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Indian paleography. - text
Bher, Georg, 1837-1898.
[Cacutta|: lndan Studes, Past & Present; dstrbutors: Frma K. L. Mukhopadhyaya,
[1962|
http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015023568630
Public Domain, Google-digitized
http://w w w .hathi tr u s t.o r g /ac c es s _ u s e# pd- g o o g le
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PP0P PT 0F
PT S SC1 T1 PlT S
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l Dl
P L 0GP P
G. BU L P
..
l Dl
STUDl S
P ST & PP S T
Dstrbutors :
Frma K. L. Mukhopadhyaya
6/1 , Banchharam krur Lane, Cacutta-12
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Prnted by stabha Guha from uaty Prnters & Bnders,
8 Pashbehar venue, Cacutta-26 and pubshed by P. K.
Matra on bshaf of lndan Studes : Past &. Present,
3 Sambhunath Pundt Street, Cacutta 20.
Prce Ps. 25.00.
(lncusve of the Portfoo of Pates & Transteraton Tabes)
Pubshed on 19. 11. 59 as an offprnt of lndan Studes : Past & Present,
Peprnted and pubshed n the present form on 20th. December, 1962,
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dtor s ote
Wth a the ater researches n the sub|ect, BUher s lndan Paeography retans,
and w aways retan, the vaue of a cassc. ong wth a portfoo of 9 Pates and 8
Transteraton Tabes, t was orgnay pubshed n the German anguage n 1898. n
ngsh verson of the text was prepared by Bher hmsef, whose unfortunate death took
pace when ths manuscrpt was on ts way to the press. . F. Feet, wth great dffcutes,
recovered the manuscrpt and got t prnted n lndan ntquary, 190 , n the form of an
ppendx. nd that had been the ony form n whch t was avaabe for over ffty years
to the students and schoars of ancent lndan hstory. Moreover, t was ony the text
wthout the portfoo of Pates and Tabes, so ndspensbe for the text. We have,
therefore, the satsfacton of brngng out for the frst tme the compete ngsh verson
of ths monumenta work n the proper book-form aong wth the portfoo of the
Pates and Transteraton Tabes wth ngsh captons. lt was frst pubshed n lndan
Studes : Past & Present o. l, o. 1, and a mted number of the offprnts were ssued
n separate board-bound form specay for the brares. But a the copes of the
|ourna as we as the offprnts were sod out wthn these two years and there perssts
pressng demand for the book. ccordngy, the present reprnt s ssued.
The present reprnt s ntended to be a verbatm reproducton of the text as
pubshed n the lndan ntquary. 0rgna page-numbers of the German edton
are ndcated here n bod etters wthn square-brackets. We have added to the text
Max-Mers s 0btuary ote on G. Bher, orgnay pubshed n the ourna of
the Poya satc Socety, 1898, and aso Feet s lntroductory otes to the Text as
pubshed n the lndan ntquary, 190 .
We take ths opportunty of expressng our gratefu thanks to the satc Socety,
Cacutta, who provded us wth a typed copy of the text for beng used n the press and
ent us the orgna portfoo of the German edton for purposes of reproducng the
Pates and the Tabes. Professor ardas Snharay has very kndy gone through the
proofs. We are specay thankfu to Sr S. Chaudhury, Lbraran of the satc
Socety, Cacutta, for hepng us n varous ways.
Debprasad Chattopadhyaya
dtor : lndan Studes : Past & Present.
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C0 T TS
Georg Buher by F. Max-Mer 1
lntroductory ote by . F. Feet 9
l Dl P L 0GP P lS
bbrevatons 16
l T Tl UlT 0F WPlTl G l l Dl D
T 0PlGl 0F T 0LD ST l Dl LP B T 17
1. The lndan Tradton 17
2. Lterary evdence for the use of Wrtng 19
. Brahmanca Lterature 19
B. Buddhstc Lterature 22
C. Foregn Works 23
3. Paeographc evdence 2
. The 0rgn of the Brahma phabet 28
. Borrowed sgns 31
B. Dervatve Consonants and lnta owes 33
C. Meda owes and bsence of owe n Lgatures 35
(1) The system of the Brahm 35
(2) The system of the Dravd 35
5. The Tme and the Manner of the Borrowng of the Semtc phabet 36
ll T K P0ST SCPlPT 39
6. ow t was decphered 39
7. Use and characterstcs 39
8. 0rgn 1
9 Detas of the Dervaton 3
. Borrowed sgns 3
B. Dervatve sgns 6
10. The aretes of the Kharosth of Pate 1 7
11. The rchac arety 8
. The Padca Sgns 8
B. Meda owes and nusvara 50
C. Lgatures 50
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12. Changes n the ater varetes 51
. The radca sgns 51
B. Meda owes and nusvara 53
C. Lgatures 53
lll T Cl T BP Ml D DP lDl FP0M
B0UT B. C. 350 T0 B0UT . D. 350 5
13. ow t was decphered 5
1 . Common characterstcs of the ancent nscrptons 5
15. The varetes of the Brahm and Dravd n Pates ll & lll 57
16. The oder Maurya aphabet : Pate 11 59
. Geographca extenson and duraton of use 59
B. Loca varetes 60
C. The radca sgns or Matrkas 61
D. Meda owes and nusvara 6
. Lgatures 65
17. The Dravd of Bhattprou : Pate ll 66
18. The ast four aphabets of Pate 11-67
19. The precursors of the orthern phabets 68
. The aphabet of the orthern Ksatrapas : Pate l 68
B. The aphabet of the Kusana nscrptons : Pate lll 59
20. The precursors of the Southern phabets 70
. The aphabet of the Ksatrapas of Mava and Gu|arat: Pate
lll 70
B. The aphabets of the cave-nscrptons of the western Dekhan
and the Konkan : Pate lll 71
C. The aphabet of the aggayyapeta nscrptons : Pate lll 73
D. The aphabet of the Pa ava Prakrt and-grants : Pate lll 7
l T 0PT P LP B TS FP0M B0UT .D. 350 7
21. Defnton and varetes 7
22. The so-caed Gupta aphabet of the th and 5th centures .D. :
. aretes 77
Pate l 77
B. Characterstcs of the epgraphc Gupta aphabet 78
C. The Gupta aphabet n manuscrpts 80
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23. The cute-anged and agar types : Pates l , , l 81
2 . Detas of the changes n the cute-anged and the agar aphabets 85
. The Matrkas 85
B. Meda owes and so forth 90
C. The Lgatures 90
25. The Sarada aphabet: Pates and l 91
. The Sarada scrpt 9
26. astern varetes of the agar phabet and the rrow- ead scrpt 92
. Proto-Benga : Pates and l 92
B. The epaese hooked characters : Pate l 95
C. The rrow- ead aphabet Pate l 96
T S0UT P LP B TS 96
27. Defnton and varetes 96
28. The western scrpt and the scrpt of Centra lnda : Pates ll & lll 99
The Western scrpt 99
B. The scrpt of Centra lnda 101
29. The Kanarese and Teugu phabet : Pates ll and lll 102
. The archac varety 102
B. The mdde varety 10
C. The 0d-Kanartse phabet 106
30. The ater Kanga Scrpt : Pates ll and lll 107
31. The Grantha phabet : Pates ll and lll 109
. The archac varety 109
B. The mdde varety 110
C. The Transtona Grantha 111
32. The Tam and atteuttu phabets: Pate lll 113
. The Tam 113
B. The atteuttu 115
l UM P L 0T Tl0 116
33. The umeras of the Kharosth : Pate l 116
3 . The numeras of the Brahm : Pate l 118
. The ancent etter-numeras 118
B. The decma notaton 125
35. umera notaton by word and etters 127
. The word-numeras 127
B. umera notaton by etters 131
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[ v |
ll T T P L PP G M T 0F
l SCPlPTl0 S D M USCPlPTS 132
36. The nes, groupng of words, nterpunctuaton and other detas 132
. The nes 132
B. The groupng of words 132
C. lnterpunctuaton 133
D. Mangaas and ornamentaton 135
. Correctons, omssons and abbrevatons 137
F. Pagnaton 138
G. Seas 139
lll WPlTl G M T Pl LS, LlBP Pl S D WPlT PS 139
37. Wrtng Materas 139
. Brch-bark 139
B. Cotton coth 1 0
C. Wodden Boards 1 0
D. Leaves 1 1
. nma substances 1 2
F. Metas 1 3
G. Stone and brck 1 5
. Paper 1 5
l. lnk 1 6
. Pens, Pencs, etc 1 7
38. The preservaton of Manuscrpts and copper-pates and the treatment of etters 1 7
. Manuscrpts and b rares 1 7
B. Copper-pates 1 9
C. The treatment of etters 1 9
39. Wrters, engravers, and stone-masons 1 9
. Concudng remarks 152
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G 0PG BU L P : 1837-98.
F. M -MULL P
lt s not often that the death of a schoar startes and greves hs feow-workers as
the death of my od frend, Dr. Bher, has started and greved us a, whether n Germany,
ngand, France, or lnda. Sanskrt schoarshp has ndeed been unfortunate : t has often
ost young and most promsng schoars n the very mdst of ther career ; and though
Dr. Bher was sxty-one years of age when he ded, he was st so young and vgorous n
body and mnd that he made us forget hs age, hodng hs pace vaanty among the prom-
axo of the sma army of genune lndan students, and confdenty ookng forward to many
vctores and conquests that were st n store for hm. By many of us he was consdered
amost ndspensabe for the successfu progress of Sanskrt schoarshp but who s
ndspensabe n ths word and great hopes were centred on hm as key to spread new
ght on some of the darkest corners n the hstory of Sanskrt terature.
0n the 8th of pr ast, whe en|oyng aone n a sma boat a beautfu evenng
on the Lake of Constance, he seems to have ost an oar, and n tryng to recover t, to
have overbaanced hmsef. s we thnk of the cod waves cosng over our dear frend,
we fee stunned and speechess before so great and crue a caamty. lt seems to dsturb
the reguar and harmonous workng of the word n whch we ve, and whch each man
arranges for hmsef and nterprets n hs own way. lt makes us fee the tteness and
uncertanty of a our earthy pans, however mportant and safe they may seem n our
own eyes. e who for so many years was the very fe of Sanskrt schoarshp, who
heped us, guded us, corrected us n our dfferent researches, s gone ; and yet we must
go on as we as we can, and try to honour hs memory n the best way n whch t may
be honoured not by de tears, but by honest work.
on hoc praecpuum amcorum munus est, prosequ defunctum gnavo questu, sed
quae vouert memn.se, quae mandavert exsequ.
schoar s fe s best wrtten n hs own books ; and though l have promsed
to wrte a bographca notce for the ourna of the Poya satc Socety, n whch he
took so warm and actve an nterest, l have to confess that of the persona crcumstances
of my od frend, Dr. Bher, l have but tte to say. What l know of hm are hs
books and pamphets as they came out n rapd successon, and were aways sent to me
by ther author 0ur ong and never-nterrupted frendshp was chefy terary, and
for many years had to be carred on by correspondence ony. e was a man who,
when once one knew hm, was aways the same. e had hs heart n the rght pace,
and there was no mstakng hs words. e never spoke dfferenty to dfferent peope,
for, ke a brave and honest man, he had the courage of hs opnons. e thought what
he sad, he never thought what he ought to say. e beonged to no cque, he dd not
1
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even try to found what s caed a schoo. e had many pups, foowers, and admrers,
but they knew but too we that though he prased them and heped them on whenever
he coud, he detested nothng more than to be prased by hs pups n return. lt was
another charmng feature of hs character that he never forgot any kndness, however
sma, whch one had rendered hm. e was krta|na n the rea sense of the word. l
had been abe, at the very begnnng of hs career, to render hm a sma servce by
obtanng for hm an appontment n lnda. e never forgot t, and whenever there
was an opportunty, he proved hs sncere attachment to me by ever so many sma, but
not therefore ess vauabe, acts of kndness. We aways exchanged our books and
our vews on every sub|ect that occuped our nterest n Sanskrt schoarshp, and
though we sometmes dffered, we aways kept n touch. We agreed thoroughy on
one pont that t dd not matter who was rght, but ony what was rght. Most of the work
that had to be done by Sanskrt schoars n the past, and w have to be done for some
tme to come, s necessary poneer work, and poneers must hod together even though
they are separated at tmes whe reconnotrng n dfferent drectons. Bher coud hod
hs own wth great pertnacty ; but he never forgot that n the progress of knowedge
the eft foot s as essenta as the rght. o one, however, was more wng to confess
a mstake than he was when he saw that he had been n the wrong. e was, n fact,
one of the few schoars wth whom t was a rea peasure to dffer, because he was aways
straghtforward, and because there was nothng mean or sefsh n hm, whether he
defended the purva-paksa, the uttara-paksa, or the sddhanta.
