NLP Info Book

Learner-centred Training with NLP
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
Part I: Learning and Neuro-Linguistic-Programming A Theoretical Discourse
1 2
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4
I n t r o d u c t i o n .............................................................................................................................................7 The Nature of Learning ....................................................................................................................9

What is Learning? ............................................................................................................................9 The Brain as a Basis for Learning ...........................................................................................12 Other Factors of Influence on Learning ...............................................................................14 L e a r n i n g T h e o r i e s ...........................................................................................................................16
2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.4.6 S t i m u l u s - R e s p o n s e- L e a r n i n g ....................................................................................................16 I n s t r u m e n t a l L e a r n i n g ( O p e r a n t C o n d i t i o n i n g ) .....................................................................17 O b s e r v a t i o n a l L e a r n i n g ..............................................................................................................19 C o g n i t i v e L e a r n i n g .....................................................................................................................20 C o n s t r u c t i v i s m ............................................................................................................................20 M u l t i p l e I n t e l l i g e n c e s .................................................................................................................21
2.5
H o w L e a r n i n g a n d T e a c h i n g D i f f e r ........................................................................................21
3
3.1 3.2
E d u c a t i o n a l T r a i n i n g i n C h a n g e ............................................................................................. 24
T h e S t a t u s Q u o .................................................................................................................................24 N e w T r e n d s i n E d u c a t i o n a l T r a i n i n g ....................................................................................26
4
4.1 4.2
Neuro - Linguistic-P r o g r a m m i n g ( N L P ) ................................................................................ 30

D e f i n i t i o n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t .......................................................................................................30 Philosophy and Principle s o f N L P ...........................................................................................31
4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 E a c h h u m a n -b e i n g i s u n i q u e .....................................................................................................32 T h e m a p i s n o t t h e t e r r i t o r y .......................................................................................................32 O u r b e h a v i o u r i s t h e r e s u l t o f o u r s t a t e o f b e i n g ...................................................................32 W h a t i s p o s s i b l e f o r o n e p e r s o n i s p o s s i b l e f o r a n y o n e .......................................................33
4.2.5
T h e m e a n i n g o f y o u r c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s t h e r e s p o n s e y o u g e t . ..........................................33
4.3
M e t h o d s a n d T e c h n i q u e s o f N L P .............................................................................................34
4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 4.3.7 4.3.8 4.3.9 4.3.10 M o d e l l i n g .....................................................................................................................................34 T h e A r t o f P e r c e i v i n g P e o p l e - V A K ( V i s u a l - A u d i t o r y - K i n a e s t h e t i c ) .........................35 R a p p o r t .........................................................................................................................................37 P a c i n g a n d L e a d i n g ....................................................................................................................38 R e f r a m i n g .....................................................................................................................................38 T h e M e t a M o d e l o f L a n g u a g e ..................................................................................................39 T h e M i l t o n - M o d e l ......................................................................................................................42 M e t a p h o r s .....................................................................................................................................43 A n c h o r i n g .....................................................................................................................................43 W i n- W i n .......................................................................................................................................44
4.4 4.5
C o m b i n i n g N L P - E l e m e n t s w i t h L e a r n i n g T h e o r i e s ........................................................45 NLP as a Modern and Holistic Concept ...............................................................................47

4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 N L P a n d M i n d M a p p i n g ............................................................................................................47 N L P a n d S u p e r l e a r n i n g ..............................................................................................................48 N L P a n d M e n t a l T r a i n i n g ..........................................................................................................49
Part II: NLP in Practice
5
5.1 5.2 5.3
M e t h o d o l o g y ......................................................................................................................................... 51
Interviews ...........................................................................................................................................51 The Experts ........................................................................................................................................51 T h e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ..........................................................................................................................53
6 7
7.1 7.2 7.3
NLP in Training Situations ......................................................................................................... 59 N L P a n d L a n g u a g e L e a r n i n g .................................................................................................... 66

W h a t M a k e s L a n g u a g e L e a r n i n g D i f f i c u l t..........................................................................66 N L P - M e t h o d s a n d E x e r c i s e s i n L a n g u a g e C l a s s e s ........................................................67 F e e d b a c k f r o m T r a i n e e s ..............................................................................................................75
8
8.1
N L P i n C o m m u n i c a t i o n - " S e l l i ng ....................................................................................... 90
W h a t M a k e s a G o o d S e l l e r .........................................................................................................90
8.2 8.3
N L P M e t h o d s a n d E x e r c i s e s i n C o m m u n i c a t i o n T r a i n i n g .......................................91 F e e d b a c k f r o m T r a i n e e s ..............................................................................................................96
9
9.1 9.2 9.3
N L P a n d C o n t e n t L e a r n i n g .......................................................................................................110
W h a t M a k e s C o n t e n t L e a r n i n g D i f f i c u l t ...........................................................................110 N L P Methods and Exercises for Content Learning...................................................111 F e e d b a c k f r o m T r a i n e e s ............................................................................................................114
Part III: Conclusions and Recommendations
10
C r i t i c a l T h o u g h t s a n d R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s .........................................................................129
11 12
References ...........................................................................................................................................134 A p p e n d i x ...............................................................................................................................................139

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 Glossary of Te r m s ...................................................................................................................139 G u i d e f o r I n t e r v i e w Q u e s t i o n s ...........................................................................................139 Questionnaire ............................................................................................................................139 Analysis of Questionnaire ....................................................................................................139 W h a t T y p e o f L e a r n e r a r e Yo u ? ......................................................................................139
TABLE
OF
FI G U R E S
Figure 1: Examples for mnemonics .......................................................................... 11 Figure 2: From Data to Knowledge and Learning .................................................... 12 Figure 3: Functions of the Hem ispheres ................................................................... 13 Figure 4: Schematic Summary of Classical Conditioning ........................................ 17 Figure 5: Process of Observational Learning ............................................................. 19 Figure 6: Comparing Education Paradigms .............................................................. 22 Figure 7: Pedagogical Learning and Teaching Levels .............................................. 26 Figure 8: Impact on the Listener ............................................................................... 33 Figure 9: NLP Eye Movement Patterns .................................................................... 36 Figure 11: Swassing & Barbe Diagnostic Activity ................................................... 63 Figure 12: Quality of Seminar (Aric) ....................................................................... 76 Figure 13: Individuality (Aric) ................................................................................. 77 Figure 14: Awareness of Technique (Aric) .............................................................. 78 Figure 15: Course Design (Aric) .............................................................................. 79 Figure 16: Recognised Media in Ms. Aric's Course (Aric).................................... 79 Figure 17: Difference to Other Seminars (Aric) ...................................................... 81 Figure 18: Competencies (Aric) ............................................................................... 82 Figure 19: Putting Competencies into Practice (Aric) ............................................. 83 Figure 20: Usefulness of Technique in Different Situations (Aric)......................... 83 Figure 21: Emotional State (Aric) ............................................................................ 84 Figure 22: Learner Types (Aric) .............................................................................. 85 Figure 23: Mixed learner types distribution (Aric) .................................................. 86 Figure 24: Importance of Positive Attitude (Aric)................................................... 86 Figure 25: Beliefs (Aric) .......................................................................................... 87 Figure 26: Important Positions for Learning (Aric)................................................. 88 Figure 27: Meaning of NLP (Aric) .......................................................................... 89 Figure 28: Precision Probing ...................................................................................... 95 Figure 29: Quality of Seminar (Stanek) ..................................................................... 97 Figure 30: Individuality (Stanek) ............................................................................... 98 Figure 31: Awareness of Technique (Stanek) ............................................................ 99
Figure 32: Course Design (Stanek) ...........................................................................100 Figure 33: Recognised Media in Mr. Staneks Course (Stanek)...............................100 Figure 34: Difference to Other Seminars (Stanek) ....................................................101 Figure 35: Competencies (Stanek) ............................................................................102 Figure 36: Putting Competencies into Practice (Stanek) ..........................................103 Figure 37: Usefulness of Technique in Different Situations (Stanek) ......................103 Figure 38: Emotional State (Stanek) .........................................................................104 Figure 39: Learner Types (Stanek) ............................................................................105 Figure 40: Importance of Positive Attitude (Stanek) ................................................106 Figure 41: Beliefs (Stanek) .......................................................................................107 Figure 42: Important Positions for Learning (Stanek) ..............................................108 Figure 43: Meaning of NLP (Stanek)........................................................................109 Figure 44: Quality of Lecture (tsch) .......................................................................115 Figure 45: Individuality (tsch) ................................................................................116 Figure 46: Awareness of Technique (tsch) .............................................................117 Figure 47: Course Design (tsch) .............................................................................118 Figure 48: Recognised Media in Prof. tschs Lecture (tsch) ...............................118 Figure 49: Difference to Other Seminars (tsch) .....................................................119 Figure 50: Competencies (tsch) ..............................................................................120 Figure 51: Putting Competencies into Practice (tsch) ............................................120 Figure 52: Usefulness of Technique in Different Situations (tsch)........................121 Figure 53: Emotional State (tsch) ...........................................................................122 Figure 54: Learner Types (tsch) .............................................................................123 Figure 55: Mixed Learner-types Distribution (tsch) ..............................................123 Figure 56: Importance of Positive Attitude (tsch)..................................................124 Figure 57: Beliefs (tsch) .........................................................................................125 Figure 58: Important Positions for Learning (tsch)................................................126 Figure 59: Meaning of NLP (tsch) .........................................................................127
PART I
LEARNING AND NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING A THEORETICAL DISCOURSE
1 Introduction
May you live in interesting times. This Chinese proverb fits perfectly in our times. Today's faster business and faster, in world is very fast-moving, proceeds that technological changes is is occurring and
globalisation a network
quickly, the
information whole
abundant has
communication
connects
world
become
commonplace. These are interesting times, aren't they?
The conditions of these times, however, demand very much of today's humanbeings. Not only do they need to show a high amount of flexibility and mobility, but knowledge and abilities age very quickly, and everybody who wants to keep up-todate has to undergo a life-long learning process.
The rapid development in our world brings along a great deal of standardisation. ISO 9000, for instance, probably means something to everybody. Learners, however, cannot be treated as standardised creatures. Every learner has his/her own
preferences and learns in different ways. Consequently, it should be a mission for every trainer to encourage each learner in his/her individuality to enable trainees to make use of their individual excellence to keep up in today's demanding learningprocess. Learner needs should be in the centre of interest.
The
concept
of
Neuro-Linguistic -Programming
(NLP)
provides
significant
opportunity for a learner-centred approach in training situations. The three words which are combined in this concept refer to our senses (neuro), the verbal and nonverbal representations of our sensory-impressions (linguistic) and our ability to
organise ideas and actions (programming) (Bachmann 1999: 1f). Individuality and tolerance are two terms to characterise NLP briefly. This is why it suits today's training world perfectly.
The aim of this thesis is to embed the concept of Neuro-Linguistic -Programming in the nature of learning. An overview of theory about learning will be given as well as a compact introduction of Neuro-Linguistic -Programming, its principles and its
methodology. Programming
Furthermore, among
an
attempt theories
will and
be
made
to
place
Neuro-Linguistic techniques.
learning
other
alternative
learning
Incorporated in this concept is also an analysis of the changes learning and training have started to undergo.
The
practical
part
of
this
thesis
presents
the
application
of
Neuro-Linguistic -
Programming in different training situations, i.e. language learning, communication and selling, and content learning. These case studies provide expert knowledge of trainers working with NLP and the results of a quantitative study conducted in one of their courses.
In the author's view, this thesis has reached its purpose if it addresses learners and trainers likewise. Learners may gain better tips for their own learning and become aware of what learner types they are. The questionnaire in the appendix might help learners to find out more about their learning processes in different areas. Especially the third case-study which deals with content-learning and preparing for exams may be a guide to a less stressful learning process and lead to a better quality of students' lives.
On the other hand, the author hopes that this thesis may also be useful for any trainer who is interested in designing learner-centred courses. From the description of the case studies, which in particular deal with language learning, communication and selling, content learning, preparing for exams, and providing expert knowledge,
trainers might gain new ideas to incorporate into their own training.
May these pages be of interest to you.
2 The Nature of Learning
The following sections cover the theory about learning relevant to NLP. They deal with the term learning, with the prerequisites for and influential factors on learning, with learning theories and how learning and teaching differ.
2.1
What is Learning?
The term learning is used in variable ways in everyday life. Colloquially, it is intensely tied to the institution school, where learning is the main task for years. Many adults may remember grammar lessons, studying complicated mathematical
formula or historical dates. Furthermore, the common use of the term learning includes the acquisition of skills like driving a car or bike-riding. These learning situations are bound to the teacher as a mediator, whereas another description of learning does not refer to a personal pedagogue at all: Somebody has learned a lesson from a specific situation. This application of the term learning involves a change of attitude or behaviour in response to a preceding experience. (Schermer 1998: 9). From the examples above learning can be defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, abilities and skills by studying, being taught or gaining
experience. Although the process of learning itself is hard to define, the results are clear: performance-improvement, new skills, clearer attitudes and a broader
knowledge (O'Connor 1996: 24).
The psychological sense of learning, however, must be understood in a different context. Psychology refers to the term learning when a change of a former state has taken place. In contrast to the colloquial use of learning, this change can go both directions. It need not necessarily result in an improvement, but may also cause deterioration (Schermer 1998: 10). When a car driver has an accident, for example, he/she may learn to be afraid of driving and may lose his/her routine in driving a car. Thus, the psychological term of learning includes the learning of anxieties and security as well as the acquisition of preferences and aversions, habits and problemsolving oriented thinking (Edelmann 1996: 5).
However, a change in behaviour does not automatically result from a learning process; it may also be caused by maturation (Edelmann 1996: 5). This becomes obvious in the physical development of a child in his/her first years of life. When the child starts walking, this is a development mainly caused by growth impulses of the organism and not by experience or exercise. Maturation takes place without outside resources, as the growth of the body normally cannot be influenced (Schermer 1998: 11).
There is, however, a difference between child and adult learning, which needs to be explained, as its understanding is relevant in the context of this thesis. As a child, the neural pathways are in formation and it is easier for a child to learn more than one language, for example, than for an adult (Marjorie Rosenberg, personal
correspondence, March 18, 2000). Children learn in a very intuitive manner and very much by playing, whereas adults use more of their left brain (see Section 2.2) and learn analytically, which may make learning more difficult (Arico, personal
interview, February 2, 2000). Young children construct their knowledge best through active, engaged, meaningful experiences that provide interaction with their
environment, and brain research indicates that learning is easier when experiences are interconnected and not isolated or compartmentalised into subject areas (Harris Helm 2000). Furthermore, children automatically develop mnemonics to support
their learning and memorising. Mnemonics are techniques to facilitate memorising by making a picture in one's mind about the contents to be learned. The following picture demonstrates an example of how children constructed pictures to memorise the word-pairs kite - hamburger, duck - shoe, tree - cow and door - elephant (Mietzel 1997:134ff).
10
Figure 1: Examples for mnemonics (Mietzel 1997: 135).
Studies
have
shown
that
adults
rarely
use
mnemo-techniques spontaneously and
consequently have more difficulties in memorising these word-pairs (Ibid).
From the examples given above it can be assumed that adults lose or forget many of the natural learning techniques they used to apply automatically as a child, which is a pity, as these techniques are very effective. Often one can hear adults say I cannot learn any more, which is not true, of course, as one learns every day, but traditional schooling and teaching systems dictate a very narrow understanding of learning and limit learners' abilities and perspectives (see also Sections 3.1 and 3.2). It is, therefore, important to develop positive dispositions towards learning at an early age. When young children are taught, teachers do not only provide opportunities to learn knowledge and skills, but also develop attitudes towards learning and using those skills. For example, how a child feels about reading can have long range effects on the child's reading achievement (Harris Helm 1999).
From the statement above, another distinction has to be made
knowledge and
skills are not identical. The following chart describes very briefly the path from data to knowledge and learning:
11
Data
Information Data plus...
Knowledge Information plus...
* Representations of facts
Learning -> Skill Knowledge plus...
* Meaning * Understanding of patterns and relationships
* * * *
Beliefs Commitments Assumptions Design for application
* Application / action * Adaptation after application
Figure 2: From Data to Knowledge and Learning (modified from: http://www.simplerwork.com/d/d3.thm)
Data do not become information until meaning has been successfully linked to them. Knowledge is constructed if how to use all that information to do something is mixed-in. Finally, if experience is added to the mix, learning and the development of skills can take place (http://www.simplerwork.com/d/d3.htm). In the Encyclopaedia Britannica Online skills are defined as the ability to use one's knowledge effectively and readily in execution or performance and as a learned power As of doing 3.2
something
competently
(http://members.eb.com/cgi-bin/dictionary).
Section
of this thesis will explain, knowledge is no longer enough in today's fast moving world. Knowing what, i.e. information the learner has amassed and can reproduce at the end of an education programme, is only the basis for the more important level of knowing how, i.e. educational programmes that focus on the process, the skills and attitudes the learner has adopted to enable him To to express learn it more in a
(http://members.eb.com/bol/topic?eu=15101&sctn=16'415920).
play on words, it is of utmost importance to the learner to develop the skill of knowing how to make best use of the product, i.e. knowing what.
2.2
The Brain as a Basis for Learning
The cerebral cortex is the main communication centre for interactions between a person and the environment and, therefore, the most important part of the brain in the context of learning. It is a nerve fibre of approximately one millimetre and forms the outer cover of the cerebrum. The most important tasks of the cortex are the processing of sensory impressions, the co-ordination of movements and cognitive
12
performances such as speaking, thinking and learning. It can be divided into two hemispheres; the left hemisphere, which controls the right half of the body, and the right hemisphere controlling the left half of the body (Edelmann 1996: 21ff).
However, the specialisation of the hemispheres is not only to control the opposite part of the body, but also a division of tasks. This phenomenon was shown in experiments with split-brain patients. These are human-beings with a cut corpus callosum, the nerve-fibre linking the two hemispheres. These patients were shown the word HATBAND in a way that the left half of the face could only see the part HAT and the right half only the part BAND When the patients were asked to tell what they had seen, the answer was BAND. Upon the question, Which band?, the persons could only guess the context, for example, a Rock and Roll Band. However, when they were asked to select the object with the left hand among various things the patients grasped the hat (Fortmller 1991: 25f). An explanation for this behaviour is that, as a rule, the linguistic function of a person is localised in the left hemisphere, whereas the right hemisphere only shows a rudimentary linguistic comprehension, but cannot use language actively (Eccles 1990: 269f). Consequently, the strengths of the left hemisphere lie in analytical thinking and in understanding and generating language, whereas the right hemisphere is very sensitive to the reception of music, pictures and patterns (Fortmller 1990: 26). The following figure gives an overview of the different functions of the left and the right hemisphere:
linguistic conceptual
musical pictures patterns geometrical

Right Hemisphere
Left Hemisphere
arithmetical analytical abstract
threedimensional homogenous concrete
Figure 3: Functions of the Hemispheres (Edelmann 1996: 31)
13
Due to these different areas of responsibilities of the hemispheres one could think that human beings possess two brains (Fortmller 1990, 26). It may not be omitted, however, that the two hemispheres of a healthy person are joined by several hundred millions of nerve-fibres, (Eccles the corpus 263). callosum, Furthermore, which the enable the hemispheres are not to
communicate
1990:
functions
totally
separated, as the right hemisphere is also capable of a rudimentary and passive understanding of language as well as the left hemisphere is capable of an elementary visual and three-dimensional perception (Springer & Deutsch 1988: 32ff).
Additionally, psychological theories argue as well that the semantic and the visual hemisphere are not independent, but influence one another. A chart in addition to a text may lead to a better perception and remembrance as well as an explanatory text to a chart (Anderson 1988: 91ff). Today's complex and networked world demands more integral thinking of persons and a view of problems in their entirety. Linear thinking and the analytic functions of the left hemisphere are no longer enough (Decker 1995: 45). Therefore, new learning techniques focus on the integration and stimulation of both hemispheres. Its relevance for NLP (Neuro-Linguistic -
Programming) will also be shown in Section 4.5 of this thesis.
2.3
Other Factors of Influence on Learning
The two hemispheres are not the only influence on learning. The psycho-mental field, which is an electronic field within the human brain, is also significant. It shows different activity patterns which are measured in frequencies. In the Beta state our brain is fully awake and concentrated, for example, when a person is actively listening or carrying out demanding tasks under pressure. By contrast, in the Alpha state a human being is also awake, but completely relaxed. This is a condition where our brain is extremely active and creative. The REM state, which is an abbreviation for Rapid-Eye-Movement, is the first phase of dreaming. This activity pattern shows strong inner concentration and is very important for a person's health. A deeper sleeping-phase is the Theta state followed by the Delta state with the lowest frequencies. Especially three among these five brain activity patterns can be used for mental programming and effective learning in a relaxed state: the Alpha, REM and Theta phase. In traditional learning environments the Beta state with full
14
concentration under stress and pressure was the only pattern regarded as relevant for learning. Many alternative approaches to learning such as Superlearning and NLP, however, focus more and more on the relaxed Alpha state, where the right
hemisphere dominates the left one. Emotions, creativity, metaphors and experience become vivid and force rules and deep-rooted opinions which often block learning into the background (Decker 1995: 53ff). The importance of a relaxed emotional status for better learning results with applied NLP will also be explained in the Sections 4.2.3 and 4.5 of this thesis.
Children normally like learning, but many of them leave school having learned to hate it (O'Connor learning 1996: 85). environment, Therefore, is a good to learning place the context, learner including in a a
comfortable
essential
good
emotional state. Andrea Abele argues that even good or bad moods, which are less intensive than emotions and are determined by experiences of success, failure, or by physiological change, play an important role for optimal learning conditions (Abele 1996: 91ff).
Learning also requires motivation. Learning cannot take place when people are sent to seminars to acquire skills somebody else considers as being important.
Unfortunately, this happens in many companies and can be applied to school as well (O'Connor 1996: 31).
Furthermore,
learners
receive
information
through
various
sensory
stimuli.
The
literature distinguishes between the following learning styles in context with sensory impressions (O'Connor 1996, 203f. and NLP for dynamic training 1997):
visual: The visual learner wants to see the contents and is pleased with videos, films, notes on flipcharts, overhead-transparencies, etc. This learner type
remembers what he/she has seen in the seminar.
auditory: Auditory learners want to hear the contents and like presentations with many questions and answers. They remember what has been discussed in a seminar, and their memory of the seminar can be compared to an audiocassette.
15
kinaesthetic: Kinaesthetic learners favour exercises and role plays. They learn by doing and like exercises with motion. It is important to emphasise that this does not mean that they do not pay attention. It is a prejudice from the traditional school system that students have to sit still to be attentive.
Especially
seminars
with
applied
NLP
focus
on
addressing
the
various
sensory
impressions of learners and making them aware of their personal learning style. Each learner has different attributes, and it seems to be most effective to create a personal learning environment for each individual.
2.4
Learning Theories
Learning theories can be described as the attempt to structure and summarise the knowledge of learning (Edelmann 1996: 7). An overview of learning theories
relevant to NLP will be presented briefly in the following sections. An analysis how NLP can be seen with reference to learning theories can be found in Section 4.4.
2.4.1 Stimulus-Response-Learning
The original model of what today is known as Stimulus-Response-Learning is
Pavlov's Classical Conditioning. Pavlov's experiments with dogs showed that at least in some areas classical conditioning can lead to a change in behaviour (Fortmller 1991: 44). In the first stage of the experiment a dog received food and began to salivate. The food can be seen as an unconditioned stimulus for the unconditioned reaction, the salivation, which is an innate reaction and cannot be defined as learning. In the second stage, the training-stage, a neutral stimulus, for example a sound, was presented several times simultaneously with the food, the unconditioned stimulus. In the third phase of the experiment the dog showed salivation already when he heard the sound without receiving food. The sound is now a conditioned stimulus, which leads to the conditioned reaction of salivation (Schermer 1998: 25f). The following table shows a schematic summary of the process of classical
conditioning.
16
Prerequisite
unconditioned stimulus = food
unconditioned reaction (salivation)
Training
neutral + unconditioned stimulus = sound + food
unconditioned reaction (salivation) conditioned reaction (salivation)
Result
neutral stimulus = conditioned stimulus (sound)
Figure 4: Schematic Summary of Classical Conditioning (Schermer 1998: 26)
For
successful
and
stable
stimulus-response-connection
several
factors
are
significant: adequate timing of the stimulus presentation, the number of repetitions in the training stage and sufficient breaks between the learning phases (Fortmller 1991: 50). Pavlov's concept of Classical Conditioning mainly focused on the activation of
muscles. Today the learning of emotional and motivational reactions is the primary field of interest. Therefore, Pavlov's concept was expanded by other American
behaviourists such as Watson. In these approaches the stimulus does not need to be a physical or chemical one, but the imagination of it already causes the reaction. For example, a person does not need to be in a defective elevator to be afraid, but thinking of such a situation already causes fear (Edelmann 1996: 56 and 61). Pavlov's further developed theory is still relevant for today's learning situations. If a teacher/trainer is able to design the courses in an interesting and fascinating way, this can lead to a high learning motivation of trainees, as they are looking forward to the lessons and connect positive emotions with the teacher and his/her course (Edelmann 1996: 93).
2.4.2 Instrumental Learning (Operant Conditioning)

