woultl have brcn :in

'V:lblc 3 Subsistmce base of hunterh and gatherers in the. cool temprrate zonc. between latitrides 4,i0-5!)0 (after G. P. Jfurrloch-, 1965; :lnd 13. B. Ler ( 1 968)

t labitn t

A. Ler 11968) (inthering Hunting Fizhing wild pli~nts lautl tlnd fibh shell fi5h qea mammals sinall wild fowl animal.:

ti.

I. wild plants .mall anim:tls

.\l urdutl (1 967) 3. Iil~ld fish irlammals shellfish wild fowl sea ~nammals
'1 -.

(iilyak rlinr~ South iimerica: Yahgan Oria ;\l:iraltif .iortIl .l~neric:~: Kasli;~ Atoll tagnais Fa11Itearn 'I'sirns11i;rn C)uilcutr (:hinook .l. lingit I3elb bell:t COT\ichair (:hilrotin Flathead ITm:jtilln
\ ~ i :a

t8oast:il inland c'ctastal inland coastal inland inland illlane1 c.oastitl coastal c.oast:~l c~oastitl inland inland inland inlantf

vcgctahlr foods in thc. diet. Thew ;Ire also some inacc.ur:~cies for csiimplc. thc figures for the Tsimshian : givv thc iml)ression that their gathrring activities are largely c.onfil~etl to ~ ~ l a n t s . \vhtxreas thr ethnographic 1itrr:ttur-c clrnrly indicates that shellfish are the Inore importat~t resonrcc (G. F. Jlac1)onnlrl. 1970). Sovc~rtl~rless, hroatl trends seem clear: the (:ompnrnti\c. sttrt1ic.s of I~untc~is itrid g;~thel,cbrsitidic;rtc l . ,\lost groups ~)lacr an empllasis on hunting and that [?ley tlepc~ntl prinlitrily on tliosc~ food rtlsourcc>s fishing. \\hiell are riiosl r ~ h u l ~ t l aan(l reli;thlc. ;~ntlI\-hicll h a \ c n~ 2. Fishing is ;tltnost ill\-ariably the dominant mode of ;I high cillorilic, \.;~lur (11. R. D~.ir*er, \Y. ('. Jlccssc~j~. s~~l~sistcncc~ in c~oast:11 1oc:ttions: and evc8n among inl9,i7 : R. I<. 1.c~.I. DeI7orr. l$4(38). land groups regularly cnntrihrltes 20-40 per cent of 1t. 13. Lrc~(1968. 1). 4 2 ) h:~s sho\vt~t11:lt in \var~iltrniihr clict. [,(.r*aitl,snl)tropic.;11 :t11(1 tropic~i~l Intitud(~s,the, gatheri~rg 3. Iiur~iir~g c-onsistcntly provides 30-40 per cont of tho of wilt1 ~ ) l : ~ n tis ~ l l eclomirl:~nt ~t~oclc. subsistencv~. s of clict. I)c'illg least ia~portantamong those groups who rt e of 'l'l~is IIII~(>:II-S (li~*tv*tly ~ l ~ ~ ttot lthe : I ~ I ~ I I I ( ~ ; I I I C ~ > to I)(> rtbly rll;~irilyon lishirlg. I~iglit.nerpy p l : ~ t ~ t foo(1s that :Ire :~\~aili~C)lt>1 . ~or loss 1110 4. I'lani foods alScb al\vnys :I mirior t.lemcnt in the diet itlrouphont t h t ytwr. 'r'hrls Bushm:~u suhsistcl~rr hastvl is :1r1c1 c~onsistcntly contrihutc lrss than hunting. Tt is Irca\ily o n ~hc.nlolrpongo nut (R. f:. Lep. I9fiX. 11. 33 f.). 1)c.rh;tl)s worth pointing out that :trtiong some coastal I t 1 contrast, th(* cool teln1)crnlr z o 1 1 ~ 11:1s cor~~p:rt.;~tivi~ly gronph, st~itwet~tl acchounts for rnucll of the 'vegetable' f ~ \ v high cnc.rgy food 1)lnnlz. :tnil the n ~ i r j o r i i :irr ~ cwnponent. 'The Tsi~nshianare one example (G. F. i~\,ail:~l)le o111yon ;I sr:lsonal 1)asis. Conseql~tbntly,th(ly .\lacllonaltl. R. I. I r ~ g l i s ,1976, p. 50). of1t.r f:tr I t . 5 ~ rcrtni~etition to other 18esotlrces. :rnel this i s 3. 'l'hcrc, is little c\-idcnce that gathering activities (as art. tlc*fintvl ljy R. Ij. L~vJ) more pr~ocluctivethan other rrroclc\ of cuhsistcnc.r. 'I'his is hardly surprising in r(.li~tiug to the s~rhsistcrlc*(~ of 15 societic.~living i l l b:ls:\ \.icl\v of tht. l~utritional signifirancr of pl:~nts and c.001 tc\~~rpc>r;\tt. ill.f'i\h of Sort11 :me1 South .\nlcric.i~ a l ~ t l shc:lllish ('l';lhles 1 ant1 2). c~itster-~l .\si:r (ltt~t\vccv~ littitucirs 4Tt0-.5D0). who tlcpcntl Or1 ~ h c basis of Ihest> obst~l.vations : ~ n dprevious statec+~ltiroly I t u ~ ~ t i i ~ p . or1 gatllcbring and fishing. .\veri~gc\ ; I I I ~ ( ~ I i11m11t the tit~tritionill a l u ~ I~S v of plants ant1 aninlais, ltles :Ire listccl i1c.c.01 (ling to the. sr11)sistrnc~c~ catcyorics it sec.rns rei~soti;~l)lr st~ggest that Later hlesolithic to ~ [ s c dIty I)ot/l H. I ( . Lcc \l!J681 ;~ncl G . 1'. .\lurrlor.l; socoit~ticsin 11ortl1-wtssl Europc woultl ilavc~rrliphasizecl 1 1 965'. 'r'I~c\<e (XII only I)(. cs~ini:rtc~s. 'I'liere :ire 110 prnc.lisliing :~ntl Iluntirig: :inn that gathrring activities, in 011 ~ ~~ caiscl ligi~rr~s I I I ( ~ (lt1:1lttitic*4 of food ( ~ o I l c ( 01' ~1.011- ~ l 11ios1I ~ i ~ l ) i t \v0111d irnporiance. i ~ t ~ . 1i:lve 1)c.ca of scc~ondai~y Ycgetabl(. foods atbc lil\c4y to Ila\e pl:lyed only a ~ ~ i i n o r tatiori before the. rntl of tho Atlantic period. In fact, thc riqe ill the br:tcken curvc~apprnrs to roinciclc wit11 (N. Seolilllic forest cle:~r~anc.c~ o ~ ~ i z o r ~ sGoclcvin, 19,Xi: l \\'. Prnrzir~gton.1969).

