Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

Unshielded twisted pair UTP cables are found in many Ethernet networks and telephone systems. For indoor telephone applications, UTP is often grouped into sets of 25 pairs according to a standard 25-pair color code originally developed by AT&T. A typical subset of these colors (white/blue, blue/white, white/orange, orange/white) shows up in most UTP cables. For urban outdoor telephone cables containing hundreds or thousands of pairs, the cable is divided into smaller but identical bundles. Each bundle consists of twisted pairs that have different twist rates. The bundles are in turn twisted together to make up the cable. Pairs having the same twist rate within the cable can still experience some degree of crosstalk. Wire pairs are selected carefully to minimize crosstalk within a large cable. Unshielded twisted pair cable with different twist rates UTP cable is also the most common cable used in computer networking. Modern Ethernet, the most common data networking standard, utilizes UTP cables. Twisted pair cabling is often used in data networks for short and medium length connections because of its relatively lower costs compared to optical fiber and coaxial cable. UTP is also finding increasing use in video applications, primarily in security cameras. Many middle to high-end cameras include a UTP output with setscrew terminals. This is made possible by the fact that UTP cable bandwidth has improved to match the baseband of television signals

catgory Type

Frequency Bandwidth

/Applications

Notes

Cat1 Cat4 Cat5

UTP[6] 16 MHz[6] UTP[6] 20 MHz[6] UTP[6] 100 MHz[6]

10BASE-T and 100BASET4 Ethernet[6] 16 Mbit/s[6] Token Ring 100BASE-TX & 1000BASE-T Ethernet[6]

Described in EIA/TIA-568. Unsuitable for speeds above 16 Mbit/s. Now mainly for telephone cables[6] Not commonly used[6] Common in most current LANs[6]

Advantages
It is a thin, flexible cable that is easy to string between walls. More lines can be run through the same wiring ducts. UTP costs less per meter/foot than any other type of LAN cable. Electrical noise going into or coming from the cable can be prevented.[7] Cross-talk is minimized.

Disadvantages
Twisted pairs susceptibility to electromagnetic interference greatly depends on the pair twisting schemes (usually patented by the manufacturers) staying intact during the installation. As a result, twisted pair cables usually have stringent requirements for maximum pulling tension as well as minimum bend radius.

This relative fragility of twisted pair cables makes the installation practices an important part of ensuring the cables performance.

In video applications that send information across multiple parallel signal wires, twisted pair cabling can introduce signaling delays known as skew which results in subtle color defects and ghosting due to the image components not aligning correctly when recombined in the display device. The skew occurs because twisted pairs within the same cable often use a different number of twists per meter so as to prevent common-mode crosstalk between pairs with identical numbers of twists. The skew can be compensated by varying the length of pairs in the termination box, so as to introduce delay lines that take up the slack between shorter and longer pairs, though the precise lengths required are difficult to calculate and vary depending on the overall cable

Color code
Even you are using Cat 5 cable with 4 twisted pair wires, it doesn't mean that the cable is 100% compliant with EIA/TIA standard if it is not connected to RJ-45 in the way it should be. The Straightthrough cable ("Patch cable") connection should be:

Pin Pin Pin Pin

1 3 4 7

and and and and

1| 2| 3| 4| 5| 6| 7|

---\ ---/ ------\ ---\ \ ---/ / ------/ ---\

2 are connected to same twisted 6 are connected to same twisted 5 are connected to same twisted 8 are connected to same twisted PIN Pair Cable Color 1 T2 White/Orange 2 R2 Orange 3 T3 White/Green 4 R1 Blue 5 T1 White/Blue 6 R3 Green 7 T4 White/Brown

pair pair pair pair

wire wire wire wire

8| ---/

R4

Brown

RJ-45 Plug with clip facing down If you have the problem mentioned above, please check your cable to see if it is compliant with the standard. If not just simply cut out the existing RJ-45 connectors and replace them in the RIGHT way! Here is the pin-out for Crossover cable ("Uplink cable"):

Basic Theory:

By looking at a T-568A UTP Ethernet straight-thru cable and an Ethernet crossover cable with a T-568B end, we see that the TX (transmitter) pins are connected to the corresponding RX (receiver) pins, plus to plus and minus to minus. You can also see that both the blue and brown wire pairs on pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 are not used in either standard. What you may not realize is that, these same pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 are not used or required in 100BASE-TX as well. So why bother using these wires, well for one thing its simply easier to make a connection with all the wires grouped together. Otherwise you'll be spending time trying to fit those tiny little wires into each of the corresponding holes in the RJ-45 connector.