In contrast to the concept of Classical Conditioning, the theory of Operant
Conditioning takes the consequences of a reaction into account. It is assumed that the learning-success is dependent on positive and negative reinforcement. The first
theoretical and empirical principles of Operant or Instrumental Conditioning were defined by E. L. Thorndike (Fortmller 1991: 52ff). In his experiments a hungry animal was locked in a cage. The hunger was the motivation for the animal to try to
17
get out of the cage and, therefore, a prerequisite for the learning process. The animal learns through trial and error. When it finally manages to get out of the cage, this is a successful experience and a positive reinforcement, especially if the animal additionally receives some food. Thorndike's experiments show that the animal
remembers the action of how to open the cage and can apply this behaviour quicker each time the experiment is repeated (Schermer 1998: 46f and Fortmller 1991: 54f). Thorndike considers the reinforcement as a means to make stimulus-response-
connections more stable. However, for Skinner, who expanded Thorndike's theory, the reinforcement is the factor which constitutes learning and influences behaviour (Fortmller 1991: 53 and 68). Skinner distinguishes between two different
behaviours, the respondent and the operant behaviour. The respondent behaviour equals Pavlov's Stimulus-Response-Learning; the operant behaviour causes a certain consequence that may have a reinforcing effect. Skinner carried out his experiments in the famous Skinner Box, where a rat only got some food when it pressed the correct button (Edelmann 1996: 107f). The reinforcement, however, can also be negative, a punishment, to achieve a reduction of a certain behaviour (Fortmller 1991: 69). In his essay, The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching, Skinner judges the teaching-practice at school harshly. He criticises that teachers mainly use negative reinforcement and do not pay attention to students' individual learning
styles and that pupils are too passive in their role as learners. Skinner suggests solving these problems by a systematic application of operant principles and
invented what is known as programmed teaching (Schermer 1998: 78f).
The description above has only illustrated the reinforcement from outside. It is, however, also possible to use the tool of self-reinforcement. The individual observes his/her behaviour, evaluates it and reinforces it if the expected results are achieved. Particularly new trends in educational training, such as self-access-learning, requires the learner to use self-reinforcement as a motivational tool in the process of selfmanagement (Edelmann 1996: 120f).
18
2.4.3 Observational Learning

The based behaviourist on concepts, Stimulus-Response-Learning whereas Bandura's and Operant Theories, are
external
regulation,
Observational
Learning
Theory
emphasises the internal regulation of a person (Edelmann 1996: 281ff).
The main idea of observational learning is that the learner imitates the behaviour of a certain model, which may either be a person as a life-model or a symbolic mediation, for example, in a film or a text (Schermer 1998: 84). Bandura divides the process of observational learning into two main phases
the
acquisition
phase
and
the
performance phase. These two phases can again be split into two processes.
Acquisition Process Performance Process
Attention Process Retention Process Motoric Reproduction Reinforcement and Motivational Processes
Figure 5: Process of Observational Learning
The first phase is the attention process. The interest of the observer in the model is caused by specific characteristics of both subjects, which may be, for example, the success and competence of the model or a positive relationship between model and observer. In the following stage, the retention process, the observed behaviour is either verbally or pictorially coded, and the actual learning process takes place. The storage in the observer's memory assures that the behaviour can also be imitated when the model is no longer present. With the retention phase the acquisition process is completed, and the motoric reproduction phase starts the performance process. The individual transforms the observed behaviour into real behaviour by inner
representation of the model. The observer will, however, hardly show the modelled behaviour if this is negatively sanctioned. For Bandura, reinforcement is not a necessary condition for the learning process, but it is seen as a motivating and supporting factor for the attention process and integration (Edelmann 1996: 286f). As mentioned in the introduction of this chapter, a connection of Observational Learning to NLP, especially its technique of Modelling, will be discussed in Section 4.4 of this thesis.
19
2.4.4 Cognitive Learning

The main idea of cognitive learning is to consciously develop strategies that support the acquisition of knowledge. Important cognitive performances are, for example, categorising and structuring knowledge, which makes it easier for us to live in our environment. In accordance with the interaction of the two hemispheres of the cortex (see Section 2.2) the learning process is supported by using pictures, music or by exercises where the learner can make his/her own experience. Bruner argues that it is also important that learners are equipped with the necessary skills for being able to learn on their own. It is of great relevance that students learn how to learn and how to solve problems and continue doing this throughout their whole lives (Edelmann 1996: 202ff). Cognitivist theory sees the learner as a very active participant in the learning process (http://www.cai.pcc.edu/tlc/assess/learn-th.htm). How NLP can help learners to become aware of their cognitive learning strategies will be the focus of Chapter 6, where the author describes several examples.
2.4.5 Constructivism
The theory of of constructivism the world asserts they live that in human by beings construct on their in their own
understanding
reflection
experiences cognitive
(http://www.funderstanding.com/Learning_theory_how1.htm).
Like
theory the human mind is central to the creation of knowledge, but constructivists distinguish themselves from traditional cognitive theorists through their belief that the mind filters input from the world to produce is its a own search unique for reality meaning,
(http://www.cai.pcc.edu/tlc/assess/learn-th.htm).
Learning
and meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. Parts, again, must be understood in the context of wholes. Consequently, learning cannot focus on isolated facts, but has to put its focus on concepts. Within these premises, it is important for teachers and trainers to understand the mental models students build about their understanding of the world in their search This for theory is meaning highly
(http://www.funderstanding.com/learning_theory_how1.htm).
connected to NLP in its meta-programme of chunking-up and chunking-down (see Glossary of Terms in the Appendix) and shows a parallel to NLP's principle of the map is not the territory (see Section 4.2.2).
20
2.4.6 Multiple Intelligences

The theory of multiple intelligence was developed by the psychologist Howard
Gardner. He suggests that people perceive and understand the world in at least seven ways, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic,
musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Each of these ways is defined as an intelligence by Gardner, a set of skills allowing learners to solve problems they face (http://www.funderstanding.com/learning_theory_how7.htm and Baxter-
Magolda 2000). A hint of these intelligences was already given in Section 2.3 Other Factors of Influence on Learning, where the author referred to the different
representational systems of individuals. Traditional schooling heavily favours linguistic and logical-mathematical
intelligences, i.e. left-brain thinking. Gardner, however, suggests a more balanced curriculum that includes arts, self-awareness, role playing, musical performance,
visualisation, and story telling. For educators and trainers, this means that they must recognise and respond to the fact that intelligence is not one dimensional, but that people vary in the ways in which they take in and interpret information (BaxterMagolda 2000).
The preceding sections of this thesis have dealt with many aspects of how learning can take place. It is, however, important to keep in mind that learning and teaching are not identical. The following section intends to clarify this difference.
2.5
How Learning and Teaching Differ

Learners are not empty vessels waiting to be filled, but rather active organisms seeking meaning. (Driscoll as cited in http://www.cai.pcc. edu/tlc/assess/learn-th.htm)
Learning
is
something
very
personal. A
It
cannot can hold
be a
forced lecture
upon or do
us a
(http://www.managementalchemy.com).
teacher
presentation in front of the class and the students may not learn anything at all because of, for example, disinterest or because his/her learning style and reception
21
(visual, auditory, kinaesthetic) is not addressed (see also Chapter 4). Therefore, teaching is not automatically identical with learning. From the following chart it can be seen that instruction and learning paradigms differ in mission and purposes, in structure, in theory and in the nature of roles.
The Instruction Paradigm Mission and Purposes
The Learning Paradigm
Provide/Deliver Instruction Transfer knowledge from faculty to student Offer courses and programs Improve quality of instruction
Produce learning Elicit student discovery and construction of knowledge Create powerful learning environments Improve quality of learning
Teaching / Learning Structures
Atomistic; parts prior to whole Time held constant, learning varies 50-minute lecture, 3-unit course Classes start/end at the same time One teacher, one classroom Covering material Degree equals accumulated credit hours
Holistic; whole prior to parts Learning held constant, time varies Learning environments Environment ready when student is Whatever learning experience works Specified learning results Degree equals demonstrated knowledge and skills Knowledge is constructed, created and gotten Learning is student centred and controlled Active learner required, but not live teacher Talent and ability are abundant
Learning Theory
Knowledge comes in chunks and bits delivered by instructors Learning is teacher centred and controlled Live teacher, live students required Talent and ability are rare
Nature of Roles
Faculty are primarily lecturers Faculty and students act independently and in isolation Teachers classify and sort students Any expert can teach
Faculty are primarily designers of learning methods and environments Faculty and students work in teams with each other and other staff Teachers develop every student's competencies and talents Empowering learning is challenging and complex.
Figure 6: Comparing Education Paradigms (excerpt from: Barr and Tagg 2000)
22
This chart evokes many differences between teaching and learning and shows that classical teaching has a completely different starting point and approach than the learning paradigms. Current instructional systems mainly aim at supporting teachers in the task of delivering instruction (McKey 1997). In the learning paradigms, however, the student and his/her learning process are in the centre of interest. Teaching can no longer be a one-man-show, it is necessary to engage students actively and take them out of their passive role. For this change it is also a prerequisite for teachers and trainers to develop an attitude of acceptance and understanding of students' views, desires, interests and of the relationship which develops as the result of this acceptance. Interpersonal skills and relationships
become important factors in the learning environment (Seeler 1994). Collaboration, activity and involvement characterise these instructional approaches. The traditional boundaries between roles, responsibilities and activities of teachers and learners are blurred, if not eliminated entirely (Baxter Magolda 2000). In how far the path from teaching to learning has already been progressed can be read in the following chapter.
23
3 Educational Training in Change
Several
of
today's
training
situations
are
fairly
unsatisfactory.
Many
courses
at
university are only attended because they are a must in the course of study, and many employees are sent to seminars which their superiors select for them without any respect for their personal learning needs. The outcome of such training situations is not only that trainees show little joy of learning, but also that these courses are designed in a very global manner and make many participants leave the course without having gained anything. The subsequent sections draw a picture of the status quo and describe new trends that educational training pursues which take learnerneeds much more into consideration.
3.1
The Status Quo
The status quo of today's training situations shows many problems and can be described as a status that rarely meets the requirements of the fast moving business world.
From the author's own experience, the lecture has been and still is the dominant teaching technique at school, at university and also at the majority of in-house seminars in companies. The trainer presents new information in front of the class, the trainees are expected to listen and grasp the content. The lessons are characterised by a fixed curriculum; one topic after the other from Lesson 1 to Lesson X in the textbook is pushed through with little variation, always following the same scheme. This may be reading a text, vocabulary, grammar and exercises in language classes, or explaining the basics and maybe going through an example in courses which focus on content to learning. In summary, the trainer/teacher has his/her fixed
programme
present, the trainer/teacher is the centre of the course, and the
individual learner is not cared about at all (Arico, personal interview, January 26, 2000).
24
In the traditional training situation the teacher is the provider and the trainee the recipient of knowledge (Brewster 1995: 15). It is hardly surprising that in such a training and learning culture students do not learn very much. As already explained in Section 2.5 , teaching does not automatically imply that students learn anything. Consequently, a number of students show disinterest and passiveness, and many teachers react by spoon-feeding instead of them giving and them forcing them and into a rigid for a
educational/training
system,
attention
striving
mutual co-operation to achieve a common aim.
In today's fast moving world one can never stop learning, but many students and also adults have problems to cope with this situation. A large number of students have been traumatised by their inability to succeed in school (Blackerby 1999); the fear of failing or spoiling one's chances for the future is always present (Decker 1995: 18). There are several reasons for this. Firstly, more and more content is being put into the curriculum of schools. Today's students have to learn things that ten or twenty years ago were not taught at all. Secondly, our society is in the process of an information explosion and thirdly, our information dissemination systems such as computers, the Internet and satellite communication are getting faster and faster (Blackerby 1999). With many difficulties learners fight their way through more and more information (Decker 1995: 18). Also many adults who grew up in a much slower paced world find it difficult to keep up with the rapid changes. They have to change jobs and careers, learn new terminology, technology and procedures and do not have the adequate learning strategies. They begin to feel overwhelmed; the outcome is often frustration and anger (Blackerby 1999).
To sum up, today's educational system reacts too slowly to changes (O'Connor 1996: 21), although change and accepting the change are vital criteria for surviving in the business world. The system has prepared students to memorise large quantities of data, but has discouraged combining and further processing (Brewster 1995: 8). It is, however, no longer enough to teach knowledge, which probably will already be outdated when students leave school or university. It is far more important to equip students and trainees with key qualifications, such as how to learn, how to rediscover the joy of learning and how to find their own way through business life without being spoon-fed, but rather as self-directed learners. It is high time for a change.
25
3.2
New Trends in Educational Training

Man mu ins Gelingen verliebt sein, nicht ins Scheitern. (E. Bloch as cited in Decker 1995: 19)
It is of importance for every learner to see the chances of the ever faster occurring development in many fields of research like information technology, for example. Learning perspectives and a positive attitude towards change support future life and work organisation and, psychologically, can be regarded as a factor for learning success. There is a trend away from teaching only knowledge. Robert Dilts' learning pyramid explains the new forms of learning (as cited in Decker 1995: 18ff), which are highly connected to NLP (see Section 4.5.3):
Identities
Environment Ecology
3.Level Mental Training
Beliefs Skills, Strategies Behaviour Knowledge

1.Level Natural Learning 2.Level Traditional Training
Trial and Error
Figure 7: Pedagogical Learning and Teaching Levels (Decker 1995: 20)
Each learning process follows seven stages. Just like a child, adults will still learn through trial and error when a defined aim does not exist. Knowledge and
information can still be seen as the raw-material for learning, but in future the higher levels of the pyramid will become more important. To be able to cope with the ongoing change and to organise work it is necessary to develop new behaviours and strategies. Key-qualifications such as the awareness of how to learn, thinking
laterally and combining, creativity, concentration and relaxation have to be acquired
26
(Decker 1995: 20). For these key-qualifications other learning and training methods are needed than for the traditional processing of knowledge.
In the past few years learning systems have started to show innovation. More intellectual responsibility and intentionality are invested in learners, and learners are engaged in more meaningful mental processing (Jonassen 1992: 1ff). The trend is going in the direction of developing self-directed learners who show intrinsic
motivation to seek and explore explanations to solve problems (Mayes 1992: 7ff).
The author has experienced several courses which shift the responsibility for one's learning success from the teacher to the learner. Students were not spoon-fed to a certain grade or to pass the course, but they had to identify for themselves what are their learning needs, which expectations they set and how to plan and carry out learning. An example for such a course is Dr. Brewster's Project Seminar 2 for English language learning, which the author attended in the summer semester of 1998 as a member of the Filcom project group.
Filcom is a computer programme to make optimal use of and to acquire expert knowledge. The project took place in co-operation with a group of linguistics
students at the University of Salzburg, and it was the task to implement a concept (topic free of choice) into the programme and to evaluate its advantages and disadvantages in order to improve the features of the programme and, as a
consequence, provide a better use of knowledge in companies that intend to buy the software. It was completely left up to the teams to organise their project and make it work. This course was an experience of intra- and inter-group communication,
developing team working abilities and gaining a new access to language learning via the content of the seminar. It was also an experience of learning computer
terminology and working with the media of e-mail and CBT (Computer Based Training). Unfortunately, the Filcom team Linz had to face a weak commitment to the project by the Salzburg colleagues and tried to solve this problem by organising a personal meeting. It was expected that, when the group members got to know each other personally and could establish rapport (an NLP-technique that will be
explained in Section 4.3.3), the common aim of a successful project would be
27
reinforced. In fact, the feeling of knowing which person is behind a simple e-mail address finally contributed to better communication and the success of the project.
Another aspect of this project needs to be taken into consideration. It was also an opportunity for the teachers, Dr. Brewster in Linz and Prof. Wieden in Salzburg, to learn from the two groups. At the end of the course an evaluation-meeting in Salzburg took place, where the strengths and weaknesses of the groups were
analysed. It was thought about encouraging the successive groups to organise a personal meeting also, as it had proven to be a positive experience for the Filcom Team in the summer semester of 1998.
This example clearly shows that a change in roles is taking place. The teacher is no longer the only provider for knowledge and learning, but it is possible to learn from each other, which is an important step to life-long learning. Even more, students and trainees deliver valuable input, for example, in a virtual classroom or when looking for useful web-sites for language learning or skills learning, and document this
knowledge in a network. These types of learners, however, need a different leader than the traditional teacher. There is a shift from mediating knowledge to a personal and social support of the learners. The teacher becomes rather a consultant, a coach and a creator of methodology offering support to self-help, moderating the learning process, initiating, accelerating and creating the outside conditions for learning
(Decker 1995: 25).
Certainly, this change goes along with an individualisation process. It is the learner's task to find out about his/her learning preferences including time and location. Open learning systems, for example (CBT) distance and learning and new technologies such as
Computer-Based-Training
e-mail, make it possible for the learner to
design his/her individual learning more efficiently. For the author, who has been involved in business life for more than five years now, this development offers a useful opportunity of combining job and studies without generating too much stress. As already mentioned in Section 2.3, new learning strategies focus on a relaxed and stress-free status for optimal learning success. It is important to provide for an enjoyable situation, as for self-directed learning high motivation and self-discipline are needed. There is no longer a teacher telling one when and where to do what, the
28
learner is in the centre of action and has to find for himself/herself a comfortable learning situation where it is possible to rediscover the joy of learning.
Companies have also started to realise that employees do not show very much learning success if they are forced to attend seminars somebody else considers to be important (see also Chapter 2.3.2). Often, employees are not aware of the aims of the seminar, which may result in so-called seminar-tourism, sending employees to
various courses involving high costs for the enterprise, but showing hardly any quality improvement (Maisberger 1993: 191ff). However, learning faster than one's competitors is one of the vital skills of a company if it is to survive in the business world (O'Connor 1996: 17). Therefore, systematic and thoughtful employee-training has become a valuable good that may also help to increase employees' loyalty to the firm (Maisberger 1993: 193). Consequently, in-house training is also becoming more self-directed. projects and Self-study the materials, of the training combination and of seminars enhance with the practical status of
integration
consultation
employees and make them feel more responsible for their own quality skills-learning contributing to the success of a learning organisation (Kailer 1994: 242ff).
The practical examples described in Part II of this thesis pick up some learning situations where new techniques such as NLP support the learning process. It will be shown how NLP can help in language learning, in selling and in content learning. Today's business world requires many skills. The ongoing globalisation demands
fluency in foreign languages. Languages, again, are important in the international sales business. Selling, skills and in turn, with requires the load effective of new communication knowledge in skills. today's
Communication
coping
information explosion play a significant part in one's personal development. As one can see, these skills are all linked with each other. Together they form a set of keyqualifications that make students, trainees and employees fit for today's continuous change.
Before
showing
the
application
of
NLP
in
these
case-studies,
however,
it
is
necessary to introduce several basic ideas about Neuro-Linguistic -Programming.
29
4 Neuro-Linguistic-Programming (NLP)
This chapter aims at giving a concise overview of what NLP is, what principles it is based on and which methods and models it applies.
4.1
Definition and Development
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) can be defined as the study of the structure of subjective experience and is based on the belief that all behaviour has structure (http://www.purenlp.com/whatsnlp.htm).
NLP's beginning was in the early 1970's in Santa Cruz, California, when John Grinder, an Assistant Professor of Linguistics and Richard Bandler, a psychology student at that time, studied three very successful therapists: Fritz Perls, the founder of the school of Gestalt therapy; Virginia Satir, a successful family therapist; and Milton Erickson, a famous hypnotherapist (Rosenberg 2000: 1). Grinder and Bandler were interested in the behaviour of these experts. They wanted to find out what excellent communicators automatically did right, what their thinking process looked like, what were their core values, how they addressed people, how they moved etc. (Darpe 1996). A presupposition of their research was that all human-beings possess the same neurology, and therefore the behaviour and processes of effective
communicators can be modelled, learned, taught and changed (Mayer Wamos 1994: 43). Consequently, it is possible to learn from experts and geniuses (compare to Bandura's Observational Learning in Chapter 2.4.3) and to develop ones own
excellence. The aim is to generate high-quality skills oneself (Darpe, 1996), and in this sense the concept of NLP is a valuable tool for becoming a self-directed learner.
The
name
Neuro-Linguistic -Programming can be explained as follows (Rosenberg
2000: 1 and http://www.excelquest.com/whatisnlp.htm):
30
Neuro
is originated from the fundamental idea that all behaviour comes from neurological processes through which we experience and process information using our senses (visual, auditory,
kinaesthetic, olfactory, gustatory) Linguistic indicates that we use language, verbal and non-verbal, to express our feelings and thoughts. Programming refers to our ability to organise our ideas and actions to achieve specific goals and results.
NLP's application began in therapy to treat phobias in an efficient manner. Later, its use was discovered for the sales business, and the last step was to apply NLP in educational training (Rosenberg, seminar, February 4, 2000). Today various areas make use of NLP (tsch 1996):
therapy for efficient treatment training and teaching to motivate trainers / teachers and learners sports to achieve excellent performance business to coach managers politics to make better decisions medicine to cure psychological illnesses partnerships to show better understanding for the persons one loves self-application to improve the quality of life.
It is not possible to go into all applications of NLP in this thesis. Part II presents a selection of practical examples that concentrate on a learner-centred approach to enable students and employees to be prepared for important qualifications in
business life and to become better artists of their lives with NLP as a new form of learning and communication (Decker 1995: 62).
4.2
Philosophy and Principles of NLP
NLP is based on several assumptions and beliefs that are derived from humanistic psychology and pedagogy and have been systematised and developed further by
31
John Grinder and Richard Bandler and other scientists (Decker 1995: 62). In the following section the most important principles will be explained, as they are the basis for a correct and adequate application of NLP.
4.2.1 Each human-being is unique