5
I

krn

Ecoi~ornirirtterl)relatio~lof the Esknwals sites

1.; n \ i I- o

I rrr I

1t ; I 1 I

1)

: (. I

I\ p r o 11 n il

4. 'l'lrc. sty+ i\ s h ; \ l l o w for a c . o i l s i t l t ~ r a t ) l ( ~ tli\t:rnc*c, olTslrorc.. ;rrrtl o l l v r s ; g c ~ r r t ~ r ; t l l y' s o f t \ l r o r t ~ ' cbrr\ i r o r r I rrrrrlt. ' I ' l r c ~ r t ~ s r r o r c ~ : ~ \ o r rlo s u l ) l t o s r b t l i i r t t l t t t gi~rrc~r;11( * ( * I ) i l o p v of tlrt. \(,:I. t S c t r r : r r y ;rrrtI r,i\t,rc \\:I\ ~ i p t r i l i t ~ : r t ~ t l y t l i l T r r c . t i t t l r r r i r r g 111th 5111 ~ ~ t i l l c ~ r r i r r l).c.. l'rt~\11111:11)1?. t11(' rrr

II II IPI.

'l7fl(i ir(-trr:rl t ~ , r r ~ i ~ o v > ~ ) I ~ r i ~~I~OIII : IIOIII~~ r\ I);t\t* (~d I \ \ o u l t l lr:r\t. t l c l ) c ~ t i t I t ~ t lo t r :I ~ r r r r r t l ~ t ~ r * I:rcato~-\. 'I'ojtoof

..

summer
A
I

winter
A
1

M
I

J
I

S
I

O
L

N
I

D
1

J
i

F
I

Shellfish

I
I

Plant f o o d s

I I
i

I
1

Sea b i r d s

'