0f the crcumstances of hs fe, a l know s that he was the son of a cergyman,
that he was born at Borste, 19th uy, 1837, near enburg n the then kngdom of
anover, that he frequented the pubc schoo at anover, and n 1855 went to the
Unversty of Goettngen. The professors who chefy taught and nfuenced hm there were
Sauppe, . Curtus, wad, and Benfey. For the ast he fet a we-deserved and amost
enthusastc admraton. e was no doubt Benfey s greatest pup, and we can best
understand hs own work f we remember n what schoo he was brought up. fter
takng hsdegree n 1858 he went to Pars, London, and 0xford, n order to copy and coate
Sanskrt and chefy edc MSS. lt was n London and 0xford that our acquantance,
and very soon our frendshp, began. l qucky recognsed n hm the worthy pup
of Benfey. e had earnt how to dstngush between what was truy mportant n
Sanskrt terature and what was not, and from an eary tme had fxed hs attenton
chefy on ts hstorca aspects. lt was the fashon for a tme to magne that f one had
earnt Sanskrt grammar, and was abe to construe a few texts that had been pubshed
and transated before, one was a Sanskrt schoar. Bher ooked upon ths knd of
schoarshp as good enough for the vugus profanum, but no one was a rea schoar n
hs eyes who coud not stand on hs own feet, and fght hs own way through new texts
and commentares, who coud not pubsh what had not been pubshed before, who
coud not transate what had not been trasated before. Mstakes were, of course,
unavodabe n ths knd of poneerng work, or what s caed orgna research, but
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such mstakes are no dsgrace to a schoar, but rather an honour. Where shoud
we be but for the mstakes of Bopp and Burnouf, of Champoon and Tabot
Though Bher had earnt from Benfey the mportance of edc studes as the true
foundaton of Sanskrt schoarshp, and had devoted much tme to ths branch of earnng,
he dd not pubsh much of the resuts of hs own edc researches. s paper on Par|anya,
however, pubshed n 1862 n Benfey s 0rent und 0ccdent, vo. l, p. 21 , showed that
he coud not ony decpher the od edc texts, but that he had thoroughy mastered the
prncpes of Comparatve Mythoogy, a new scence whch owed ts very exstence to the
dscovery of the edc ymns, and was not very popuar at the tme wth those who
dsked the troube of studyng a new anguage. e wshed to prove what Grmm had
suspected, that Par|anya, Lth. Perkunas, Cet Perkons, Sav Perun, was one of the
detes worshpped by the ancestors of the whoe ryan race, and n spte of the usua frays
and bckerngs, the man pont of hs argument has never been shaken. l saw much of hm
at that tme, we often worked together, and the ndex to my story of ncent Sanskrt
Lterature was chefy hs work. The most mportant esson whch he had earnt from
Benfey showed tsef n the quckness wth whch he aways sezed on whatever was reay
mportant n the hstory of the terature of lnda. e dd not wrte smpy n order to show
what he coud do, but aways n order to forward our knowedge of ancent lnda. Ths
expans why, ke Benfey s books, Bher s own pubcatons, even hs smaest essays, are
as usefu today as they were when frst pubshed. Benfey s edton of the lndan fabes
of the Pancatantra produced a rea revouton at the tme of ts pubcaton. lt opened
our eyes to a fact hardy suspected before, how mportant a part n Sanskrt terature
had been acted by Buddhst wrters. We earnt n fact that the dstncton between the
works of Brahmanc and Buddhst authors had been far too sharpy drawn, and that n
ther terary pursuts ther reaton had been for a ong tme that of frendy rvary rather
than of hoste opposton. Benfey showed that these Sanskrt fabes of lnda had come
to us through Buddhst hands, and had traveed from lnda step by step, staton by staton,
through Pahav, Persan, rabc, ebrew, Latn, and the modern anguages of urope,
t they supped even Lafontane wth some of hs most charmng fab aux. Benfey was
n many respects the true successor of Lassen n cang the attenton of Sanskrt schoars
to what are caed n German the Peaa of Sanskrt schoarshp. e was bod enough to
pubsh the text and transaton of the Samaveda, and the gossary appended to ths
edton marked the frst determned advance nto the dark regons of edc thought. Though
some of hs nterpretatons may now be antquated, he dd as much as was possbe at the
tme, and nothng s more panfu than to see schoars of a ater generaton speak sgh
tngy of a man who was a gant before they were born. Benfey s varous Sanskrt
grammars, founded as they are on the great cassca grammar of Pann, hod ther own
to the present day, and are ndspensabe to every carefu student of Pann, whe hs
story of Sanskrt Phoogy s a rea masterpece, and remans st the ony work n whch
that mportant chapter of modern schoarshp can be safey studed.
Bher was mbued wth the same sprt that had guded Benfey, and every one of hs
eary contrbutons to Benfey s 0rent und 0ccdent touched upon some reay mportant
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queston, even though he may not aways have setted t. ln hs artce on Theos, for
nstance (0. u. 0, vo. l, p. 508), whch was evdenty wrtten under the nfuence of
Curtus recent warnng that theos coud not be equated wth deus and Skt. deva wthout
admttng a phonetc anomay, he suggested that Theos as we as the 0d orse dar,
gods mght be derved from a root dh, to thnk, to be wse . 0ften as we dscussed
ther etymoogy together and t was more than a mere etymoogy, because on t depended
the queston whether the odest ryan name of the gods n genera was derved from the
brght powers of nature or from the abstract dea of dvne wsdom he coud never
persuade me that these two branches of the ryan race, the Greek and the Scandnavan,
shoud have derved the genera name for ther gods from a root dfferent from that whch
the other branches had used, vz., dv, to be brant , and from whch they had formed
the most mportant custer of mythoogca names, such as eus, ovs, Despter, Da,
Dana, etc. l preferred to admt a phonetc rather than a mythoogca anomay. lf|
coud net persuade hm he coud not persuade me, et adhuc sub |udce Us est
Severa more etymooges from hs pen foowed n the same ourna, a connected
wth some ponts of genera nterest, a ngenous, even f not aways convncng. ln a
these dscussons he showed hmsef free from a pre|udces, and much as he admred hs
teacher, professor Benfey, he freey expressed hs dvergence from hm when ncccessary,
though aways n that respectfu tone whch a ssya woud have observed n ancent lnda
when dfferng from hs guru.
Whe he was n 0xford, he frequenty expressed to me hs great wsh to get an
appontment n lnda. l wrote qt hs desre to the ate Mr. oward, who was then
Drector of Pubc lnstructon n Bombay, and to my great |oy got the promse of an
appontment for Bher. But, unfdrtunatey, when he arrved at Bombay, there was no
vacancy, Mr. oward was absent, and for a tme Bher s poston was extremey par.fu.
But he was not to be dsheartened. e soon made the acquantance of another frend of
mne at Bombay, Sr exander Grant, and obtaned through hm the very poston for
whch he had been ongng. ln 1865 he began hs ectures at the phnstone Coege,
and proved hmsef most successfu as a ecturer and a teacher. s power of work
was great, even n the enervatng cmate of lnda, and there aways s work to do n
lnda for peope who are wng to do work. e soon made the acquantance of nfu
enta men, and he was chosen by Mr. (now Sr) Paymond West to co-operate wth
hm n producng ther famous Dgest of ndu Laws. e supped the Sanskrt, Sr
Paymond West the ega materas, and the work, frst pubshed n 1867, s st cons
dered the hghest authorty on the sub|ects of the ndu Laws of lnhertance and
Partton. But Bher s nterest went deeper. e agreed wth me that the metrca
Law-books of ncent lnda were preceded by ega Sutras beongng to what l caed
the Sutra-perod. These Sutras may reay be ascrbed to the end of the edc perod, and
n ther earest form may have been anteror to the lndo-Scythan conquest of the
country, though the fxng of rea dates at that perod s we-ngh an mpossbty.
When at a much ater tme T conferred wth hm on the pan of pubshng seres
of transatons of the Sacred Books of the ast, he was ready and prepared to undertake
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the transaton of these Sutras, so far as they had been preserved n MSS. Some
of these MSS., the mportance of whch l had ponted out as eary as 1859 n
my story of ncent Sanskrt Lterature, l handed over to hm ; others he had
coected hmsef whe n lnda. The two voumes n whch hs transaton of the ega
sutras of pastamba, Gautama, asstha, and Baudhayana are contaned, have been
amongst the most popuar of the seres, and l hope l sha be abe to pubsh a new
edton of them wth notes prepared by hm for that purpose. ln 1886 foowed hs
transaton of the Laws of Manu, whch, f he had foowed the exampe of others, he
mght we have caed hs own, but whch he gave as founded on that of Sr Wam ones,
carefuy revsed and corrected wth the hep of seven natve commentares. These were
substanta works, suffcent to estabsh the reputaton of any schoar, but wth hm they
were by-work ony, undertaken n order to obge a frend and feow-worker. These
transatons kept us nfrequent correspondence, n whch more than one mportant ques
ton came to be dscussed. 0ne of them was the queston of what caused the gap between
the edc perod, of whch these sutras may be consdered as the atest outcome, and the
perod of that ornate metrca terature whch, n my ectures on lnda devered at
Cambrdge n 188 , l had ventured to treat as the perod of the Penassance of Sanskrt
terature, subsequent to the nvason and occupaton of lnda by lndo-Scythan or Turanan
trbes.
lt was necessary to prove ths once for a, for there were schoars who went on
camng for the author of the Laws of Manu, nay, for Kadasa and hs contemporares, a
date before the begnnng of our era. What l wanted to prove was, that nothng of what
we actuay possessed of that ornate (aamkara) metrca terature, nor anythng wrtten
n the contnuous soka, coud possby be assgned to a tme prevous to the lndo-Scythan
nvason. The chronoogca mts whch l suggested for ths nterregnum were from 100 B C.
to .D. 300. These mts may seem too narrow on ether sde to some schoars, but l
beeve l am not overstatng my case f l say that at present t s generay admtted that
what we ca the Laws of Manu are subsequent to the Samaya-Karka or Dharma-sutra,
and that Kadasa s poetca actvty beong to the sxth, nay, f Professor Kehorn s rght,
even to the end of the ffth century . D., and that a other Sanskrt poems whch we
possess are st ater. Bher s brant dscovery conssted n provng, not that any of
the terary works whch we possess coud be referred to a pre-Gupta date, but that spec
mens of ornate poetry occurred agan and agan n pre-Gupta nscrptons, and, what s even
more mportant, that the pecuar character of those monumenta poems presupposed on
the part of ther poets, provnca or otherwse, an acquantance, f not wth the aamkara
sutras whch we possess, at a events wth some of ther promnent rues. ln ths way the
absence or non-preservaton of a greater terary compostons that coud be camed for
the perod from 100 B. C. to . D. 3U0 became even more strongy accentuated by Bher s
dscoveres. lt mght be sad, of course, that lnda s a arge country, and that terature
mght have been absent n one part of the lndan Pennsua and yet fourshng n another ;
|ust as even n the sma Pennsua of Greece, terary cuture had ts heyday at thens
whe t was wtherng away n Lacedaemon. But terature, partcuary poetry, can never
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be qute annhated. or s ths the queston. The queston s, why was t preserved, after
the rse of the natona Gupta dynasty, n the ony ways n whch at that tme t coud
be preserved n lnda, ether by memory or by the mutpcaton of copes, chefy n Poya
brares under the patronage of Pa|as, whether of lndan or aen orgn and
why s there at present, as far as manuscrpts are concerned, an amost compete
terary bank from the end of the edc terature to the begnnng of the fourth
centurary . D.
The mportant fact whch s admtted by Bher, as we as by mysef, s ths that
whatever terary compostons may have exsted before . D. 300, n poetry or even n
prose, nothng remans of them at present, and that there must surey be a reason for t.
ere t was Bher who, n the Transactons of the enna cademy, 1890, came to my
hep, drawng our attenton to the mportant fact that among certan recenty pubshed
ancent nscrptons, eghteen of whch are dateabe, two ony can wth any probabty be
proved to be anteror to what l caed the four bank centures between 100 B. C. and .D.
300 (See lnda, p. 353.) There occur verses whch prove qute ceary that the ornate stye
of Sanskrt poetry was by no means unknown n earer tmes. The as yet undeveoped
germs of that ornate poetry may even go back much further, and may be traced n portons
of the Brahmanas and n some Buddhstc wrtngs ; but ther fu deveopment at the tme
of these Sanskrt nscrptons was ceary estabshed for the frst tme by Bher s vauabe
remarks. So far we were qute agreed, nor do l know of any arguments that have been
advanced aganst Bher s hstorca vews. There may be dfference of opnon as to the
exact dates of the Sanskrt Grnar nscrpton of Pudradaman and the Prakrt ask
nscrpton of Puumay, but they contan suffcent ndcatons that an ornate, though
perhaps ess eaborate stye of poetry, not far removed from the epc stye, prevaed n
lnda durng the second century . D. the evdence accessbe on that pont has been
carefuy coected by my frend, and refects the greatest honour on hs famarty wth the
Sanskrt amkara poetry. But the fact remans a the same that nothng was preserved
of that poetry before . D. 300 ; and that of what we possess of Sanskrt Kavya terature,
nothng can for the present be traced back much beyond . D. SC0. We must hope that the
tme may soon come when the orgna component parts of the ancent epc poetry, nay,
even the phosophca Darsanas, may be traced back wth certanty to tmes before the
lndo-Scythan lnvason. lt s we known that the Maabharata and the Puranas are men
toned by name durng the Sutra perod, and we cannot be far wrong n supposng that
somethng ke what we possess now of these works may have exsted then. Bher was fu
of hope that t mght be possbe to fx some of the dates of these popuar works at a much
earer tme than s assgned to them by most schoars. l was deghted to see hm body
cam for the eda aso a greater antquty than l had as yet ventured to suggest tor t, and
t seemed to me that our two theores coud stand so we sde by sde that t was my hope
that l shoud be abe to brng out, wth hs co-operaton, a new and much mproved edton
of my chapter on the Penassance of Sanskrt Lterature. l doubt whether l sha be abe
to do ths now wthout hs hep. The souton of many of the hstorca and chronoogca
questons aso, whch reman st unanswered, w no doubt be deayed by the sudden
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death of the schoar who took them most to heart, but t s not key to be forgotten agan
among the probems whch our younger Sanskrt schoars have to dea wth, f they wsh
truy to honour the memory and foow n the footsteps of one of the greatest and most
usefu Sanskrt schoars of our days.