Each human-being takes part in the universe and realises it, but interprets the environment in a different way (Decker 1995: 62). In NLP the ways we take in, store and code information in our minds seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling are known as representational systems (Rosenberg 2000: 9). However, it would be too much to process all the impressions and signals we perceive. Therefore, our senses are designed as filters, and each human-being builds up a different model of the world, a different map, depending on the experience one has made, on thinking perspectives and beliefs. In this way, it is possible to assimilate and organise the experiences we have made (Decker 1995: 62f).
4.2.2 The map is not the territory

We create our own map from our sensory experiences, and we then operate as if our map were reality (http:www.noceans.demon.co.uk/nlpresup.htm). The map is very
important for ones personal orientation in the world, but it only shows a limited picture; the real world is always different. NLP enriches the possibilities to get a deeper insight into the maps of other persons (Decker 1995: 63).
4.2.3 Our behaviour is the result of our state of being

In our every day life we experience all different kinds of neuro-physiological states: on the one hand, states that motivate and inspire us, such as trust, love, joy and enthusiasm, but, on the other hand, also states that paralyse like depressions, fear and sadness. The latter take all our energy (Decker 1995: 63) and block our behaviour and learning process. NLP believes that individuals have all the inner resources necessary to make any behavioural or state-change desired (Rosenberg 2000: 1), but the access to these resources may sometimes be blocked (Bierbaum 1997: 29). Consequently, individuals should be able to control their inner states, as only human beings who have learned to successfully manage and use their states are able to design their lives. The key to this lies in the skill to control one's brain activities
32
(Decker 1995: 64f). How we imagine ourselves in a certain situation and the way we do that determine the state we are in and, finally, our real behaviour.
4.2.4 What is possible for one person is possible for anyone

This principle is highly connected to a person's perception. We have learned the map of our world throughout our lives, but it is possible to change it. An optimist will find a glass half full, whereas a pessimist considers it to be half empty. The pessimist is limited in his/her perception and the access to his/her internal resources to make him/her happy is blocked. NLP wants to enlarge a person's perception possibilities and create more alternatives for one's behaviour. Excellent performance results from multiple choices (Decker 1995: 65). The more possibilities we have, the greater are the chances of success (Rosenberg 2000: 1). However, this kind of learning does not consist of simply copying outer behaviour, but requires going through internal and external processes and modelling them (see also Section 4.3.1 and Section 4.1 Definition and Development).
4.2.5 The meaning of your communication is the response you get (Bierbaum 1997: 27).
One of NLP's principles is that you are unable not to communicate. As soon as two persons are together they interact, not only with words, but also with tonality and body-postures, gestures, eye-contact and expressions. Studies have shown that 55 per cent of the impact of a presentation in front of an audience are determined by our body-language and only seven per cent by the contents (Rosenberg 2000: 3).
Tonality 38%
Body Language 55%
Content = Words 7%
Figure 8: Impact on the Listener (Rosenberg 2000: 3)
33
Communication is a loop. What we do influences our partners, what they do has influence on us (Rosenberg 2000: 3). Therefore, not what you intend to say, but how a partner reacts to a certain statement is important. The statement evokes an inner experience and the partner reacts upon this experience, not necessarily upon the words said before which (Bierbaum often 1997: to 27). Words often as block the learning and
communication, may mean
leads
misunderstandings, to another
same
expression 1995: 66).
something
totally
different
person
(Decker
According to the NLP philosophy, however, there are no failures in communication, there is only feedback (Bierbaum 1997: 29). If a message does not reach your partner, this can be told from his/her reaction, and it is best to try another channel to meet him/her in his/her own model of the world.
4.3
Methods and Techniques of NLP
4.3.1 Modelling
As the Chapters 4.1. and 4.2.4 have already indicated, NLP assumes that excellence can be learned and trained. Bandler and Grinder studied experts to get information how these people performed so excellently. This process is known as modelling in NLP. Modelling tries to split a process into very small parts and describe these parts to make it possible for others to use the same structure to improve their performance. Modelling is a natural process. Children, for example, intuitively model their parents and other persons. views In this way, 2000: they unconsciously learn complex behaviours,
attitudes
and
(tsch
Modellieren,
Modell-Bildung,
Modellier-Proze).
In training situations the technique of modelling can be used in a number of ways, which will be shown in the case study situations.
34
4.3.2 The Art of Perceiving People - VAK (Visual - Auditory - Kinaesthetic)

Individuals process all information through their five senses (Rosenberg 2000: 1). For educational training it is, therefore, essential to find out about the preferred representational system of trainees - visual, auditory or kinaesthetic, because then the trainer can design the course according to the preferred learning styles of the individuals. Auditory and kinaesthetically oriented learners will not feel addressed if the trainer only teaches visually (see also Section 2.3 of this thesis). Everybody has one primary representational modality, and into this modality one goes back when feeling under pressure. For example, a car-driver may find it comfortable listening to the radio, but when he/she drives in an unknown town and looks for a certain place to go, he/she may find the radio annoying and has to turn it off to concentrate. T is his an indication that he/she is most probably not an auditory type (Rosenberg, seminar, February 4, 2000).
There are various exercises to find out about the preferred representational channel of trainees in the course, which will be explained in the practical examples in Part II to show their direct application in the very context of language learning, selling and negotiating and content learning. However, there is one method to get more
information about the representational system of a partner in a conversation that can be applied in any situation: eye-movements. According to NLP, automatic,
unconscious
eye-movements, or eye accessing cues, often accompany particular
thought processes (Dilts 1998). With eye accessing cues it is possible to find out, if a person thinks in pictures, sounds or feelings, as we move our eyes systematically in certain directions (Rosenberg 2000: 9). The following figure shows the patterns that appear to be constant for right handed people throughout the human race; many left handed people, however, tend to be reversed from left to right (Dilts 1998).
35
From Beholder's Perspective!
Visual constructed
Visual remembered
Auditory constructed
Auditory remembered
Kinaesthetic
Auditory digital
Subject's Right
Subject's Left
Figure 9: NLP Eye Movement Patterns (O'Connor 1996: 48)
From this picture it can be seen that people thinking in pictures regularly move their eyes upwards, persons thinking in sounds move their eyes sidewards and human beings thinking kinaesthetically, i.e. in feelings, downwards. It has to be noted that the above shown figure demonstrates a difference between remembered and
constructed. The movement of the remembrance goes into the left direction, the construction into the right one. For example, a person can remember the colour of his/her car (eyes up and left) and can imagine, i.e. construct, what it would be like looking down on a city skyline from a cloud (eyes up and right) (Dilts 1998). The same can be applied for auditory and kinaesthetic thinking.
36
It has to be stressed that NLP is not another technique to press people into various categories and stereotypes, human beings are richer and more valuable than the generalisations made about them. NLP offers a wide range of models, consequently it is best to select the most appropriate of these, depending on what human beings are doing at the time, and not trying to adapt people to the stereotypes (Rosenberg 2000: 9).
4.3.3 Rapport
In NLP Rapport is a generic term for all measures taken to establish a bias for good communication (Bachmann 1999: 83). It is the key to getting into the loop of communication, as communication seems to flow when two people are in good rapport. Their body language as well as their words seem to match and reflect each other. In order to establish rapport, one joins the other person's dance by matching his/her body language, but with sensitivity and respect. In this way it is possible to speaking in pictures - build a bridge over to the other person and cross over to his/her model of the world. There are various possibilities to create rapport. One can match
breathing body language and gestures posture tonality loudness of speech tempo of speech representational systems dialect and slang cultural customs distance between the speakers eye contact
The English play on words When people are like each other, they like each other reflects exactly what is meant with rapport in NLP terminology (Rosenberg 2000: 4). In Chapter 6 it will be shown which techniques are best to establish good rapport in the case-study situations.
37
4.3.4 Pacing and Leading

Rapport allows building a bridge to another person; pacing and leading are the next steps and very much related to rapport. begin to change our behaviour and follow us. Pacing is the process of rapport and respect; leading is the When the bridge is finished, we can the other person the will bridge probably through
building
changing of behaviour in order to
make it easier for the other person to follow. Leading can only take place when rapport has already been established because it is not possible to lead somebody over a bridge which has not been finished. Therefore, it is important to show respect for what the other person has to say, even if we do not agree. A principle of NLP is that all behaviour has positive intention, and this has to be assumed also for the partner in a conversation. In order to pace and lead successfully, it is essential to pay attention to the other person and stay flexible enough oneself to react to what is heard and seen (Rosenberg 2000: 7). According to these techniques, the best trainers are those who can enter the world of the individual learner, build up a good relationship and in this way make the material to be learned easier.
4.3.5 Reframing
Reframing can be defined as the art of giving a new meaning to experience and thoughts (Decker 1995: 71). Reframing offers the possibility of looking at problems and situations from many different perspectives, which may help to work through them more easily (Rosenberg 2000: 38).
NLP
terminology
divides
the
Reframing
technique
into
context
reframing
and
content reframing. Context reframing tries to find a new place or time for a special behaviour where it is useful and positive. For example, jokes and giving funny answers is an important skill for every comedian. This behaviour, however, may be inappropriate in serious discussions. Therefore, it is necessary to give this behaviour the correct context:
when and where is it useful?

Content reframing tries to change the meaning of an experience through a new interpretation; it looks for the positive value of a certain behaviour (Rosenberg 2000: 38). A stressed manager, for example, may feel annoyed when his/her telephone
38
rings a hundred times a day. A sensitive trainer may change this annoying content for the manager into a positive one by suggestion he/she thinks to himself/herself, That's good, everybody needs you, you are the expert, you are important. Suddenly the ringing of the telephone has a different meaning for the manager, he/she has the feeling of being important and needed (Rosenberg, seminar, February 5, 2000).
The idea of creating a new frame for a situation or a behaviour is not new (see also critical evaluation in Chapter 10), but already known from fairy tales and fables. The trick is that fixed situations and behaviours lose their original meaning, and
consequently the way to a new orientation and interpretation is freed (Bachmann 1999: 99).
4.3.6 The Meta Model of Language

As already indicated in Chapter 4.2.1 NLP assumes that all models of the world human beings build up are filtered models. They are not a direct and identical picture of the world, but a reconstruction of sensory experiences (tsch 2000: Wahrnehmungs-Filter). Consequently, words and language never have only one
meaning. What an expression means depends on the individual experience made with the very phrase, on the learned cultural meaning of the word and on the context in which the word is used. The NLP Meta Model of Language aims at combining the language a person uses with the experiences made and represented through the language (Bachmann 1999: 160). Specific techniques of asking questions make it possible to analyse unclear language patterns and to gain precise information quickly (tsch 2000: Meta Modell der Sprache). The Meta Model of Language can,
therefore, also be described as the art of asking the right questions.
Bandler and Grinder refer to three processes how human beings build models: generalisations, deletions and distortions. On the one hand, these models enable human beings to survive, to understand and to experience the world, but, on the other hand, they limit the possibilities to of individuals these (Bachmann in 1999: depth, 162). as a The clear
following
paragraphs
intend
describe
processes
39
communication
without
misunderstandings
is
important
in
many
situations,
particularly in the case of selling (see Chapter 8).
Generalisations occur when one example is taken as the representative of a number
of
different
possibilities
(Rosenberg
2000:
43).
Often,
they
are
expressed
with
universal quantifiers such as all, every, always, never, nobody, etc. When
a person says, I trust in nobody., the NLP Meta Model suggests several possible reactions. Firstly, it is possible to exaggerate by using additional universal
quantifiers, e.g. Is there really nobody in the whole world you trust? Secondly, it is possible to ask for the original experience to gain additional information, e.g. Have you been disappointed by anybody?. Thirdly, it is possible to ask for a counterexample, e.g. Do you know somebody you could trust? (tsch 2000:
Verallgemeinerung, Generalisierung). In this way, the speaker is encouraged to look for exceptions from his/her generalisations (Bachmann 1999: 168). Another form of generalisations are the model operators of necessity or possibility. These indicate rules of conduct or needs which individuals have and are
characterised by words such as cannot, must not, should, etc. (Rosenberg 2000: 43). These operators define what is necessary or possible in the speaker's model of the world and, therefore, are limiting to the speaker. Questions like What stops you? or What would happen if you did? in response to the statement I cannot... allows the speaker to at least acknowledge the possibility of choice and to disclose subjective limitations (Bachmann 1999: 168).
Deletion describes a process when a human being deletes parts of the meaning of
his/her original experience (tsch 2000: Meta-Modell der Sprache). Therefore, it is essential for a good communications bias to recognise deletions and to bring back the deleted information (Bachmann 1999: 166). The following forms of deletions are possible and can be clarified by the Meta Model:
Nominalisation occurs when a verb which describes an on-going process is

turned into a noun. The on-going action becomes a static noun, and often nominalisations do not refer to sensory experience and eliminate most of the specific information in a sentence. The sentence Teaching and discipline, applied with respect and firmness are essentials in the process of education is full of nouns, but does not give much information. The meaning can be
40
clarified by asking Who is teaching? Who is being taught? What is taught? (Rosenberg 2000: 42).
Unspecified verbs also leave out information. Learn this for tomorrow. is
an example. It could be important to know how specifically the content should be studied. The Meta Model helps to clarify this by asking How specifically ...? (Ibid).
A lack of referential index may also make it difficult to understand a statement correctly. That can be learned easily leaves many open
questions: What can be learned easily? How can that be learned easily? (Ibid).
Simple deletions refer to sentences which leave out any type of information.
The statement I can't stand it any more. leaves the listener unclear as to what exactly is meant. A question like What exactly can't you stand? may throw more light on the intended meaning (Ibid).
Comparative deletions leave out the comparison. Sentences using words like
best, better or worse and worst need something to compare with. That is the best answer can be clarified by asking The best among which? (Rosenberg 2000: 40 and 42).
These forms of disclosing deletions make it possible to gather more information about the intended meaning of a statement and allow a precise and complete description of the presented content (Bachmann 1999: 165).
Distortions,
the
third
process
of
building
language
models,
express
self-made
limitations, i.e. a person's model of the world is misrepresented (Bachmann 1999: 169). Three different cases can be distinguished:
Cause - Effect :
The cause and effect-concept is built upon the subjective belief that
somebody else is responsible for one's feelings and emotional state. From the view of the acting person there is no other possibility than reacting the way he/she does, and, therefore, the person reduces the various alternatives to one single behaviour, which usually is not favourable (Bachmann
1999:169). Consequently, it is very limiting to think that someone else is responsible e.g. for one's anger. The common statement You get on my
41
nerves can be challenged by asking What specifically do I do that gets on your nerves? The speaker may then discover that the other person is not really the cause for the effect, i.e. the anger (Rosenberg 2000: 43).
Mind Reading
When persons mind-read they presume to know, without concrete evidence, what another person is thinking or feeling (Ibid). Apparently, this person acts upon his/her own feelings and interpretations and projects these to the other individual. The assumption Everybody thinks I am too slow can be made conscious by the question How do you know what everybody thinks? (Bachmann 1999: 170).
Lost Performative
Lost performatives are generalised statements about the world that come from the speaker's own model of the world and express value judgements and opinions, e.g. This is a stupid thing to do. They are very closely tied to the speaker's belief system. Therefore it is necessary to make the speaker aware of this by getting him/her to add, In my opinion... or I think... (Rosenberg 2000: 43).
To sum up, the NLP Meta Model of Language is designed to develop the ability to listen and to find out the complete meaning of a communication (Bachmann 1999: 165). The listener learns to know when he/she has got the relevant information and when not and is able to ask for it any time. The Meta Model prevents individuals from projecting their model of the world on others, and gives other people room for their personal attitudes and models. With the Meta Model human beings train
themselves not to react too hastily to words, but to ask precisely and to build up good rapport (tsch 2000: Meta-Modell der Sprache).
4.3.7 The Milton-Model

The Milton-Model consists of two parts: the inverse language-patterns of the Meta Model and additional elements of hypnotic language. Whereas the Meta Model aims at making statements more precise and specific to enlarge consciously the awareness of alternatives, the Milton-Model describes a situation only vaguely to start a searchprocess in the individual. The listener tries to connect what he/she has heard with
42
own experience, but as the other person has not directly addressed the experience, no or less averse reactions are likely (tsch 2000: Milton-Modell).
4.3.8 Metaphors
Metaphors and stories are widely used in the domain of NLP. A metaphor can be seen as any analogy, comparison, story, fairy-tale, myth or joke which is directly or indirectly connected to the presented content (OConnor 1996: 246). The intention when making use of metaphors is to transfer knowledge from one context into another (tsch 2000: Metapher) and consequently offer a new access to the content which might make it easier for the learner to follow. Metaphors present an elegant method to make a complex content clearer, to catch the attention of an audience, to give meaningful feedback or to promote creative thinking (Ibid). Most people like being told stories. The story-teller, however, has to bear in mind that the strength of a metaphor is measured by the listener and not by the himself. Metaphors cannot be classified in right or wrong, a good metaphor has many levels of meaning, and each individual may consider different aspects as being important to himself/herself
(OConnor 1996: 247).
4.3.9 Anchoring
Emotional states have a powerful influence on our thinking processes and behaviour. It would therefore be useful to make resourceful states constantly available and stabilise them in the here and now as they are the key to peak performance (Rosenberg 2000: 35). In NLP, anchoring can be described as a consciously induced stimulus-response-conditioning (difference to Pavlovs Stimulus Response Learning
see Section 4.4 and Bachmann 1999: 93). Everybody has a personal history that is rich in different emotional states. To re-experience these states, a trigger is needed to bring back the original experience. A stimulus which is linked to and triggers a physiological example, internal a state is called anchor may may in NLP (Rosenberg 2000: 35). For become an anchor for a particular become an anchor for a state of
remembered a voice
picture tone
feeling,
excitement or confidence (Dilts 1999: Anchoring). Basically, anchors can be set in
43
any modality - visual, auditory, kinaesthetically, olfactory or gustatory (Bachmann 1999: 94). How anchoring can be used in training situations to make resourceful states of trainer and trainees become vivid will be shown in Part II of this thesis.
It is significant that the metaphor of an anchor is used in NLP terminology. The anchor of a ship is attached by the crew to some stable point in order to hold the ship in a certain area and prevent it from floating away. Anchors in NLP serve as reference points which help human beings to find a particular location on the experiental sea and to hold the attention there and keep it from drifting (Dilts 1999: Anchoring).
4.3.10 Win-Win
A Win-win situation in NLP terminology can be described as a decision or a process where both parties are winners, loser (OConnor 1996: 350). A NLP favours, does not accept one where everyone should benefit. This and not one winner and one as
positive
communication,
a losing situation, but rather is extremely important in
training situations where the aims of trainer and trainee should not be contrary, and in selling situations, where the seller as well as the buyer should have the feeling of making a good bargain.
In the previous paragraphs a great deal of theory about NLP has been introduced. The next chapter tries to combine elements of NLP-theory with the learning theories explained in Section 2.4.
44
4.4
Combining NLP-Elements with Learning Theories
Section 2.4 of this thesis has introduced several learning theories relevant for NLP. The following section intends to establish a connection of NLP and these theories, i.e. to find out where the parallels and perhaps some differences are.
The first theories referred to in Chapter 2.4 are the behaviouristic theories of Pavlov's Stimulus Response Learning and Thorndike and Skinner's Operant
Conditioning. As already mentioned in Section 4.3.9, NLP's technique of anchoring is a consciously induced stimulus-response-conditioning. It is a process that on the surface is similar to the conditioning technique Pavlov used to create a link between the hearing of a bell and salivation in dogs (Dilts 1999). According to Bandler and Grinder, however, anchoring differs from the classical behaviouristic conditioning in three points:
1. Also initial experience can function as an anchor (principle of one trial learning). 2. In comparison to Skinner, reinforcement is not considered as a necessary prerequisite for the establishment of anchors (Bachmann 1999: 93f). 3. In the behaviourist's stimulus-response conditioning formula, the stimulus is always an environmental cue and the response is always a specific
behavioural action. The association is considered reflexive and not a matter of choice. In NLP this type of associative conditioning has been expanded to include links between other aspects of experience than only environment cues and behavioural responses, e.g. a remembered picture or a voice tone (Dilts 1999). Consequently, inner experience and cognitive behaviour are equal to outer reactions (Bachmann 1999: 94).
There is one more aspect of anchoring related to Pavlov's stimulus-response learning that is worth mentioning. Pavlov's dog had to be in a certain state for the bell to mean anything, i.e. it had to be hungry; then Pavlov could anchor the stimulus to the response. Similarly, the state of learners are in, is important to effectively establish
45
an anchor. For instance, a good teacher knows when to send a message and when not. If trainees have a sudden insight and the teacher turns on an overhead projector, it is going to be received in a different way and associated differently than if the trainees are struggling with a concept. Consequently, timing is a very important aspect in setting effective anchors (Dilts 1999).
In addition to the comparison to behaviouristic theories, which is dealt with in literature, the author herself has discovered several parallels of NLP-elements and the theories of Observational Learning, Cognitivism, Constructivism and Multiple
Intelligences.
As already explained in Section 2.4.3, which deals with Bandura's Observational Learning, learners imitate the behaviour of a certain model. NLP's belief that all behaviour has structure and that excellence can be learned by everybody is highly connected to this theory. Just like in the retention process described in Bandura's theory, where the observer codes or structures the information in an easily
remembered form, modelling in NLP splits a certain behaviour into small processes that can be explained and taught to everybody.
NLP's art of perceiving people - VAK - also addresses several learning theories. Cognitive learning as well as constructivism and the theory of multiple intelligences refer to the representational systems. As already mentioned in Section 2.4.6 learning is not unidimensional. Each individual takes in and stores information in a different way, maybe in pictures or sounds, and has a preferred representational channel where learning can easily occur. Adressing the individual's preferred representational system and making these modalities conscious to the individual are NLP-key
elements and can as well be found in the above-mentioned theories.
The
theory
of
constructivism
shows
one
more
parallel
to
NLP.
Constructivism
believes in learning as a search for meaning and requires understanding wholes as well as parts (see Section 2.4.5). NLP's meta-programme of
chunking-up
and
chunking-down (see Glossary of Terms) can be seen as a parallel. Chunking-up in
NLP means to gain a general overview of a certain topic, whereas chunking-down stands for looking for details and understanding parts of the whole.
46
Furthermore, constructivism assumes that the mind filters input from the world and creates its own unique reality, each individual has his/her own model of the world. This is exactly what NLP believes as well. Through sensory experiences human beings create their map and believe it is reality. As already explained in Section 4.2.2 the map is not the territory, but it is important to understand the mental models of others and to get deeper insight into them.
From the description above it can be seen that NLP has many elements from various learning theories. It is, however, not only of interest to combine NLP with learning theories, as recently many new approaches in educational training have done, such as Mind Mapping, Superlearning and Mental Training. The next section aims at
presenting NLP as an integrative concept.
4.5
NLP as a Modern and Holistic Concept
The Sections 2.2 and 2.3. of this thesis have introduced some basic ideas about rightand left-brain thinking and other factors of influence on learning, such as the importance of the Alpha state. These ideas have become more and more important for alternative learning techniques, which have been developed recently. The author would like to briefly explain three of these new concepts Mind Mapping,
Superlearning and Mental Training - and show their relatedness of character to NLP.
4.5.1 NLP and Mind Mapping