/ OdU"
esss

1
I

I
I
I

Sal rnon
( estuary

Saltwater f i s h

/ inshore

I I

\
Waterfowt Land g a m e

offshore

I
1 1

t
[

I I
I

r r l ~ ,ant clat:~nro pro\ itletl 1)y :I rcwnt stud?; of the \ of cXstunr+y thr Iiivt.1. Yth:rn. II(YII* .\l)or(lrc~n, whcre bt'~l\ O I ~ ( - I I ~ . l n d e r ~ gcogr;tpl~i(-:~l rollclitions r~atnrirlIIIUSSCI lii\ T<sk fI1. .Ililrzo. similar to thosv 1o11t1tI in Calorific C. .\I. Ilrtrcnf~i. 1972). 'Site lipore\ pre~ontetl I f . Jiilrte l)y vitlur :~ntlC. ,\I. 1)trrtttri in~lic:~tt~ the S-th:~n cstuary can that Kcltlb 'dav yit~ltt87.70 Iq. tli\c.n-eight) of ~rrusscls pclr 1icct:trr per meat), yc.irrs ~ c ~ q ~ ~ i v : t to ~ n t l ( 17.50 kg. of rn:lw n~rtsst~l \vitItout c.:\nsing ;rtry ~ r c , t rc,tluctioi~ of the ruusstl popuIf lc~tiot~. oritb :1p1)lit*b thost1 [igures to tliv Ksk ( > s t ~ ~ : ~ r y . thr totill nnnl~;rlyit,l(l \\oultl I)e 437.400 kg. (87,580 kg. of r:lw 111c>:tt1. 'r'he Iood (%111>rgy vi1111~ this crop \vo111d of Itr P:).IO(i.000 Ktals. ('1'17.CiSS 1ic:rls. (lay).' This in~plies t11:tt i f t I l ( - IIIUSSPI J)(~ls\v(w :I\ t~xtt~nsiv(~ (I~~ritig the .\It*solithic.. tl~c'y \I oultl he tnpitblc. in thcory, of pro\ itling tlir to~;rlfood energy ~ ( ~ q ~ ~ i r o m r n lpopulation of :\ s These thtx sizc of '10 Itrmily 1111ith (100 in(li\i(lt~i~Is). c~stir~~;rtc\ thr I for : & III;IV \\ell 1 ) ~ thtx conht.rvati\-e on R e l a t i \ - c , i n r p o r t a n c e of t h o foocl r e sitlo. 'l'hc~rc. is \olntL ( ~ ~ ~ I I c I Ilo c s~rggest lhnt the pro~ S 0 1. P ( ' C S 1 clurti\it\ of ~ r r ~ ~ s s c l on thcs \\(.it coast of l3rit;iin hctls It has hecn suggestctl that a \vidr variety of' foot1 reis signilicilntly I ~ i g l i (t11i111tlritt of tltv S-thnr~rsttlary. ~ sources \vai nvnilablt. to llrsolithic groups at Eskn~ei~ly. ocr;liionc~tlhy I\-arrncr \\:rter ;tr~cl ltctter feeding c.o~~ditions .\1 this point, i l is pc.rt~irps usc.fu1 to i~tlcmpt a quali1 P. li. \\'11/11~. 19'72. 1). 108 f.: 11. .\Iilrw, p ~s .l l r ~ ~i ts \\otrlcl \cbetrr tlt:\t. potcnti;rily. t thc,.t%om.). t;~tivc;tssesstnent of the rc>lati\c imjtortnncc of the, diffrshellfish ~ ' ( ~ n t. ( ~ o u r c~ ~ s It11~i1~ ( I C I cu:tpac-ity to support i t hunting \\cbro c;1[);11)lc~ sr~ppo~.ting of rcsotr~.cc- ol LII(,I<sk cLstui~r?; ant1 girthering populirtion. For the s;tbe of hre\ity. t11r ;I rrruclr tiight~r .\lcsolithic. populntiori than tonltl he following commcmts are confinetl to those rcsourccs sustninr.d l)y IIII nting l:ultl g:tllre ! \\ hich ;we c~onsitleretl to Irm-e 1)een the trtost iniportant. I to\vc\ t ~ slrt~lllishhit\ e t\j o significairnt tlisn(1v:rnt;rgrs . ;I< i r sortrcc~ of footl. In the lirst 1~1:1cc. they are not pnrti1. Herhi\ orcs cnl;r~~ly Irig11 in footl c.~tt.rgy: musbt~lflrsli 11n1 less tlritn I~ 111 his rrasscssrncant ol S ~ ; ICaw. G. Clarli. rtsctl estirnatc.~ llnlf thc c-nlorific \ ;tluc>of sitlriior~or \ enison (Table ti. or thr rlensity of retl deer pol,ulaiions (\\-hi& 11(~corl'I'll(. othvr tlis:ttlvtttrtngc~is t11c' v1>1'?- hip11 wi~stefactor: ~ sitlrrtd to he tlic I I I ~ I ~ ISI O U P ~ I of food) to S I I ~ ~ ( ' tS ~l ~ ~ on :I\ er:Igca. only 20 p c ~ .ct'r~t of the li\-ex\ cight of tilusmitsinruln size of the group ahich c.oultl hil\cb occ-upictl st-l* i h c>tlihlc.flcsh. 'flris rncl:tns thitt ;r sirrglr f:unily group. sit11 (C. ['lar/i. 1972). i~tt(~ri~l>ti~rp rntil.rly o n ~nrlssc~ls. t o li\-(~ \\ortlti nectl to .Isimilar rserc-ise can 11c carl.ietl out for th(1 sit0 terri' (-01 lrct ht~t\\,ot~n ;\n(I 63 kg. pcr tl;ry (otBroughly Tt2 tory ccntretl otr JIonk Jloo~*s The cli~ta in tiil>lr 4 1. 1300- 1600 ~ ~ r u s s c ~ lIst~follo\vs that the cluantities re). intlientc thtl footl yic>l(l \vIrich might ht. exported fro111 it11 spctcies of hrrbivorrs. 1)asetl on .Il~ll(trs'.ssugg(>stion for the. cat.rying c~apacityo f cleoitluot~sforcst (1'. .llellars, In vicw of th~hir rlutritional sigrlific;~nc~c t~ornpitretl 19'75. 1). 51). Estimat1.s :un(> rnatle for, two i~ltrrtiativr tcrto other foocls, shc~llfislritrc likcbly to Ir:r\-c 1,Inyc~cl:I far ~ ~.i~oric's:(I) the toti11 Iitnd itrra within ;I r i ~ d i ~OF s less \igt~ilic.antr6lr in p ~ ~ t ~ h i \ l o r i t c.o:tct:~l t~c.otior~ties thim 10 lin~.: :ttltl. 1'2) the> la1111artb:\ I)(.lo\v 60 rrlc.trcts ii.c.. is \ornt~tirtlcs sny)posc.tl or1 tilt. I):~sis OF ii1.cli;icologi(.R1 ili~.co;tstal lo\vl:~ntl). Thv cnlc-~tlations itr~.bitst~tl or1 thc c~\itlcric*c~ ic1.p. \\'. .Sltcrc\*c.ros.s. 1!)701. Sotnt, supi)ort for follo\ving :~rsurrrptions: i t st:tndinp stock t~iorn;~ss f o thii \it.\\ is pro\ itlctl I)? tlt~ti~ilrtl n i \ l y ~ ~ s ;\l(~soli~hic. i\ of 1,500 kp.~krri.~yc~:~r .llcllnr.s, 11155) : i111 :~nnu;~l (1'. crol) sllcll rnicltlen\ c.rr~.~.t~ntly i ~ r p I ~ e c.:~r~.ietl in south-\\tXst out rate of 10 per cc>nt jl<. L. Bla.rter. 197.2 : a mc-at yicxltl S. Scotl:rntl ( P . ;\Iell(~r.~. ~ ' ( I U I I ~ J ,197 1 ). .\~nong rccbrrlt c-c~uivi\lt.ntto 4'7 perBcent of live-\vt1ighl (I<. I,. Rltr.rtcr. Irurrtt~rs :~ntl pntlrc~~*ers itrg i t 1 co;i\t;tl situ:ttion\ in li\ 1975): nntl an a\-(,rage calorific \-aluc, for 111r.irt of tt~nlpt~r;~tr Sor't11 :trrtl South .\ti~cric:\. thv g:~tlttvirig of 2 170 I<ilocnlorit~sfkg.(D.li. \\'att. it. I,. .1lerrill, 1963). \ht~llfislt\\;I:, ;I rthprrlar 'oftc>tr d:tilyi irrtirity c;~rrieclout Usil~gthe \alrlcs ~jrovitletl I)y (;. .I. llarrison cxt nl. in the n t : ~ i ~ ~l)y \ ~ O I I I I ~ I I : thor(, is I I O i~~(Ii(~itliot~ Iy hnt ( I 965. p. 4 14) lor the errc.rpy nectls or n I~ypothrtic.:rl c.th~~ogr:tl)hic lilr~*:tlurt~ th:~l an? grortp n l t r n ~ p k ~to l f:unilv composc(l of t\vo :i(lults :tti(I tl~rv(' ctrildrrrr suhsi\t prin~iirilyon tliis rt*~our(-(* 11. S i e w t r ~ l .1946: (.I. ( 1 0.000-1 2.000 Ucal. 'day). t h results i t t d i a ~ ~ h : ~ tthe, ~ ~ tc 11. P;. Driver. \\-. .\i(t.s.se~j.19.57). gitmc re~.sou toc.tbsof thc~coas tnl Iowlii~ldalone \voultl hirvt. 1)c.etl c-:~pabl(* iust:~inings stirall .\Iesoli~hicpoptrlation of (tile sinc: of thrcbcb f;tr~~iliy units) througllout the ycilr. r I Irc, sigrrificnnc-(1of salnlon :I\ :I sorrrc*rb foocl is errh:rnof c . c ~ l by its r ~ l i \ t i11Iv 11ig11 food \ itlnr~c.onip;trctl to tlrnt \ 2. Shc4lfish o f ot11e1.fish c-orrlr~~or~ly loirncl ;trourrtl tht. lisk cbstu;~ry sl~c.llfish liussels (I\l!ltilu.sedrtlis) ;rl3ethv mo\t :~l)~rndrttrt ;tti(l r(*ilch \ ~ ~ r y \t~ltsti~nti:rI i \ \\:I\II\ \'l'i\b1ts 1 1 . i\11(1 1)s :I t ' t ~ ~ i ~ l lo\\~ ~ ~ y f:tt210r. fountl it1 t 11(. I'sk t.st~ra~y, tl~~r~sitic,s :r Iirrgt. iIrril. The. tot:~l estc>rltof thc tnu\01 cbr c,tlil)lt. p o r t i o ~is :t~.outrtl65 pcbr c h ( bo l~li\c~\veipl~t. ~ ~ t cao~nt sc.1 hctls is i~rou~ t l.50 I~rct:~rc.s. ~):~rc'tl only :30--;!3 111'r c ~ n tfor llo~tntlrrs:~rrtlcbotl. to Pul,lishc.tl c<tim:ttc.s o l tlir yicltl\ of n~lrssds from 'I'nLir~p into :\c.c.otr111 thc, \\ itstr f:rc.to~.. n \inglcl snlnron fi\l~e~-iths l3ri1:1iri :tr-c gt~tierirlly of Iin~itcvl vn111~ in it1 \\ o111d p~,o\ ido i11)l)vo\i111;11~~ly\ : I I I ~ P I I I I I I I ~ ) (of ~ (::\lo111cs ~ n\\c~ssiiigtlrv crol) potc-nti;~lof tlrc F:\L c.stri:rr?. The, mo-t ;\\ ~t~t ~*ics I I I I ~~ ( l t ~ i v : i l (nt~iglitor It:rzttl nut\ (o11(5of the hrr1)ivorch
tti(1
(I.