These chronoogca questons were, of course, ntmatey connected wth the
date of the Sanskrt aphabets and the ntroducton of wrtng nto lnda, whch produced
a wrtten, n pace of the ancent purey mnemonc terature of the century. There
too, we had a common nterest, and l gady handed over to hm, for hs own purposes,
a MS. sent to me from apan that turned out to be the odest Sanskrt MS. then known
to exst, that of the Pra|naparamta-hrdaya-sutra. lt had been preserved on two pam-
eaves n the Monastery of oruz, n apan, snce . D., 609. and, of course, went
back to a much earer tme, as the eaves seem to have traveed from lnda through
Chna, before they reached apan. Bher sent me a ong paper of paaeographca
remarks on ths oruz pam-eaf MS. whch form a most vauabe ppendx to my
edton of t. Thus we remaned aways unted by our work and l had the great satsfacton
of beng abe to send hm the copy of svaghosa s Buddha-carta, whch my apanese pups
had coped for me at Pars, and whch, whether svaghosa s date s referred to the frst
or the ffth century . D., when t was transated nto Chnese, represents as yet the ony
compete specmen of that ornate schoastc work whch, as he had proved from numerous
nscrptons, must have exsted prevous to the Penassance. Thus our common work
went on, f not aways on the same pan, at a events on the same ground. We never
ost touch wth each other, and were never brought nearer together than when for a tme
we dffered on certan moot ponts.
l have here dwet on the most mportant works ony, whch are characterstc of
the man, and whch w for ever mark the pace of Bher n the hstory of Sanskrt
schoarshp. But there are many other mportant servces whch he rendered to us whe
n lnda. ot onv was he aways to hep us n gettng MSS. from lnda, but our
knowedge of a arge number of Sanskrt works, as yet unknown, was due to hs Peports
on expedtons undertaken by hm for the lndan Government n search for MSS. Ths dea
of cataogung the terary treasures of lnda, frst started by Mr. Whtey Stokes, has
proved a great success, and no one was more successfu n these researches than Bher.
nd whe he ooked out everywhere for mporant MSS. hs eyes were aways open for
ancent nscrptons aso. Many of them he pubshed and transated for the frst tme,
and our odest nscrptons, those of soka, n the thrd century B. C., owe to hm and
M. Senart ther frst schoarke treatment. Ths s not meant to detract n any way from
the credt due to the frst brant decpherers of these texts, such as Prnsep, Lassen,
Burnouf, and others. Bher was most anxous to trace the aphabets used n these
nscrptons back to a hgher antquty than s generay assgned to them ; for the
present, at east, we cannot we go beyond the fact that no dateabe nscrpton has
been found n lnda before the tme of soka. lt s qute true that such an nnovaton
as the ntroducton of aphabetc wrtng does not take pace of a sudden, and
tentatve specmens of t from an earer tme may we be dscovered yet, f these
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8
researches are carred on as he wshed them to be carred on, n a truy systematc
manner. ln ths fed of research Bher w be most mssed, for though absent from
lnda he had many frends there, partcuary n the Government, who woud gady
have stened to hs suggestons. 0ne may regret hs departure from a country where
hs servces were so vauabe and so much apprecated. l have not dwet at a n ths
pace on the vauabe servces whch he rendered as nspector of schoos and examner,
but l may state that l receved severa tmes the thanks of the Governor of the Bombay
Presdency, the ate Sr Barte Frere, for havng sent out such exceent schoars as Bher
and others. Unfortunatey hs heath made t mperatve for hm to return to hs own
country, but he was soon so much restored under a German sky that he seemed
to begn a new fe as Professor at enna. lf he coud not dscover new MSS. there,
he coud dgest the materas whch he had coected, and he dd so wth unfaggng
ndustry. ay, n addton to a hs own work, he undertook to superntend and edt
an ncycopaeda of lndo- ryan Phoogy whch was to be a resume up to date of a
that was known of the anguages, daects, grammars, dctonares, and the ancent
aphabets of lnda ; whch was to gve an account of lndan terature, hstory, geography,
ethnography, |ursprudence; and fnay, to present a pcture of lndan regon,
mythoogy, phosophy, astronomy, mathematcs, and musc, so far as they are known at
present. o one knows what an amount of cerca work and what a oss of tme such a
superntendence nvoves for a schoar who has hs hands fu of hs own work, how much
readng of manuscrpts, how much etter-wrtng, how much protracted and often dsagree
abe dscusson t entas. But Bher, wth rare sef-dena, dd not shrnk from ths
drudgery, and hs work w certany prove extremey usefu to a future lndo- ryan
students. 0ne thng ony one may regret that the mts of each contrbuton are so
narrow, and that severa of the contrbutors had no tme to gve us much more of ther
own orgna work. But ths s a defect nherent n a encycopaedas or manuas,
uness they are to grow nto a forest of voumes ke the gemene ncycopaedc der
Wssenschaften und Kunste by rsch, begun n 1831 and as yet far from beng fnshed.
Under Bher s gudance we mght have expected the competon of hs ncyopaeda
wthn a reasonabe tme, and l am gad to hear that hs arrangements were so far
advanced that other hands w now be easy abe to fnsh t, and that t may reman
ke Lassen s tertumskunde, 18 7-1861, a astng monument of the feong abours of
one of the most earned, the most hgh-mnded and arge-hearted among the 0renta
schoars whom t has been my good fortune to know n the course of my ong fe.
Peprnted from the
aurna of the Poya satc Socety (London) F. M. M.
1898. 695-707.
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l TP0DUCT0P 0T 0 BU L P S l Dl P L 0GP P
. F. FL T
Professor Bher s lndsche Paaeographe, consstng of 96 pages of etter-press,
wth a portfoo of 9 pates of aphabetca characters and numeras and 8 tabes of
expanatory transteraton of them, was pubshed n 1896 as part ll of o. l of Dr. Kar
.Trbner s Grundras der lndo- rschen Phooge und tertumskunde, or ncyco
paeda of lndo- ryan Pesearch. whch was panned and started by Professor Bher
hmsef, and was superntended by hm up to the tme of hs death, n pr, 1898.
There was aways the ntenton of ssung the etter-press of the work n ngsh
aso. The ngsh verson was made by Professor Bher. nd hs manuscrpt of t
was on ts way to the Press, at the tme of hs death. Steps were taken towards havng t
prnted and pubshed under the drecton of Professor Kehorn, who succeeded to the
edtora management of the Grundrss. t that tme, however, owng party to the great
nterrupton of busness n lnda caused by the pague, party to the manner n whdb the
manuscrpt was wrtten, and party to a natura dffcuty n the way of dong what had
been contempated, namey, of ssung the ngsh verson n such a form as to resembe the
German orgna exacty n type and n arrangement page by page, the preparaton for
pubcaton coud not be taken far, and eventuay had to be abandoned.
Feeng, mysef, the want of the ngsh verson, and knowng that there must be
others paced n the same poston, n 1902 l made some nqures and proposas about t.
The resut, wth the consent and hep of Professor Kehorn, was a generous pubc-sprted
response by Dr. Trbner, who, after consutaton wth Mrs. Bher, agreed to transfer the
copyrght of the ngsh verson on practcay nomna terms, sub|ect to certan condtons
as to the method of pubcaton. Dr. Trbner s terms and condtons were accepted n a
smar sprt by Coone Sr Pchard Tempe, the propretor of the lndan ntquary.
nd thus t came to me to take the work through the Press, and to arrange the ssue of t
n ts present form as an ppendx to the lndan ntquary o. lll, 190 .
s far as the commencement of the second paragraph of 16, , on page [33|, the
ngsh verson has been produced from an advanced proof of 1900, prepared n the
crcumstances ndcated n paragraph 2 above, and revsed by Professor Kehorn. From
that pont onwards, t has been done from Professor Bher s manuscrpt, wrtten by hm
sef. ln order, however, to set the prnters fary at work, t was necessary, because of the
very numerous and sometmes rather perpexng abbrevatons to whch Professor Bher
had had recourse, to furnsh them wth a far copy. The copy was, of course, cosey
compared by me wth the orgna manuscrpt. nd t s hoped that no mstakes have
been ntroduced, n nterpretng any of the abbrevatons n passages whch are not n the
German orgna.
2
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10
perusa of a very few pages of the ngsh work, thus ssued, w suffce to show
that t s not atogether a tera renderng of the German orgna. lt s, therefore, sent
forth as an ngsh verson, not as an actua transaton. t the same tme, the ngsh
verson does not n any way supersede the German orgna. ln the frst pace, as the stones
were not preserved, t has not been practcabe to ssue wth the ngsh verson the pates
and tabes whch form so mportant a part of the whoe work ; however, there s avaabe,
for separate purchase, a mted number of copes of the pates and tabes, prnted off n
excess of the number requred for ssue wth the German orgna. ln the second pace, n
wrtng hs ngsh verson, Professor Bher made here and there certan devatons,
sometmes by nserton, sometmes by omsson, from the German orgna. But these
devatons, made chefy n connecton wth the second edton, pubshed n 1898, of hs
lndan Studes o. lll on The 0rgn of the lndan Brahma phabet, arc n ponts of
deta, and do not n any way amount to a revsed edton of hs lndsche Paaeographe1.
The German orgna s st the text-book, as much as s the ngsh verson. The atter
s for the beneft of those, nterested n any way whatsoever n ther sub|ect, who are not
abe to utse the German text.
Ths work of Professor Bher has brought to a cmax, for the present, the paea-
graphc ne of lndan research. nd t woud be mpossbe to speak n too hgh terms of
the manner n whch he has handed the sub|ect, and of the vaue of the resuts whch he
has paced before us. ln the paaeographc ne, however, as aso n the hstorca ne, on
whch t s argey dependent, and, n fact, n every ne of lndan research, we are steady
accumuatng more facts and better materas, and makng substanta progress, every year.
l venture, therefore, to draw attenton to a few detas, whch aready mght now be
treated, or at east consdered, from other pons of vew
notabe pont, regardng whch l dffer from the opnons of Professor Bher as
expressed n ths work, s that of both the reatve order and aso the actua dates of the
varetes of the Kharosth aphabet, ndcated on Page [25| under 10, (3) and ( ), whch are
found n the epgraphc records and on the cons of (foowng the order n whch, n my
opnon, they shoud propery be paced) Kanska, and uvska, Sudasa-Sodasa and
Patka, and Gondophernes. Kanska certany founded the Maava- krama era, commen
cng 58. B. C. nd n that era there are certany dated, n addton to records of the tmes
of hm and hs drect successors, the dated records of the tmes of Sudasa-Sodasa, Patka,
and Gondophernes, and of asudeva, who was a contemporary of Gondophernes2.
smar remark appes to the order and dates of the varetes of the Brahma
or Brahm aphabet, ndcated on Page [32|, under 15, (8), (9), from records of the tmes
of Kanska, uvska, Sudasa-Sodasa, and asudeva.
s regards the nomencature of those same varetes of the Kharosth aphabet, t
s now certan that t s erroneous to descrbe one of them, mentoned there and dscussed
on Page [27|f., as a Saka varety. Sudasa-Sodasa and Patka were not Sakas or Sakas, f
that shoud be the correct expresson accordng to the orgna form of the name8. one
of the Sakas, Sakas, ever payed a eadng hstorca part n orthern lnda.
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ln respect of the ran con, mentoned frst on Page [8|, whch presents a reversed
Brahm egend runnng from rght to eft, we must not ose sght of the possbty that
the expanaton s to be found, as has been suggested by Professor utzsch n the
lndan ntquary, o. l, Page 336, n a mstake of the engraver of the de, who,
ke the de-snker n the case of a certan con of okar of the ast century, may have
forgotten that he ought to reverse the egend on the de tsef. We have one nstance
of such remssness n ancent tmes n a con of Pa|ua-Pa|uvua, the reverse of whch
presents a monogram, formed of the Greek etters and , facng n the wrong drecton ;
See Professor Gardner s Cataogue of the Cons of the Greek and Scythc Kngs of
Bactra and lnda, Page 67, o. 5. nd we have another n the egend on a bronze stamp
for makng seas, where the engraver omtted to reverse the syabe sr ; P S. 1901,98.
Pate, o. 9.