Mind Mapping is a technique of making notes developed by Tony Buzan. In contrast to traditional techniques which are tied to making linear concepts, i.e. a chain, Mind Mapping uses a net-structure. A proverb says that a chain is only as strong as its weakest part, and, therefore, the danger of missing out an important part or losing the thread in this linear structure is relatively high. The Mind Mapping net-structure corresponds much more to the way the human brain works, as one term is in the centre, which is directly related to branches and twigs (see Figure 10). Mind Mapping combines words with forms and shapes, colours and pictures, and,
47
therefore, offers a very individual and personal structure to facilitate remembrance and recognition.
The relatedness of Mind Mapping to NLP is easy to find. Mind Mapping as well as NLP strongly relate to the theory of the hemispheres. Both methods favour the stimulation of both hemispheres, and especially the right one, as this side is heavily neglected in traditional schooling methods. Colours, pictures, visualisation, sketches, anchoring and association play an important
role in Mind Mapping as well as in NLP. The combination Maps of words to and the pictures in Mind of
corresponds the
importance
addressing
preferred
representational
system of the individual in NLP. Furthermore, NLP and Mind Mapping emphasise
individuality, personality and creativity, as each Mind Map has and an individual favours and personal subjective
character,
NLP
experience (Bachmann 1999: 188ff).

Figure 10: Example for a Mind Map (Bachmann 1999: 190).
4.5.2 NLP and Superlearning

The concept of Suggestopaedia or Superlearning - the terms are used synonimously today - was created by Georgi Lozanov. Two aspects can be emphasised. Firstly, Superlearning also pursues the stimulation of both hemispheres, just like Mind
Mapping and NLP. Secondly, a relaxed state for learning is highly significant in the concept of Superlearning. Chapter 2.3 has already stated that the Alpha state is a condition where our brain is extremely active and creative, but our body relaxed and not under pressure. Lozanov discovered that this favourable learning condition can be created by an active design of the learning environment. He observed that baroque music is a valuable tool for placing individuals in the Alpha state, as the rhythm of the heart and the brain-waves adapt to the rhythm of the music. Furthermore,
48
Superlearning also has elements of addressing the various learner types, exercises for group dynamics and activities for kinaesthetic learners like NLP. Even more,
Superlearning could be integrated in the NLP concept, as Superlearning's sequence of theory - relaxing - doing (Stanek, personal interview, 5 April, 2000) could eliminate blocks to learning by evoking energy resources to allow for quick, efficient and joyful learning (Bachmann 1999: 193 ff).
4.5.3 NLP and Mental Training

Mental training has become very famous because of its success in sports and space science. Its characteristic is that the learning goal is first achieved mentally before it becomes reality. This concept of mindfitness is highly connected to Dilts' learning levels, which Section 3.2 of this thesis has presented. NLP as well as mental training operate very much with a positive formulation of aims and objectives. Very much indeed can be achieved on the beliefs-level. Often learners are blocked by their attitude to learning. Expressions like I cannot do that or I will never learn that prevent individuals from performing as they are supposed to. And exactly here lies the key. Individuals need to be aware about their aims; they have to set their own goals and formulate them positively. NLP and mental training favour this personal definition of goals. If a person believes in his/her mind that he/she will achieve the goal, it will, in fact, be easier to accomplish (Decker 1995: 77ff and Bachmann 1999: 198 ff).
The preceding sections attempted to present NLP as a modern and holistic concept among other new approaches to learning like Mind Mapping, Superlearning and Mental Training. The following chapters of this thesis deal with the practical
application of NLP and how this application is received by trainees.
49
PART II
NEURO-LINGUISTIC-PROGRAMMING
IN PRACTICE
50
5 Methodology
Part I of this thesis has dealt with the theory about learning and NLP. The second part presents a selection of practical applications of NLP in learning situations and the methodology used.
5.1
Interviews
As Chapter 3 of this thesis has already explained, today's business world requires certain key competencies. Among these, the author has selected language learning, communication with particular emphasis on selling, and content learning to
investigate in practice. It was decided to conduct one expert interview in each case study to get deeper insight of how NLP methods are applied in the varying situations. The author established a set of interview-questions, which can be found in the appendix (as the interviews were conducted in German, an English translation is also available). The questions are divided into two parts. The first part includes general questions about NLP in training situations; the second part was specifically designed for the field of expertise of the very interviewee. It may be noted that the general part also includes queries which directly relate to the title of this thesis, i.e. the learner-centred approach, and questions about NLP-application in other than the expert's field of activity. Concerning this point, the author intended not to violate NLP's holistic concept by putting the key-competencies into boxes.
5.2
The Experts
To give the reader a clearer insight who the interviewed experts are and what their relationship to NLP is like, the author would like to introduce them briefly.
The first interview concerning the language-learning case-study was conducted on January 26 and February 2, 2000 with Ms. Karin Aric (Mag. phil.) who is a teacher of Italian at the Institute of Business Languages at the Johannes Kepler University in
51
Linz and applies many NLP elements in her Italian courses. Ms. Aric has been dealing with NLP since 1991, after her attention had been called to it by a colleague. She decided to attend the NLP Practitioner Training, as NLP seemed to be very useful and easy to put into practice (Aric, personal interview, January 26, 2000).
The second interviewee was Mr. Wolfgang Stanek who is a communication trainer at Raiffeisenlandesbank working for the Obersterreich Upper Austrian reg. Genossenschaft since m.b.H. 1979. and Mr. has Stanek been was
Government
interviewed on April 5, 2000 as an expert for the second case-study, NLP in communication and selling, accompanied by his wife, Mrs. Johanna Stanek (Dr.) who is responsible for personnel development at Raiffeisenlandesbank
Obersterreich and kindly arranged the meeting. Mr. Stanek made his first contact with NLP in the early 1990s when he attended an introductory seminar at WIFI, the Wirtschaftsfrderungsinstitut. This seminar was not impressive to him at all. Only in 1994, when he started the NLP-Practioner- and the NLP-Master-course with Gundl Kutschera, did he discover his fascination for NLP, especially for its holistic concept and its individuality (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000).
Finally,
the
third
interview
concerning
the
content-learning
case-study
was
conducted on May 9, 2000 with Professor Dr. Walter tsch, who is a professor at the Institute of Economics at the Johannes Kepler University in Linz. Professor tsch has been dealing with different aspects of communication for more than thirteen years, first in the context of teaching, later in other areas as well. In 1988, he started his NLP education with Gundl Kutschera and attended the NLP-Practitioner, the NLP-Master and Trainer courses. Furthermore, he has gone through further NLP training with Robert Dilts, Richard Bandler, John Grinder, Helmut Broichhagen,
Lucas Derks and Gunther offering the
Schmidt. Since 1992, Professor tsch himself has been course and, later on, many other seminars like
NLP-Pracitioner
change.design - NLP Business Trainer. He also runs an NLP-server on the Internet which gives a brief overview of what NLP is, which courses the Linzer Akademie fr NLP (Linz Academy for NLP) offers, provides many good links to other NLP Websites and includes a comprehensive glossary of NLP-terms (http://www.nlp.at). The fact that Professor tsch teaches content, i.e. micro-economics, at university
52
made it interesting for the author to find out more about how NLP-techniques support this kind of teaching (cf. Chapter 9 which deals with this case study).
5.3
The Questionnaire
The three expert-interviews, however, are only the first part of the methodology. For scientific research it is not enough to hear from the experts how they apply NLP principles and methods in their training. As the experts all have a profound NLPeducation, it is only natural that they are extremely convinced about NLP and its techniques. Therefore, it was necessary to get some feedback from the other side, i.e. the trainers' students and trainees. The author decided to conduct a quantitative analysis and created a questionnaire to be distributed among the trainees in one seminar of each expert to gain information on how the methods of NLP are received and evaluated by students and trainees, whether students are aware of their own learning styles and whether they felt the training to be learner-centred. An example of the questionnaire can be found in the appendix. This example, however, is in German. The quantitative study was conducted in German, as the courses where they were distributed were not English classes. Consequently, the author would like to go through the questions in this section and explain her intentions.
Question 1: You have been attending / have recently attended a seminar of . How would you judge the quality of this seminar?
The trainees had a choice between very good, good, average and bad.
Question 2: What did you like / did you not like in this seminar?
Question 2 already goes more into depth. Students were asked to explain what they liked and what they did not like in the very course. This was the author's first possibility to see whether they responded positively to NLP techniques or not, no matter whether they were aware of applied NLP or not.
53
Question 3: How did you feel addressed as an individual in the seminar?

The choice ranked from very good and good to average and not at all. With this query the author intended to establish a clear connection to the working title of this thesis.
Question 4: Are you aware of the technique the trainer has used in the seminar? How would you describe this technique?
Question 4 already wanted to know whether students are aware of the technique the trainer applied in the courses. They could choose between yes - plus name of the technique and no. Furthermore, they were asked to explain the technique. With this formulation the author wanted to test how many of the students mention NLP and whether she could find any NLP-elements in the answers of the technique description.
Question 5: How would you judge the course design?

The matrix for trainee answers about the course design was the following:
1 interesting varied professional useful individual learner-centred flexible o o o o o o o
2 o o o o o o o
3 o o o o o o o
4 o o o o o o o
5 o o o o o o o boring one-sided childish useless global teacher-centred rigid
As the chapters in Part I of this thesis have explained, NLP aims at addressing all learner types - auditory, visual and kinaesthetic. This demands trainer flexibility and creativity and should lead to a learner-centred course design, i.e. that every
participant feels addressed as an individual. With the ranking from 1 to 5, which has a framework of contrary criteria, the matrix shown above wants to draw a picture of how the course design, especially its variety, individuality, flexibility and usefulness, is received by the trainers' students.
54
Question 6: Which media or exercises /tasks supported the seminar?

Question 6 is another awareness question. It asked the students to mark the media and exercises which supported the seminar and to give an indication whether the use corresponded to their representational system, i.e. whether the media were used too much, just right or too little. This question can be seen in connection with Question 12 which wanted to make students think about what learner type they are. The author's intention was to check whether the media they marked and the judgement of their application correspond to their preferred representational system.
Question 7: In which way is this seminar different to others?

The seventh question asked the trainees to describe in which way, if any, the very seminar is different from other seminars they have attended. With this question the author hoped to gain some more indications about applied NLP methods which eventually make the experts' seminars higher quality courses.
Question 8: Do you feel that this seminar helped you acquire important competencies for your studies / education / profession? If yes or partly, which competencies? Question 9: How do you feel about putting the acquired knowledge / competencies into practice?
The Questions 8 and 9 are very important for practice. As Section 2.1 of this thesis has explained, there is a difference between data, information, knowledge and skill. Chapter 3 indicated that the transfer of knowledge is no longer enough.
Consequently, with these questions the author wanted to find out if the seminars have reached their purpose of not only transferring knowledge but equipping
students with skills they can make use of in practice.
Question 10: Can you imagine that the design and technique of this seminar helps you in the following situations?
Question 10 is another attempt to incorporate NLP's holistic concept in this thesis. Just like the experts were asked about other possibilities of NLP application than their field of expertise, the students of their courses were asked whether they could imagine that such a course design and the applied technique could help them in the
55
following
situations:
language
learning,
communication,
selling,
content
learning
and preparing for exams. A choice was given between yes, maybe and no.
Question 11: How would you describe your emotional state during the seminar?
The NLP chapter in the first part of this thesis referred to the importance of a good emotional state for one's learning process. With Question 11 the author asked the trainees to mark the positions which come closest to their emotional state in the seminar.
Question 12: Thinking about your sensory impressions, what type of learner do you think you are?
This question was already dealt with in the explanation of Question 6.
Question 13: How important is a positive attitude to life for your personal learning success?
Question 13 is very much related to Question 11. NLP very much stresses a positive attitude to learning and life as a success factor in one's life and profession. Consequently, the author wanted to find out with Question 13 whether this positive attitude to life plays a significant, neutral or no role in students' lives.
Question 14: How would you judge the following beliefs?

Question 14 started to pick up some of NLP's beliefs, which the author on purpose formulated in a provocative manner and without any context given to make trainees think. For each belief the author created a matrix similar to the one in Question 5. Students were asked to respond to the beliefs It is important to discover the joy of learning, There is no failure, only feedback, and Each behaviour has a positive intention with the following scheme:
56
1 useful true practical strong effect relevant o o o o o
2 o o o o o
3 o o o o o
4 o o o o o
5 o o o o o useless false theoretical weak effect irrelevant
Question 15: How important are the following positions for you?
Question 15 lists several positions which already go into the direction of autonomous learning where the learner is required to take over responsibility for his/her own learning success. Chapter 3 of this thesis has explained that the learner should no longer be only the recipient of knowledge, but be prepared to design his/her own learning and to give input into training sessions, which, again, demands trainer flexibility. Furthermore, a good relationship between trainer and trainees is
necessary, which should result in a joyful learning atmosphere where everybody is enabled to reach his/her learning goals. Therefore, in Question 15 students were asked to mark whether the following positions are very important, relevant, not very important or not important at all: responsibility for one's own learning success, decide oneself about time and place of learning, select learning media oneself, reflection of interest in the training, possibility to give input, nice and likeable trainer, humour and fun in the training, trainer flexibility, rigid training programme and having clear learning goals.
Question 16: What does NLP stand for?