BNC connector

(Bayonet NeillConcelman) is a common type of RF connector used for coaxial cable. It is used with radio, television, and other radio-frequency electronic equipment, test instruments, video signals, and was once a popular computer network connector. BNC connectors are made to match the characteristic impedance of cable at either 50 ohms or 75 ohms. It is usually applied for frequencies below 3 GHz [1] and voltages below 500 Volts. Similar connectors using the bayonet connection principle exist, and a threaded connector is also available.
Types

BNC connectors exist in 50 and 75 ohm versions, matched for use with cables of the same characteristic impedance. The 75 ohm types can sometimes be recognized by the reduced or absent dielectric in the mating ends. The 50 and 75 ohm connectors are typically specified for use at frequencies up to 4 and 2 GHz respectively. Video and DS3 Telco central office applications primarily use 75 ohm BNC connectors, whereas 50 ohm connectors are used for data and RF. Many Very High Frequency receivers used 75 ohm antenna inputs, so they often used 75 ohm BNC connectors

BNC inserter/remover tool

A BNC inserter/remover tool also called a BNC tool, BNC extraction tool or BNC apple corer, is used to insert or remove BNC connectors in high density or hard-to-reach locations, such as densely wired patch panels in broadcast facilities like central apparatus rooms. BNC tools are usually light weight, made with stainless steel, and have screw driver type plastic handle grips for applying rotating torque. Their shafts are usually double the length of a standard screw driver. They help to safely, efficiently and quickly connect and disconnect BNC connectors in jack fields. BNC tools facilitate access and minimize the risk of accidentally disconnecting nearby connectors.

Design Guidelines for Bipolar Transistor Audio Preamplifier Circuits By Mike Martell N1HFX

Before attempting to design a transistor amplifier circuit, it is necessary to acquaint ourselves with some very important design equations. The most commonly used design equations are listed to the right to help us with our effort. The first few equations are derived from ohms law and you should already be familiar with them. The bottom two equations deal with transistor gain and are equally important to our work. The formula for hfe refers to the ratio of collector current (Ic) to base current (Ib). For most modern transistors it is typically in the 50 to 100 range. To insure a circuit will always work properly, it is safe to assume a value of 50 for modern transistors.

At this time, we need to make some decisions about our audio preamplifier circuit. For this design example we will choose the following:

Vcc = 12 V Ic = 5 ma hfe = 50 Q1 = 2N3904

With all those big decisions made, we can now begin our design.

Using the one of the hfe formulas, we will now calculate the base current as follows: Ib = Ic / hfe Ib = .005 / 50 = .1 ma Lets calculate R1, the collector load resistor, as follows: R1 = 1/2Vcc / .005 R1 = 6 / .005 = 1200 Notice above that we assumed 1/2 of the supply voltage to be dropped across R1. This is necessary to insure that the amplifier remains in the linear operating range of the transistor. We need to determine how much voltage is to appear across the emitter resistor, R2, before we calculate its value. A good value is anywhere between 5 to 10 percent of Vcc. For this circuit we will use 1 volt which is about 8 percent of Vcc. Resistor R2 is now calculated as follows: R2 = 1 / (Ic + Ib) R2 = 1 / (.005 + .0001) = 196 Because the voltage across the base to emitter of a silicon transistor is always .7 volts, the voltage from the base to ground is .7 plus the 1 volt drop across R2 for a total of 1.7 volts. This 1.7 volts happens to be the voltage drop across resistor R4. In order to provide a stiff base voltage, resistor R4 should have a current of about 5 to 10 times the base current. For this example, we will assume 9 times the base current for a total of .9 ma. Resistor R4 can now be calculated as follows: R4 = 1.7 volts / .0009 = 1889 If the voltage drop across R4 is 1.7 volts then the voltage drop across R3 must be 12 - 1.7 for a total of 10.3 volts. The current through R3 is the total of the current through R4 (.9ma) and the base current (.1ma) for a total of 1 ma. R3 can now be calculated as follows: R3 = 10.3 / .001 = 10300 Now that we have calculated all our resistor values, we will select the nearest standard values as indicated below:

R1 = 1.2K R2 = 180 R3 = 10K R4 = 1.8K The circuit at right is the result of our design efforts. 4.7uF capacitors were use for input and output coupling and slightly larger or small values could be used satisfactorily. Notice the optional 4.7uf capacitor across the emitter resistor R2. This capacitor increases the current gain to the hfe of the particular transistor used. This emitter bypass capacitor should only be used when the maximum amount of gain is desired without regard to a predictable level of gain.