0n page [ 7|, under 29, B, (2) there s a statement about strongy cursve Kanarese
kh, whch s cacuated to be mseadng, and on the strength of whch some erroneous
assertons have aready been made .
ln the pates and tabes there are some seectons that mght have been avoded,
and some ncorrect detas, whch are due to two causes5 : party to the fact, the expanaton
of whch has been ndcated n some remarks made by me n the pgrapha lndca,
o. l, Page 80, that, owng to the nature of the ony avaabe materas, the pates
have sometmes been based upon reproductons of orgna records whch are not actua
facsmes ; party to the fact, whch we earn from the Concudng Pemarks on page [102|,
that some of the detas of the pates were not seected and fed n by Professor
Bher hmsef.
nd n any revson of the work there woud have to be added, n connecton
wth 20, D, on Page [ |, a notce of the more recenty dscovered pecuar varety of
the southern aphabet whch s ustrated n the Maydavou pates of the Paava kng
Sva-Skandavarman and the Kondamud pates of ayavarman, edted by Professor utzsch
n the pgrapha lndca, o. l, Pages 8 ff., 315ff.
lt woud, however, have been contrary to the sprt of the arrangement wth
Dr. Trbner to ntroduce any comments and addtons of my own, ether n the text
or n the footnotes. nd l do not fnd t convenent or approprate to present them here,
beyond the extent of the ndcatons gven above. nythng of that knd must be eft
for other occasons.
My edtora functons n the ssue of ths ngsh verson of Professor Bher s
work have thus been confned to detas of a forma knd : chefy n the matter of
gvng more promnence to the ttngs of the sectons and the dvsons of them; n
transferrng to a more convenent poston, as separated footnotes at the bottom of the
pages to whch they beong, the notes whch n the German orgna stand massed together
at the end of each secton8 : and n markng, by fgures n square brackets n thck type,
the commencement of each page of the German orgna, as cosey as has been found
convenent. Foowng, however, an exampe set by Professor Bher hmsef n hs
manuscrpt, l have gone somewhat further st n breakng up some of the very ong
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12
paragraphs of the orgna. Foowng hs ead n another drecton aso, l have endeavo
ured to present everywhere the correct speng, as far as t can be ascertaned, of a the
pace-names whch occur n the work ; but n conformty wth hs practce n ths work,
wthout dscrmnatng between the ong and the short forms of e and o. nd l have
corrected a few obvous mstakes ; for nstance, under 29, , n ne 18 on page [ |,
l have substtuted Badam for the hoe (propery hoe) of the German orgna
and of the manuscrpt transaton.
ln 29, page [ 5|ff., and anywhere ese where the word may occur, l have taken
the berty of substtutng the word Kanarese for the Kanara of the German orgna
and of the manuscrpt transaton ; and smary, on page [ 6|, ne , and page [51|, nes
21, 27f., l have substtuted the Kanarese country for the Kanara of the orgna and
of the manuscrpt. The form Kanara , wth the ngua n, s nothng but an magnatve
advance upon the offca fgment Kanara , wth the denta n, for whch, tsef, there
s no bass n the Kanarese anguage, nor any necessty. l had thought at frst of usng
ke, the ate Pev. Dr. Ktte and some other wrters, the orgna vernacuar word
Kannad.a the source of our conventona Canara, Kanara , whch, however, do not
mean the whoe of the Kanarese country. nd that word, whch denotes both the country
and ts anguage and aso ther aphabetca characters, woud have been approprate enough.
But l decded eventuay on Kanarese : party because, though ths term, aso, s
conventona, t s so we-estabshed, famar, and defntve ; and party because t was
practcay used, aongsde of the word Kanara by Professor Bher hmsef n the
Kanares sche and tkanaressche of the orgna German work (e. g. page | nes ,
6) and n the Canarese and 0d Canarese of correspondng passages n hs ngsh
verson.
xcept, however, n such detas as the above, and n the aboton of the nconvenent
sabbrevatons of whch menton has been made above, the ngsh verson s smpy a
reproducton of Professor Bher s manuscrpt.
ln brngng ths somewhat ntrcate work to a successfu ssue, l have been greaty
ndebted to the zea and abty of Mr. . S. Fogh, the ead Peader of the Bombay
ducaton Socety s Press. But for the extreme care wth whch he dsposed of the frst
rough proofs before any proof was sent out for revson by me, l shoud certany not have
been abe to take the work through, as has actuay been done, on ony one proof and a
revse of t.
Footnotes to Feet s lntroductory ote
1. fna paragraph on Page [96| of the German work mentons some
recent pubcatons, amongst them Dr. Grerson s xamnaton of the Gaya phabet of
the Stonemasons , whch coud not be consdered then, but were to be notced n the second
edton of lndan Studes, o. lll. treatment of them n that way expans the omsson
of that fna paragraph n Professor Bher s ngsh manuscrpt. nd t aso, no doubt,
accounts for the omsson of the Brahma character for the guttura nasa, ft n ne 1 of
Co. l of the tabe on page [l l|, as compared wth the same tabe on page [12| of the
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13
German text, and for the ntroducton of an nset ustraton of that character n an add
tona remark made on Page [35|, under 16, c, (12), n connecton wth whch there s to-be
taken an observaton made on Page [1 |, under , B, ( ) e. ln a reference to the
Gaya aphabet on Page [29|, n ne 5 from the bottom, for na read na.
2. See P S. 1905, 232ff. Pegardng asahka, asuska whom t has not been neces
sary to menton by name above, see bd, 357f. lt may be observed here that on page [ 0|,
ne 7 from the bottom, n the words or of the fourth century of the Seeucd era , and n
the correspondng pace on Page [ 1| ne 10, of the German text, there must be a sp of
the pen. The aternatve proposed nta date of Kanska, whch Professor Bher had n
vew, s certany . D. 89. nd n that year there began the Seeucdan year 01 ; that s,
the frst year of the ffth (not fourth) century of that era.
3. For the rea meanng of the nscrpton P. on the Mathura on-capta, whch has
been supposed to mark them as Sakas, . e. Sakas, see P S 190 , 703ff., and 1905, 15 ff.
. See, for the present, my remarks about them n l, 6. 77ff.
5. For three nstances of ncorrect detas, see some remarks by Professor Kehorn,
n . 8. 38, note 1, beow the ntroducton to hs edton of the unagadh nscrpton or
Grnar Prasast, of Pudradaman. s nstances of the other knd, l may menton the
foowng. Co. l of pate lll s from a reproducton . lll, 186), whch s not an
actua facsme, of a record the authentcty of whch s open to queston. nd Co. ll
of the same pate s mosty from a thograph (l . l, 138) whch was made, at a tme when
our methods of deang wth the orgna records were st decdedy prmtve, from a
pan unnked estampage, made by mysef, the ground of whch was panted n by my own
hand, wth resuts whch cannot exacty be taken as furnshng a thoroughy typca
ustraton of the Western Caukya aphabet of the eeventh century . D.
6. ln dong ths, l have corrected a few wrong references whch came to notce, and
have added a very few new references whch seemed key to be of use.
Peprnted from
lndan ntquary . F. Feet
190 , ppendx. 1-6.
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l Dl P L 0GP P
From bout 350 B. C. to bout . D. 1300
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BBP l Tl0 S
P (or) s. Pes. satc Pesearches.
B. SPSl Burgess, rchaeoogca Survey Peports, Southern lnda.
B. SPWl Burgess, rchaeoogca Survey Peports, Western lnda.
B. SlP Burne, ements of South-lndan Paeography, 2nded.
B. lS er, lndan Studes.
B0P Babyonan and 0renta Pecords.
BPW Beethngk und Poth, Sanskrt-Warterbuch.
BW Boethngk, Sanskrt-Warterbuch n kurzerer Fassung.
C. SP Cunnngham, rchaeoogca Survey Peports.
C. C l Cunnngham, Cons of ncent lnda.
C. ClS Cunnngham, Cons of the lndo-Scythans.
C. CMl Cunnngham, Cons of Medaeva lnda.
C. l (Cll. 1) Cunnngham, lnscrptons of soka, (Corpus lnscrptonum
lndcarum, o. l).
C. MG Cunnngham, Mohabodh-Ga| a; .e, Muhabodh or the
Cr .r Buddhst Tempe under the Bodh Tree at Buddha-
D. W Denkschrften der Wener kademe.
pgrapha lndca.
p. Cam. pgrapha Carnatca, ed. Pce.
. TS utng, Tabua Scrpturae ramacae.
Gaya.
f.G (Cll. 3) Feet, Gupta lnscrptons, (Corpus lnscrptonum lndcarum
l lndan ntquary.
lnscrptons de Pyadas . Senart.
The ataka, ed. Fausboe.
ourna satque.
. 0S ourna, mercan 0renta Socety.
. SB ourna, satc Socety of Benga.
o. lll).
.BBP S ournal, Bombay Branch of the Poya satc Socety.
.P S ournal, Poya satc Socety.
L.l Lassen, lndsche tertumskunde, 2nd. ed.
M.Bh Ma,.abhasya, ed. Kehorn.
M.M. SL Max Mer, story of ncent Sanskrt Lterature.
M. f.P Max Mer, Pgveda-Samhta wth Sayana s Commentary
P. l Prnsep s lndan ntqutes, ed. Thomas.
SB Sacred Books of the ast.
SB. W Stzungsberchte der Wener kademe.
Sll South-lndan lnscrptons, ed. utzsch.
S.lP Senart, lnscrptons de Pyadas .
S. l Senart, otes d pgraphe lndenne.
W. . . Wson, rana ntqua.
W. lnd. Str. Weber, lndsche Strefen.
W. lS Weber, lndsche Studen.
2nd. ed.
W KM Wener etschrft fur de Kunde des Morgenandes, .e.,
The enna 0renta ourna.
DMG etschrft der Deutschen Morgenrndschen Geseschaft.
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l. The ntquty 0f Wrtng ln lnda nd The
0rgn 0f The 0dest lndan phabet
. The lndan tradton.1
The tradton of both the orthodox and the heterodox sects of lnda ascrbes the
nventon of wrtng, or at east of the chef scrpt, to the creator Brahma, and thereby
cams t as a natona nventon of the remotest antquty. The former vew s found
n the arada-Smrt a redacton of the Manusamhta (mentoned by Bana about . D.
620), and n Brhaspat s varttka on Manu,3 as we as n uen Tsang and n the ana
Samavayanga-Sutra (tradtona date about 300 B.C.), the account of whch atter work
s repeated n the Pannavana-Sutra (tradtona date 168 B.C.).5 The story s aso
ndcated n the representatons of Brahma at Badam of about . D. 580, where the
dety hods n one of hs hands a bunde of pam-eaves,6 for whch n ater representa
tons an nscrbed sheet of paper s substtuted.7
The story, accordng to whch n partcuar, the lndan scrpt runnng from the eft
to the rght s an nventon of Brahma (Fan), s tod n fu n the Chnese Buddhstc
Fawanshun.6 The two ana works mentoned above, and the Latavstara,9 ndcate
ts exstence by namng the most mportant scrpt bambh or brahm. These tradtona
statements make t advsabe to adopt the desgnaton Brahm for the characters n whch
the ma|orty of the soka edcts are wrtten, and for ther ater deveopments.
Berun10 mentons a sghty dfferent story. e says that the ndus once had
forgotten the art of wrtng, and that through a dvne nspraton t was redscovered by
yasa, the son of Parasara. ccordngy, the hstory of the lndan aphabets woud begn
wth the Kayuga, n 3101 B. C.
Whe these myths tend to show that the ndus had forgotten the orgn of ther
aphabet n eary tmes, perhaps aready about 300 B. C., but certany before the begn-
1. B. lS. lll. 2, 23-35 : of. necdota 0xon., ryan Seres, l,3,67 ; B. SlP. 6 ; Ludwg,
avanan ; Stz. Ber. B 6hm. Gex. d. Wss. 1893, l ., and works quoted by Dr. Burne.
2. SB . 23, 58f. 3. SB . 23, 30 .
. Syuk 1,77 (Bea). 5. W. lS. 16,280,399.
6. l . 6, 366, P. 7. Moor, ndu Pantheon, P. 3, ; P. 1,2 3.
8. P0P. 1, 59.
9. Sansk. text, 1 3 (Bb. lnd , and the Chnese transaton of . D. 308.
10. lnda 1, 171 (Sachau).
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nng of our era, there are some other portons of ther tradtons whch possess a greater
and a postve vaue. The two ana sutras referred to above, contan a st of 18 separate
aphabets ; and the Latavstara11 enumerates 6 scrpts whch are sad to have exsted n
the tme of the Buddha. Severa among the names of the two sts agree, and there are n
partcuar four whch, as may have been aready recognsed, have a cam to be consdered
authentc and hstorca. Besdes the brahm or bambh, whch s the parent of a the st
exstng aphabets of lnda, two more can be dentfed wth known scrpts. The Kharosth
or Kharotth s, as the Fawanshuttn states,12 the wrtng runnng from the rght to the
eft, nvented by one Kharostha, ss-p, 18 and s the same character whch uropean
schoars formery used to ca Bactran, lndo-Bactran, Bactro-Pa, rano-Pa, &c. The
dravd or dam of the sts s very [2| probaby the party ndependent varety of the
Brahm, whch recenty has become known through the rec vesses from the Stupa of
Bhattpro|u n the Kstna dstrct.1 Besdes, the name puskarasar or pukkharasarha s
certany hstorca, as t s evdenty connected wth the nomen gente puskarasad or
pauskarasad (wth the orthern Buddhst s puskarasar) by whch one or severa
ancent teachers of aw and grammar are mentoned n Pann s grammar, pastamba s
Dharmasutra, and other works. lt appears not ncredbe that a member of the famy of
Puskarasad may have nvented a new aphabet or modfed an exstng one. The st of the
anas ncudes aso the name yavanaya or yavananya, whch s dentca wth yavanan,
the wrtng of the avanas or Greeks, of Pann (tradtona date about 350 B.C.).15
n eary acquantance of the ndus wth the Greek aphabet may have been brought about
by the expedton of Skyax to orth-Western lnda n 509 B. C, or by the fact that lndan
and Gandharan troops took part n erxes war aganst Greece,10 and even by an ancent
commerca ntercourse. t a events, fnds of lndan mtatons of ttc drachmes wth
Greek nscrptons tend to prove the use of the Greek aphabet n orth-Western lnda
before the tme of exander.17
s some names of the ana st are thus shown to be ancent by the resuts of ep-
graphc researches and by Pann, as we as by the agreement of the ndependent tradton
of the orthern Buddhsts, the st s not wthout hstorca vaue. nd t may be con
sdered at east hghy probabe that a fary arge number of aphabets was known or used
n lnda about 300 B. C. The exact number, 18, whch the anas menton, must however
be taken merey as conventona, as t frequenty occurs n tradtona statements.
n extract from the ost Drstvada of the anas aso gves some further account of
the ancent Brahm18. lt states that ths aphabet contaned ony 6 radca sgns, nstead
11. oc. ct. ; a thrd st, wth about 30 mosty very corrupt names, n the Mahavastu
1, 135 (Senart|.