Table % hlrat and <:;tlorir yieltls from all species of wild \\i thin it sit(, terri tor!- c~btitfivl Monk Moors 1 on - ----- -Site l'rsrri- (.am? i n , ~ I0 (I .\lcat . t i toq- caitpac~ity(.rap l\p supply km' AF-'Iyr 1 I*p lip

'r11tb

lrig11I~p ~ ~ o ( l i c ~ :r(>\ot~r(-t- rol:1ti\(4y t ~ s y c:1tc11. ~ I ~ l e :tn(I to h tllry c*ot~ltl also II:I\ (, ht~111 i ~ r (\ stctl in \-c.~.y 1:o.q~ nurrrl)(>r, - in\ ol\ illy tI~ou\;ttrd, of fish par. 1 (>:rr. \\'ithorrt 1)1;wi11g I I I I I ~ I( ~ t l l ) ~ t i l \O IsI t h ini~)or1:111~~(~ loo i ~ ~ of ~il~111011. ;I p ~ u c l ? itrttiili\-c* ;IsscLssnlrtrt \\ooltl cii~gc'ct tlr:rt tire ~ot:rI fish I V ~ O I I I + ~ . ol' ~ tl1(. 1<ik111t\itls~ r r iMOIII(I I ~ i r \ ( , ~ ~ i ~ I)ro\ i t l r t l ;I sor~rrtlt.~. I):tsic for :I .\l(~colitllic c,torrolll?- tll:tn i~ny OIIIC>I* siuglo rc~\ourc.o!

~)rc,\ ior15 scbrtiorrs \\ rrt. c.onc.rrnrtl \\ it11 intliratinp Iilngcl ; ~ r ~ t l~(-l:tti\c~ irnl)orta~r(*t* t11(. c~c.onotriic~ of r( < o t ~ ~ c . : ~ \\OIII(I 11:1\e 1): t11:tt :~\;~iI:tt)lr ~ I ( ~ s o l i t l r i r to tllc. grorll)s oc~c~r~pyirrp silt.. it1 1:sl\r11t~:11s.I [ resn;tins lo c.orrsrtlt~r~ ) o s s ~ l )~);rttt-t of c,\ploit;i~iorl. ittrd II( ncc tiltx lt 11s ( c~orrornic. irllc~ tittion 01' thc. sitcbs. l)rt Slri,lit>c o f I ) ~ C ~ ( ~ I I LIlrlnt(-rs alrcl prllrercrs slrow -(~:IV t l ~ i r t 111vir i~(.~i\itivh i11v clos(bly l i l r I i ( d lo c11:111g(>s I It11v ~ ir;ttc~~:rlt ~ ~ r \ i ~ . o ~ r r nthrouglr tlrc. yt':tr: in p;r~ 11t c tiru1:tr. 111c-irsrrl~sislrnc~c~ stri~l(lgi(% (It,sign~dto titIi(\ o p t i n ~ u l n ;IIY> ir~rlayc, sc ;rso~r:~l of c.l~;rilgcsin foocl suppl? (1). 'rhortt~)s o t i . l!)3!): I*. 13. 1 ~ ~ I. . or^. I$)eS).~ I I I I ~in w(.lii~lg 1 ' .
ilc.

r .

ill(

:~\-:ril:~l)ilit>. S ~ I I I I I O I I i l l I I ~ ( > ~ > s t r ~ i t(~v.Iy( ~ I I ( I ~ of' I ) I;ttyc~ly otr \vc.:~tlrt,r ( . o ~ r ( l i t i o ~ ~ s .I I I . ~ J I ~ S111111111'1' I) tIr(~ i r r o ~ ~ ~ l S :sI .~ I I I O I I it;>l)(\ir~. ; r ~ , ~ . i \ . t - I I I O I T or Ivss (-ontir 10
'l'l1(5

( l l l ~ ~ l I L\)(st\\ f 11 lo\\ l 2 t L l ( l i t ~ i ( l \ V u~)l:lrl(l j)o\\it)l(- strattkgy i i ,rrczp:~stt~tl y G. ('1nrL's intcrb l)rvt:rtio~~ tit(- s(tt11~111t-nk Stitr C:iir. i l l \\l~icll 11e of :tt V I I \ is;rg,rcvl 11rc. .\lc~solitl~ics ) o p n l ; ~ t i o f o l l o ~ ~ n inp :I suh\istc~rlc I ) ; t > c ~ l upon tht, a~r~rrl;rl t~~igl:rtiolrs rt,tl of (It%< [G. (~1(1rli. r 1972). , I I I ~sitr~t~tiotr l * ~ s I ~ ~ r ~ eI:ItIl1~ (3onlp;tred io that at ~: ~ i1nporl:t~rt r ( > \ p ( ~- t I ~ I Vsitw ~ ( T I I ~ ~ : ~ t St:tr (lirlnr i l l c.loscs to thcx c.orrt;lf.t I),-:n:-*r lo\vl:tri~l nLrd ~rpl:rncl. (. ('ltrrk snggt~stctl that Star C;II.I,\\.:IS ocsr~upictl c.sc.1~; \ i \ cxl? clrrrinp the- \I intrr ~ l r o ~ r t h st,l i t l that clur ing t h e t sunlrrlc\r t11(. p l ~ o t ~ Followt~tl tllr' t~rigr:~tiorr r t ~ ltl(1c.r ;) of into t l ~ ul)l:t~rtl r. .ions of tllc. So1.tI1 Yo1.1isllirc .\loor\ or t tllv sont11(~1-11 I I I I ~ I I ( > S11pl)ort Sol. tltis \ imv is pro\-i(I(d I'(~ ~. t)y tllc. f:rc.t ~II:I! ~lrie~.olitlric, in(lrrstrit>s :+itnilat. to that SI,.)III S t : t ~ (:;II~I~ I)(V,IIr ( , c o \ ( * ~ ~frortr site< in I)otl~ II:I\X> vl