Finally, with Question 16 the author wanted to find out whether students know what NLP stands for and offered a choice of terms looking similar: Neuro-Linguistic Processes, Neuro-Linguistic -Programming, Natural-Life-Programme, Neuro-Lipo-
Pigment, and Neuro-Linear-Processes.
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After having explained the direction of the questionnaire and the intentions behind it, the author would now like to present the results of the interviews and the quantitative analysis.
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6 NLP in Training Situations
In the conducted interviews and the seminar NLP for Language Teachers the author attended in Graz, she has found out that there are several aspects of applying NLP that fit for any training situation. This chapter intends to summarise these aspects and to describe what makes a good training situation and which criteria are necessary for the trainer and the students to apply and benefit from NLP.
As Chapter 3 of this thesis has already mentioned, a common problem in today's learning and training culture is that trainers teach from their point of view and do not pay attention to learner needs (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000). Teachers are not aware of different learning styles; they teach the way they were taught or the way they prefer to learn. Consequently, they need to become aware of these differences and learn how to adapt their teaching styles, especially to learn to become more flexible. (Rosenberg, e-mail to author, March 18, 2000).
NLP offers a variety of possibilities to solve this problem. Teachers can use rapport to increase the understanding of trainees' models of the world.
Greeting students, smiling at them likes and understands them can
and showing them that the trainer already contribute a lot to
building up stable rapport and, as a consequence, a good training atmosphere.
Mr. Stanek reported that many trainers see their trainees as pupils and not as clients. However, treating trainees as clients rather than pupils is very important, because it makes is possible that the trainer stands on the same level as his trainees, and not at a higher one like in traditional schooling. This would create too much distance and destroy any rapport and relaxed atmosphere. If the level of personal relationship works, it will be much easier to transfer knowledge, and the factual level will work as well (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000).
In this context, a good emotional state of the trainer and his/her trainees is also very important. A trainer will hardly be able to create a good and relaxed training
59
atmosphere if he/she is in a bad mood or has to struggle with private problems. Concerning this point, we should remember the sensitivity of children. They can tell exactly from their parents' voice and their behaviour if something is wrong. Trainers should keep in mind that their trainees are sensitive as well and that a bad emotional state has effects on their learning progress. Consequently, it is of utmost importance for trainers to disassociate themselves from private problems. This is where NLP's technique of anchoring comes in. Thinking about positive and successful
experiences, or establishing eye-contact with trainees who are very interested in the seminar can help to bring back the trainer's positive attitude and energy (Aric, personal interview, January 26, 2000). Vice versa, it is important for the trainer to be aware of and sensitive to the mood and emotional state of the group. A trainer will find it hard to motivate, inspire and make the group feel enthusiastic if he/she enters the classroom full of power and ready to present a huge amount of exercises or content on a Friday evening to participants who have worked very hard all week long and feel tired. According to NLP, the trainer will be much more successful if he/she goes into the very mood of the group. Phrases like It has been a tough week for us all and you must feel tired. We will start slowly with today's evening programme. Is this ok for you all? put the trainer on the same level as his/her trainees, establish rapport, show understanding and will, in fact, contribute to a better training atmosphere (Rosenberg, seminar, February 4 and 5, 2000).
A positive attitude to learners and the belief in the resources each learner has and that can be activated, if conditions are favourable, also helps to build up a teacher's self-confidence, which is very important indeed, as a teacher will never be able to do his teaching well if he/she is blocked by the belief I am such a bad teacher (Aric, personal interview, January 26, 2000). Professor tsch stated in the interview that, unfortunately, teaching does not enjoy a high status at university. Investing time and energy in good teaching is very low, as many university teachers do not see themselves as teachers, but rather as researchers. For excellent teachers, however, teaching is like exercising, which gives them energy, and they feel happy and relaxed after their classes. This belief and attitude should become a desirable goal for every teacher (tsch, personal interview, May 9, 2000).
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Furthermore,
with
its
VAK-model
(VAK
visual,
auditory,
kinaesthetic),
NLP
offers a magnificent opportunity of addressing each trainee's representational system, and is, therefore, a very individual approach to teaching (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000). How the experts design the use of media to address visual, auditory and kinaesthetic learner types will be described in the case-studies. It is, however, more important for a trainer to find out about his/her trainees' preferred
representational system first to be able to adapt the course design. The author would like to describe a few possibilities to do this in the following examples.
Ms. Aric, for example, uses the following learning-strategy exercise. The trainer writes approximately twelve numbers, letters or symbols (or mixed) onto the
blackboard. The trainees may have a look at these, afterwards the blackboard is turned away. Now it is the trainees' task to remember and write down as many numbers, letters or symbols of the blackboard as possible. When this step is completed, the trainer asks his/her trainees how they remembered these numbers, letters and symbols. For example, as a certain row of numbers and pictures - this would characterise a visual type, or with a certain rhythm - this would indicate that trainees are auditory or kinaesthetically oriented. With this exercise it is possible for the trainer to get a better impression about the preferred representational system of his/her course participants and he/she can adapt the course design accordingly
(Aric, personal interview, January 26, 2000).
Another possibility is to read out a story for the participants. Afterwards, students are asked to write down or report what they remembered in particular. Depending on the choice of words, e.g. the movements of the Indian horse or the brilliant blue sky, the trainer can draw conclusions about the various learner types. In this case, it would be a kinaesthetic type reporting about the movements of the horse and rather a visual type speaking about the blue colour of the sky (Ibid).
In the seminar NLP for Language Teachers the author attended, several criteria were worked out by the participants of how observing trainees can give hints about their representational system.
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Visual learner types
make very much use of neon markers or rulers ask the teacher to write things on the blackboard are very tidy and use files with separators write in the same colours as the teacher on the blackboard or flipchart like receiving handouts and want to have a copy of overhead-slides usually bring a dictionary with them to the class, which gives them a feeling of security, as they can have a look how a word is written down show an orderly hand-writing eventually prefer working alone to group-/pair-work want to see the phonetics to be able to imagine how a word is pronounced
Auditory learner types
hardly write anything down during classes learn by listening and talking may talk to themselves or think aloud learn and memorise in sequences often speak in rhythmic pattern like music and rhythm.
Kinaesthetic learners
like to sit comfortably and like to move enjoy role plays very much like to play with objects during class need to feel well and comfortable in the group.
In a real learner-centred course with the intention of increasing learner-autonomy learners can also be challenged to find out more about their preferred learning styles themselves, in single or in pair work. For instance, learners could go through a survey with different statements about learning, like the one by Ms. Marjorie
Rosenberg and can be found in the appendix (Rosenberg, seminar, February 4 and 5, 2000).
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Another possibility to discover more about one's own modality is the improvised Swassing & Barbe Diagnostic Activity. The activity is done in pairs sitting opposite each other. Each person has a total of twelve items. There must be three different sorts of items and four pieces of each. For example, each person could have four coins, four paper clips and four erasers. Person A starts by laying out four items in a pattern which Person B looks at until he/she thinks he/she is able to duplicate the pattern. Person A then covers the items and Person B tries to reproduce the pattern with his/her items. Person A adds one item each time until it becomes too difficult for Person B to remember. This is continued through six different input-output combinations, which are shown in the matrix below, then the pairs switch roles. It is important for both Person A to observe carefully what Person B is doing, as well as for Person B to become aware of his/her own strategies. Person A is responsible for choosing the items and their order. For the visual and kinaesthetic mode, he/she must arrange them. For the auditory mode, he/she needs to arrange them and say them aloud. Person B's tasks are the following:
INPUT Visual
OUTPUT
looks at items
Kinaesthetic/ Visual
arranges items
Visual Auditory
looks at items hears order of items
Auditory Kinaesthetic/ Visual
says order aloud arranges items
Auditory Kinaesthetic
hears order of items feels items
Auditory Kinaesthetic/ Visual
says order aloud arranges items
Kinaesthetic
feels items
Auditory
says order aloud
Figure 11: Swassing & Barbe Diagnostic Activity (Rosenberg, 2000: 25)
Another important factor which is closely related to NLP's feel-well principle and good emotional state is the learning environment. Ms. Aric and Mr. Stanek both referred to and confirmed this importance. Both trainers do not use the classical arrangement of tables and chairs in the training room, but use U-forms or a form
63
where the participants sit together in groups and are able to see each other, which makes it easier to build rapport. Ms. Stanek does not even use tables because they are barriers to communication. A sunny and bright room is of utmost importance to him. Even more, for Mr. Stanek a good learning environment in a seminar also includes good food or going outside to enjoy fresh air and scenery (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000). Professor tsch also believes in the relevance of the learning environment and stated that it is often connected to anchors. For example, the smell of Hrsaal 1 (Lecutre Hall 1) at the Johannes Kepler University in Linz is a negative anchor for many students, which hinders them in their learning process. However, Professor tsch also argues that teacher beliefs in the context of a good learning environment are decisive. For instance, if a sunny room is important for the trainer, it will also play a significant role for his/her trainees. If the trainer does not refer to it, it will not be that relevant (tsch, personal interview, May 9,2000).
This argument leads the author to the qualifications and the characteristics a good trainer who teaches with NLP must have and, on the other hand, what is expected from trainees:
First of all, trainers need to be congruent. They have to believe in what they are doing in order to teach it to others. Otherwise, they will lose their credibility (Rosenberg, e-mail to author, March 18, 2000).
Moreover, a good and profound NLP-education is a prerequisite. All three experts agree that courses which try to teach NLP-methods in a few days or weeks are not serious, even dangerous, especially when techniques like anchoring are used.
Anchoring may also create negative feelings, and it can be very dangerous for psychologically unstable persons if a trainer does not know how to deal with such a situation (Aric, personal interview, January 26, 2000).
Trainees, on the other hand, need to show a certain amount of openness and flexibility. They need to be prepared to try out new things and to get involved in the seminar (Stanek, personal interview, April 5,2000). This may be a hurdle for very structured and rigid personalities (Aric, personal interview, February 2, 2000).
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After
having
discussed
general NLP-principles
and
prerequisites
for
successful
seminar, the author would now like to go into detail by describing the three casestudy situations mentioned before. The following structure will be pursued. Firstly, the author will deal with common problems in the learning situation and then try to describe alternatives and solutions using the information she could gain from the interviews and a personally attended seminar. This descriptive part, which represents the trainer's view mainly, will be followed by an analysis of the quantitative study. The questionnaire examines how what the experts say they do is received by their trainees.
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7 NLP and Language Learning
Language is about concepts and ideas its not about the use of the subjunctive. [] Communication is what its all about. Everything else is irrelevant. (Beaver, 1999). Language is one of the many forms of communication (Beaver, 1999) and learning a foreign language, in particular English, is a growing social and economic necessity in many countries (Maguire, 1997). This case-study is built upon an interview
conducted with Ms. Karin Aric at the Johannes Kepler University in Linz, upon personal Teachers experience and the author has made in the seminar NLP for Language
conversations
and
e-mail contacts with Ms. Marjorie Rosenberg,
Master of Fine Arts and NLP-Trainer who gave the author valuable insight into her methods. The case-study intends to give ideas how commonly reported problems in language learning can be overcome and how traditional language classes can be designed more learner-centred with the use of NLP-elements.
7.1
What Makes Language Learning Difficult
Concerning the point problems in language learning the interview with Ms. Aric took its starting point with a statement made by Diana Beaver who is a Member of the Institute of Linguists and a consultant and trainer of NLP:
People are nervous about getting totally involved in learning another language because they are terrified of losing their identities [] (Beaver, 1999).
One of the crucial problems that hinder people in learning a foreign language is fear. Ms. Aric stated in the interview that this fear is mainly derived from the negative experiences students have made at school, where teachers only stress the mistakes they make, but leave unmentioned what they do correctly. This kind of teaching
66
creates fear and negative beliefs in the learner, which leads to the effect that learners set themselves unnecessary limitations. Ms. Aric has experienced several learners say I will never learn that or I do not dare to speak out loud if I am not perfect. They show a real lack of spontaneity, refuse the principle of learning by doing and are terrified about trying out new things. The reason for this attitude may lie in the very analytical way of teaching and learning traditional schooling pursues. Ms. Aric referred to the differences of adult and child learning (see also Section 2.1 of this thesis) and reported in the interview that children like to learn very intuitively and by playing games, whereas adults learn very analytically and like a system of rules, as traditional schooling mainly stimulates and encourages the left brain hemisphere.
Exactly this system of rules, however, often limits learners in their capabilities and provokes 2000). the problems mentioned above (Aric, personal interview, February 2,
7.2
NLP - Methods and Exercises in Language Classes
Ms. Aric's prime intention is to take away students' fear of the foreign language. Good rapport between trainer and trainees as a basic rule of communication is a prerequisite. arrangement As of already tables. mentioned Furthermore, in it Chapter is 6, this to includes allow a communicative because
important
mistakes,
nobody is perfect. Ms. Aric paces her students by repeating what they do or say correctly. In comparison to many traditional language teachers she stresses the
positive and the correct answers of students and not their mistakes. She tries to support her students' self-confidence by letting them work in very small groups or in pairs and does not force them to role-play in front of the whole class, which may again create fear.
Another remedy to help learners of foreign languages build up a positive belief about themselves are songs. Ms. Aric asks her trainees to listen for certain words and to write down how often these words could be heard. This creates a positive belief in the learners, as they become aware of what they already understand in the foreign language. In addition, students often join in singing, when they hear a song and have a feeling of getting acquainted with the very language.
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There is one more situation, especially in university courses, that creates fear: the final exam. Ms. Aric does not do any grammar checks in her examinations, but puts more emphasis on students' writing and creativity. For example, they need to find arguments for a project of the European Union or to write a comment on a discussion on TV. In this process, a discussion in groups is possible and allowed in the first hour of the exam. The purpose of this procedure is, again, to take away fear. In the second hour of the exam students have to write down their arguments individually.
The following NLP techniques, which Ms. Aric applies in her language classes and the author partly has experienced personally in Ms. Rosenberg's seminar, shall be explained explicitly:
Modelling: Ms. Aric presents listening comprehension exercises to her students. They have to find out what was being talked about. Afterwards, the trainees are asked to role-play in groups to the same content they heard on the tape. In this way, they model the native speakers from the tape, as they try to adopt their vocabulary, expressions and pronunciation.
Pacing: Ms. Aric likes to pace her students by repeating and reinforcing correct
answers, by meeting them at their own learning pace and by allowing every learner his / her own learning pace and learning style. This is also what children do: They decide for themselves how fast and in which way they learn.
Consequently, Ms. Aric paces her students and pursues the principle of picking up the learners at the point where they are at the moment and then lead them with new inputs.
Future Pacing: This technique can be easily applied in connection with role-plays. For example, Ms. Aric asks her students to role-play a hotel reservation. The trainees work in groups and when they finish the exercise, Ms. Aric positively reinforces them by saying When you travel to Italy in the summer, you will already be able to
68
book a room perfectly. The current status of students being able to book a room at a hotel in the foreign language is projected into the future and gives students a positive feeling of what they already can express in Italian.
Leading: In this context, the trainer gives a new input. For example, Ms. Aric wants her students to tell her which topics are of interest to them. However, which text is being dealt with is selected by the trainer. This selection is the leading technique the trainer applies, as she is aware of her intentions with the very text and leads the students in this direction, e.g. discovering new grammar structures or making them aware of certain linguistic characteristics. Ms. Aric does not appreciate traditional teaching of grammar. She prefers to let her students explore grammar, when, for example, trainees have to find all verbs in a specific tense in a text or in a song. Then they are requested to make hypothesis about the formulation of the tense or grammar structure.
Reframing: Section 4.3.5 of this thesis has explained that reframing means to give something a different context or content. Ms. Aric applies this technique in particular with difficult learner types who disturb the class by calling out solutions before weaker students or beginners even had the time to think about the question. Ms. Aric changes the disturbing behaviour of these students into a positive one by using them as specialists for more difficult tasks. In contrast, she also addresses the beginners directly with easier exercises that are suitable for them.
The same technique can be applied for changing the context and content of an unsuccessful presentation of a group. The bad presentation receives a different frame, and the positive aspects are emphasised, e.g. You have now received a lot of information about the Benetton family.
69
Metaphors Ms. Aric has experienced that most students favour stories. Therefore, she likes to tell short stories, also stories from her own experiences, and likes to use metaphors to explain vocabulary.
Anchoring With the anchoring technique Ms. Aric reanimates the positive experiences of the group. For example, she likes to recall her students memories to the journey to Italy they went on together. Do you remember how much fun we had? In this way, she triggers the positive learning experience of her students to the present (Aric, personal interview, February 2, 2000). The author herself has experienced the anchoring technique in language training. There are several other possibilities and rituals of setting anchors in trainees, for example music and colours. Ms. Rosenberg repeats playing a certain song to end a break. Students are prepared to get back to work again, and they know when they hear this song the pause is going to end. During this song trainees can finish their coffee and their conversation with other colleagues in peace and quiet. Another ritual is using different coloured paper for different activities, for
example yellow colour for grammar sheets, pink colour for songs. When students see the colour, they know exactly what is going to come next.
However, caution has to be paid to the setting of negative anchors. For example, a video camera or a tape recorder may evoke negative feelings and fear. Many students remember their negative experiences with these tools at school or at other traditionally held seminars. Consequently, it requires a great deal of trainer sensitivity to use these media (Rosenberg, seminar, February 5, 2000).
Meta-Programmes Ms. Aric for applies NLP the meta-programmes away from especially for teaching reading
strategies,
example
towards and the similarities
differences meta-programmes. When Ms. Aric goes through a text with her students, there are two possibilities to do so: The first one is from global understanding to detailed understanding. In
70
this process the primary aim for students is to find out the main statements of the text before going into detail. This is called the towards-strategy. For difficult texts, however, Ms. Aric prefers the second procedure. She first explains
difficult vocabulary and expressions to take away students fear from the text. So this time, she starts with the details, i.e. the vocabulary and structures, before going to a global understanding. This technique is named away from-
technique. The similarities differences technique is applied in pair-works. It is possible to put two communicative students together (= similarities-technique) or to form a group of one student who likes to talk very much and one student who is rather silent (= differences-technique). The intention of this grouping is that the
communicative student should draw the other one out of his / her reserve.
VAK in language teaching:
Especially in language teaching it is quite easy to do exercises that address the representational systems of learners. Concerning English language classes there are various possibilities to practise the use of tenses in a learner modality centred way.
Visual learners, for example, could work together in pairs to practise the English present perfect tense. One partner looks at the other, then he / she closes the eyes and the other partner has to change something on himself / herself, e.g. remove a ring from the finger or open a button of the shirt etc. When the colleague opens the eyes again, he / she is asked What have I changed? and has to guess. In this way, addressing visual learners is combined with practising grammar in an
entertaining way.
In the same sense, the following auditory tool can be applied for practising and explaining the past tense: All the group members close their eyes and the trainer makes a noise, for example, he / she might clap his / her hands or tear a paper apart. The trainees only concentrate on the noise. When they open their eyes again, the teacher asks them What did you hear? and they have to answer using the past tense, e.g. I heard you clap your hands. The fact that the noise is over
71
now and does not last to the present may make the use of the past tense clearer to auditory learners.
Kinaesthetic learners, however, need to move and feel something to learn. For example, they could be asked to role-play a statue, or a tree or any other object. One student starts and one after the other joins. When they have finished their role-play, they sit down again and start talking about the exercise. The trainer might ask, What happened? Who was the first to begin the role-play? What did the others do? etc. and the students would have to use the past tense in their answers. They feel that the object they role-played is not there any longer. In this way, they feel a better understanding of the past tense.
Another exercise to practise the present continuous tense that actually addresses all learner types is to role-play a machine. One student starts making a certain movement and noise of a machine. Other students keep joining making different noises and different movements. The other students watch them and talk about their colleagues activities: What are they doing? This exercise serves the visuals they can see what their colleagues are doing, as well as the
kinaesthetics they can move and play, and the auditory learners they can make a noise and hear which noise their partners are making.
All these exercises have one major advantage in common N.T.P., which is short for No Teacher Preparation (Rosenberg, seminar, February 4 and 5, 2000). These effective exercises hardly require any trainer preparation. Thus the teacher can invest more time in preparing other exercises that may be more timeconsuming, for example the re-teaching exercises. The sense of re-teaching is that kinaesthetic learners cannot fully follow the teaching process but may need re-teaching. The author would like to explain this technique by using an example of the third person s in the English language and asking questions with does:
The trainer writes the following sentence on the blackboard:
72
Maria eats pizza.
The attention of the learners is drawn to the use of the third person s. An auditory reinforcement is given by explaining orally, a visual reinforcement by using colour. The trainer now explains what happens when this statement is transformed into a question, i.e. the use of does and that the third person s in eats disappears.
Maria eats pizza. Does Maria eat pizza?
The visually oriented students notice that the s of eats moves to the question word does by the colour. The auditory learners realise the difference because of the trainers oral explanation and use of words. However, what happens to the
73
kinaesthetic learners? With the teaching methods used in this example they are fairly neglected, they need some kind of re-teaching. This can be done by the following activity: The trainer prepares different colourful cards for each word and punctuation mark and selects one student each word to hold the card.
pizza Maria eat s
The students place themselves in the correct word order and the kinaesthetics can feel that the third person s of eats is there. As a next step, the point is replaced by the student with the ?-card and the student with the s is replaced by the trainee with the Does-card. They have to move around to find the correct word order again.
pizza eat Does Maria
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This kind of re-teaching helps the kinaesthetic learners in their understanding of the correct formulation of a question. They can experience that the third person s of eats moves to the question-word does.
The same kind of exercise can be applied for teaching the names of colours in a foreign language. Students move around and according to the instruction of the trainer, e.g. Touch something blue they look for an object of this colour and touch it. In this way, kinaesthetically oriented students can really feel the colours (personal experience in seminar NLP for Language Teachers, February 4 and 5, 2000).
The techniques described in this section make it obvious that in these language classes the learners are really part of the training, because they are directly involved. The following paragraphs draw a picture of trainees' feedback.
7.3
Feedback from Trainees
This section presents the results which were achieved from the quantitative analysis in Ms. Aric's Italian II course in the summer semester 2000. The questionnaire was distributed to 33 students. 31 persons among these were between 18 and 30 years old, one student was aged between 31 and 40, and one more between 41 and 50 years. 67 per cent of the questioned students were female, 33 per cent male. Concerning their current occupation, 48 per cent of the trainees were full-time students, 39 per cent part-time students and 6 per cent were employees.
The data which could be gained from the questionnaire are as follows:
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Question 1: Quality of Seminar
100% 80% Percentage 60% 40% 20% 0% A very good 80% good 18% Quality average 2% bad 0%
Figure 12: Quality of Seminar
Concerning the quality of the seminar the diagram clearly shows that a great majority of Ms. Aric's students, i.e. 80 per cent, considered her teaching to be very good. Still 18 per cent believed it to be good, whereas only 2 per cent voted for average. Nobody ranked the quality to be bad.
Many responses came to this open question. The most significant ones relate to the topics treated in the course and the use of media. 64 per cent liked the current topics and that Ms. Aric involves her students in the topic -selection. Although most of the students were content with the topic selection, still 18 per cent would prefer less politics in the course and three per cent did not like the topics relating to school and university. A majority of 55 per cent appreciated Ms. Aric's use of media in the course, in particular songs, videos and films. At the same time, however, the bad quality of the video recorder and a too small TV were mentioned as negative points. The varied selection of exercises and tasks as well as the teaching of competencies relevant for practice and the tempo of teaching were judged very positively. Nine per
76
cent referred to going to the cinema together, to Ms. Aric's creativity and her stories. However, they nine had per to cent do. of They the had trainees little did not feel for good about the and
presentations
motivation
preparation
considered the presentations of their colleagues to be boring for the audience. Another nine per cent felt overloaded with texts, they would prefer fewer texts and going through these texts together. Group work was seen positively as well as negatively, depending on the students' preferences. A very positive image was given about the atmosphere in the course. The students liked Ms. Aric's friendliness and the very personal relationship between trainer and trainees and among trainees as well. Obviously, rapport was established very well in the course. Furthermore, students felt that Ms. Aric involves and motivates
everybody and that course requirements as well as explanations were very clear and exact. A detailed table with absolute and percentage figures to the reported arguments can be found in the appendix.
80% 70% 60% Percentage 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% A very good 64% good 33% average 3% not at all 0%
Figure 13: Individuality
The response to this question is very clear: A vast majority felt addressed as an individual participant in Ms. Aric's course, 64 per cent very good and 33 per cent good. This result is a significant proof of the individual and learner-centred approach of Ms. Aric's language teaching.
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80% 60% 40% 20% 0%

yes NLP A 6,1%
Percentage
yes (NLP not mentioned) 9,1%
no 78,8%
no response 6,1%
Figure 14: Awareness of Technique
The result of Question 4 was a clear no: 79 per cent were not aware of the technique Ms. Aric applies. It was interesting to see, however, that six per cent clearly responded with NLP and that nine per cent also answered yes, but did not mention NLP. Yet in their description the author found several elements that come very close to NLP, for example that teaching is adapted to sensory impressions of individuals by the use of different media. Other descriptions ranked from
autonomous working and learning by doing to the sequence and combination of reading/listening, referred to Ms. speaking Aric's in pairs and general and discussion. to a Some students and also
resource
exercises
unconscious
intuitive
language learning process.
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1 interesting varied professional useful individual learner-centred flexible 60,6% 60,6% 57,6% 54,5% 27,3% 42,4% 45,5%
27,3% 12,1% 24,2% 15,2% 42,4% 42,4% 0,0% 3,0%
0,0% 0,0% boring 0,0% 0,0% one-sided 0,0% 0,0% childish 0,0% 0,0% useless 6,1% 0,0% global 3,0% 0,0% teacher-centred 0,0% 0,0% rigid
45,5% 21,2% 36,4% 18,2% 36,4% 18,2%
Figure 15: Course Design
The chart shown above reflects explicitly the arguments students reported in their answers to Question 2 - what they liked or did not like in the seminar. More than 50 per cent gave a one to each of the following characteristics: interesting, varied, professional and useful. The individual, learner-centred and flexible approach of the teaching method was also evaluated with good grades.
Question 6: Which media or exercises / tasks supported the seminar?
The following table lists the media which were recognised by Ms. Aric's students. overhead slides filming with videocamera pictures handouts individual work posters listening to texts Internet / Intranet videos, films penboard listening to music games with motion role playing exercises with cassettes text reading flipchart singing songs blackboard group / pair work discussion story telling crosswords
Figure 16: Recognised Media in Ms. Aric's Course
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It was interesting to see that only two media were marked by 100 per cent of the trainees: listening to music and text reading. Still 94 per cent marked group/pairwork, 91 per cent videos and films and discussion, 88 per cent the blackboard and exercises with cassettes. The rest of the media, which are listed in the above table, were marked with percentage figures between three and 69 per cent. For details see appendix. The reasons for these differences in noticing the use of media may be various. Firstly, it may be that some media did not appeal at all to students' preferred sensory modality and, consequently, they did not realise them. Secondly, the other way round might also be possible - that students did like these media so much that their use is almost automatic and not consciously realised. Thirdly, it may also be the case that the author did not define and name the media exactly enough and that some students had a different understanding of the terms. The second part of Question 6 wanted to get information if the interviewed students agreed with the use of the very media or exercise or whether its use was too m uch or too little. Most students were very confident with the media and exercises. 30 per cent, however, would prefer to see more videos and films, 21 per cent would like to listen to music more often, 18 per cent want more discussion, 12 per cent desire more role playing and nine per cent would like to get more handouts and to listen to stories more often. There was only one significant figure for an excessive use of media: 12 per cent found that text reading was too much, which was already indicated in Question 2.
The following chart shows the results of this open question:
Criteria
relaxed atmosphere fair teacher very personal interesting topics relevant for practice
18% 6% 18% 24% 15%
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learning from each other addressing trainees individually interactive, varied, flexible not compulsory higher motivation no feeling of stress, no unnecessary pressure like in French friendliness, likeable teacher use of media Ms. Aric is very open to students' problems, always ready to help better structure understandable, clear team work not much work required too much like school, too little independent work (e.g. project) NLP application no response
3% 21% 24% 12% 6% 9% 6% 12% 3% 3% 3% 3% 9% 6% 3%
Figure 17: Difference to Other Seminars
This table is a full reproduction of the answers that came up. The highest percentage figures of 24 and 21 per cent refer to the chosen topics and the course design, which is very flexible, interactive and varied. The relaxed and friendly atmosphere was another point that was mentioned again. Six per cent of the questioned students even directly responded with NLP application, which equals the six per cent who were aware of NLP application in Question 4.
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Question 8: Do you feel that this seminar helped you acquire important competencies for your studies / education / profession?
100% 80%
Percentage
60% 40% 20% 0% A yes 82% partly 15% no 3%
Figure 18: Competencies
A significant majority of 82 per cent are clearly convinced that Ms. Aric's course helped them acquire important competencies for their further education and
profession. Another 15 per cent voted for partly, and only three per cent felt that they did not acquire any new skills.
Among the competencies mentioned by the trainees were a better use of the Italian language and knowledge of the culture, but also social competencies like working in a team and a feeling for personal development and self-confidence as well as NLP. These answers underline the holistic approach of Ms. Aric's teaching, as not only language learning is a matter of interest, but also the personalities of her students.
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Question 9: How do you feel about putting the acquired knowledge / competencies into practice?
100% 80% Percentage 60% 40% 20% 0% A very good 24% good 73% average 3% bad 0%
Figure 19: Putting Competencies into Practice
As Figure 19 shows, 97 per cent of Ms. Aric's students feel very good or good about the practical use of the acquired knowledge and competencies. Only three percent have mixed feelings.
yes Language learning Communication Selling Content learning Preparing for exams 79% 85% 24% 61% 61%
maybe 15% 15% 52% 24% 21%
no 6% 0% 24% 15% 18%
Figure 20: Usefulness of Technique in Different Situations
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79 per cent of the questioned students are convinced that Ms. Aric's teaching method helped them in their language learning. Even more students, 85 per cent, find it useful for communication. Content learning and preparing for exams is also supported by a majority of 61 per cent. Concerning selling 52 per cent consider the technique eventually useful, the answers yes and no balance each other with 24 per cent. The selling situations obviously is a matter of uncertainty, probably because it is not directly related to the Italian II course the students attended. The author was very happy to receive even more feedback from the trainees. Some students reported that Ms. Aric's course helped them develop their self-
presentation, their ability to work in a team and to work through texts in a very efficient manner.
The importance of a good emotional state for a successful learning process has already been stressed several times in this thesis. The following data could be obtained from Ms. Aric's students:
eager to learn passive negative attitude expectant indifferent positive attitude motivated tired receptive relaxed concentrated tense under stress
55% 9% 3% 33% 6% 76% 61% 33% 79% 48% 12% 6% 0%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40% 50%
60%
70%
80%
90% 100%
Percentage
Figure 21: Emotional State
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Figure 21 clearly shows that the majority of Ms. Aric's students show a positive attitude to the course and felt very motivated, receptive and relaxed, which might be an effect of Ms. Aric's resource exercises. A rather high percentage, however, also felt tired - 33 per cent. Some of the students blamed Monday morning, when Ms. Aric's course took place, for their tiredness.
70% 60% Percentage 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

A auditory 3% visual 27% kinaesthetic 3% mixture 67% do not know 0%
Figure 22: Learner Types
The data which could be gained from this question indicate that Ms. Arics's students are very well aware of their learning preferences. Nobody crossed the point do not know. A minority of the trainees, i.e. three per cent, consider themselves to be auditory learner types, already 27 per cent think they are primarily visually oriented, and a majority of 67 per cent could not tell exactly and marked a mixture. Among these students the distribution is as follows:
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70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

A
Percentage
vis+aud 42%
vis+kin 9%
aud+kin 9%
vis+aud+kin 6%
Figure 23: Mixed learner types distribution
42 per cent think they are visual and auditory, nine per cent each believe they are visual and kinaesthetic or auditory and kinaesthetic, and six percent learn in all three modalities.
100% 80% Percentage 60% 40% 20% 0%
A very important 88% neutral 9% not very important 0% irrelevant do not know 0% 3%
Figure 24: Importance of Positive Attitude
For the majority of the questioned students a positive attitude to life is a crucial factor for their personal learning success. Only nine per cent marked neutral, and three per cent did not know. The results of this question are also reflected in Question 11, where 76 per cent of the students stated that they had a positive attitude to the course.
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It is important to discover the joy of learning. 1 useful true practical strong effect relevant 2 3 9,1% 3,0% 4 3,0% 6,1% 5 0,0% 9,1% 0,0% 3,0% 0,0% n.r. 6,1% useless 0,0% false 6,1% theoretical 3,0% weak effect 0,0% irrelevant
57,6% 24,2% 60,6% 21,2%
6,1% 27,3% 36,4% 24,2% 6,1% 45,5% 36,4% 6,1%
3,0% 51,5% 33,3% 12,1%
There is no failure, only feedback. 1 useful true practical strong effect relevant 2 3 4 9,1% 5 9,1% n.r. 6,1% useless 6,1% false 3,0% theoretical
18,2% 42,4% 15,2% 6,1% 21,2% 45,5%
6,1% 15,2%
0,0% 12,1% 39,4% 24,2% 21,2% 6,1% 6,1% 18,2% 45,5%
9,1% 15,2% weak effect 9,1% 9,1% irrelevant
15,2% 21,2% 33,3% 12,1%
Each behaviour has a positive intention. 1 useful true practical strong effect relevant 2 3 4 5 n.r. 9,1% useless 3,0% false 6,1% theoretical 9,1% weak effect 9,1% irrelevant
18,2% 21,2% 36,4%
0,0% 15,2%
12,1% 15,2% 27,3% 18,2% 24,2% 3,0% 18,2% 36,4% 15,2% 21,2% 3,0% 15,2% 42,4% 21,2% 6,1% 21,2% 42,4% 9,1%
6,1% 15,2%
Figure 25: Beliefs
As already mention in Chapter 5 of this thesis where the author described her intentions with the questionnaire, these beliefs were formulated in a provocative manner on purpose. In the table shown above the author marked the highest percentage figures to elucidate the meaningfulness. Especially the first belief It is
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important to discover the joy of learning was given very good grades by the trainees. More than 50 per cent each found it useful, true and relevant. The uncertainty obviously grew with the second belief There is no failure, only
feedback. The highest percentage figures are ranked around the middle. A trend towards a positive thinking concerning this believe can, nevertheless, be noticed. Concerning the third belief Each behaviour has a positive intention the highest percentage figures can be found at the neutral position. The rest diverges very much between the good and bad grades. However, the fact that the students did not automatically reject this belief makes the author assume that they thought about it and tried to believe in the positive.
very important
relevant
not very
not important
important at all
responsibility for own learning success decide oneself about time and place of learning select media oneself my interests should be met in the training possibility to give input in training nice and likeable trainer humour, joy and fun in the training flexibility of trainer rigid, good organised training programme have clear learning goals
72,7% 60,6% 30,3% 33,3% 39,4% 57,6% 54,5% 45,5% 27,3% 45,5%
27,3% 33,3% 39,4% 63,6% 48,5% 39,4% 36,4% 42,4% 27,3% 45,5%
0,0% 3,0% 30,3% 3,0% 12,1% 0,0% 9,1% 9,1% 39,4% 9,1%
0,0% 3,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 3,0% 0,0% 3,0% 6,1% 0,0%
Figure 26: Important Positions for Learning
The results which could be obtained form this question demonstrate that Ms. Aric's students are already far along the way of taking over responsibility for their own learning process concerning design, time and location of learning, giving input and having fun with learning. It is important for them to set their own learning goals and enjoy flexibility.
88
no response Neuro Linear Processes Neuro Lipo Pigment Natural Life Programme Neuro Linguistic Programming Natural Linguistic Processes
0% 0% 0% 0% 88% 12%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80% 100%
Percentage
Figure 27: Meaning of NLP
A clear majority of 88 per cent chose the correct answer of Neuro Linguistic Programming and are probably familiar with Ms. Aric's methods. It is interesting, however, that only six per cent in Question 4 claimed to know that Ms. Aric applies NLP, but 88 per cent do know the correct meaning of NLP.
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8 NLP in Communication Selling
Everybody lives by selling something. (R.L. Stevenson, as cited in Cohen 1991: 375) As already mentioned in Section 3.2 of this thesis todays ongoing globalisation promotes the international sales business. In this branch good and effective
communication is a must for every seller. Winfried Bachmann and Armin Priester write in their book Win-Win Die Handschrift des erfolgreichen Verkufers that it is very important for human beings who professionally depend on many and good contacts with clients to know what makes them appear likeable to the other person and how they can create and keep good rapport (Bachmann 1992: 103). The following case study is an attempt to find out what makes a good seller and how NLP can support communication in the selling business. It is based upon an interview conducted with Mr. Wolfgang Stanek, the corresponding literature and a quantitative study conducted in one of Mr. Staneks communication seminars.
8.1
What Makes a Good Seller
The selling business has been undergoing profound changes in the last 50 years. After the Second World War goods were very rare in Europe. Consequently, quick and easy selling was nearly guaranteed. At this time, the customers were hardly critical, competition was not very harsh and changes did not occur as rapidly as today. However, the markets soon started to saturate, and customers were no longer willing to buy everything. A new type of seller was demanded, a seller whose prime orientation was to boost sales and turnover, irrespective of customers' needs and demands. Clients' disappointment and anger about being sold products and services they did not need or did not meet their expectations created a very bad image of sellers. This phase lasted approximately until the seventies. Since this time, a new kind of seller is in its development (Deelen 1996: 15ff). A seller who is only interested in his/her own commissions or only works under pressure from above to
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meet targets will no longer be successful. Clients no longer want to be persuaded that they need something, they are very well able to decide for themselves about their needs. What they do need, however, is accurate and professional information (Hurst 1996: 155ff). Very rarely do clients need only one product today, much more often they demand solutions for complex problems, and they want to find these solutions together with the selling person (Gronwald 1999: 138). In this context, it is easy to discover the problems in today's selling culture. Mr. Stanek says that many sellers pursue their own aims too eagerly and neglect their customers' needs and
requirements. A lack of active listening and weak or too little questioning and analysing customer often and lead seller to misunderstandings talk at cross and different interpretations. a In fact,
often
purposes.
Consequently,
profound
knowledge of communication techniques and empathy is a prerequisite for every successful seller. In the interview Mr. Stanek stated several criteria a good seller needs to have. Firstly, he/she must like people and be able to adjust quickly to different situations. A good seller must know which behaviour is adequate at the very moment. Secondly, he/she needs to be convinced about the products he/she sells. It will not work, if the seller himself/herself has doubts about the product, as the clients will certainly feel this uncertainty. Thirdly, mission and attitude are important as well. A seller should see himself/herself as consultant or companion rather than as a seller, meant as somebody who tries to push up his/her sales quotes irrespective of customers needs. Consequently, a long-term client-seller relationship should be more important than short-term sales figures. In Mr. Stanek's view, NLP facilitates to adjust quickly to different personalities and situations. NLP in its tolerance towards other people helps sellers who deal with this kind of technique to accept that their customers may have different views and different opinions (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000). The following section tries to give clearer insight in Mr. Stanek's training methods and is supported by corresponding literature.
8.2
NLP Methods and Exercises in Communication (Training)
The course design in Mr. Stanek's seminars is individually suited to the very group. Therefore, it is not possible to describe a certain sequence of exercises or tasks. Mr.
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Stanek likes to work with surprise-effects. For example, at the beginning of a seminar when the participants introduce themselves, trainees are required to
memorise the first name and surname of the other participants. Everybody expects an exercise repeating the names to be the next step. Here, Mr. Stanek surprises his trainees by doing something completely different. Only at a later stage, trainees are asked to recall the names of all the others. According to Mr. Stanek the effect is that trainees receive a positive feeling of I can do that and thus are strengthened in their self-confidence.
Rapport, Pacing & Leading Furthermore, a long enough warming-up phase is also very important for a communication training. Mr. Stanek reports that this phase of getting to know each other and establishing rapport often lasts up to half a day in a two days seminar. It does not make sense to attack trainees immediately with a video training. A trainer needs to strive for transparency, because trainees need to know what they will be confronted with in the training. Fear and uncertainty must be taken away from trainees. It is important that the trainer creates an atmosphere where mistakes are allowed and that he / she excites the participants' curiosity. The exercises in the warming-up phase vary depending on the group's openness and flexibility. Sometimes, Mr. Stanek lets the group dance into a good morning and seminar start to establish a comfortable atmosphere.
Especially
for
human
beings
working
in
the
selling
business
the
ability
of
establishing good and stable rapport is a prerequisite. Too often sellers rely on their clients concerning building up good contact. However, this will only work if the customers depend on the seller's offer. Today, the situation is the other way round in most cases, and therefore it is the seller's task to establish good rapport (Schott 1996: 25).
In today's modern business world new media like mobile phones and e-mail often replace personal conversations between customers and sellers. Upon the author's question whether it is possible to establish rapport with these media as well Mr. Stanek answered that the telephone definitely allows building up good contact. The seller can adapt his voice in loudness and tonality, he / she can pick
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up the customer's choice of words, and thus pace and lead the conversation partner. Rapport via e-mail is rather difficult in Mr. Stanek's opinion, as the style of language is very short and precise. Eventually, taking over the same concise style may create rapport. It is, however, much more difficult than creating rapport in letters, for example.
Sales people often have to cope with the problem that rapport suddenly breaks up. Mr. Stanek mentioned in the interview that it is not possible to give any rules how to re-establish rapport again. The seller must, however, ask himself / herself what the reason for the rapport break-up was, which can be various, and then act accordingly (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000). In his book NLP - Die letzten Geheimnisse der Starverkufer Alfred Bierach gives several examples of rapport-killers: Minimising or making fun of the client's problem, criticising or evaluating the customer or pacing bad habits. These behaviours make it
impossible to build up trust and understanding what rapport is all about (Bierach 1990: 76 ff).
VAK in communication training & selling Mr. Stanek has made of the experience cannot that be in most cases the enough preferred in the
representational
system
trainees
filtered
clearly
training. Therefore, in his training sessions nearly everything is visualised and intensified by exercises. Consequently, all three modalities are addressed with the same intensity. Among the media he uses and exercises he applies are group work, role plays, educational conversations, videos and educational films,
flipchart, overhead, video beamer etc. With its VAK technique NLP is perfectly suitable for a learner-centred approach to teaching, as it addresses the individual. Everybody has one's own talents and abilities, and it is the trainer's task to make the trainee aware of his / her abilities and develop them.
This process can only take place when trainer and trainee are on the same level. An accompanying approach is needed. It will not work if there is a hierarchy of superior and subordinate between trainer and trainee (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000). For people in the sales business it is useful to address their customers' representational system for example with pictures or brochures
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(visual), with samples or models (kinaesthetic) or by telling stories and giving information about the product (auditory). It is, of course, also possible to pick up the customer's modality in his / her choice of words (Bandler 1995: 73 ff).
Metaphors: Mr. Stanek is highly in favour of using metaphors. Concerning selling, he advises the use of as many metaphors as possible from the client's area of business. Speaking the same language results in better rapport, and as a consequence the factual level becomes more effective and productive as well.
Anchoring Relaxing and activation exercises are part of every seminar in Mr. Stanek's courses. He tries to anchor these good emotional states of his trainees.
Modelling NLP's technique of modelling is easily applied in a communication training. Mr. Stanek reports that video training automatically induces modelling. Participants can see what the other trainees do well and model this behaviour. They
instinctively try out new things and incorporate good techniques they see from other trainees.
Future Pacing Mr. Stanek applies future pacing in connection with the formulation of aims. Trainees are requested to ask themselves how they feel when they have reached a certain goal. Triggering this positive feeling creates higher motivation in most cases. Consequently, future pacing can also be applied in time management, as high motivation usually leads to a more efficient working pace (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000).
Meta Model of Language Concerning the meta model of language Mr. Stanek is not very familiar with its use. In the interview, however, he stated that he can very well imagine its application in the selling business. Especially, discovering generalisations,
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making comparisons and asking the customer for details seems to be well applicable for him (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000). Successful sales people have the ability to ask the right questions to eliminate unclarity in the customer's style of language concerning generalisations, deletions and distortions (see Section 4.3.6). The following examples give clearer insight into the
precision probing technique:
Customer's statement
Precision Probing
Your competitors product is better.
Which competitor do you mean? Which product do you mean?
Sellers are very insistent.
Can you remember a sales person who was not insistent? Really all sellers?
I am waiting for the best offer. I would like something different.
The best offer compared to what? Different compared to what?
Figure 28: Precision Probing (Bandler 1996: 105ff)
Reframing NLP offers a huge variety of techniques and methods. This variety makes it possible for any trainer to pick up the techniques which suit him / her most, and as NLP is very individual it does not claim that every trainer has to make use of all techniques. Reframing, for example, does not fit into Mr. Stanek's personal repertoire. He can, however, imagine the use of the yes, and...-technique instead of the yes, but...-phrase the author referred to in the interview, which is suggested in Richard Bandler's and Paul Donner's book Die Schatztruhe - NLP im Verkauf as a solution to cope with objections made by the customer (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000). Bandler and Donner claim that agreement frames reinforce rapport, whereas the use of the word but destroys it. If the seller says I understand what you mean, but... he / she communicates that he / she actually does not understand what the customer means and creates objection. Consequently, sellers should replace the use of words like but, nevertheless, although by connecting words like and, because, as, etc. (Bandler 1995: 129
95
ff). In the second part of their book Bandler and Donner present a script with different selling situations and suggest solution patterns. In the interview Mr. Stanek stated that he himself thinks little about solution patterns, but that these patterns facilitate the selling of the book, as many persons expect concrete tips and solutions (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000).
Different Perspectives: Upon the author's question whether he applies any other NLP techniques in his training, Mr. Stanek mentioned the model of the three positions. A powerful possibility to promote flexible thinking is to take different positions. NLP lists three positions, i.e. three possibilities to look at any conversation. The first position is the individual's own reality, what the individual thinks due to his / her experience. The second position is the reality of another person in the same situation. Finally, the third perspective, the meta perspective, is the position to look at relationships from outside (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000). For example, a trainee asks the trainer a question. For the trainer being in the first position the answer is so clear that the trainer asks himself / herself why the participant asks such a question. In this case, it is helpful for the trainer to be able to look at the problem from the trainee's point of view. He / she will notice that a certain aspect of the explanation did not reach the trainee, thus he / she answers the question. From the third perspective, the meta position, the trainer can then see if the trainee is now content with the reply (O'Connor 1996: 52f). This model can be extremely helpful in the selling business, as the seller can take the customer's position and see what is not clear to him / her. As a result, better understanding is guaranteed and rapport is strengthened.
8.3
The following paragraphs concentrate on the presentation of the results that could be obtained from the quantitative study in Mr. Staneks seminar Communication,
which is a seminar teaching the basics of communication for employees of the Upper Austrian Raiffeisen Banking Group. The seminar does not only address employees who have constant contact with clients, but actually all employees, because good
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communication is a prerequisite for everyone who works in a team or deals with other people. Mr. Staneks seminar groups are very small, there are fourteen persons as a maximum in a course. For the authors case study, the questionnaire was distributed to a seminar group which counted eight people. Among this group, four persons were between 18 and 30 years old, and another four persons between 31 and 40 years. The proportion of sex was equally divided, 50 per cent female and 50 per cent male. Concerning their occupation, a full 100 per cent were employees of the Raiffeisen Banking Group in Upper Austria.
The data which could be obtained from the questionnaire are as follows:
100% 80% Percentage 60% 40% 20% 0%
very good S 100%
good 0%
Quality
average 0%
bad 0%
Figure 29: Quality of Seminar
The chart shown above says it all: 100 per cent judged the seminar to be very good, which is indeed a very good rating for the trainer.
A clear majority of 63 per cent liked the good and relaxed atmosphere in the course, which can be interpreted as a sign of good rapport among the group members and the trainer. Another 38 per cent appreciated the exchange of work experience, the
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examples and their closeness to reality. 25 per cent of the trainees liked the variety of the course design and the open communication which was possible throughout the seminar. The trainers flexibility, knowledge acquisition and the positive aspects also for private life were mentioned by another 13 per cent of the trainees. There was only one negative point mentioned by 13 per cent of the group, i.e. one group member: the use of the video camera. The trainee reported that its use is not realistic. The answer did not give any hint whether the trainee had had any negative experiences with this kind of media and, consequently, showed a feeling of fear, but it indicated that the person obviously has some rejections about being filmed with the camera.
80% 70% 60% Percentage 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% S very good 75% good 25% average 0% not at all 0%
The diagram gives a very clear impression of Mr. Staneks individual and learnercentred training. A vast majority of 75 per cent felt very well addressed as individual participants, 25 per cent judged the individuality to be good. One of the factors that may have contributed to this result is the fact that Mr. Stanek's seminar groups are very small, which makes it, of course, easier to address trainees individually than, for example, in a lecture at university.
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80,0% 60,0%
Percentage
40,0% 20,0% 0,0%

yes NLP S 25,0%
no 62,5%
no response 12,5%
Like in Ms. Arics Italian course, the answer of Mr. Staneks group upon the question of awareness which technique was used in the seminar is a clear no. 62,5 per cent of Mr. Staneks participants were not aware of the technique he applies, and 12,5 per cent did not give an answer at all. However, one quarter of his trainees found NLP as the correct answer, which is an increase by 19 per cent compared to Ms. Arics course where only six per cent responded with NLP. In the trainees description of technique some elements relating to NLP were found like addressing course. the participants various sensory stimuli and the individuality of the
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1 interesting varied professional useful individual learner-centred flexible
3 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0%
4 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0%
5 0,0% boring 0,0% one-sided 0,0% childish 0,0% useless 0,0% global 0,0% teacher-centred 0,0% rigid
87,5% 12,5% 62,5% 37,5% 75,0% 25,0% 87,5% 12,5%
25,0% 50,0% 25,0% 37,5% 50,0% 12,5% 50,0% 50,0% 0,0%
In the table shown above the author marked the highest percentage figures to facilitate the chart reading. The positive image of the communication seminar is beyond doubt. It can be seen clearly that the majority graded Mr. Staneks course with a one in five of seven cases. His seminar is very interesting, varied, professional, useful and flexible. Concerning the individual and learner-centred
approach 50 per cent voted for two. The neutral phase, three, was only marked twice: in the individual global and in the learner-centred teacher-centred pair of terms.