12. B0P. 1, 59. 13. Cf. W KM. 9,66, and B. lS. lll, 2, 113f.
1 . l. 2, 323, ff. 15. Mahabhasya 2, 220 (Kehorn).
16. e rodotus, ll, 65, 66
17. B. . ead, Cat. of Greek Cons : ttca, p. l. f., pp. 25-27.
18. W. lS. 16, 281.
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19
of the usua number of 50 or 51. The etters ntended are wthout a doubt : , , l, l,
U, u, , l, 0, U (W), m, h ; ka, kha, ga, gha, na, ca, cha, |a, (20), |ha, na, ta, tha, da
dha, na, ta, tha, da (30), dha, na, pa, pha, ba, bha, ma, ya, ra, a ( 0) va, sa, sa, sa, fa, a ;
whe the matrkas P, P, L, L, and the gature ksa, whch n ater tmes was often erroneo
usy consdered a matrka, were excuded. The four qud vowes are wantng aso n the
aphabet of the Latavstara and n that of the modern eementary schoos. ln the
atter the nstructon s based on the so caed Barakhad (Skt. dvadasaksar), a tabe of the
combnatons of the consonants wth the tweve vowes mentoned above, e.g., ka, ka, to kam,
kah. The antquty of the Barakhad 1, whch from ts mangaa om namah sddham s at
present sometmes caed sddhaksarasamamnaya or sddhamatrka, s attested by u-n
( . D. 788-810)20, who mentons t as the frst of the tweve fan or cyces (evdenty uen
Tsang s tweve chang ) wth whch the ndu boys began ther studes. Further evdence
for the omsson of the vowes P, P, L, L s furnshed by uen Tsang s remark22 that
the lndan aphabet of hs tme contaned 7 etters (the ast one beng probaby the gature
ksa), and by the fragments of the ncompete aphabet of soka s stone-masons at Gaya23,
whch may be restored as foows : , , /, 7, /, f, , l, 0, U (10), m or
h, ka, kha, ga, gha, na, ca, cha, |a, |ha (20), na, a.
these varous ponts tend to show that the popuar Brahm contaned, as the ana
tradton asserts, snce the thrd century B.C., ony 6 etters, and that, as the occurrence of
the vowes l, U, m, h and the consonant na proves, t was adapted to the wants of
the Sanskrt anguage. But t s not [3| mprobabe that the Brahmans aready then used
partcuar sgns for the qud vowes n ther works on grammar and phonetcs. The
method, however, accordng to whch the actuay known sgns for these sounds have been
formed, dffers from that adopted for the other vowe-sgns. The meda r, P and / were
deveoped frst, and the ntas ater ; whe n the case of a, a, &c., the process was the
contrary one see beow, , and 2 , , 6, 7). The Chnese have aso preserved an
lndan tradton assertng that r, P and / are ater addtons to the orgna aphabet2 .
2. Lterary evdence for the use of wrtng.
. Brahmanca terature .
mong edc works, the asstha Dharmasutra, whch accordng to Kumara (about
. D. 750) orgnay beonged to a schoo of the Pgveda, and whch s younger than the
ost Manava Dharmasutra, but oder than the exstng Manusamhta, 6 offers cear evdence
for the wdey spread use of wrtng durng the edc perod. asstha n l, 10, 1 -15,
19. Sanks. Text (Bb. lnd.) 1 5 ; Leumann, 127. 20. B. lS. lll, 2, 30.
21. Syuk 1, 78 (Bea) ; St. uen, Memores des peerns Bouddhques 1, 72, and note.
22. Syuk 1, 77. 23. B. lS. lll, 2, 31. 2 . B. lS. lll, 2, 33.
25. B. lS. lll, 2, 5f. ; M. M. SL. 97 f. ; L. l . 2,1,1008 ff. ; B. SlP. 1, f.;
Weber, lnd. Strefen 3, 3 8f.
26. SB . 1 , xv ff.
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mentons wrtten documents as ega evdence, and the frst of these Sutras s a quotaton
from an oder work or from the tradtona ore. Further, Pann s grammar, whch
beongs to the edangas, contans, besdes the term yavanan mentoned above, the com
pounds pkara and bkara, wrter (lll, 2, 21), whch sometmes have been rendered
erroneousy, aganst the authorty of the kosas, by maker of nscrptons .27 ln addton
to these few certan passages, the ater edc works contan some technca terms, such as
aksara, kanda, pataa, grantha, &c., whch some schoars have quoted as evdence for
wrtng. But others have expaned them dfferenty, and t s ndeed not necessary to
consder them as referrng to wrtten etters and MSS28. Smary, opnons are much
dvded wth respect to the force of some other genera arguments for the eary use of
wrtten documents and MSS., drawn from the advanced state of edc cvsaton, especay
from the hgh deveopment of trade and the compcated monetary transactons mentoned
n edc works, from the use of prose n the Brahmanas from the coecton, the methodca
arrangement, the numeraton, and the anayss of the edc texts, and from the grammata,
phonetc, and excographc researches n the edangas.29 Though some of these ponts,
especay the frst and the ast, undenaby possess consderabe weght, they have yet not
ganed genera recognton, as w aways happen f an argumentum ex mpossb s used,
even f t shoud be supported by fuer speca enqures than Sanskrt schoars have
htherto devoted to these sub|ects.
Whe ths knd of evdence w probaby not be generay accepted very soon, t s to
be hoped that the argumentum ex sento, the nference that a edc work whch does
not menton wrtng must have been composed when wrtng was unknown n lnda, w
be dropped. The argumentum ex sento s certany not concusve, because the ndus
even at present, n spte of a ong contnued use of wrtng, esteem the wrtten word ess than
the spoken one, because they base ther whoe terary and scentfc ntercourse on ora
communcatons, and because, especay n scentfc [ | works, wrtng and MSS. are
mentoned very rarey. Though MSS, beng sarasvamukha, the face of the goddess of
speech , are hed sacred and are worshpped, the eda and the Sastras exst, even
for the modern ndu, ony n the mouth of the teacher, whose word has more weght
than a wrtten text, and they can ony be earned propery from a teacher, not from
MSS. ven n our days, the ndus esteem ony the mukhastha vdya, the earnng
whch the Pandt has mprnted on hs memory. ven n our days, earned dscussons
are carred on wth reference to vng speech, and even the modern poets do not wsh
to be read, but hope that ther verses w become ornaments for the throats of the
27. M. M. P . . 72.
28. M. M. SL 521 ff; Godstucker, Manava Kapa Sutra, lntr. 1 ff. ; W. lS. 5,
16 ff. ;M. M. P . . 72 f.
29. Whtney, 0r. and Lng. St. 82 ; . 0S. 6, 563 ; Benfey, DMG. 11,3 7; Bothngk,
Bu. Pet. kad. 1859, 3 7; Psche und Gedner, edsche Studen, 1, lll. l;
. Dahmann, Das Mahabh. 185 ; aganst these vews, M. M. P . . he. ct. ; Letter n
Takakusu s trans of Usng, ff. ; W. lS 5, he. ct.
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21
earned (satam kanthabhusana). s far as our observaton reaches, ths state of thngs
has been aways the same snce the earest tmes. lts utmate cause probaby s that
the begnnng of the ndu Sastras and poetry goes back to a tme when wrtng was
unknown, and that a system of ora teachng, aready traceabe n the Pgveda, was fuy
deveoped before the ntroducton of wrtten characters. The reasons |ust stated do
not permt us to expect many traces for the use of wrtng n the works of the schoos
of prests or Pandts, or to ook n them for frequent references to etters and wrtten
documents. But, on the other hand, there s nothng to bar the con|ecture, repeatedy
put forward, that, even durng the edc perod, MSS. were used as auxares both n
ora nstructon and on other occasons. nd, as an argument n favour of ths
con|ecture, t s now possbe to adduce the ndsputabe fact that the Brahm aphabet
hs been formsd by phonoogsts or by grammarans and for scentfc use30.
But such Brahmanca works as the pcs, Puranas, Kavyas, dramas, &c., whch
descrbe actua fe, or the metrca aw-books whch fuy teach not ony the sacred
but aso the cv and crmna aw, as we as compostons such as the t-, atya-,
and Kama-sastras whch excusvey refer to wordy matters, contan numerous references
to wrtng and to wrtten documents of varous knds, and kewse evdence for the
occurence of MSS. of terary works. Unfortunatey, however, t s not possbe to
assert of any of the exstng books of these casses, exceptng the two pcs, that they
are oder than the perod to whch the odest nscrptons beong. nd even the evdence
of the pcs may be mpugned, snce we cannot prove that every word of ther texts
goes back to a hgh antquty. Professor acob s examnaton of the severa recensons
of the Pamayana has shown that the greater part of the verses, now read, dd not beong
to the orgna poem.31 s far as s known at present, the MSS. of the Mahabharata do
not show equay great varatons. But the exstence of the ma|orty of ts chapters
can be proved ony for the eeventh century . D.32 Though the testmony of the
pcs can therefore, ony be used wth due reserve, yet t s undenabe that ther terms
regardng wrtng and wrters are archac. Lke the canonca works of the Southern
Buddhsts,33 they use the ancent expressons kh, ekha, ekhaka, and ekhana, not the
probaby foregn word p.
The most mportant passages of the pcs, concernng wrtng, have been coected
n the St. Petersburg Dctonary under the words mentoned, and by . Dahmann, Das
Mahabharata, 185 ff. Pegardng the passages on wrtng n Manu, see the lndex n
Sacred Books of the ast, o. , under Documents, and for the ega documents,
descrbed n the ater Smrts, see o. ll. of ths ncycopaeda, Part 8, Pecht und Stte,
v|35. n nterestng coecton of statements regardng MSS. n the Puranas s found n
emadr s Danakmnda, dhy. 7, p. 5 ff. (Bb. lnd.). The Kamasutra l, 3 (p. 33,
Durgaprasad) enumerates pustakavacana, the readng of MSS., among the 6 kaas.
30. See beow, 5. 31. acob, Das Pam, 8 ff. 32. Krste n B. lS, ll. 27 ff.
33. See Beow under B.
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B. Buddhstc terature.
[5| More mportant than the testmony of the Brahmanas s that the Ceyonese
Trptaka, where numerous passages bear wtness not ony to an acquantance wth
wrtng, but aso to ts extensve use at the tme when the Buddhst canon was composed.
Lekha, wrtng , and ekhaka, a wrter , are mentoned n the Bhkkhu-Padttya 2, 2,
and n the Bhkkhun-Pacttya 9, 2 ; and the former work prases wrtng as a branch of
knowedge that s honoured n a countres. The atakas repeatedy speak ef prvate85
and offca30 etters. They aso know of roya procamatons,37 of whch Mahavagga l, 3
kewse mentons an nstance ; and they narrate that mportant famy affars or mora
and potca maxms were engraved on god pates.38 Twce we hear of debtor s bonds
(napanna39), and twce even of MSS. (potthaka 0). game caed akkharka s mentoned
repeatedy n the nayaptaka and the kayas 1 ; accordng to Buddhaghosa, ts man
feature was that etters were read n the sky. The Para|ka secton of the nayaptaka
(3, , ) decares that Buddhst monks sha not ncse (chnd) the rues whch show
how men may gan heaven, or rches and fame n the next fe, through partcuar
modes of sucde. From ths passage t foows (1) that the ascetcs of pre-Buddhstc
tmes used to gve ther ay-dscpes rues, ncsed on bamboo or wooden tabets,
concernng regous sucde, whch ancent Brahmans and the anas strongy recommended,
and (2) that the knowedge of the aphabet was wdey spread among the peope.
Fnay, ataka o. 125, and Mahavagga 1, 9, a bear wtness to the exstence
of eementary schoos, n whch the method of teachng and the matter taught were about
the same as n the ndgenous schoos of modern lnda. The ataka mentons the
wooden wrtng-board (phaaka), known (as we as the varnaka or wooden pen) aso to
the Latavstara 3 and to Berun, and st used n lndan eementary schoos. The
passage of the Mahavagga gves the currcuum of the schoos, ekha, ganana and rupa,
whch three sub|ects, accordng to the athgumpha nscrpton of the year 165 of the
Maurya era. 5 kng Kharavea of Kanga earnt n hs chdhood. Lekha, of course, means
wrtng , and ganana, arthmetc , . e., addton, subtracton and the mutpcaton-
tabe formery caed anka and now amk, whe rupa, teray forms, corresponds to app
ed arthmetc, the cacuatons wth cons, of nterest and wages, and to eementary mensu
raton. These three sub|ects are st the three P s taught n the ndgenous schoos
caed gamt, rsa, pathsaa, ehsad or to
These very pan statements of the Ceyonese canon refer certany to the actuates
3 . B. lS. lll, 2, 7-16 ; 0denberg, SB . 13, xxx ff. ; D ws, lntrod, to Kaccayana s
Gram, xxv f., cxv f, 72-103 ; Weber, lnd. Strefen 2,337 ff.
35. B. lS. lll, 2, 7 f. 36. B. lS. lll, 2, 8f., 120. 37. B. lS. lll, 2, 10, 18.
38. B. lS. lll, 2, 0f. 39. B. lS. lll, 2, 10, 120. 0. B. lS. lll, 2, 120.
1. B. lS. lll, 2, 16. 2. B. lS. lll, 2, 13ff. 3. Sansk. Text, 1 3 ; (cf. B0P, 1, 59.)
. lnda 1, 182(Sachau). 5. Sxth 0renta Congress, 3, 2, 15 .
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of the perod between 500- 00. B. C, possby even of the sxth century. 6 Ther antquty
s proved aso by the fact that a the terms for wrtng, etters, wrters, chndat, khat,
ekha, ekhaka, akkhara, as we as neary a the wrtng materas, wood or bamboo, panna
or eaves, and suvannapatta or god pates, pont to the odest method of wrtng, the
ncson of the sgns n hard materas. traces of the use of nk are wantng, though the
statements of earchos and . Curtus regardng the wrtng materas used at the tme
of exander s nvason (see beow under C) make t very probabe that nk was known n
the fourth century B.C., and though an nk-nscrpton of the thrd and second century B. C.
s found on the nner sde of the d of the rec vesse from Stupa o. lll., at ndher. 7
Moreover, the Ceyonese books are not acquanted wth the words p, b, dp, dpat,
dpapat, pkara and bkara for wrtng, to wrte, and wrter, of whch the frst
sx are found n the [6| soka edcts and the ast two, as stated above, n Pann s grammar.
Dp, and p are probaby derved from the 0d Persan dp, whch cannot have reached
lnda before the conquest of the Pan|ab by Darus about 500 B.C., and whch ater
became p 8.
C. Foregn Works.
To the ast quarter of the fourth century B. C. refer the statement of earchos, 9
accordng to whch the ndus wrote etters on we-beaten cotton coth, and the note of
. Curtus/ 0 whch mentons the tender nner bark of trees as servng the same purpose,
and ceary ponts to the eary utsaton of the we known brch-bark. The fact that,
accordng to these two wrters, two dfferent ndgenous lndan materas were used n
327-325,B C. shows that the art of wrtng was then generay known and was nothng new.
To a sghty ater tme beongs the fragment o. 36 a of Megasthenes,51 whch speaks
of me-stones ndcatng the dstances and the hatng paces on the hgh roads. ln
another often-dscussed passage,02 Megasthenes says that the lndans decded |udca cases
accordng to unwrtten aws, and adds n expanaton that they knew no grammata and
setted everythng a pa mnemes. ccordng to the now usua nterpretaton, ths statement
has been caused by a msunderstandng. Megasthenes took the term smrt, used by hs
nformants, n the sense of mneme memory, whe they meant t n the sense of sacred
tradton concernng aw, or the awbooks, whch, accordng to lndan prncpes,
can ony be expaned oray by one who knows the Dharma.
6. B. lS. ll, 2,16 ff ; 0denberg, naypaka 1, xxxv ff.; M. MUer, S , 10, xxx ff.
7. Cunngham, Bhha Topes, p. 3 9, Pl. 30, 6.
8. B. lS. lll, 21f. ; Westergaard, we bhand. 33.
9. Strabo, , 717. 50. st. ex. lll, 9 ; cf.C. Muer, Fragm. st. Graeco, 2, 21.
51. C. Muer, op. ct. 30.
52- Frag, 27 ; C. Muer, op. ct., 21 ; Schwanbeck, Megasthenes, p 50, n. 8 ; M. M.
SL. 515 ; B. SlP. 1 ; L. l . ll, 2, 72 ; Weber, lnd. Skzzen 131 f.
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2
3. Paeographc vdence.
The resuts of a paeographc examnaton of the most ancent lndan nscrptons
fuy agree wth the terary evdence, whch bears wtness to the wdey spread use of wrtng
durng the ffth century B. C. and perhaps even durng the sxth. The characters of the
soka edcts, whch have to be consdered frst, prove very ceary that wrtng was
no recent nventon n the thrd century B.C. The aphabet of the edcts s not
homogeneous. the etters, wth the excepton of U, |ha, fa, na, tha, na, tha and na,
have severa often very dssmar forms, whch are party oca and party cursve varetes.
The number of the varants of one etter sometmes amounts to nne or ten. Thus Pate ll,
l, 2, Cos. ll- ll, shows for , , no ess than ten forms, among whch the eght most
mportant ones may be paced here sde by sde :
ft
The frst sgn has hardy any resembance to the ast. But the sequence n the
row shows ther connecton and ther deveopment. The frst seven owe ther exstence
to a predecton party [7| for anges and party for curves, two mutuay contradctory
tendences, whch fnd ther expresson aso n the forms of other etters of P. ll, such
as gha, da, da, a, &c. The sgns os. 1,2,3 of the seres gven above, are due to the
frst tendency, and os. 6, 7 to the second. os. , 5 show the transton from the ange
to the curve, and o. 8 s a cursve smpfcaton of o. 6. These eght sgns are not
found n a the versons of the soka edcts, but are dvded ocay as foows.
The anguar forms os. 1, 2, 3 appear ony n the South, n Grnar, Sddapura,
Dhau, and augada, sde by sde wth os. to 7. nd t must be noted that the
atter are rare n Grnar and Sddapura, but n the ma|orty n Dhau and augada. ln the
versons dscovered north of the armada or the ndhya, we fnd mosty ony os. to 7,
but n Kas o. 8 aso s common, and t occurs a few tmes n Pampurva. ence the
anguar forms of , , appear to be specay southern ones, and they are no doubt aso
the most ancent. The frst nference s confrmed by a comparson of the most neary
aed nscrptons. The rec vesses from Kohapur5 and Bhattprou (P. ll, Cos. lll-
), and the odest ndhra nscrpton from the anaghat (P. ll, Cos. lll- l ) agan
show the anguar , , ether excusvey or together wth the mxed forms os. , 5, whe
the numerous nscrptons found further north on the Stpas of Sanc and Bharahut, n
Pabhosa and Mathura (P. ll, Cos. lll- ) on the cons of gathoces, and n the
agar|un cave (P. ll, Co. ll), offer ether pure curved etters or mxed ones. n
excepton n Mahabodh Gaya55 s probaby expaned by the fact that pgrms from the
south ncsed records of ther donatons at the famous sanctuary. Smar dfferences
53. B lS. lll, 2, 35-53. 5 . B. SPWl, o 10, 39, Pate. 55. C. MG. Pl. 10, 2.
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between northern and southern forms may be observed n the case of kha, |a,ma, ra and
sa50, and they are a the more mportant as the crcumstances under whch the soka
edcts were ncsed dd not favour the free use of oca forms57. But the exstence of oca
forms aways ponts to a ong contnued use of the aphabet n whch t s observabe.
quay mportant s the occurrence of apparenty or reay advanced and cursve
types whch for the greater part reappear or become constant n the ater nscrptons.
The sub|oned tabe shows n ne the most mportant modern ookng sgns from the
soka edcts, and n ne B the correspondng ones from ater nscrptons.

t
gha
12 3 lS 6 7 8
Four among the sgns, os. 2, 7, 10, 21, are, as w appear further on. 8
reay archac, but the remander are party secondary, party tertary cursve forms.
To the ast-mentoned beong n partcuar os. ,8, 11, 15 and 19. [8| mong the
etters from the ater nscrptons n ne B, os. 9, 11, 12 and 19 appear n the
agar|un cave nscrptons of soka s grandson Dasaratha ; os. 2, 6-8, 10, 13-16 and 21
n Kharavea s athgumpha nscrpton and n the odest ndhra nscrptons,
ask o. 1 and anaghat, as we as n the archac Mathura nscrptons, a
of whch documents beong to the perod between about 170 B. C. and 1 50. os. 1, 3 and
22 are st ater, and occur frst n the nscrptons of the Kusanas from Mathura and n the
ndhra and bhra nscrptons from ask of the frst and second centures . D. 0cca
sonay the soka edcts show aso the short top-stroke, the so-caed Serf, whch s so
characterstc for the ater aphabets and causes numerous modfcatons.59 ery commony,
too, appear the upward strokes for meda a and e, the cursve rounded / (n Grnar
sometmes not dstngushabe from a), more rarey the ater straght o-stroke, and once a
ooped o.ao Fnay, the anusvara sometmes stands, as s generay the case n ater tmes,
above the etter after whch t s pronounced. 61
56. See beow 16, C. 57. See beow 16, B. 58. See beow , .
59. See beow 16, C. 60. See beow 16, C. 61. See beow 16, D.

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The exstence of so many oca varetes, and of so very numerous cursve forms,
proves n any case that wrtng had a ong hstory n soka s tme, and that the aphabet
was then n a state of transton. The use of the cursve forms together wth archac ones
may possby be expaned by the assumpton that severa, party more archac and party
more advanced, aphabets were smutaneousy used durng the thrd century B. C., and that
the wrters, ntendng or ordered to use apdary forms, through neggence mxed them wth
the more famar cursve etters, as has aso happened not rarey n ater nscrptons. lt
s possbe to adduce n favour of ths vew the above-mentoned tradton of the Drstvada,
accordng to whch a arger number of aphabets was n use about 300. B. C. The con|ecture
woud become a certanty, f t coud be shown that the word seto, the whte (eephant),
whch has been added to Dhau edct l. n order to expan the scupture above the mdde
coumn, was ncsed at the same tme as the precedng edcts. The two characters of seto
show the types of the Kusana and Gupta nscrptons.62 Though t s dffcut to understand
that, n ater tmes, anybody shoud have cared to add the expanaton of the reef, keepng
exacty the ne of the edct, the possbty of the assumpton that ths was actuay done,
s not atogether excuded.
The ran con wth the egend runnng from the rght to the eft,08 offers a contrbu
ton to the earer hstory of the Brahm. lt shows the ancent sa wth the straght sde-
stroke, but the ater ma wth the semcrcuar top, and the dha turned to the eft. The con
probaby dates from the tme when the Brahm was wrtten both from the rght to the eft
and from the eft to the rght. ven f one makes due aowance for the fact that cons
often reproduce archac forms ong gone out of the fashon, one can ony agree wth
Cunnngham (C l. 101), who thnks that the con s oder than the Maurya perod ; and
one must aot t, f not to 00 B. C., at east to the mdde of the fourth century. The
tme when the Brahm was wrtten bondtrophedon probaby es somewhat before the
Maurya perod, snce the soka edcts show ony few traces of the wrtng from rght to
eft, n the 0 of augada and Dhau and n the rare dha of augada and Deh-Svak
(Pate ll, 8, l, and 26, , l).0 ln connecton wth ths con t s aso necessary to men
ton the Patna sea (C. SP. 15, P. 3. 1. 2), whch very key are oder than the tme of
the Mauryas. The frst wth the egend adaya ( amdaya), (the sea) of anda, shows a da
open to the rght, [9| and the second wth the nscrpton gapaasa ( mgapaassa) shows an
n ts orgna poston (P. ll. 1.1). More mportant resuts for the hstory of the Brahm
may be obtaned from the Dravd of the rec caskets of Bhattprou,65 aready referred
to above. Ths aphabet contans, besdes varous characters agreeng wth the southern
varety of the soka edcts, (1) three sgns, dh, dandbh, n the poston of the wtng
runnng from rght to eft ; (2) three sgns, c,| and s, whch are more archac than those
62. B. SPSl. 1, 115. 63. C. C l. Pl. 11, 18, and Pate ll, Co. l, of ths work.
6 . lf accordng to C. CMl, 27, as Mr. . . Smth ponts out to me, some cons of
Mhrakua show nscrptons runnng from the rght to the eft, ths pecuarty must be
ascrbed to Sassanan nfuence.
65. Pate ll, Cos. lll .
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of the soka edcts and of the ran con ; (3) two sgns, /and/, derved ndependenty
from the od Semtc orgnas ; ( ) one new sgn, gh, derved from g, the matrka gha of
the Brahm beng at the same tme dscarded. The reasons for the assertons under 2 and
3 w be adduced n the next paragraph. But f the assertons themseves are true, t
certany foows that, whatever the age of the nscrptons may be, the Dravda aphabet
separated from the man stock of the Brahm ong before the ran con was struck, at the
atest n the ffth century B. C.
Ths estmate carres us back to the perod for whch the Ceyonese canon proves
the genera use of wrtng n lnda, wthout however gvng the name of the current aphabet.
lt seems therefore natura to con|ecture that the aphabet known to the earest Buddhst
authors was a form of the Brahm; and there are some further facts whch favour ths vew.
Frsty, recent dscoveres have made t evdent that the Brahm has been commony used
snce the earest tmes even n orth-Western lnda, and that t was ndeed the rea
natona scrpt of a ndus.66 ln the runs of Taxa, the modern Shah-Der n the Pan|ab,
cons have been found whch are struck accordng to the od lndan standard, and some of
whch bear nscrptons n Kharosth, whe the ma|orty show egends n the odest type of
the Brahm, sometmes together wth transcrpts n Kharosth.07 These cons are certany
not ater than the thrd century B. C. Perhaps they even date, as Cunnngham thnks,
from a much earer tme about 00. B. C. Some of them have been struck by negama or
guds, those of the Do|aka, or Du|aka, of the Tamata and of the takataka (1), and one
wth the nscrpton atasvaka probaby was ssued by a secton of the trbe of the svakas
( ssakeno), named after the rate-tree, the Fcus regosa. These fnds decdedy estabsh
the popuar use of the Brahm n the Pan|ab, sde by sde wth the Kharosth, at east for
the thrd century B. C. Mr. Papson s dscovery of Persan sgo wth etters n Kharosth
and n Brahm proves that both aphabets were used together much earer.68 For, n a
probabty, these sgo were current durng the rue of the khaemenans over orth-
Western lnda, or before 331 B. C.
Secondy, Dr. Tayor s vew regardng the orgn of the Kharosth has become more
and more probabe, and t must now be admtted that ths aphabet was deveoped out
of the ater ramac characters after the conquest of the Pan|ab by Darus, whch happened
about 500 B. C.69. nd t becomes more and more dffcut to refuse credence
to the con|ecture of . Weber, . Thomas and . Cunnngham, accordng to whch the
prncpes rung the aready deveoped Brahm have been utsed n the formaton of the
Kharosth70. ccordng to our present nformaton, the Kharosth s the ony aphabet,
besdes the Brahm, to whch the Buddhsts possby coud refer. But as t was ony a
secondary scrpt even n Gandhara, as t was deveoped ony n the ffth century, the
possbty suggested becomes mprobabe, and the Brahm aone has a cam to be
consdered as the aphabet known to the authors of the Ceyonese canon.
66. C. C l. 38 f. 67. C. C l, P. 2, 3.
68. W KM. 9, 65 ; B. lS. lll, 2, 113. 69. See beow 8 70. See beow 9, B, .
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. The orgn of the Brahma aphabet11
[10| mong the numerous greaty dfferng proposas to expan the orgn of the
Brahm72, there are fve for whch compete demonstratons have been attempted : (l) .
Cunnngham s dervaton from ndgenous lndan herogyphcs73; (2) . Weber s dervaton
from the most ancent Phoencan characters7 ; (3) W. Deecke s dervaton from the
ssyran cuneform characters, through an ancent South-Semtc aphabet whch s aso
the parent of the Sabaean or myartc scrpt75; ( ) l. Tayor s dervaton from a ost
South- raban aphabet, the predecessor of the Sabaean70 ; (5) . aevy s dervaton from
a mxture of ramac, Kharosth and Greek etters of the ast quarter of the fourth
century B. C.77
Cunnngham s opnon, whch was formery shared by some emnent schoars, presup
poses the use of lndan herogyphc pctures, of whch htherto no trace has been found.
0n the other hand, the egend of the ran con, whch runs from the rght to the eft, and
the etters seemngy turned round n the opposte drecton whch appear rarey n the
soka edcts and more frequenty n the Bhattprou nscrptons, pont to the correctness
of the vew taken as granted n a the other attempts at expanaton, vz., that Semtc
sgns are the prototypes of the Brahma etters.
mong the remanng four proposas. . aevy s a pror mprobabe theory may be
at once emnated, as t does not agree wth the terary and paeographc evdence |ust
dscussed, whch makes t more than probabe that the Brahm was used severa centures
before the begnnng of the Maurya perod, and had had a ong hstory at the tme to
whch the earest lndan nscrptons beong. lt s more dffcut to make a choce between
. Weber s dervaton from the odest orth-Semtc aphabet, and the vew of W. Deccke
and l. Tayor, who derved the Brahm from an ancent South-Semtc scrpt. ether the
one nor the other dervaton can be decared to be a pror mpossbe ; for, the resuts of
modern researches make a hgh antquty probabe for aso the Sabaean scrpt, and pont to
the concuson that ths aphabet not ony s oder than the odest lndan nscrptons, but
that t exsted at a perod for whch no evdence for the use of wrtng n lnda s avaabe.78
But accordng to these resuts, the queston has to be put n a manner somewhat dfferng
from that n whch Deecke and Tayor have put t. The pont to be ascertaned s no onger,
whether the Brahm can be derved from an unknown predecessor of the Sabaean aphabet,
but whether t can be derved drecty from the actuay known Sabaean characters.
71. B. lS. lll, 2, 53-82. 72. P. . Cust, Lng, and 0r. ssays, 2nd. Ser, 27-52.
73. C. l (Cll. 1), 52 ff. 7 . DMG. 10, 389 ff. ; lnd. Skzzen 125 ff.
75. DMG. 31, 598 ff.
76. The phabet, 2, 31 ff. ; restated wth some modfcatons by F. Mer Meanges
arez 212 ff. 77. . 1885, 268 ff. ; Pevue Sem. 1895, 223 ff
78. Mordtmann and D. . Mer, Sab, Denkmae/er (n DW . Ph. st. C. 31),
p. 108 f.
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ln a attempts at the dervaton of aphabets, t s necessary to keep n mnd three
fundamenta maxms, wthout whch no satsfactory resuts can be obtaned :
(1) For the comparson of the characters to be derved, the odest and fuest forms
must be used, and the orgnas from whch they are derved must beong to the types of
one and the same perod.
(2) The comparson may ncude ony such rreguar equatons as can be supported
by anaoges from other cases where natons have borrowed foregn aphabets.
(3) [ll| ln cases where the dervatves show consderabe dfferences from the
supposed prototypes, t s necessary to show that there are fxed prncpes, accordng to
whch the changes have been made.
f one wshes to keep to these prncpes n dervng the Brahm from Semtc sgns,
nethet- the Sabaean aphabet, nor ts perhaps a tte more archac varety, the Lhyanan or
Thammudaean,79 w serve the purpose, n spte of a genera resembance n the ductus and
of a speca resembance n two or three etters. The dervatons proposed by Deecke and
Tayor do not fuf the absoutey necessary condtons, and t w probaby not be possbe
to obtan satsfactory resuts, even f a the mpossbe equatons are gven up, and the
odest lndan sgns n every case are chosen for comparson. lt woud be necessary to
assume that severa Sabaean etters, such as eph, Gme, an, Teth, Phe, oph, Pesh,
whch show strong modfcatons of the orth-Semtc forms, had been agan made smar
to ther prototypes on beng converted by the ndus nto , ga, |a, tha, pa, kha and ra.
ln other cases, t woud be mpossbe to show any connecton between the Sabaean and
the lndan sgns. These dffcutes dsappear wth the drect dervaton of the Brahm
from the odest orth-Semtc aphabet, whch shows the same type from Phoenca to
Mesopotama. The few nadmssbe equatons whch Weber s earer attempt contans,
may be easy removed wth the hep of recenty dscovered forms, and t s not dffcut to
recognse the prncpes, accordng to whch the Semtc sgns have been converted nto
lndan ones.
n examnaton of the od lndan aphabet n Pate ll. reveas the foowng
pecuartes :
(1) The etters are set up as straght as possbe, and wth occasona exceptons n
the case of ta, tha and ba, they are made equa n heght.
(2) The ma|orty consst of vertca nes wth appendages attached mosty at the
foot, occasonay at the foot and at the top, or rarey n the mdde ; but there s no case
n whch an appendage has been added to the top aone.
(3) t the top of the etters appear mosty the ends of vertcas, ess frequenty short
horzonta strokes, st| more rarey curves on the tops of anges openng downwards, and,
79. D. . Mer, Denkmaeer aus raben (DW . Ph. st C. 37), p. 15 ff.
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123 S7891011lt13MlS1117111920 22l 3lB#13 / 19f o h-9-1wtD -9 -a retf , r. y| op - 1w 01 l l 0m . lD 0T/ b 0dd a DLU U c e 8 LU0UU v v/ f- -|. 5 tfa.d-D 0M ld d 21S l x /| frf C 1L p LB Tf ocb o . h . ,l l t : : /. -ff ::(D(b
qute exceptonay, n ma and n one form of|ha, two nes rsng upwards, h no case
does the top show severa anges, paced sde by sde, wth a vertca or santng ne hang
ng down, or a trange or a crce wth a pendant-ne.
The causes of these characterstcs of the Brahm are a certan pedantc formasm,
found aso n other lndan creatons, a desre to frame sgns suted for the formaton of
reguar nes, and an averson to top-heavy characters. The ast pecuMarty s probaby due
n part to the crcumstances that snce eary tmes the lndans made ther etters hang
down from an magnary or reay drawn upper ne80, and n part to the ntroducton of
80. Cf. Berun s lnda, 1.172 (Sachau).
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vowe-sgns, most of whch are attached horzontay to the tops of the consonants. Sgns
wth the ends of vertcas at the top were, of course, best suted for such a scrpt. 0wng to
these ncnatons and aversons of the ndus, the heavy tops of many Semtc etters had
to be got rd of, by turnng the sgns topsy-turvy or ayng them on ther sdes, by openng
the anges, and so forth. Fnay, the change n the drecton of the wrtng necesstated a
further change, nasmuch as the sgns had to be turned from the rght to the eft, as
n Greek.
[12| The detas of the dervaton, for whch, wth the excepton of the evdenty
dentca os. 1, 3-7, 9, 12, 16, 17, 19-22, ony a greater or smaer degree of probabty can
be camed, are shown n the sub|oned comparatve tabe, whch has been drawn by Mr. S.
Pepper of enna Cos. l, ll, showng the odest Phoencan characters and those from
Mesa s stone, have been taken from Ph. Berger s store de / crture dans / ntqute,
pp. 185, 202. Co. lll comes from Patng s Tabua Scrpturae ramacae of 1892. nd
Cos 1 - l, wth the excepton of the sgns marked by astersks as hypothetca, are taken
from Pate ll. of ths work. Wth respect to the snge etters, l add the foowng expana
tory remarks, bref abstracts of those n my lndan Studes, lll. 2, p. 58 ff.
. Borrowed Sgns.
o. 1, , Co. , - eph,Co s. l, ll (Weber doubtfuy), [13| turned from rght to
eft except on the Patna sea (above, 3, and Pl. ll, 1,1), wth transposton of the vertca
ne to the end of the ange o. 2, ba, Co. , a, b, c, Beth, Cos. l, ll (Weber); the
openng of the tranguar top produced frst a sgn ke that n Co. l , next the rhombus,
Co. , a, and fnay the square and the obong, Co. , b, c. o. 3, ga, Co. , Gmel,
Cos. l, ll o. , dha, Co . ,a,b, Daeth, Cos. l, ll (Weber), set up straght wth
rounded back (compare the haf-anguar forms, P. ll, 26, l , l , lll, and the
tranguar, P. lll, 2 , ll- 1ll), wth or wthout the turn from rght to eft o. 5, ha,
Co. , e (Weber doubtfuy), the Sddapura form, Co. , a, beng probaby derved
from the e of Co. lll, a (Mna of Samanassar, before 725 B. C. ), whch was turned
topsy-turvy and from rght to eft. The more smar e of the sxth century B. C.
(Co. ll, / ) cannot be the prototype, because t occurs n the perod when the Brahm had
been deveoped, and because then the Semtc eph, Daeth, Cheth, Theth, Waw, and
oph had become cursve and had been changed so much that they coud no onger have
produced the lndan forms o. 6, va, Co. , a, b, Waw, Co. ll (Weber doubtfuy),
turned topsy-turvy and wth the ower end shut. o. ,|a,Co . , a/ , Cos. l, ll
(Weber) ; a dspacement of the two bars produced the Dravd etter, Co. , a ; from
ths was derved, the etter beng made wth one stroke of the pen, the |a of the
northern Brahm, Co. , b, wth a oop, for whch, owng to the use of nk, a dot was
substtuted n they a of Co. , c. The usua Grnar form. Co , d, was aso derved
from the Dravda form, the etter beng made wth two strokes of the pen.
o. 8, gha, Co. , a, b, Cheth, Cos. l, ll (Tayor), the Semtc sgn beng ad on
ts sde. Co. l (on account of ts often sopng poston), and the upper horzonta
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bar beng changed nto a vertca. o. 9, tha, Co. , Theth, Co. 1 (Weber), wth
the substtuton of a dot for the cross n the centre, |ust as n the ssyran etter. Co.
lll. o. 10, | . Co. , od (Weber), the od of Cos. l, ll, beng ad on ts sde
Co. l , the centra stroke beng engthened ; and the pendant on the rght beng turned
upwards, hence frst the ya of Co. , a, and ater the cursve forms n Co. , b, c.
o. ll, ka, Co. , a, b, Kaph, the upper sde-bar of a form ke that n Co. ll
havng been converted nto the top of the vertca, and the sgn beng then setup
straght. o. 12, a, Co. , Lamed, Cos. l, ll (Weber), preserved n ts orgna
poston n the sghty dfferentated / of the Dravd, Co. l (see beow, B, , c), and
n the ran form, Co. l , wth the Serf on the top of the curve, turned from rght
to eft n usua form of the soka edcts, Co. , a, and turned wth a ta on the rght, but
wthout the Serf, n the Dravd /, Co. , b. o 13, ma, Co. . -Mem (Weber), derved
from a form ke that n Co. ll, wth the change of the bent pendant nto a oop, as n
the hypothetca form n Co. l (anaogous deveopment n utng, TS . Co. 58, a), and
wth superposton of the ange on the oop, Co. , a (anaogous deveopment n utng,
TS . Co. 59, c), whence the cursve form wth semcrce at the top n Co. , b. o. 1
na, Co. , un (Tayor), the un n Cos. l, ll, beng turned topsy-turvy as n Col.
l , and the hook at the foot beng converted nto a straght stroke, for whch
deveopment the na, Co. l, a, formed out of the hypothetca sgn by a reguarsaton
of the hook and the addton of a dfferentatng bar at the top (see beow B, d), appears
to be a wtness.
o. 15, sa, sa, Cos. , , Samekh (Weber doubtfuy); a Samckh ke that of
Co. l, b, beng made cursve by the ndus, as shown n Co. l , and turned topsy-turvy,
[1 | whereby the Dravda s, Co. , was obtaned, whch orgnay served both for s
and s. Later, ths sgn was dvded nto the sgns for the etymoogcay connected sa
and a. By transferrng the cross-bar to the outsde of the curve, arose the sa of the
southern Brahm n Co. l, a, and (turned round) that n Co. l, b, whe the remova
of the bar to the nsde of the curve produced the sa of the same scrpt, Co. l, c. The
Dravd adopted the new sa for ts s, and retaned the od sgn for s. The northern
Brahm deveoped out of the southern sa that wth the curve, Co. l, d, and out
of ths a new sa, Co. l, e. n mmedate dervaton of the Dravda s from the Samekh of
the sxth century B. C. n Co. lll. s not possbe, for the reasons stated under o 5,
and because the characterstc ancent cross-bar s wantng n t. o. 16, , Co. , n,
Cos. l, ll (Weber), the lndan sgn beng changed sghty or not at a n the ancent
forms of Kas, Co. l , and Co. , b, as we as n that of Sanc and athgumpha,
Co , a but ater made tranguar, Co. , c, d, e n order to avod a confuson wth tha and
dha o. 17. pa, Co. , Phe, Cos. l, ll (Weber), turned topsy-turvy ; n ts orgna
poston n the ran form, Co. l ; turned sdeways n Co. .
o. 18, ca, Co. , Tsade, Cos l, ll, turned topsy-turvy, the second hook on the rght
beng bent at the same tme towards the vertca as n the hypothetca form of Co. l ,
whence arose, wth the turn sdeways, the anguar or round ca of the Brahm n Co.
, a, b, and the taed one of the Dravd, Col. , c. o 19, kha, Co. , oph, Cos.
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l, ll, turned topsy-turvy wth the addton of a curve at the top, Co, . a, n order to ds
tngush the etter from va. 0wng to the use of nk, the crce at the foot was converted
nto a dot, Co. , b. o.20, ra, Co. , Pesh, Cos. l, ll (Weber), the tranguar head of
the etter beng opened and the vertca attached to the base of the former trange, whence
arose the forms n Co. , a, b, and ater the ornamenta ones, Co. , c, d, n whch the
anges were repeated. o. 21, sa, Co. . Shn, Cos. l, ll (Weber), the two anges,
standng sde by sde, beng paced the one nsde the other, and the sgn beng then turned
topsy-turvy, Co. , a, b, c. The more cosey resembng ramac Shn of the sxth century
B. C., Co. lll, cannot be the prototype of sa, for the same reasons as those stated above
under o. 5, and s merey an anaogous transformaton, whch the rameans, Phoencans
and thopans have made ndependenty at varous perods. The oder form wth two
anges has been preserved n the western sgn for 0 su (see my lndan Studes, l1l.2
71, 117), o. 22, ta, Co. , 70w, Cos. l, ll (Weber) ; from a form ke that of Sn|r,
Co. lll, b, or the ssyran of the tme of Samanassar, Co. lll, a, was derved the ta of
Co. , a, b, and hence the reguarsed form of Co. , c.
B. Dervatve consonants and nta vowes.
The dervatve sgns, nvented by the ndus themseves, have been formed by
means of the foowng contrvances :
(1) 0ne of the eements of a phonetcay cognate etter s transposed: (a) n sa
and sa, where the cross-bar of the odest sgn has been dspaced (see above, , o. 15) ;
(b) n da, whch has been derved from dha (Weber) by dvdng the vertca stroke,
and by attachng the two peces to the upper and ower ends of the curve, whence frst
the da of the Dravd and of the Patna sea, o. , Co. l, a was derved, and, wth the
turn to the eft, the ordnary form of the Brahm, o. , Co. l, b, and further the anguar
da. o. , Co). l, /.
(2) borrowed or dervatve etter s mutated n order to obtan one wth a
smar phonetc vaue : (a) from da, o. , Co. l, a, comes [15| by the remova of
the ower and the haf-round da of Kas and the ater southern nscrptons, Co. l, c ;
smary, from the anguar da, Co. l, g, the ordnary anguar da, Co. l, h, of the soka
edcts (Weber) ; (b) from tha, o. 9, Co. , comes tha, Co. l, a, by the remova of the
centra dot ; and from the atter agan a, Co. l, b, s derved by bsecton, the round th.a
beng consdered as the product of an unasprated etter and a curve of aspraton, whch
appears (see beow, 5) n varous other etters (Weber) ; (c) from the tranguar ,
o. 16, Co. , c, d, e, comes the / wth three dots, Co. l, B, a, b, c, whch |ust
ndcate the outnes of the oder sgn (Prnsep), the dervaton beng suggested by the
fact that grammatcay e s the guna vowe of /, for whch therefore a ghter form of
e appeared sutabe ; (d) through a bsecton of the ower porton of va, o. 6, Co. ,
b, and a straghtenng of the remanng pendant, s derved U, Co. l, a (see my
lndan Studes, lll. 2. 7 ), the dervaton beng suggested by the fact that u commony
5
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represents va n weak grammatca forms (samprasarana) ; (e) f ther ater sma crce1
(P. l , 38, l) s the orgna form of the anusvara, o. 13. Co.. l, a, b, and the
dot a cursve substtute, the sgn may be expaned as a mutated sma ma, whch has-
ost the ange at the top, and has been thus treated ke the sma voweess consonants-
appearng n the nscrptons of the frst centures . D. (see. e. g., Pl. l, 1, 1l1) ;.
compare aso the dervaton of the Kharosth anusvara from ma (see beow, 9, B, ).
(3) Short horzonta strokes whch orgnay, before the change n the drecton of
the wrtng, stood on the eft, are used to derve the ong vowes , o. 1, Go. l, and u,
o. 6, Co. l, d, from short and U. 0n account of the pecuar shape of /, a dot s used,
nstead for the formaton of /, o. 16, Co. , B, g.
( ) Short horzonta strokes, orgnay added on the rght, denote a change n the
quaty of the sounds : (a) n 0, o. 6, Co. l, f, g, derved from U, Co. l, a (wth the
bar n the orgna and the ater poston), because grammatcay o s the gwna-vowe of u ;.
(b) n l, o. 16, Co. l, a, b, derved from , because grammatcay a s the vrddh-
vowe of e ; (c) n the / of the Dravd, o. 12, Co. l, from the orgna form of a (Lamed),.
Cos. l, ll, n whch case the bar st stands on the rght, because the etter has not been
turned ; (d) n na, o 1 , Co. l, a from the orgna nverted un, Co. l ; compare
above under , o. 1 ; (e) n na (see my lndan Studes, lll. 2, pp. 31, 76 ;.aso page 35,
beow, 16, C, 12) from na, o. 1 , Co. , wth a dspacement of the ower horzonta
stroke towards the rght, the etter beng kept n ts orgna poston ; (/) n na, o. 1 ,
Co. l, b, from na, the bar protrudng at both sdes of the vertca n order to avod the
dentty wth na, ne and 0.
(5) The aspraton s expressed by a curve n thcgh of the Dravd,. o. 3, Co. l,
formed out of g, and n ordnary Brahm dha, o. , Co. l, d, from da, Co. l, c, n
pha, o. 17, Co. l, from pa, Col. , and n cha, o. 18, Co. l, a ; n the ast sgn the
curve has been attached to both ends of the vertca, and ths proceedng ed to the deveop
ment of the cursve cha of Co. l. b. More rarey a hook s substtuted for the curve,
and then the orgna sgn s mutated; thus bha, o. 2, Co. l, s derved from ba by
omttng the base stroke, and|ha, o. 7, Co. l, from the Dravda/, Co. , a, by droppng,
both bars at the ends of the vertca. Both the hook and the curve are cursve substtutes
for ha, whch n the Tbetan aphabet81 s used agan n order to form gha, bha, &c.
(6) [ 6| The a of the Brahm, o. , Co. l, e, has been derved, by the addton
of a sma semcrce, for whch we have an open ange n Sanc (P. ll, 1, lll), from the
haf round da of Co. l, c, the dervaton beng very probaby suggested by the phonetc
affnty of da to (a, whch two etters are frequenty exchanged n edc and cassca
Sanskrt and n the Prakrt daects.
81. P. 2, Pate at p. 00.
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35

C. Meda vowes and absence of vowe n gatures

(1). The system of the Brahm.
ln accordance wth the expressons of the Sanskrt phonoogsts and grammarans, who
take nto account the spoken anguage aone82 and who ca the sound ka-kara, the g-sound
ga-kara, &c., the meda a s nherent n a consonants, and consequenty meda a s
expressed by the stroke whch dstngushes from .
The other meda vowes are ether the fu nta vowe-sgns or cursve dervatves
from them, whch are paced mosty at the top or rarey at the foot of the consonants. The
dentty of the meda o wth the nta 0 s dstncty recognsabe n a etters wth
vertcas at the top, as n ko. o. 6, Co. l, h, , where, on the remova of the dagger-shaped
k beow the second cross-bar, the sgns n Co. l,/, g, reappear; compare aso go n mago,
Grnar dct l, ne 11, where an nta 0 has been paced above g. ln the augada edcts,
where ony the 0 of Co. l./, occurs, the meda o has nvaraby the same form. But n
Grnar we have both forms of o, though there s ony the 0 of Co. l, g. Smary, the fu
nta U s recognsabe n the combnatons wth consonants endng n vertcas, as n ku,
P. 1l,9, ; du, 20, ll ; du, 25, ; bhu, 31, lll, (compare 16, D, ) ; and n the dhu of
Kas. o. 6, Co. l, b : more usuay u s represented cursvey, ether by the horzonta
stroke of U, as n dhu, o. 6, Co. l, c, or by ts vertca as n cu, P. ll, 13, lll, and dhu,
26, ll, &c. Meda u s dentca wth U, f combned wth consonants endng n vertcas ;
esewhere t s cursvey expressed by two nes, commony paced horzontay, asndhu,
o. 6, Co. l, e : but n the ater nscrptons we occasonay fnd the u of the perod
used for the meda vowe.83 Meda / was probaby at frst expressed by the three dots of
the nta f (k. o. 16, Co. l, B, d), whch afterwards were |oned cursvey by nes and
converted nto the ange used n most of the soka edcts (k, Co. l, B, e). The meda
has been deveoped out of the atter form by the addton of a stroke, ndcatng that the
vowe s ong (k, Co. l, B,/; see above, under B, 3). ln order to express meda e, the
trange of the nta has been reduced cursvey frst to an ange, open on the eft, as n
ge, Pl. ll, U, l, and more commony to a straght ne (ke, o. 16, Co. l, , a). ln
accordance wth the form of the nta l, whch conssts of and a horzonta bar, meda
a s expressed by two parae horzonta strokes (tha, o. 16, Co. l, , c).
The absence of a vowe s ndcated by nteracng the sgn for the consonants
mmedatey foowng each other, and n such gatures the second sgn s often mut
ated ; see beow, 16, , 2. Ths proceedng appears to be a practca ustraton
of the term samyuktaksara, a |oned or gature syabe by whch the phonoogsts
and grammarans denote a syabe begnnng wth more consonants than one.
2. The system of the Dravd.
The notaton of the meda vowes n the nscrptons of Bhattprou dffers
82. M. M. SL. 505 ff.
83. See beow, 2 , B. 3 : P. l , 30, ll, l ; Pl. ll, 30, ll, , l.
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from the usua one n so far as meda a s marked by the Brahm sgn for a, and
meda a by a horzonta stroke from the end of whch a vertca one hangs down ; see
ka, P. ll, 9, lll ; ka, 9, l . ence the consonants have no nherent a. The devce s
no doubt of ater orgn, and has been nvented n order to avod the necessty for gatures.
5 The tme and the manner of the borrowng of the Semtc phabet.9
[17| ccordng to the precedng dscusson, the great ma|orty of the Brahma
etters agree wth odest types of the orth-Semtc sgns, whch are found n
the archac Phoencan nscrptons and on the stone of Mesa, ncsed about 890 B.C.
But two characters, ha and ta, are derved from Mesopotaman forms of e and Taw,
whch beong to the mdde of the eghth century B.C., and two, sa-sa and sa, resembe
ramac sgns of the sxth century B. C. s the terary and epgraphc evdence
eaves no doubt that the ndus were not unettered durng the perod 600-500 B.C., and
as the other sgns of the ramac aphabet of ths perod, such as Beth, