HIV & AIDS in Uganda 06/05/2006 07:55 PM

Copyright © AVERT

Why is Uganda interesting?

Uganda is one of the few African countries where rates of HIV infection have declined, and it is seen as a rare
example of success in a continent facing a severe AIDS crisis. Uganda's policies are credited with helping to bring
adult HIV prevalence (the proportion of adults living with HIV) down from around 15% in the early 1990s to around
5% in 2001. At the end of 2005, UNAIDS estimates that 6.7% of adults had the virus. The country is seen as having
implemented a well-timed and successful public education campaign.1

Gradually, more and more countries around the world are starting to realise that they must take decisive action if
they are to avert a major AIDS crisis. More and more money is being channelled into Africa, especially by the US
which has pledged $15 billion to fight AIDS in resource-poor countries. Uganda is lucky enough to be one of the
countries on President Bush's list and, given the decline that has been seen in its HIV prevalence, is being held up as
an example of good planning and action that others should emulate.

But the results seen in Uganda don't have a simple recipe, and with so many lives and such large sums of money at
stake, it is important to look carefully at what has been done there.

Background
Uganda is estimated to have a population of about 25-30 million.
The extreme mortality of AIDS has had an effect on this figure,
which would otherwise be higher. As another consequence of
AIDS, healthy life expectancy in Uganda is only around 50
years.

Uganda contains over 18 distinct ethnic groups, a similar number

of languages, and several religions. Most newspapers and
television broadcasts use English as a common language. Over
80% of the working population is employed in agriculture.

Today, parts of northern Uganda remain mired in a conflict

between the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) and government-
backed militia. The conflict has claimed many civilian victims,
with both sides targeting civilian populations, and atrocities such
as the mass amputation of limbs are reportedly not uncommon.
There have been recent indications that the conflict may be
ending, but much of northern Uganda is still considered too
dangerous to visit.2

Even though HIV prevalence in Uganda is much lower than it

once was, it still remains very high, and AIDS is still claiming tens of thousands of lives each year. Such a severe
epidemic has a considerable social and economic impact. As AIDS usually kills young adults, it depletes a country's
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epidemic has a considerable social and economic impact. As AIDS usually kills young adults, it depletes a country's
labour force, and weakens educational and health services. Deaths among young adults also leave behind thousands
of orphaned children and grandparents, placing an additional burden on the community or the state. 3

Timeline of AIDS in Uganda

The data in the timeline below are taken from a number of different studies. The graph shows median HIV
prevalence by year among antenatal clinic attendees in major urban areas. During the early 1990s, HIV prevalence
peaked at around 15% among all adults, and exceeded 30% among pregnant women in the cities. At the end of 2003,
adult prevalence was estimated at 4.1%, and an estimated 530,000 people were living with HIV/AIDS, according to
UNAIDS/WHO.4

AIDS in Uganda was initially known as 'slim'

due to its physically wasting characteristics. HIV
was already spreading in Uganda on the shores of
Lake Victoria in the late 1970s. It is from here
that some theories suggest HIV spread to the rest
of the world. If this is true then Uganda's HIV
epidemic might be said to have had something of
a 'head start' on other national epidemics.

1982 The first AIDS case in Uganda was

diagnosed. Between 1982 and 1986 there was little
understanding of what AIDS was, and it was not
known that it was caused by HIV. During this
period the epidemic was largely addressed at local
levels with communities caring for those infected
and affected. 5

1986 President Yoweri Museveni responded to the

emerging HIV crisis in Uganda swiftly, embarking on a nationwide tour to tell people that avoiding AIDS was a
patriotic duty, and that they should abstain from sex before marriage and then go on to remain faithful to their
partners and to use condoms. Uganda's Health Minister announced to the World Health Assembly that there was HIV
in Uganda, and the first AIDS control programme in Uganda was established. It focused on providing safe blood
products, and educating people about risks.6

1987 Sixteen volunteers who had been personally affected by HIV/AIDS came together to found the community
organisation TASO. A programme was established to control the spread of HIV in the military.7

1988 The first national survey to assess the extent of the epidemic was conducted and found the average HIV
prevalence in the population to be 9%.

1990 The AIDS Information Centre was formed to provide voluntary counselling and testing.8

1991 Prevalence among pregnant women aged 15-24 peaked in this year at 21%. According to UNAIDS estimates,
national prevalence peaked at 15% in this year.