I . s~~:lsoil:ll IklO\

( )II(\

lb

(.\c.Itb

sllorrltl I)(, c.o~rstrnc.tl is i t 111:1tter o f c . o ~ l j e c t ~ ~ r e . firs[ ~)luc..\it 1r1:1yIr(, tl~iltthis Iitrk o l ( \ \ ~ ( I P I I ( T i, tlucx to irr:tclccln:rtc. lic~l(l\vot~l,. tile +outlrcv,n I'c.nni~rt>s. 111 \l(-,olitlri(- ;11*1iftt(4\ ()(b<niIr \vitlti~i ilr(\ nri11(~1.:1l \oil ])I,I I :till ~ ) ~ ~ 1 1 1 1 ip(h;tt. i l l l ( 1 ~ l l l l l l ~ ~ r <li~c'O~~~l'i('< !)('PI1 ~ ('l o~ls lltl\ (' III:I~IV i r t ; I ~ ( ~ :i I \ l ) o \ ( ~ 11rt~irvs0.1). \\11'r(% tbrosion ~ :NO OF tlrv 11($:1t is \\itl(.sltrt.ittl 11:. .ll. .l(cc,obi. .I. 11. Tnllis. I!)i(i. 1). :{OX]. 11 i\ tlrc~;)rc~scbrtc-cL c.rosion of I). \I~~llrtr~a.

I lo\\

111 111t.

\\II(\I(\ tIt(1 111;11rk(*t i)eb:tt (lot , trot :11)0(~;rr 1 ) (,ro<Ii~lg to ~

to :Ill) gltT:lt 6 \It~llL. ~ : o l l s ~ ~ l ~ t l t ~tlllh l )t.l j ) l : t l l ( l : t r . t Y l Y llt I\;\\ t. larprly l)c~rxr~ ignor.cvI I I Ilinl c.ollrc~tol.s. ~ On tlrc otlirr I~;tncl,C. (/nrl,'.s :rssch\snitX~~tStar. (:;rr.r of \v:I\ t):~st~(l 1111' i~sst~~rrl)tion r t ~ I I P C ~ \VI*I'I* I ~ ( V I I O \ I 011 t11ilt irrrport:t~~t cortl-c.t, of footl. I<climc.:tls. ho\\ r r . t l1r1.c\V:lS it11 : l ( ~ l ~ i ~ i O l lf:: l l b ~ 0 l ' r101 ~ ) I ' ( ~ s I ~ Iit1 still' (;:trl8 - lkl(\ ~ II c.o:\\t :tn(l itc rc~sourc.(.c. I f t h r \Iccolithic. pol)ulntiori :I, I<skt~~c~:tls rrlo\ctl into tlrc 11[)1:111(1s hiltl (Iirring t l l ~ \11111rnt%rrrlo~~ttrc. T\OIII(I h:t\ I I I ( ~ : I I ~ ~a \ ing tl111 c.o:tct :II it I( ~wcv.isc'ly t h r tinw of Y('i1r \vllc~rlit h : ~ t l 111o\t to o l f ~ l in * tcLr.rlisof pottlnti:~lfootl recotrrc.c,c - I . C ~ S O I I ~ ( ' P S I\ oultl tllnt II:I\.I> p~aovitlrtl :I f ; t ~ . rnor.c1 st:iI)I(. slrl~sistrncc~ I~asc. th:ln 1110s~ t h ~ I, I ~ I ; I I I ( I int~>r.ior. of
c b \
(%

2. \-e;tr.-r.o~~ntl c.o;tstal ocrlrp;ttior~

111 tlw i ~ I ) s t ~ or( ~ ~ I.I(\~II- ~>\.i(I~~tio~b n illiy fo18 *I~:IWII:~I Y ~ I I OI p:~tion. it cc,cxn\ inor.(, rr;rsonal~le to ir~tcrprc~t the, I<sl\111c~ils5itt.s i ~ s ~~orr~potl(\rit\ ~c.onorni(' of ill1 syst(\ln \vhic.l~ i n \ 011 c ~ yc~:ir-ro~~nd l occtrp:~tion of the c.o;tst;ll lo\\ l:rn(l. r I h r ohser\.:~tions thnt h:lvc> t ~ t t w~u:ltlr:tt)out t11v pt~nt~r.:il t'('ol0gy of till' iII'l'i\ ([)ilst :llltl I>~<'St'nli sugg<'Sl 1ll:lt . \ ~ P \ o lithic gr'ottl)c cor~ltll ~ : t \ cohtitint*tl r.c.gul:t~.footl s ~ r ~ ) ~ ) l i t ~ c tl~r~ottgl~out y(vtr., \\it110111 tile 111~r11s\ily rni~I,i~rg the of f r c qr~c'nt n r o v ~ ~ s of tr;t\ c llinp long ( l i s t : ~ ~ ~ r(:h;tr~gi~~g or e\. p:ttt~>r.ns of ~ I ~ S O I I I ~ I(1Y ~ t n tion t t11*otrg11 IIIC y ~ ~ r i5tri ~ (Fig. I I ) otrltl prcwrtn:rt)ly h;r\-c oc-c.:rcionrtl shift, i l l s ~ ~ l ) s i s t ( ~ nt~niph:tsis. 111 very g(b~~f>rid \ r . n ~ s . c.(~ t~ fisliir~g (~);~~'tic~t~l:lrly for c:tlnron I is lilic~l\,to Irnv(>I)t~r~n ~ r ~ n i r l tht, ;~rli\-itytluring tht. sumlnclrb months: wl~ilt. in wil~tcr. \\it11 ;I redttc-tion i n ttiv urtrnhers of fish in thr. c ~ c t r ~ i t ~ ~ y : I I I ~ inshor.(> \vatelSs. 111or~o ~brt~phi~\is I-OIIIII l l i ~ \ ~ I>CI~II t~ pl;~c'ctI on I:tncl panlcx anti \\:~trrfo\\l. (:ntl~c'rin~ :tc.ti. \.~t~c,.; for shr~lllistr.pli111t Eoo~l*.0 1 . gt1ll4' tygs - :II.(~
7