Remember, hfe will vary from transistor to transistor even though they have the same part number and even if they were produced by the same manufacturer. It is always better to assume an hfe that is at least 20% less than that specified by the manufacturer. One common error that designers make is that they forget to calculate the actual power that each resistor will dissipate in a circuit. Failure to perform these calculations can sometimes result in a resistor exceeding its maximum power level and cause premature resistor failure. This is particularly important for circuits which have collector currents exceeding 40 milliamps. Fortunately, power ratings for each of our resistors in this circuit can be easily calculated as follows: R1 = 6 Volts * .005 Amps = .03 Watts R2 = 1 Volt * .0051 Amps = .0051 Watts R3 = 10.3 Volts * .001 Amps = .0103 Watts R4 = 1.7 Volts * .0009 Amps = .00153 Watts The preceding calculations indicate that 1/4 watt, 5% resistors are adequate for this design. Although our preceding circuit does have substantial gain, lets design a second stage to the previous circuit to further increase gain. Before we can begin our design we must make those all important design decisions again as indicated below: Q1 = 2N3904 Vcc = 12V Ic = 10ma hfe = 50 Vr2 = 1V (8% of Vcc) Ir4 = 9 times Ib Now were ready to calculate our resistor values as follows: R1 = 6/.010 = 600 Ib = .01/50 = .0002 R2 = 1/(Ic + Ib) = 1/(.01 + .0002) = 98 Ir4 = 9 * .0002 = .0018 R4 = (1 + .7)/.0018 = 944 R3 = (12 - 1 - .7)/(.0018 + .0002) = 10.3 / .002 = 5150

We will select standard resistor values as follows: R1 = 560 R2 = 100 R3 = 5.1K R4 = 1K The circuit at right is the result of our design efforts. 10uF capacitors were use for output coupling and optional emitter bypass. Slightly larger or small capacitor values could also be used satisfactorily. As always, the emitter bypass capacitor should only be used when the maximum amount of gain is desired without regard to a predictable level of gain.

Vcc hfe Ic Ib Vr1 Vr2 Vr3 Vr4 Ir4

= Supply Voltage = Absolute minimum current gain for the selected transistor = Selected collector current = Ic / hfe (base current) = 1/2 Vcc = 5 to 10% of Vcc = Vcc - .7 - Vr2 = .7 + Vr2 = 5 to 10 times Ib

----------------------------------------------THE END----------------------------------------------------------

Multivibrator
A is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state systems such as oscillators, timers and flip-flops. It is characterized by two amplifying devices (transistors, electron tubes or other devices) cross-coupled by resistors or capacitors. The name "multivibrator" was initially applied to the free-running oscillator version of the circuit because its output waveform was rich in harmonics. [1] There are three types of multivibrator circuits depending on the circuit operation:

astable, in which the circuit is not stable in either state it continually switches from one state to the other. It does not require an input such as a clock pulse. monostable, in which one of the states is stable, but the other state is unstable (transient). A trigger causes the circuit to enter the unstable state. After entering the unstable state, the circuit will return to the stable state after a set time. Such a circuit is useful for creating a timing period of fixed duration in response to some external event. This circuit is also known as a one shot. bistable, in which the circuit is stable in either state. The circuit can be flipped from one state to the other by an external event or trigger.

Multivibrators find applications in a variety of systems where square waves or timed intervals are required. For example, before the advent of low-cost integrated circuits, chains of multivibrators found use as frequency dividers. A free-running multivibrator with a frequency of

one-half to one-tenth of the reference frequency would accurately lock to the reference frequency. This technique was used in early electronic organs, to keep notes of different octaves accurately in tune. Other applications included early television systems, where the various line and frame frequencies were kept synchronized by pulses included in the video signal. CIRCUIT

Circuit Description: This circuit is an astable multivibrator, or oscillator. The two transistors are cross-coupled in such a way that the circuit switches back and forth between two states. In one state, the base of Q1 is about one diode drop above ground, allowing a base current to flow. This keeps Q1 switched on, in saturation mode, allowing a current to flow through the collector, keeping Q1's collector voltage low, and discharging C1. Q2 is switched off, because its base voltage is not high enough to switch it on. As the collector current into Q1 charges C1, the base voltage for Q2 goes up, until it is high enough to switch on Q2, causing a current to flow through its collector, which drops the collector voltage (the current causes a voltage drop across the resistor above it). The right side of C2 has dropped, but the voltage across it hasn't changed, so this causes Q1's base voltage to drop below ground, switching it off. Then we get the other half of the cycle, with current flowing through Q2. This continues until Q1 turns on, and then the cycle repeats.