1992 The government adopted a multisectoral approach to addressing the epidemic and coordinating the response to
it. HIV prevalence in young pregnant women in Uganda began to decrease between 1991 and 1993.

1994 Various governmental departments - Agriculture, Internal Affairs, Justice, etc - established individual AIDS
control Program Units. The government borrowed $50 million from the World Bank to fight the epidemic, with the

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control Program Units. The government borrowed $50 million from the World Bank to fight the epidemic, with the
Ugandan government and other donors making this up to a total of $75 million to set up the Sexually Transmitted
Infections Project. 9

1995 Uganda announced that it had observed what appeared to be declining trends in HIV prevalence. 10

1997 Ugandans participated in a study of using antiretroviral drugs to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV.

1998 Prevalence among pregnant women aged 15-24 had fallen to 9.7%. The Drug Access Initiative was established
to lobby for reduced prices for antiretroviral (ARV) medication, and the establishment of the infrastructure necessary
to allow these drugs to be generally accessible. 11

1999 The Ugandan Ministry of Health started a voluntary door-to-door HIV testing programme using rapid tests.

2000 The government began to 'mainstream' HIV/AIDS issues in Uganda's Poverty Eradication Action Plan.

2001 The World Bank agreed to spend $47.5 million over the next five years on Uganda's AIDS prevention and
treatment programmes. According to UNAIDS estimates, national HIV prevalence had fallen to around 5% in 2001.

2004 The non-governmental organisation National Guidance and Empowerment Network released a report saying that
Uganda's HIV prevalence was actually 17% - more than four times the official rate. Experts claimed that the study
was inaccurate, but admitted that the HIV problem in Uganda may still be much worse than official statistics
indicate.12

2005 Critics accused the US of encouraging a shift in Uganda's HIV prevention policy towards promoting abstinence
only, and away from promoting condoms.

What do HIV prevalence and incidence mean?

When talking about HIV and AIDS figures, the terms 'incidence' and 'prevalence' are used.

HIV 'incidence' is the number of new cases of HIV in the population during a certain time period. People who were
already infected before that time period are not included in that figure, even if they are still alive.

HIV 'prevalence' is given as a percentage of a population. If a thousand truck drivers, for example, are tested for
HIV and 30 of them are found to be positive, then the results of a study might say that HIV prevalence amongst
truck drivers is 3%. This does not mean that all the truck drivers in a country have been tested, and it gives only a
very limited hint of what the prevalence might be in another group, such as old people.

HIV prevalence in developing countries is often difficult to measure, partly because much of the population does not
have access to healthcare facilities and largely relies on traditional medicine. Therefore, HIV prevalence tends to be
measured at whatever points the people do have contact with health staff. This is often at antenatal clinics or STD
treatment centres.

Obviously, this does not give a full picture of the spread of the epidemic in the country as a whole - the former will
give an indication of the prevalence amongst sexually active women, the latter generally amongst presumably
sexually non-monogamous adults. As a general rule, however, it seems apparent that a prevalence of anything over
10% in any population indicates an extremely serious problem.

Given that HIV incidence is the figure that tells us about new infections in a population over a period of time, this is
often more revealing than prevalence figures. A society which shows regularly declining incidence figures is one
which is experiencing fewer and fewer new infections, something which is certainly desirable. However, measuring
HIV incidence is even more difficult than measuring HIV prevalence.

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See our understanding statistics page for more about these topics.

How accurate are the prevalence figures?

It is hard to be sure about the exact prevalence of HIV amongst Uganda's population. What UNAIDS/WHO
prevalence figures do exist are taken mainly from women who visit antenatal clinics.

In a country which has very poor healthcare infrastructure and many people unable to access what does exist, it is
very difficult to assess HIV levels. Much of northern Uganda is involved in civil war between the LRA and the
army, and efforts there predominantly focus on caring for refugees and providing food. Many people in this part of
the country have been killed or injured by the fighting, and at least 1.6 million have been displaced. Condom
availability amongst people in Internally Displaced People's camps is low. 13

At least one recent study has challenged Uganda 's official statistics, saying that the HIV prevalence levels in Uganda
may be much higher than reported. Whilst there have been claims that the methodology of that study was flawed,
there remain suspicions that the problem might not be accurately reflected in the official statistics.14

Why might HIV prevalence have declined?