Der Kiistenfaktor in der mesolithischen Besiedlung Nordwest-Englands

1)er l i c i ~ r c ~1)c~scIriiftigt\icJt trrit tlcr rirc~soIitlrisrlrt.n Beg sictllrtr~gciric,r I3rgion (;roiJl~rit;rrrtrirtrs. tlicx I)islrchu nenig crforqc-lrt i \ ~ . Scrrc I'cltl:~rb(~itc~tr 11at)ett ~ l r ri'rrttlechung (*irrt>r~ ~ t ~ t l t ~ r r t ~ ~ t ~ i l\~ n t ~ (irrt1)l)t- o ~ 1~11trtl~)liit/(~t1 l*lqhixi ~trth;tls tt:rIrc t l ~ r . lliit~el~rtrg I:lttss(~\ l<\k g ~ f i i l ~ r t . (I(,\ %uniic.lr\t \\ctetL(~n l,ttr/ tlic IicTrtntit~;In tlicsf.tr Pi61~t.11 L)c~irarrtlclt. ;III t ~ i t r t . :rufg(~itit~gr.t~i~s t p l i ~ ~ i :fiiistt>rrdie. F)o ~lt~ litric pt~trurrtlc~n sitrtl. 1)rc.i or^ ihnc~rr sintl ;rtr\pcpr:rbcir \\ortlt,rl uncl Ir;lht>rr ctrr1litr11~~11t~t + ~ r r d ~ \ \ i ~ 11trilI3 <tellen. Grul)crr rrrrd Pfostenliir~rt~t t,rgebcri. 1)ie Flintitrt1ilstric.n gt'hiirtri typologiiclr m r t r 1)r-itisrl~etr Spiitrnc~solithikurn trntl ~ ~ n t f a s s c r ~ trrrtcr nnrli~rcnrgrolJr Jlerrgt31r sclrni:rllilirrgig~~r Slilit~olitltt~tt nrltl I';r:tt/c>r. (;thtrc'plttc S u k l r i Irahcrr ttnttr tlcl~r \Yt~rk:thf;tIl cirrc~rt Irolrc~rr .\]Iteil. 1hr \'or.hortrrrlc~n ~icIcrq)icgt4t(lie 13cvIcut~inp tier Iiipol;~rtedlrrih, tlic nrit tlcr Xr~tzrtt~g \\-on Str;~rrclpt~riillen

"rXrc ~ x c \ c n t\trrter's rc'iearcii owt>.s~rruldr to Jlr. Chrrr*'~ original ficltl norh: :rnd tilr cl;\t;c presented in l'rg5. I-:$ itre ctrn\\n i:trgc~l\ fro~riitrtorn~:itictnprovitlecl b\ ltinl. For this. : i ~ t c t Irclp 111 ok1lt.r \ \ a \ \ . l ;iin tierpi\ 11rtlrbtc.d to \Fr. 11crrt/.
?

Eilyolt~ Ue:rcon. Dnrh:tm iQ1474 = 6.810 b.c. f 140) : \\-;tn.ork 1lIill Site 3. 1Ve.t Yorksl1il.e /C) 789 = K.6fiO 11.c. f 110): Broornlrrntl Jloor Sitc 5. Sorltlt Yorkslrir~r~( 800 = ', I ti.(i'LO 11.c. & t l O i .
l'ns/rlrtc

'1'. Jltdlnrs anti S. 'I;rrnt,\ i.c;tilli.s'.

'1971) reter to tlresc artifacts ns

QIJf 1216 = 4.8O';! l).c. & 136; 1336 = 3.420 b . ~ f 370. . Both (1atc.s relate ti) chiirconl samples from the largest Irc*;irttr. (21:331i was collectecl in the Aeltl, bnt proved to be rtn in:tdcqrrnte sample. BJI 1216 is for $1 larger sarnplc c~xtr;tctetl tlrrctcbr l;tl)or;rtor?- rontlititrris. ant1 ii tllerefore cor~sitlc~rctl he tlrc' rnorc accttr;\lcbdate. to
j(

Elitrtc~rgrtttltltlcr \ ~ c ~ ~ ~ i i t r t l c r t i ~ ~ g r r ~ c1t.s Slc~t~i+c~shl~ic~pc.Is ilnd t l t ~ I<iistc~trgcogr.al)lrit~c ~ ~ ~ i ~ a n t i t ~ r ~ (lit, i n tlic\ \v\r(~r.elt~r~. serir f;cshit.t viilrrc~ntl tlcr Ict/tt,n 7000 ,J:rl~rc \.or sir11

nrbo~ri/cclhn7el nut shells have rroyv beerr recortltd front rriore tttan 30 Jlcsolithic sltes in Brrtain. 1'. .lIi,llnrt 11!176, 11. :HR) 11\15 man? of tlic Inore important oceurwncc5s. The c.nrl)on~zetlremains of :tcorns have been recorded fro111 at lcnst t n o sites (Sutlbrooh. 1.rncolnslrire: T,i~ssaNi\ el: Jrrra) : 1)rrt itr neither cabc is tlre ns\ot*itttiotr nith \l~~solitIric artrftrc'ts rert:rin.