overhead slides filming with video-camera listening to music games with motion discussion listening to texts videos, films penboard blackboard group/pair work posters flipchart cards handouts role playing story telling
Figure 33: Recognised Media in Mr. Staneks Course
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Compared to the answers of Ms. Arics group, the answers to this question of Mr. Staneks trainees are much more homogenous. A full 100 per cent noticed the media videos and films, flipchart, recording with video camera, penboard, cards, listening to music, games with motion and group/pair work. Still 87 per cent marked role playing as being used in the seminar, 75 per cent noticed discussion and 50 per cent each could remember overhead slides, handouts and story telling. It has to be noticed that one trainee did not give any answer to whether the very media were used too much or too little. The majority was very content with the media and exercises. Only one trainee in each case found the recording with the video camera (compare to Question 2), listening to music and role playing too much. On the other hand, one participant in each case wanted more use of the flipchart, listening to music more often, more games with motion, more group and pair work and more discussion.
Criteria
trainer's positive aura not rigid, but flexible seating plan (semicircle) no pressure to succeed involvement of trainees, no frontal presentation open course, working together the person is most important, not a topic
13% 38% 13% 13% 13% 13% 25%
Figure 32 lists the answers that were given to this openly formulated question. The highest percentages of 38 per cent and 25 per cent refer to the trainers flexibility and to the fact that the person as individual is most important and not a specific topic like in other banking seminars. The other points mentioned by 13 per cent each case mention the trainers positive aura, sitting in a semicircle and not in rows like at
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school, the openness in the course and the trainees involvement and that there is no pressure to succeed.
100% 80%
Percentage
60% 40% 20% 0% S
yes 88%
partly 13%
no 0%
A vast majority of 87,5 per cent feel that they have acquired competencies and abilities to be useful for their further profession. The rest of the group voted for partly; noone felt that he / she did not acquire any new skills. Among the competencies mentioned by Mr. Staneks trainees were the ability to listen actively, to express oneself clearer and to adjust to a conversation partner in a better way. 13 per cent also reported that they had learned how to reduce tensions in a conversation and that they had become aware of what can go wrong in a conversation and how these situations can be handled in a better way.
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100% 80%
Percentage
60% 40% 20% 0% S very good 12,5% good 87,5% average 0,0% bad 0,0%
As the diagram demonstrated above shows, all of Mr. Staneks trainees feel very good or good when they think about putting the acquired competencies into practice. This is probably the best grade a trainer can get, as he / she has reached the goal of enabling students to make use of what they have learned in the seminar.
Question 10: Can you imagine that the design and technique of this seminar helps you in the following situation?
yes Language learning Communication Selling Content learning Preparing for exams 12,5% 100,0% 87,5% 50,0% 25,0%
maybe 62,5% 0,0% 12,5% 37,5% 50,0%
no 25,0% 0,0% 0,0% 12,5% 25,0%
n.r. 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
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From the numbers in Figure 37 it can be assumed that the seminar-technique has reached its purpose. A full 100 per cent of the participants feel that it helped them in the matter of communication, and a high majority of 87,5 per cent found it useful for selling. Even the techniques usefulness for content learning was agreed to by half of the participants. In this case, the situations of language learning and preparing for exams reflect uncertainty. In both cases, the majority could not decide between yes and no, probably because it is not relevant for their situation. A quarter of the trainees rejected it, whereas 12,5 per cent were convinced that such a seminar could also help them in their language learning and in preparing for exams. Like in Ms. Arics case study, Mr. Staneks trainees also gave additional information. 25 per cent reported that they had derived a very personal benefit for private and family life, especially in dealing with children.
eager to learn passive negative attitude expectant indifferent positive attitude motivated tired receptive relaxed concentrated tense under stress 13% 25% 25% 38% 0% 0% 0% 0%
50%
88%
100% 100%
63%
0%
10% 20%
30%
40%
50%
60% 70%
80%
90% 100%
Percentage
The diagram in Figure 36 gives a positive image about the emotional state of Mr. Staneks learners. The importance Mr. Stanek himself puts on a relaxed and friendly atmosphere is clearly reflected by his seminar participants. All of them had a positive
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attitude towards the course and felt motivated. 88 per cent were expectant about the course, 63 per cent felt receptive and half of the trainees were eager to learn. The involvement of learners is confirmed by the fact that no trainee at all marked the possibilities of passive, indifferent and negative attitude. However, compared to Ms. Arics course, the number of relaxed people is 10 per cent lower and counts 38 per cent. Furthermore, it can be noticed that 25 per cent of the trainees felt tense and 13 per cent under stress. The latter figure, which equals one person in Mr. Staneks course, may be identical with the trainee who did not like the recording with the video camera, which may have created a feeling of stress.
70% 60%
Percentage
50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

S auditory 0,0% visual 12,5% kinaesthetic 25,0% mixture 50,0% do not know 12,5%
Only 12,5 per cent of Mr. Staneks trainees think they are mainly visual, a quarter considers themselves to be kinaesthetic learner types, and one learner did not know. Like in Ms. Arics course, the highest percentage figure can be found at the mixture criteria. The 50 per cent who marked this point believed that they learn mainly in the visual and auditory modality.
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100% 80% Percentage 60% 40% 20% 0%

S very important 75% neutral 13% not very important 13% irrelevant do not know 0% 0%
Like in Ms. Arics seminar, the majority of Mr. Staneks trainees also considers a positive attitude as an important factor for learning success. 12,5 per cent each case, however, have a neutral position or do not attribute importance to this factor.
It is important to discover the joy of learning.
1 useful true practical strong effect relevant
3 0,0%
4 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0%
5 0,0% 0,0%
n.r. 0,0% useless 0,0% false
37,5% 62,5%
50,0% 37,5% 12,5% 25,0% 37,5% 25,0% 62,5% 12,5% 12,5% 37,5% 25,0% 25,0%
0,0% 12,5% theoretical 0,0% 12,5% weak effect 0,0% 12,5% irrelevant
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There is no failure, only feedback.
3 0,0%
5 n.r.
37,5% 37,5% 50,0% 25,0%
0,0% 12,5% 12,5% useless 0,0% false
0,0% 12,5% 12,5%
25,0% 12,5% 25,0% 12,5% 12,5% 12,5% theoretical 62,5% 0,0% 12,5% 0,0% 0,0% 12,5% 12,5% weak effect 0,0% 12,5% 12,5% irrelevant
37,5% 37,5%
Each behaviour has a positive intention.
5 n.r. 0,0% 0,0% useless 0,0% false
50,0% 12,5% 25,0% 12,5% 37,5% 37,5% 37,5% 0,0%
0,0% 25,0%
0,0% 37,5% 12,5%
0,0% 12,5% theoretical
25,0% 37,5%
0,0% 12,5% 12,5% 12,5% weak effect 0,0% 12,5% 12,5% irrelevant
37,5% 25,0% 12,5%
Figure 41: Beliefs
Like in the first case study, the author marked the highest percentage figures in the tables shown above. Compared to the answers that were given in Ms. Arics course, Mr. Staneks trainees show less uncertainty concerning the beliefs they were
confronted with. Concerning the joy of learning, the highest percentage figures can be found at the grades one and two only, and there are no fours and fives. The second belief, There is no failure, only feedback, seems to appeal very much to Mr. Staneks seminar participants and reflects clearly his personal attitude to open communciation and a safe learning environment. With the third belief, Each behaviour has a positive intention, the spread of the highest percentages is a little wider, but nevertheless the answers reflect a very positive attitude to this belief, much more than in Ms. Arics group, where the neutral position leads.
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important relevant not very
not important
n.r.
important at all
responsibility for own learning success decide oneself about time and place of learning select media oneself my interests should be met in the training possibility to give input in training nice and likeable trainer humour, joy and fun in the training flexibility of trainer rigid, good organised training programme have clear learning goals 87,5% 37,5% 37,5% 0,0% 25,0% 75,0% 75,0% 62,5% 0,0% 50,0% 12,5% 37,5% 50,0% 75,0% 25,0% 12,5% 25,0% 37,5% 37,5% 37,5% 0,0% 12,5% 12,5% 12,5% 37,5% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 50,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 12,5% 0,0% 12,5% 0,0% 12,5% 0,0% 0,0% 12,5% 12,5%
The pattern of the highest percentage figures of Ms. Arics students and Mr. Staneks trainees is very much alike. Responsibility for ones own learning success and autonomy concerning time, location and the selection of media as well as good rapport in the training and flexibility rank among the most important factors for learning. A rigid, good organised training programme is not very important for 50 per cent of the participants. The spread among the point possibility to give input in training, however, is eyecatching. A quarter each considers this point to be very important or at least relevant. For 38 per cent of Mr. Staneks trainees, however, it is not very important. The reasons for this high figure can only be guessed, the trainees did not give any further explanations for their decisions.
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0% 0% 0% 0% 87,5% 12,5%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80% 100%
Percentage
The results of this question of Mr. Staneks students are nearly the same than the ones of Ms. Arics students. 87,5 per cent know what NLP stands for, only one trainee gave his/her choice to Natural Linguistic Processes. From these results it can be assumed that Mr. Staneks training technique is familiar to his participants.
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NLP and Content Learning
Lernen ist wie Rudern gegen den Strom, wer aufhrt, treibt zurck. (Britten, B. as cited in Duden - Reden gut und richtig halten: 1994: 559). Preceding chapters of this thesis have already mentioned that we live in a fast moving world. Research in every field, technological progress, information
dissemination in the Internet's data-highway occur faster and faster, and noone who wants to keep up in business can permit himself/herself to stay behind. As a consequence, abilities how to cope with this huge amount of information have reached a high status in the business world, also among sales people in particular, as they are at the front dealing with the customer and need to know any details and new developments concerning the product, their company, or their industry. Students as well are confronted with many more information sources in their studies than they used to be a decade ago. The following case study is based upon an interview conducted with Professor Dr. Walter tsch, who teaches economics at the Johannes Kepler University. It intends to demonstrate possible approaches for students and anyone who has to fight his/her way through the information jungle how to prepare for and how to cope with performance anxiety, which is often connected to exams and presentations.
9.1
What Makes Content Learning Difficult
The interview started off with the author's question about what makes content learning sometimes so difficult for students. In the specific case of microeconomics Professor tsch stated that economics is very formal. Economics contains many models and in most cases it cannot be combined with any knowledge taught at an earlier stage of education. Consequently, the gap between theory and practice is very big, the trainer usually cannot take for granted that students at the beginning of their university studies already have acquired basic knowledge of economics.
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Furthermore, a sound knowledge of mathematics is needed to understand economics. This is, however, often a problem. In the beginning of this thesis the author stated that when children leave school they have often learned to hate learning. Professor tsch remarked in the interview that it is the same case with mathematics. Only when they hear the word maths many students' hair stand on end. Traditional schooling spoiled their joy of dealing with mathematical models. Therefore,
Professor tsch considers it of utmost importance to gain control of this horrorscenario.
In this connection it is also significant to be able to deal with performance anxiety. There are three types of performance:
the one you prepared, the one you gave, and the one you wished you had given. The first and third may be roughly similar - if only the middle one matched as well! (http://www.lambent.com/article.htm).
Fear of exams, being tested and being in the spotlight often create butterflies in one's stomach. The fear of failing is always present and overburdens the human body, which reacts with unease, chills, and blocks to creativity and humour. Negative stress, nervous feelings and negative internal dialogues consume a great deal of students' energy, and leave only little power for the imminent performance. The emotional state when one performs, however, has the greatest influence on success. Consequently, it can be very useful for students to learn how to befriend their inner critic and how to change anxiety into joy and challenge (Schott 1994: 7f and http://www.lament.com/article.htm).
9.2
The
NLP Methods and Exercises for Content Learning

further course of the interview concentrated on the possibilities how the
problems in connection with content learning mentioned above can be solved with the help of NLP.
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Representation and Development of Joy Professor tsch stated that it is, first of all, important to establish a personal relationship to the content. At school, interest and relation were united in the personality of the teacher. At university, this is different. Students need to become aware that they themselves and their personal learning success are
concerned and need to develop their own access to the content. The second step would be, for example in economics, to represent the formal models. These models need to be worked up in a suitable manner, visualising them, for instance, and practising this visualisation process. The third step would then be to develop interest and joy. In this connection, Professor tsch referred to NLP's concept of excellence. The trainer should create an atmosphere to enable students to
understand their individual excellence. Students should research and discover in themselves how they do the things they do well in such an excellent manner. They need to become aware of these patterns and then project them to the content they need to study or to the exam they are preparing for. Professor tsch mentioned hobbies as an example. In their hobbies, human beings are able to learn very much in a short time and to proceed quickly. They simply devour books dealing with their hobby and memorise this content easily. According to Professor tsch, finding out how one is able to perform to excellence will be one of the most important abilities in future. Students should be able to develop an internal model how they are able to learn quickly and effic iently, for example, how to be able to read ten books a week and enjoy it.
Learning is a permanent process. Professor tsch also stated that it would also be possible to ask oneself What hinders me in my learning? Is it school or the institution university? Today, information is abundant, just thinking about the medium Internet, it is only necessary to find an access that creates joyful learning.
Emotional State - Beliefs and Rapport As mentioned in the preceding section, a good emotional state is very important for joyful learning how to and good gain performance. control of Professor the horror tsch vision suggested of two
possibilities
failing:
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The first one is to develop an inner simulation process. Students should change the worst case scenario, which is failing the exam, into a positive one. Therefore it is necessary to establish new inner beliefs. The inner critic that constantly tells me I should and I cannot needs to be befriended. A critic can be a good friend, and a necessary part of the creative process. Consequently, the critic needs to be reframed. One possibility to do so is to listen for the positive intentions of one's inner critic and to reformulate negative beliefs. I should do well becomes I can do well and I must not make this mistake, becomes I will not make this mistake.
Secondly, according to Professor tsch non-verbal contacts with one's examiner play an important role for success as well. Social competence is important, because the examiner also evaluates the quality of the social relationship, which may affect the mark the student gets by one or two grades. Therefore,
establishing good rapport is very useful for examinees.
Furthermore, Professor tsch cares very much about the emotional state of his students in the lecture. In his opinion, the trainer has two roles. Firstly, he/she defines the social situation, and secondly, he/she is a coach, a mentor to encourage students to learn. The latter function is very important in Professor tsch's view, because it is much easier to learn if one feels well. In this context, however, he criticises the university as a very hierarchical institution. He stated that university is very authoritarian, in particular in the German speaking world. This construction makes students appear authoritarian as well, because they act very little. Consequently, it should be a trainer's prime intention to encourage students to contribute more input in the training and to take them out of their passiveness.
Reframing Professor tsch stressed the significance of students' attitudes towards an exam. He mentioned that probably the expression exam or Prfung in itself is wrong, as it immediately creates a negative anchor and triggers stressful feelings. Professor tsch supports a change from exam to feedback. In this sense,
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reframing takes place, because the exam receives a different context. Professor tsch advises students to see exams with the attitude of a sportsmanship. The worst attitude in his opinion is to combine the exam with one's identity, like There is so much to learn, it is so difficult, and I am too stupid to learn it.
VAK in content learning: Concerning media, Professor tsch mainly uses overhead slides. He himself is very strongly visually oriented, and this is also reflected in his teaching. He stated that some good simulation programmes would be available, but he does not use them in his teaching. In Professor tsch's view, visual and auditory learner types are well addressed at university, kinaesthetic learners, however, are strongly neglected. Again, he considers the university in its hierarchical
construction to be the cause, but he does not break through these limitations.
9.3
To provide a congruent methodology a quantitative study was executed in one of Professor tschs courses as well. The questionnaire was distributed in the lecture Microeconomics, which is part of the curriculum students of Ecnomics have to go through. 20 students in the first part of their degree were questioned, and a full 100 per cent of them were between 18 and 30 years old. Concerning sex, 40 per cent of the sample were female, 60 per cent male. The majority, i.e. 80 per cent, of Professor tschs trainees were full-time students at the Johannes Kepler University, only 20 per cent were part-time students.
After having presented the results from Ms. Arics and Mr. Staneks group, the following paragraphs finally show the analysis of Professor tschs students of microeconomics.
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100% 80%
Percentage
60% 40% 20% 0% O very good 70% good 25%

Quality
average 5%
bad 0%
Figure 44: Quality of Lecture
Concerning the quality of Professor tsch's lecture his students give very positive feedback about his teaching. 70 per cent of his trainees judged the lecture to be very good, a quarter found it good, and only 5 per cent gave average grades to the microeconomics lecture.
35 per cent of Professor tsch's students valued the open teaching he pursues and that he looks for dialogue with his students. Some students even referred to an atmosphere where students are allowed to make mistakes and are not supposed to be perfect already at the beginning of the course. They also gave positive feedback concerning the good and exact explanations Professor tsch gives, and even 30 per cent explicitly liked his overhead-slides and how he visualises processes. Another 15 per cent of the trainees judged very positively that Professor tsch treats problems from different perspectives and offers several approaches how to solve the very problem. Consequently, it is possible for each individual student to find his / her preferred access to the problem. In this case, Professor tsch's students reported exactly what he stated in the interview to facilitate content learning, i.e. that students need to find a personal access or relation to the content to study.
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Among the criteria that came-up in the section what I did not like, 15 per cent reported that the pace in the lecture was too quick. Another five per cent each case did not like the request for feedback and claimed that the lecture does not have enough structure.
80% 70% 60% Percentage 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% O very good 55% good 45% average 0% not at all 0%
Like Ms. Aric 's and Mr. Stanek's trainees, Professor tsch's students also give positive feedback concerning individuality. 55 per cent felt very well addressed as individual participants, the rest of 45 per cent judged the individuality to be good. This result is remarkable in that way that Professor tsch's course was a lecture, which traditionally is very global and teacher-centred at university compared to a seminar.
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80,0%
60,0%
Percentage
40,0%
20,0%
0,0%
yes NLP O 0,0%
no 40,0%
no response 15,0%
The answers of Professor tsch's students about the awareness of the technique applied differentiate a little from those of Ms. Aric's or Mr. Stanek's trainees. 40 per cent reported they were not aware of the technique, and 15 per cent did not give an answer at all. 45 per cent, however, believed in their awareness, but did not mention NLP. Nevertheless, in their description several criteria come very close to NLP's principles, for example visualisation and explaining contexts with pictures, inviting students problems to participate in actively, an addressing manner students and individually, Professor working on
together
interactive
tsch's
flexibility.
Compared to Ms. Aric's and Mr. Stanek's students, however, noone mentioned NLP explicitly.
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1 interesting varied professional useful individual learner-centred flexible 35% 5% 25% 25% 10% 50% 30%
2 50%
5 0% boring 0% one-sided 0% childish 0% useless 0% global 0% teacher-centred 5% rigid
5% 10%
60% 25% 10% 45% 30% 0%
30% 35% 10% 35% 45% 10% 25% 20% 40% 25% 5% 0%
Like in the case studies before, the highest percentage figure of each term-pair is marked. It can be seen that the grades are quite good, especially the learner-centred approach individual is eyecatching. global The neutral may be positions explained at the by useful the useless of and
criteria
difficulty
learning
economics Professor tsch referred to in the interview, i.e. the gap to practice due to its formality and the fact that students have only little basic knowledge of economics when they begin their university degree.

overhead-slides group-/pair-work colours blackboard individual work story telling handouts discussion
Figure 48: Recognised Media in Prof. tschs Lecture
The answers given to this question reflect clearly what Professor tsch stated in the interview, i.e. that he is very visually oriented and designs his lectures and courses accordingly. A full 100 per cent of his students were aware of his overhead-slides and liked their use, which was already mentioned in the analysis of Question 2.
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Furthermore, Professor tsch's students noticed the use of the blackboard, handouts, group- and pair-work as well as individual work, discussion and the use of colours. Four students referred to another technique to the use of which Professor tsch did not refer to: story telling. From the detailed numbers in the appendix it can be seen that most students are content with the use of media, some, however, would have liked the use of videos, the flipchart, cards, songs and music, role-playing, computer games and CD-ROMS, or more story-telling. One can draw the conclusion that mainly the kinaesthetic and auditory learners are speaking in these answers.

Criteria %
no difference to other lectures students' contributions are welcome and requested practical examples student-centred, eye-contact, conversation with students understandable interesting, motivating course design lively and varied personality of teacher no response
5% 30% 5% 15% 15% 5% 5% 5% 5% 25%
A quite high number, 25 per cent, did not give an answer to this question, which makes the author question herself, whether the question was not formulated clearly enough. 30 per cent, however, mentioned that the trainer welcomes students'
contributions. Another 15 per cent wrote that the course is very student-centred, that the trainer keeps eye-contact with the participants and that in comparison to other courses Professor tsch's lecture is very understandable. Five per cent in each case valued the practical examples, the interesting and motivating course design and the personality of the teacher. Only five per cent did not find any difference to other courses at university.
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100% 80%
Percentage
60% 40% 20% 0% O yes 55% partly 45% no 0%
Compared to the answers of Ms. Aric's and Mr. Stanek's students more uncertainty concerning the acquisition of important competencies can be noticed among
Professor tsch's students. 55 per cent marked yes, whereas 45 per cent decided for partly. The reason for the increased equality of this distribution may again lie in economics' formality and in the gap to practice. Among the acquired competencies that were mentioned by trainees were the visualisation of processes, economic and analytical thinking and knowledge and the ability how to transfer knowledge to colleagues.
100% 80% Percentage 60% 40% 20% 0% O very good 10% good 75% average 10% bad 5%
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A clear majority, i.e. three quarters, of Professor tsch's students feel good about putting the acquired competencies into practice. The feelings very good and
average balance each other with ten per cent. Only five per cent have severe doubts about applying what they have learned in practice.
yes Language learning Communication Selling Content learning Preparing for exams 10% 25% 25% 70% 70%
maybe
no
n.r. 15% 15% 15% 0% 0%
10% 65% 30% 30% 30% 30% 20% 10% 25% 5%
The results of this question are remarkable in the following way. A clear majority of 65 per cent rejected the course design's use for language learning, and 60 per cent each case found it doubtful or useless for communication and selling. The reasons for these answers would be worth further investigation, for example whether these students have already attended any language classes at university. The author herself tried to find out more about the background by examining the course of study for economics. The results of this question are even more surprising, as she found out that one foreign language to the extent of eight hours is a compulsory component of the first part of the economics degree, including communication training, language training for specific purposes, case-studies and a lecture about foreign culture. The foreign language, which can either be English, French, Spanish, Russian or Italian is ranked as a Vorprfung in the first diploma exam (http://sowi.oeh.uni-
linz.ac.at./plans/140.htm). A clear agreement by 70 per cent, however, is given to the technique's usefulness for content learning and for the preparation for exams, which gives evidence that Professor tsch's lecture has reached its purpose.
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eager to learn passive negative attitude expectant indifferent positive attitude motivated tired receptive relaxed concentrated tense under stress
45% 15% 0% 20% 5% 95% 35% 10% 70% 35% 45% 5% 0%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90% 100%
Percentage
An overwhelming majority of 95 per cent showed a positive attitude towards the lecture. In fact, Professor tsch's course must have been very captivating, as 70 per cent felt receptive, 45 per cent were eager to learn and concentrated, 35 per cent relaxed and motivated. Only five and ten per cent had indifferent or tense feelings or felt tired. Nobody had a negative attitude or felt under stress, which indicates that the course must have taken place in a relaxed and harmonious atmosphere.
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70% 60%
Percentage
50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

O auditory 0% visual 30% kinaesthetic 0% mixture 70% do not know 0%
Figure 54 clearly reflects Professor tsch's teaching style, as 30 per cent of his students think that they are primarily visually oriented. 70 per cent, however, are convinced that they cannot definitely say which learner type they are. The mixture presents itself as follows:
70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

O
Percentage
vis+aud 45%
vis+kin 20%
vis+aud+kin 5%
Figure 55: Mixed Learner-types Distribution
The highest figure of 45 per cent in the diagram shown above corresponds to the answers of Ms. Aric's and Mr. Stanek's students who also responded that their preferred modalities are visual and auditory. However, the number of Professor tsch's students who are visually and kinaesthetically oriented counts for 20 per cent, and is more than twice as high than in Ms. Aric's course, for example.
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100% 80% Percentage 60% 40% 20% 0%
O very important 85% not very important 5%
neutral 10%
irrelevant do not know 0% 0%
The results of this question are very similar to the ones in Ms. Aric's and Mr. Stanek's courses. 85 per cent of Professor tsch's students think that a positive attitude is very important for their personal learning success. Only 10 per cent consider it to be neutral, and only five per cent attribute little significance to this factor.
It is important to discover the joy of learning.
1 useful true practical strong effect relevant 45% 55% 25% 40% 40%
2 40% 20% 35% 40% 35%
3 5% 20% 25% 15% 20%
4 0% 0% 5% 0% 0%
5 n.r. 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 10% useless 5% false 10% theoretical 5% weak effect 5% irrelevant
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There is no failure, only feedback.
2 35% 35% 35% 15% 35%
3 20% 15% 15% 45% 25%
4 5% 10% 5% 10% 5%
Each behaviour has a positive intention.
2 25% 15% 20% 25% 15%
3 40% 35% 50% 30% 55%
4 10% 20% 10% 20% 5%
Figure 57: Beliefs
From the tables in Figure 57 it can be seen that the joy of learning obviously is very important for Professor tsch's students, as the highest percentage figures can be found at the grades one and two, and nobody marked this belief with a five. It can be noticed, however, that throughout the given beliefs between five and 15 per cent of Professor tsch's students did not give an answer. The second belief, There is no failure, only feedback, was judged positively as well. Students seem to have a good attitude to this believe, which may result from the fact that Professor tsch's students are allowed to make mistakes, as they already reported in their answers to Question 2. Concerning the third belief that each behaviour has a positive intention the pattern of answers is similar to Ms. Aric's group where the neutral positions hold the highest percentage figures.
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very important
relevant
not very
not important
important at all
responsibility for own learning success decide oneself about time and place of learning select media oneself my interests should be met in the training possibility to give input in training nice and likeable trainer humour, joy and fun in the training flexibility of trainer rigid, good organised training programme have clear learning goals
85% 65% 20% 45% 45% 35% 40% 45% 25% 65%
15% 35% 40% 40% 35% 40% 55% 40% 50% 30%
0% 0% 40% 15% 20% 25% 5% 15% 25% 5%
0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
From the answers to this question it can be concluded that Professor tsch's economics students are already very far along on their way to autonomous learning. 85 per cent consider it to be very important to take over responsibility for their own learning success, and 65 per cent want to decide themselves about time and location of learning and have clear learning goals. Concerning interests and the possibility to give input in the training Professor tsch's students are in the lead, compared to Ms. Aric's and Mr. Stanek's trainees. Humour, joy and fun in the training as well as a flexible and likeable trainer also rank among relevant criteria for learning. It is remarkable, however, that for 80 per cent of the questioned trainees the selection of media is only secondary.
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15% 5% 5% 10% 45% 20%
0%
20%
40% 60% Percentage
80% 100%
The answers to this question are rather differentiated compared to the other two case studies, where 88 per cent each case gave the correct answer of Neuro Linguistic Programming and only 12 and 13 per cent marked Natural Linguistic Programming. Only 45 per cent of Professor tsch's students voted for the correct answer, another 20 per cent gave their choice to Natural Linguistic Programming. However, several students also chose the other possibilities and 15 per cent did not give an answer at all.
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PART III
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
128
10 Critical Thoughts and Recommendations
Part II of this thesis has presented several possibilities of NLP's application in training situations and the feedback trainees gave to their trainers in a very detailed manner.
After having studied these results one can say that the questioned trainees draw a very positive picture about the courses they attended. Quality and individuality as well as the practical touch of the seminars are shown in a favourable light. Furthermore and foremost, the majority of the trainees appreciated the relaxed
atmosphere in the courses, seem to be very well aware of their preferred learning styles, and have the feeling of having acquired important competencies for their studies or profession.
It has to be mentioned, however, that teacher preferences also have influence on trainees. This aspect was reflected at some points in the case studies. Professor tsch, for instance, stated himself that he is primarily visually oriented (tsch, personal interview, May 9, 2000); this preferred modality is reflected in a high figure of his students, 30 per cent, who also consider themselves to be visual learner types. Mr. Stanek is another example. His personal preference for a comfortable learning environment, which was already mentioned in Chapter 6 of this thesis, is reflected by his trainees who favour the good and relaxed atmosphere in his courses.
Although the majority were not aware that it was NLP that the trainers applied in the seminars, the techniques appealed to them, which can be concluded from their answers to the questions what they liked in the seminar and in which way the very seminar is different from others. From these answers it can be assumed that the trainers who were interviewed apply NLP techniques in a very sensitive and serious manner, which is very important indeed, as in the course of studying literature the author has come across several examples that produce a negative image of NLP. In addition, all three experts stated in the interviews that NLP has several weaknesses and that the danger of abuse is certainly given.
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Mr. Stanek, for example, sees NLP's weaknesses mainly in the transfer of the concept. In his opinion, if trainers offer an NLP-Master course to be completed in three weeks, this is not to be taken seriously, but rather to be regarded as dangerous. Furthermore, there are no requirements to be met for the attendance of an NLPPractitioner or an NLP-Master course. Mr. Stanek reported that some trainers believe they can also work in therapy when they have completed the Master course. This is, however, very dangerous when it goes into the changing of beliefs. Concerning this point, Ms. Aric agrees as well, and warns of a too unconcerned application of NLP, especially with psychologically weak persons. As already mentioned in Section 7.2 of this thesis, the effects can be quite bad, if a trainer does not know how to deal with a trainee, if an anchor triggers negative feelings. This critique is also met by Professor tsch. He stated that NLP has a quality problem, as its application is often uncontrolled. No doubt that NLP offers a variety of pragmatic methods that can easily be developed further, but according to Professor tsch NLP lacks theory, and its moral optionality is definitely a problem. This leads the author to the problem of manipulation, which throws negative light on NLP. Some authors describe NLP as the turbocar for selling and offer it to the reader as an effective instrument of suggestion to boost one's own selling targets (Bachmann 1999: 54 f).
Furthermore, some authors try to give advice to megateaching with NLP in a way that lets these techniques appear absurd and grotesque. For instance, they
recommend to use anchoring in a mainly kinaesthetic way by touching trainees to trigger certain feelings. These authors forget, however, to deal with the problem how to establish acceptance of students for touching them regularly. Another example is their suggestion of the individual observation of eye-movement patterns in the
classroom. Apart from the fact that this technique requires a certain amount of practical experience, the question of how such an individual observation in a regular classroom with approximately 20 students can be done is left unanswered
(Bachmann 1999: 56f.). The author would like to emphasise that none of her experts referred to the technique of observing eye-movement patterns in the interview, even though they were given various opportunities. This is probably an indication that this technique is not applicable in a training situation where between eight and 30 individuals participate. An empirical study executed by Jens Schiermann also could
130
not prove the correlation between the prime representational system and accessing cues (Bachmann 1999: 208).
Ms. Aric claimed in the interview that particularly American literature tries to sell NLP too much like a recipe. This statement is met by practical examples the author found while sounding out literature as well as by a critical evaluation of Winfried Bachmann. Bachmann states that a too literal translation from English into German and a direct transfer from therapy to pedagogy may create problems. Preliminary, it is necessary to find out the conditional framework of the various situations to avoid initially good approaches and ideas being turned into the opposite (Bachmann 1999: 57f). The author would like to mention Bruce King's book, Psycho-Verkauf
(Psycho-Selling), as a negative example to show how some authors make NLPtechniques appear ridiculous. This book was translated from English into German by Annemarie Pumpernig and Stephan Gebauer, and reduces NLP's techniques of
rapport and pacing to mimicry. King claims that mimicry directly addresses the client's subconscious and, consequently, is very effective. He advises the seller to imitate the customer as quickly and exactly as possible and gives several examples. For instance, he writes, if the customer has one hand in his/her pocket, the seller is advised to do the same, if the customer crosses his/her arms, the seller should take the same position, if the customer plays with his/her ball-point, the seller should also start to play with it, etc. The list of examples goes on, and King is convinced that the seller's exact imitation of the client will make the signing of the contract only a formality (King 1993: 74ff). The strategy as it is described in this book is strictly rejected by the experts the author interviewed. Mr. Stanek reported that such a behaviour will provoke the client rather than establish good rapport as a basis for leading, as he/she will probably feel mimicked or caricatured. Rapport can rather be compared to dancing, where one partner does not imitate the other one, but adjusts and follows the movements (Stanek, personal interview, April 5, 2000).
Another point of critique of NLP is that many of its concepts are not new. Rapport, for example, incorporates all good rules of communication which may already be known by persons who have never dealt with NLP, just like reframing and using metaphors are not new either. Giving a situation a different frame and using analogies was already done years ago, when people told fairy-tales and fables to
131
teach a certain behaviour. One can get the feeling that in NLP old techniques receive a different cloth, which also leads to the constraint that NLP has a lot of jargon. The positive intention of jargon is to enable communication and to express complex thoughts in a simple way. The constraint of the technical vocabulary is, however, that it makes NLP seem distant, academic and hard to understand
(O'Connor 1997).
In this context it might also be interesting to refer to an interpretation of Josef O'Connor that NLP is trapped by its name which gives its operating metaphor. The meaning of the components of the term NLP was already explained in the theoretical part of this thesis. According to O'Connor the term Programming is the one that creates problems. It is a mechanistic computer metaphor, it is called a
technology and sometimes installation is mentioned as well. Drawing out this mechanical metaphor may lead to a view that excellence comes packaged like a software programme. Brains, however, are not like computers, because human-
beings are all different, which is, in fact, one of NLP's principles. The mechanical metaphor of Programming reduces individuals to mechanical models (O'Connor
1997). Metaphors are powerful and shape human-beings' thinking. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to use them cautiously, which the operating metaphor in the term NLP shows.
Derived from these constraints it is recommended to apply NLP techniques which touch the psyche of an individual, i.e. anchoring for instance, only with great sensitivity. A sound knowledge of its techniques and practical training are also a prerequisite for a responsible application of NLP. If these conditions are given, which in the case-study situations was certainly the case, NLP is definitely an enrichment for any training situation. Its openness and flexibility allow a wide range of application, and it is important to bear in mind that not every technique suits every person. Mr. Stanek is a good example. For him, many NLP elements are very applicable and pragmatic, but some of them do not appeal to him. NLP's repertoire leaves it to the trainer and learner to pick out the elements they feel comfortable with. In this way, the learner-centred approach of NLP cannot be denied. What is needed, however, is an open training culture. It is therefore recommended to try to break up any hierarchical structures, especially at university, which hinder NLP in its
132
application and to provide for a climate where kinaesthetic learners are served as well.
Whether the application of NLP in training situations works the same way in other than the Western European culture, where it was examined, would certainly be worth further investigation. Concerning the distribution of NLP instruments the author
agrees with a statement made by Professor tsch:
NLP instruments are fantastic. They should be spread and become commonly used, as these techniques provide valuable opportunities to stabilise, motivate and encourage oneself and one's own learning process, which will be very important in future (tsch, personal interview, May 9, 2000).
133
11 References
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Bachmann, W. (1999). Das Neue Lernen - Eine systematische Einfhrung in das Konzept des NLP. Paderborn: Junfermann. Bachmann, W. and Priester, A. (1992). Win-Win Die Handschrift des erfolgreichen Verkufers. Paderborn: Junfermann. Bandler, R. and Donner, P. (1995) Die Schatztruhe - NLP im Verkauf . Paderborn: Junfermann. Barr, R. and Tagg, J. (year unknown). Comparing Education Paradigms. [online] Available: http://www.cai.pcc.edu/tlc/assess/tch-lrn.htm. (March 28, 2000). Baxter Magolda, M. and Terenzini, P. (year unknown). Learning and Teaching in the 21st Century: Trends and Implications for Practice. [online] Available: http://www.acpa.nche.edu/seniorscholars/trends/trends4.htm. (March 31, 2000). Beaver, D. (1999). NLP and Lazy Language Learning. [online]. Available: http://www.tefl.net/ezine/99-03.htm. (November 25, 1999). Bierach, A. (1990). NLP - Die letzten Geheimnisse der Starverkufer. Landsberg/Lech: Verlag Moderne Industrie. Bierbaum., G., Marwitz, K. and May, H. (1997). Happy Selling - Der geniale Verkufer. Landsberg am Lech: mvg-Verlag. Blackerby, D. (1999). Help for Troubled Youth - Finding The Missing Piece to the Puzzle. [online] Available: http://www.new-oceans.co.uk/ednet (November 24, 1999). Brewster, E. M. (1995). Vocationally Oriented Language Learning: Problems, Possibilities, Perspectives. Vienna: Braunmller. Cohen, Robert L. (1991). The Penguin Dictionary of Quotations. London: Penguin Group. Darpe, F. (1996). Die Kommunikationskunst des NLP. [online] Available: http://www.nlp.at/was/fd1.htm (November 24, 1999). Decker, F. (1995). Die neuen Methoden des Lernens und der Vernderung - Lernund Organisationsentwicklung mit NLP, Kinesiologie und Mentalpdagogik . Mnchen: Lexika Verlag. Deelen, M. (1996). NLP fr VerkuferInnen - Kunden verstehen, Kreativ verkaufen. Wien: Signum. Dilts, R. (1999). Anchoring. [online]. Available: http://www.nlpu.com/Articles/artic28.htm (December 17, 1999).
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Dilts, R. (1998). Eye Movements and NLP. [online] Available: http://www.nlpu.com/Articles/artic14.htm (December 17, 1999) Eccles, J. (1990). Das Gehirn des Menschen. Mnchen. Edelmann, W. (1996). Lernpsychologie. Weinheim: Psychologie Verlags Union. Fortmller, R. (1991). Lernpsychologie - Grundkonzeptionen, Theorien, Forschungsergebnisse. Wien: MANZ Verlags- und Universittsbuchhandlung. Gronwald, S., Rust, H. and Schmalholz Claus G. (August 1999). Von drauen nach oben. manager magazin, 8/99: 137-150. Hall, L. M. and Bodenhamer, B. (1999). Glossary of Terms. [online]. Available: http://www.neurosemantics.com/Articles/Glossary.htm (September 4, 2000). Harris Helm, J. and Gronlund, G. (March 1999). Linking Assessment and Teaching in the Crucial Early Years. In Classroom Leadership Online [online]. Available: http://www.ascd.org/readingroom/classlead/9903/1mar99.html (April 12, 2000). Hurst, B. (1996). The Handbook of Communication Skills. London: Kogan Page. Jonassen, D. (1992). What are Cognitive Tools? In: Kommers, P., Jonassen, D. and Mayes, J. (eds.) Cognitive Tools for Learning, (pp. 1-6), Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. Kailer, N. (1994). Neue Lernformen in der betrieblichen Weiterbildung und bei Bildungstrgern. Grundlagen der Weiterbildung 5/1994, pp. 242-245. King, B. (1993). Psycho-Verkauf - So verdoppeln Sie Ihr Einkommen in 8 Wochen. Wien: Wirtschaftsverlag Ueberreuter. Maguire, T. (1997). Modelling Efficient Reading Strategies. [online]. Available: http://www.xtec.es/~jmaguire/index.htm. (November 25, 1999). Maisberger, P. (1993). Weiterbildung skeptisch beugt. Grundlagen der Weiterbildung 4/1993, pp. 191-198. Mayer Wamos, A. (1994). Fremdsprachen erfolgreich lehren und lernen - Neue Wege mit NLP. Paderborn: Junfermann. Mayes, J. (1992). Cognitive Tools: A Suitable Case for Learning. In: Kommers, P., Jonassen, D. and Mayes, J. (eds.) Cognitive Tools for Learning, (pp. 7-17), Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. McKey, P. (1997). Instruction in a Learning Environment. [online] Available: http://www.bigtree.com.au/redbean/masters/03-Chapter3.html. (April 4, 2000).
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Mietzel, G. (1997). Wege in die Entwicklungspsychologie. Weinheim: Psychologie Verlags Union. O'Connor, J. (1997). Does NLP have a future? [online]. Available: http://www.lament.com/article2.htm (May 30, 2000). O'Connor, J. and Seymour, J. (1996). Weiterbildung auf neuem Kurs - NLP fr Trainer, Referenten und Dozenten. Freiburg im Breisgau: VAK, Verl. fr Angewandte Kinesiologie. tsch, W. (1996). linzer akademie fr nlp. [online]. Available: http://www.nlp.at. (July 5, 2000). tsch, W. (1996). was ist nlp, wozu nlp? linzer akademie fr nlp. [online]. Available: http://www.nlp.at/was.htm (August 25, 1999) tsch, W. (2000). Frage-Techniken des NLP. In NLP.at - Das NLP Lexikon. [online]. Available: http://www.nlp.at/lexikon_neu/show.php3?input=78. (March 27, 2000). tsch, W. (2000). Meta-Modell der Sprache. In NLP.at - Das NLP Lexikon. [online]. Available: http://www.nlp.at/lexikon_neu/show.php3?input=161. (March 27, 2000). tsch, W. (2000). Metapher. In NLP.at - Das NLP Lexikon. [online]. Available: http://www.nlp.at/lexikon_neu/show.php3?input=162. (March 27, 2000). tsch, W. (2000). Milton-Modell. In NLP.at - Das NLP Lexikon. [online]. Available: http://www.nlp.at/lexikon_neu/show.php3?input=165. (March 27, 2000). tsch, W. (2000). Modellieren, Modell-Bildung, Modellier-Proze, modeling. In NLP.at - Das NLP Lexikon. [online]. Available: http://www.nlp.at/lexikon_neu/show.php3?input=174. (March 27, 2000). tsch, W. (2000). Verallgemeinerung, Generalisierung. In NLP.at - Das NLP Lexikon. [online]. Available: http://www.nlp.at/lexikon_neu/show.php3?input=293. (March 27, 2000). tsch, W. (2000). Wahrnehmungs-Filter. In NLP.at - Das NLP Lexikon. [online]. Available: http://www.nlp.at/lexikon_neu/show.php3?input=310. (March 27, 2000). Rosenberg, M. (2000). NLP Strategies for the English Classroom. [unpublished handout]. Wirtschaftsfrderungsinstitut Steiermark. (February 4, 2000) Rosenberg, M. (February, 4 and February 5, 2000). NLP fr Sprachtrainer. Seminar, WIFI-Gstehaus, Graz. Schermer, F. (1998). Lernen und Gedchtnis. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
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Schott, B. and Birker, K. (1994). Prfungsstre ade. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH. Schott, B. and Birker, K. (1996). Souvern mit Kunden umgehen. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH. Seeler, D.C., Turnwald, G.H. and Bull K.S. (1994) From Teaching to Learning: Part III. Lectures and Approaches to Active Learning. In Journal of Veterinary Medical Education [online]. Available: http://www.borg.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JVME/V21-1/Seeler1.html. (April 3, 2000). Springer, S. and Deutsch, G. (1988): Linkes - rechtes Gehirn: Funktionelle Asymmetrien. Heidelberg.
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12 Appendix
12.1 Glossary of Terms
12.2 Guide for Interview Questions
12.3 Questionnaire
12.4 Analysis of Questionnaire
12.5 What Type of Learner are You?
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Learner-centred Training with NLP

Part I: Learning and Neuro-Linguistic-Programming A Theoretical Discourse

Neuro - Linguistic-P r o g r a m m i n g ( N L P ) ................................................................................ 30

Learner-centred Training with NLP

C o m b i n i n g N L P - E l e m e n t s w i t h L e a r n i n g T h e o r i e s ........................................................45 NLP as a Modern and Holistic Concept ...............................................................................47

Part II: NLP in Practice

NLP in Training Situations ......................................................................................................... 59 N L P a n d L a n g u a g e L e a r n i n g .................................................................................................... 66

Learner-centred Training with NLP

Part III: Conclusions and Recommendations

Learner-centred Training with NLP

Learner-centred Training with NLP

Learner-centred Training with NLP

Learner-centred Training with NLP

commonplace. These are interesting times, aren't they?

Learner-centred Training with NLP

May these pages be of interest to you.

Learner-centred Training with NLP

2 The Nature of Learning

knowledge (O'Connor 1996: 24).

Learner-centred Training with NLP

Learner-centred Training with NLP

Figure 1: Examples for mnemonics (Mietzel 1997: 135).

mnemo-techniques spontaneously and

consequently have more difficulties in memorising these word-pairs (Ibid).

From the statement above, another distinction has to be made

Learner-centred Training with NLP

Information Data plus...

Knowledge Information plus...

Learning -> Skill Knowledge plus...

* Meaning * Understanding of patterns and relationships

Beliefs Commitments Assumptions Design for application

* Application / action * Adaptation after application

Figure 2: From Data to Knowledge and Learning (modified from: http://www.simplerwork.com/d/d3.thm)

The Brain as a Basis for Learning

Learner-centred Training with NLP

musical pictures patterns geometrical

arithmetical analytical abstract

threedimensional homogenous concrete

Figure 3: Functions of the Hemispheres (Edelmann 1996: 31)

Learner-centred Training with NLP

Programming) will also be shown in Section 4.5 of this thesis.

Other Factors of Influence on Learning

Learner-centred Training with NLP

remembers what he/she has seen in the seminar.

Learner-centred Training with NLP

Learner-centred Training with NLP

unconditioned stimulus = food

unconditioned reaction (salivation)

neutral + unconditioned stimulus = sound + food

unconditioned reaction (salivation) conditioned reaction (salivation)

neutral stimulus = conditioned stimulus (sound)

Figure 4: Schematic Summary of Classical Conditioning (Schermer 1998: 26)

2.4.2 Instrumental Learning (Operant Conditioning)

Learner-centred Training with NLP

invented what is known as programmed teaching (Schermer 1998: 78f).

Learner-centred Training with NLP

2.4.3 Observational Learning

emphasises the internal regulation of a person (Edelmann 1996: 281ff).