According to the best statistics available, HIV prevalence in Uganda fell dramatically during the 1990s. Such a steep
reduction in HIV prevalence has not been seen in countries neighbouring Uganda, and is something that many would
like to emulate. The debate is - why did HIV prevalence in Uganda decline? And how can this decline be replicated?

A declining prevalence indicates a lower proportion of positive people in the population. This could result from a
fall in the number of new infections (incidence) or from a rise in the death rate among HIV-positive people, or from
a combination of both factors.

New infections
It is probable that the number of new infections peaked in the late 1980s, and then fell sharply until the mid 1990s.
This is generally thought to have been the result of behaviour change. Increased abstinence, a rise in the average age
of first sex, a reduction in the average number of sexual partners and more frequent use of condoms are all likely to
have contributed. 15, 16

In the late 80s and early 90s, condom use rose among unmarried sexually active men and women, and since the mid
1990s, condom promotion and distribution in Uganda has increased dramatically. It is thought that this has helped to
keep down the number of new infections in recent years.

Deaths
There is no precise data on the number of AIDS-related deaths that have taken place. The reasons for this are several
- lack of healthcare facilities able to diagnose either HIV or AIDS cases in patients, and many deaths having gone
unrecorded, or recorded as the results of opportunistic infections.

It has been suggested that an increase in the AIDS death rate may have been largely responsible for the drop in the
number of people living with HIV that occurred in the late 1990s (though not for earlier declines). Such a rise in
deaths would be a natural consequence of the earlier rise in HIV incidence. In the absence of widespread
antiretroviral treatment, any rise in the number of new infections will almost inevitably result in an increase in the
death rate a few years later, as people reach the end of their survival period. 17

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It is clear that a huge number of HIV+ people have died in Uganda since the epidemic began, and a sufficiently high
number of deaths could certainly result in a decrease in HIV prevalence figures. However, it should be noted that
many other countries in sub-Saharan Africa experienced rapid increases in HIV incidence at the same time as
Uganda, and, although they are similarly likely to have experienced large numbers of AIDS deaths, have not yet seen
any substantial decline in prevalence. This suggests that the decline seen in Uganda wasn't a natural occurrence, but
rather that it was the result of something that was done differently in Uganda.

Why was Uganda's response so effective?

The approach used in Uganda has been named the ABC approach - firstly, encouraging sexual Abstinence until
marriage; secondly, advising those who are sexually active to Be faithful to a single partner or to reduce their
number of partners; and finally, especially if you have more than one sexual partner, always use a Condom. A
number of factors helped to encourage people to take up these strategies.

Communication
It seems that the message about HIV and AIDS has been effectively communicated to a diverse population by the
government and by word of mouth. Ugandan people have themselves to thank, in part, for the reduction in HIV
prevalence. Much of the prevention work that has been done in Uganda has occurred at grass-roots level, with a
multitude of tiny organisations educating their peers, mainly made up of people who are themselves HIV+. There
was considerable effort made towards breaking down the stigma associated with AIDS, and frank and honest
discussion of sexual subjects that had previously been taboo was encouraged. There is a high level of AIDS-
awareness amongst people generally.

Community action
Very early in the course of the epidemic, the government recruited the Ugandan people to help themselves in the
fight against HIV/AIDS. One of the first community-based organisations to be formed was TASO, the AIDS Support
Organization founded in 1987, a time when there was still a great deal of stigmatisation of people with HIV.

"The founders met informally in each other's homes or offices to provide mutual psychological and social support.
Cohesion among these individuals was strengthened by the fact that they were either directly infected with HIV or
implicitly affected because their very close familial associates were infected."18

TASO now provides emotional and medical support to people who are HIV positive and their families. It also works
with other smaller organisations to educate the public about discrimination and about the dangers of HIV/AIDS.

Fear
A Cambridge University study in 1995 showed that 91.5% of Ugandan men and 86.4% of women knew someone
who was HIV positive, and that word of mouth was the method by which most people were informed about HIV
prevention. This indicates that one of the main reasons for people's behaviour change was their alarm about the risks
and the extent of the epidemic. Many villages are experiencing several deaths each month, houses stand empty, and
grandparents are looking after their orphaned grandchildren. Put simply, people are more likely to avoid risky
behaviour if they know people who have died of AIDS-related illnesses.

Simple messages
In the early stages of the epidemic, the government responded swiftly, giving out simple messages about abstaining
from sex until marriage, staying faithful to one's spouse, and using condoms. The key message was "Zero Grazing",
which instructed people to avoid casual sex. More complicated messages about risky behaviour and safer sex were
not spread until later, when there had already begun to be a decline in HIV figures.

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Political openness
Since 1986, when Uganda's health minister announced that there was HIV in the country, there has always been
political openness and honesty about the epidemic, the risks, and how they might best be avoided. In that same year,
the president toured the country, telling people that it was their patriotic duty to avoid contact with HIV. This was a
brave approach, as many politicians are reluctant to talk openly about sexual issues, but the openness paid off.

The president encouraged input from numerous government ministries, NGOs and faith-based organisations. He
relaxed controls on the media and a diversity of prevention messages - including "Zero Grazing" - spread through
Uganda's churches, schools and villages. This frank and honest discussion of the causes of HIV infection seems to
have been a very important factor behind the changes in people's behaviour that allowed prevalence levels to decline.

This contrasts sharply with countries like South Africa, which have lacked such political leadership in the fight
against the epidemic. Uganda's entire population was mobilised in the fight against HIV and were made aware of the
consequences that risky behaviour could have for their country. It is largely due to the Ugandan people, motivated by
their leaders, that the epidemic appears to have been so well addressed.

Antiretroviral treatment
Antiretroviral (ARV) treatment can extend the healthy life of someone living with HIV. If other factors remain the
same, and ARV medication helps HIV+ people to survive for longer, then HIV prevalence will increase. The
introduction of ARV medication can however contribute to reducing prevalence by presenting people with an
incentive to be tested, because those who know their HIV status are less likely to engage in risky behaviour.

Uganda began one of the first test programmes in Africa distributing life-saving antiretroviral medication. It began in
1998 and aimed to see how an ARV programme could be set up and run in a resource-poor country. The patients
involved had to pay for their medication, although at reduced prices. After the study was complete, the Ugandan
Ministry of Health used the lessons it had learned to set up its National Strategic Framework for HIV/AIDS.

Only very recently, in June 2004, has Uganda begun to offer free ARV medication to people living with HIV. The
initial consignment was funded by the World Bank, with future drugs to be paid for by a Global Fund grant of
US$70 million. Further funds have come from America's PEPFAR initiative.

Uganda's target was to have 60,000 on treatment by the end of 2004. According to UNAIDS/WHO estimates, this
target was missed, and between 40,000 and 50,000 people were receiving drugs.19 However, by the end of 2005 the
number had risen to between 71,000 and 79,000, representing half of those in need.20

What needs to happen now?

Uganda needs to build on whatever successes it has achieved so far. It still has an alarmingly high HIV prevalence,
and unless a continued effort is made to keep people aware of the dangers of HIV then it would be quite possible for
prevalence to remain at this level or even to rise again.

In June 2004, 12 members of Parliament made public their decision to undergo a HIV test, showing the population
that it is good to know one's HIV status. The current campaign focuses on this, saying "it's better to know". As
treatment options grow, this will be increasingly true.

Uganda is one of the fifteen countries that receive most funding from America's US$15 billion PEPFAR initiative.
Part of the aim of this initiative is an expansion of the ARV treatment programme. Given that Uganda has over half
a million people living with HIV/AIDS, this needs to happen swiftly if a huge number of deaths are to be averted.

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Treatment provision is now seen as being one of the best methods of HIV prevention. People who test HIV+ have
two main needs - firstly the antiretroviral treatment that can prolong their lives, and secondly education to enable
them to enjoy a reasonable quality of life whilst not passing the virus on to anyone else. It is unreasonable to expect
people to volunteer for HIV testing if there are no facilities in place to provide treatment. Hopefully, as ARV therapy
becomes more generally available and affordable, people will be more willing to know their status, and so will be
more likely to avoid behaviour that risks HIV transmission.

Current controversies
Abstinence-only policies
Uganda receives significant amounts of funding from America, and much of the PEPFAR money is being channelled
through pro-abstinence and even anti-condom organisations which are faith-based, and which would like sexual
abstinence to be the central pillar of the fight against HIV. This money is making a difference - some Ugandan
teachers report being instructed by US contractors not to discuss condoms in schools because the new policy is
"abstinence only". 21

Small community-based organisations are increasingly shifting the emphasis of their prevention programmes to
comply with PEPFAR's policies. This change is also being encouraged by evangelical churches within Uganda, and
by the First Lady, Janet Museveni.22 Around the country dozens of billboards have sprung up promoting only
abstinence to prevent HIV infection, with no mention of condoms.