to \\1ro 't'l'l~e writer i~ g~lrt~frtl L1. B. \\7(~rl)~o.tt)rz ~~11)plit~rl rnuch of the il~fonuation on \\lricll this wction is ba\ct1. l<ii\t(~t~Iitri(~ i'rl~ic :tssr~n~cc r:rlorifir \;tltrc for I.:\\\ lnrr\st.l fltbslr (nett \\;tr(>tr. ;11\ Irier t b i t t t ~ \ott (Ivr :rr~fg(~\ti(~gt~tri~r~ a 1~c~pr.errztr~ llrc~r~c~chttrlrt 1tt.st:tntl. ir~eat)o f 9*50 f<(*;il. l,g. (11. ?<. tvtitt. *I. 1,. LiIrrrill. $96:3~. 111 tlt.11 i~t~sclrlic~i~rr~tIt.rr 4hsdrnittcn ilcs Ilc~irrngcsvrirtl l)r\ fle.11 c.:rlcttl;rtiort. 11). I. 1)trrc. I). N. I~:tlu~nrclt, 1973, I :rl)lt. 1 i suggclst some\%-hatlrigltclr \ alues, brrt tlrezck :rrv tl(hrq I.ct.)cr~~tir~tc~rl~;tlt J l ( ~ s o l i ~ l ~ i h t ~ r J":ikrnr;rlit1f.r i111 Ira?. dirt.c.tl\ co~ny)ar;tblr tlrc tl;tt;r pi\ clr t r r ?';rl)lc I . to (;i'l)it,t tfisl\r~ticrt. 1)t.r. . \ ~ r t o rs ~ t / t sir11 kritisch rrrit rietrtx-

..

'"l'lrii asstt~nc\t11;tt t11c ntrrapc Irvc~\\c~ipltt mussels. in the or libel\ to I)c troppecl I)> nlnrl 'lerrgtlr = 4.5 ~i/c~-rartpc~ rrr.nr. +). 40 prarrrs - 1)ascd 011 rlntn from 1'. J . Unrc, ;ttrd is 1 ) . 13 f<(l\v~zr f l97%5. ig. 1 ) . d\ t trrnliqc;t~t*n urrtl \-c.gt~t:tl)ilist.I~t~~~ I'~csioorc~c.n.tlic tlcti nrt.~ o l i t l r i s r l ~ t(irt~pl)t>trt 1 S o r ( l \ \ ( ~ s t t ~ ~ ~ v o rY(~fugutrg ~r~ i ~ r l ~)i~ \t;lndt>n. nic.lrt. .\iriStrtlt~rn giht c,s c~thrtoprnplriich kcirrcr1c.i Helcgc~clafiir. tli11.l ,Jiipi.t. rrri(l Sirntmler~tlcr pcmii8igtcatr Xotrc' tllt'lrr ( ; c ic'ltt i t r r f tl:rs S;~trrrrrc~trt auf (la\ ~ ;)Is ,lagen otler I<sd~i*rr It'gtcrr. I)ic Rctr:tt~lrrurlg tlcr tlitn~:~ligc>rr r t l tlcr pt~pt~rr\\~irtipt~rt trr Ol\oIogit~ilcbs 1<\hnrrirls(:(lt)ict\ t~rrniiglidtt (,in(, I':irrzc~ktiit/tirrg ( I t > \ S~)it~lr~:rurns tlcr s:risorrirlcrr X : ~ l ~ r u r ~ g \ ~ ~ o t \\iilrr~c.~~tl Jlcsolic ~ ~ ~ / c t r tlcs t hilirrrn\. .\rrr 1 iclttigitcn Liinrrtr~n Fiscltr~ r kt,iontlr~rs % I.acqhi). j:tgclt-t:rrc- i.;trrtttict~c. JIolluihcr~ trrttl \Y:r\sc>rpc~tliigcl gt,v\cicn st>irr. f.:i ist \\:~lrr,rhcinlicl~. tl:~i$ (lie I<shrnt~als-L'l&t/t i,irrt, g;rir/jlil~rigc Ol\l,up:rtion tler Kitstc~acbc~nc~ durrlr (tint hlt~irrc~ m~solitlrist'hc F'optrlation, tiic, l ~ ; t t ~ ~ ~ t ~ iirur~(ItxtncX i~ l t ~ ~ i ~ r ~ g ~ ~ ~ o t ~ ~ r ~ t i ; r l ic rli ~ r (ies 1<ii\1(>11l r o Ir;i\ e piirticrpatcd 111 the. c=irrrt~rrt rc5se;trc.lr proltvt rrt l<ikmc:tls. rtr p;rrticrili~r \liis. (. k;rqnrts and \IT. J . *\for: \Itcall. 1 slro~rltl ztlso iihc to thirnh ,\fish. .\. Corilcorr, Dr. f . <;:-igvor~.l>r. 1). M~Zlnr\. Dr. if. Ailtlrtt,. Dr. 3f. Yi,<s*c.ornisr.Dr. It.. I'cmnirzgton. Dr. R. ./oncr. Dr. ! J. 'f'oolc,c/, ,. I \Ir. .I. 7 . \\'cirD~irton. ;tnd Ilr. H. 1Vfvzloc.k for bcipfnl thy1 1 c~ts<rons. am alst~inclehted to Miss I). Cltnrlrtwortlr. Lfr. J . ( Itctrtj. JIiss C . Ftall. Dr. P. Jiellnrc. Alr. I3. Spear~tlur~ il~idto III? C O I I ~ : ~ ~ I Ia t\ the llritislr Jluscum for their hclp C ;rncf rrlcouragcnrr~nt. Sltcjila (otiltort rtwtl and t.olnrnerited orr tire orig~rr;rlrn;rrrr~~eript.h t b illrt\totions in big. 7 ;Ire 'l' thc. \$ orh c,f Jlr. t'. (oncptort :rrrcl Mrs. K. Illcghc~. ," thc rxc:rvattons at Jlonl\ \loom \\(,re finnncecl I)? pr;rnti o E From ttrc l)e~)art~rrctrt tile En\ ironment, thc TTni\rrzr IT of Shcffieicl 1ic.scart.ii 1-tind. and tlrt' i~soc~:ttio~r (111for tttr:rl Ext4r:1ngcx.
\\

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I l r t r opr.

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.Itirrt~cttt. .\I. H.. I!):?: \ tcrritori;rl irrcttlcl for :rrelr;irolog~; :i bclia\ iour;rl :rtitl x c c ~ p r i ~ ~ ~ l ~ i c : i ~ r : ~ d r . :tpp l 111: .\loclcl$ it) -trch;it~olop? (Etl. I). 1,. ( lorl,c,~. 1,orrdo11 1972. 1 ) p 70.5 r~. .locl~ir~r. .\I. 1!)7(i: Ilnrrtrr-(;:ttlrerrr Subsistmce ;rtrtl S ~ t t ' I It<nrcnt.Sr\\ ork 197ti.
A\..