"PEPFAR really shifted the empasis to A and B [Abstinence and Being faithful] just because of the amounts of
money being put into these programmes" - Sam Okware, senior Health Ministry official and architect of Uganda's
ABC model. 23

"There are some prominent people in government, and some outside, who with the help of conservative agents in the
US are stigmatising AIDS, saying that only sinners use a condom. That is the message we are struggling with." - Dr
Jotham Musinguzi, director of the Population Secretariat at the Ministry of Finance.24

"Because of the US, our government now says Abstain and Be faithful only. So people stop trusting our advice.
They think we were lying about how condoms can stop AIDS. Confusion is deadly." - Dr Katamba, health co-
ordinator of the Uganda Protestant Medical Bureau.25

Condom shortages
In 2004 the Ugandan government issued a nationwide recall of the condoms distributed free in health clinics, due to
concerns about their quality. Although tests showed there was nothing at all wrong with the condoms, the
government said that public confidence in the brand had been badly dented, so they would not redistribute them. By
mid-2005 there was said to be a severe scarcity of condoms in Uganda, made worse by new taxes which made the
remaining stocks too expensive for many people to afford.

Some have said the US is largely to blame for the shortages. According to Stephen Lewis, the UN Special Envoy for
HIV/AIDS in Africa, "there is no question that the condom crisis in Uganda is being driven and exacerbated by
PEPFAR and by the extreme policies that the administration in the United States is now pursuing".

Mr Lewis has also said that PEPFAR's emphasis on abstinence above condom distribution is a "distortion of the
preventive apparatus and is resulting in great damage and undoubtedly will cause significant numbers of infections
which should never have occurred". 26

However, speaking in August 2005, Uganda's coordinator of condom procurement at the Ministry of Health denied
there was any shortage of condoms, and said that new stocks would be distributed soon. She also said the
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there was any shortage of condoms, and said that new stocks would be distributed soon. She also said the
government was committed to promoting all three parts of the "ABC" strategy: Abstinence, Faithfulness and
Condoms. 27

Conflict with the LRA

During the conflict in northern Uganda, LRA rebels have abducted thousands of children - conservative estimates
place the number of children abducted at a minimum of 20,000. About 20% of those abducted are girls most of
whom will be forced into 'marriages' or given to senior commanders as rewards and incentives. Some children
manage to escape, and among those who have done so, about 50% have some type of STD. Among children who
have been in captivity for longer, this rate rises to 85%.

The rates of HIV infection among the abductees or the LRA rebels are unknown, but are thought to be very high.
Rehabilitation centres for abductees have been offering HIV testing to children in their centres in recent years, and
have found 13 out of 83 children tested to be HIV+. The youngest was thirteen. Three of the girls had children of
their own, and at least one has since died of AIDS. HIV prevalence levels amongst the LRA troops are worrying for
another reason - there have been many reports of mass-rapes and of deliberate HIV infection, often used against
civilian populations. In urban areas there are reports of tens of thousands of people gathering together in city centres
every night to sleep in 'safety of numbers', which makes them vulnerable to sexual exploitation. 28

Very little work has been done in the north because it is so unsafe, despite Gulu province in the north possibly
having the highest prevalence of HIV/AIDS. It is feared that rates amongst the LRA, the army and displaced people
are higher still. Due to the conflict only about a third of young people are enrolled in school, meaning that many do
not receive adequate sexual health education. There is also an urgent lack of condoms and sexual health education,
and many people in rural areas are unable to access healthcare facilities. Many of the organisations doing relief work
in the north naturally tend to focus on dealing with the immediate effects of the conflict - providing medical help
and food.

What can we learn that will help elsewhere?

Pro-abstinence-only organisations are increasingly using Uganda as an example to indicate the success of their
methods. But this is inappropriate, since the multiplicity of prevention methods used in Uganda mean that the decline
in HIV prevalence was certainly not due to abstinence-only messages. Uganda's success was based not only on
encouraging abstinence until marriage but also on encouraging fidelity thereafter and condom use. It involved
pragmatic discussion of risky sexual behaviours, strong governmental leadership, and condom distribution. The open
and frank discussion of the sexual means of HIV transmission that took place is certainly not a feature of the pro-
abstinence-only agenda.

Randall Tobias, the man in charge of America's PEPFAR initiative, accepts that the ABC approach in Uganda
involved more than only abstinence, but a large cut of the money is still being channelled through Christian
organisations. The plans drawn up by some of these faith-based groups tend to be ideological rather than evidence-
based and can neglect the other important aspects of HIV prevention. Promoting sexual abstinence until marriage
without looking at these other issues is a recipe for failure, and Uganda's example cannot be allowed to be misused
in this way.

Unfortunately, there is no easy solution to an HIV epidemic. Uganda may have decreased its HIV prevalence but
there have been many deaths in the country, and will be many more yet. There is no simple way to reducing the
number of new infections - a number of different interventions are required. Foremost among these are a balanced
ABC approach, committed political leadership, a willingness to discuss openly the ways in which HIV transmission
can be prevented, and a vigorous response from communities across the country.

There are now so many people living with HIV in Uganda, and in Africa as a whole, that their votes are increasingly
being seen as powerful enough to swing elections. Politicians will have to be able to show that they have a definite
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being seen as powerful enough to swing elections. Politicians will have to be able to show that they have a definite
plan for addressing the epidemic and to offer their people something more than empty rhetoric.

AVERT.org has more about the ABC approach to HIV prevention.

Written by Steve Berry, with additional material by Rob Noble.

References
1. The "ABCs" of HIV Prevention: Report of a USAID Technical Meeting On Behavior Change Approaches To
Primary Prevention of HIV/AIDS, September 17, 2002
2. news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/597725.stm
3. Uganda's AIDS Crisis, World Bank Discussion Paper no.298
4. UNAIDS/WHO Epidemiological Fact Sheet Uganda, 2004 Update
5. www.aidsuganda.org
6. www.museveni.co.ug
7. library.unesco-iicba.org/.../Fact sheets - Twenty years of HIV-AIDS.htm
8. Fighting HIV/AIDS: is success possible?, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2001
9. World Bank : Uganda: The Sexually Transmitted Infections Project
10. UNICEF : The Impact of HIV/AIDS on Children
11. UNAIDS/MOH Current experience with differential pricing of HIV/AIDS related drugs in Uganda
12. "Uganda's HIV success questioned", BBC News, 21 September 2004
13. The Uganda Comprehensive Country Proposal for Scaling up the National Response to HIV/AIDS,
Tuberculosis and Malaria, Global Fund, Jan 2002 AIDS & the demography of Africa, UN Publication, 1994
14. "Uganda's HIV success questioned", BBC News, 21 September 2004
15. "Declining HIV Prevalence, Behavior Change, and the National Response - What Happened in Uganda?",
U.S. Agency for International Development, 2002
16. "A, B and C in Uganda: The Roles of Abstinence, Monogamy and Condom Use in HIV Decline", The Allan
Guttmacher Institute, December 2003
17. "Uganda's Decline in HIV/AIDS Prevalence Attributed to Increased Condom Use, Early Death From AIDS,
Study Says", thebody.com, 24 February 2005
18. www.tasouganda.org
19. "3 by 5 Progress Report December 2004", UNAIDS/WHO, Published 26th January 2005
20. WHO, Progress on Global Access to HIV Antiretroviral Therapy - A Report on "3 by 5" and Beyond, 28th
March 2006
21. "The Less They Know, the Better - Abstinence-Only HIV/AIDS Programs in Uganda", Human Rights Watch,
March 2005
22. "God and the Fight Against AIDS", Helen Epstein, The New York Review of Books 52(7), 28 April 2005
23. "Ugandans Report Mixed Message on AIDS Plan", Associated Press, 18 March 2006
24. "Public health and religion: Aids, America, abstinence...", The Independent, 1 June 2006
25. "Public health and religion: Aids, America, abstinence...", The Independent, 1 June 2006
26. 'U.S. Blamed for Condom Shortage in Fighting AIDS in Uganda', New York Times, 30 August 2005
27. 'LA group to donate 1 million condoms to fight HIV in Uganda', Associated Press, 30 August 2005
28. "STOLEN CHILDREN: Abduction and Recruitment in Northern Uganda", Human Rights Watch, March 2003

Sources
Twenty years of HIV/AIDS in the World - Evolution of the Epidemic and Response in Uganda, Uganda AIDS
Commission Secretariat, June 2001 The World Bank
Uganda's AIDS Crisis, its implications for development. Jill Armstrong, World Bank Discussion Paper, 298
Ugandan Ministry of Health STD/HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, June, 2003

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Last updated June 2, 2006

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