I ; c ~ c . R. B.. l!)ii8: \Yh:rt

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:ltrtl)ortc~ltl. G . F.. 1950. I'rt.limin;rr~ crrltr~rrsequetiec~from I tlrc* ( o;r\t 'l'sirns11i;rrr :rrcsa. British ( ol~nnbr:~.i r : SortlrS \test \ n tlrropolop ic*;tl f~esc~:irc.lt o t r i 3 "2). 1970. .~lticl~ortttltl.. b'.. frlgli\. ti. I.. I97(i: rf'lir flip: itir :rreli:~c,r~L ' of lopi(*:rI rc~iborrstrtrc~tioir ii \\?st coail \ illapa. Ott:r\.i:r l97fi.

E. \It(cotc.c~. H. .\.. \17itldou~botc. Jl.. 1960: Tire (:omposition of kootls. h1ctlic:rl Re.searcth (:orinril Special Report 297. I,O~~I~II 1nt;n.
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Ihrrc*. P. .I.. F:tI\x~rr(l\ 11. f3.. 197.5: Sf>:rsorr:tl tlr:rrrgi.\ in Rix\li ibornpoiitir,~~ F nrrt+it.li ('\it~O \tchipht : r t r ~ I ltroc~I.~cm~c~~rl tilut t,tlicli\ I,.) in tlrt. f,orr\\? ritrrar?-. S o r t h \\:rlt.s. 111: .lor~rt~:tl I~:\perrrric~rrtal .\f;trtnc Biolog\ :rrrrl Ecolog\ 01 18. 1!375. trp. 89 Sf.

/ ) r i x ~ ~ . E.. .\/(r\.\t>;/*\\.. ('.. l9,5i: ( otrr~):rr~~ti\i~ /I. Stt~clir*s of S o r t h .\r)rc~ric:rrr Itrtlinrts. '~r:iirs;~ctio~r~tlrc \tncriof ~ t r r l'hiiosophic;rl Soc.ict\ 47 (2). 1!)57.

S~~.tttrrr. .lncobi. t { . .\1.. 1975: f\:ttliocarl)on dates lor tiie I:.. I't~ri~rrnt~ Jiesolittiic*. Lri: Xaturc, 256. 1975. pp. 32 ff. I'c~rtiitngtort,\\ .. 1970. \ c ~ g c ~ t : r t Iristor\ i l l tlrc trorth-west ~o~~ of I'npI:~ritl: :1 rtyrolr:rl s\titlrc~irs.111. Stntlicq rrb tlir \-t.gr,tatitrn:rL Ilrstor\ of i l i ~Ilrrti41 Isles; Ilcs;~\s III Iionorrr ; of Il;rrr\ (;trtl\rin (l<tl\. 1). \\'nlhcr, R. (. \\'c,ati. <.ant. 1)rrdgc~ 1970.
\\'.. 1!37.5: Tlre rffcct of Scoli~hicnr;tn on the, Pr~rtriirtglor~. cii\~ronr~ir~rit nortlr-\\c~zt l<rrgI:rrrt1: the. usc of absoin Itrtc, [)ollt~11 t1i:rgrartrs. 111: 'l'ht. I-ffect of ,\Ian orr the ; I,;t~~tlscapr:ttrv I-lighi:tnd %ont. iEtls. .I. (. I:'r-rtris. S. IAirnlit.c,tl.IT. ("lr.t,rci. 'I'lit (:ouncil for Ikitish &\rcli:ir~oIop\ l-l(~\c:rrc.ii Kcport I I. 1,ontion 1!)7.3. pp, 74 ff.

Tltorttaort. I ) . . I!f:3!1: 'l'lrt. srasonal factor iri hinrran c~trlttrri~. 111: I'rotretlinps of tlrc l'rel~istoric Socit,t? S . S. T,, 1939, I){'. 209 ff. 7'0olc~!~.. .I.. 1 974 : Sr:r-lr\~t~l .\I chartgcs tlrrri ng the last !t.OOO > cs;trs i n rrortlt-\\r\t Englantl. In: Geographical .Itrurrlnl 140. 1954. pp. 18 ff.
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linrllc~.tj. .I!)fi!): l'tic. >lc\olitlrit ~)rrioctiri r~orth-t;tst Yorli.7. slrrrc.. 111: Yorksliire \rt.hat.ological .lo~~rti;tl 42. t!)ti!). 1'1). :I I4 ff. lin(l/~~tj. \l(~li(~r\. l!)ti4: ,I.. 1'. lf~~solitlric strtrctrtrc> ;it l)ccapcar, Yorhshire. Eriglarici. :tnrl ttir alfirritre~ of it\ o irssit(*i:iti~tlflint iridrtstries. Iri: Vroeccdi~~,v\ t the lrrstor~c Socit-t\ 1.S. 30. l!)(i4. pp. 1 ft. Shnc:.cross. \\-.. 1!)70: 1:tliriosraphic economic\ ;~ntl thc \t~rtt\ 01 popul;itiori in prehistoric St%\\%c;rl;trrtl: -\ic\rc,tl tlrroug'ri ;rr.el~:tt~olog\. 111 : llurthirrtl 7 ( 4 I . 1970. pp. 'T!) ff. Stetr~trtl. .7. 11.. 194fi: 1Iandl)ooh of Soutlr A.lnreric*:rt~Irrilisrr\. Yol. I. Tlie ,\lz\r,vinal Tribes. S1nit1rst)tiiarr Iristitutiori. Rurcvrri o l .\nic.rican Et1inolog?- Nuiletin 143. IYashingtoxl 1946.

7'0016vJ. 31. -1.. RorlsnEt. c.. lfnrsf~nll..l.. forthcoming: Sea lert.1 ch;i~rgcs ant1 niesolithie settlerr~ent ill north vest Er~lrlancl. I\-(tiller. I).. 1l)fifi: 'l'l~rIdate Quatcrriary Iiistoy of the CumI)crialrtt lo\~lancl.l n : Phiiosopltie;tl Transactions of the Ho? nl Socitkty of I.orldon B 251. 1966. pp. t ff. \\'nlrtc,. 1'. R.. 1972: 'The irnportnnce of cstuaric~to commisrti:il fishcrics. 111: 'l'lic I<stuarinc Envirorunent (Ed. 1-1. S. fi. Ntrrrtc~c,.I. (;rerrr). I.ondon 1972, pp. 207 ff.
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\l'hitr. J . I'.. 1968: liabricators, outils 6saillQs or scalar cores? In: ,\[ankind 6 112). 1968. pp. 638ff.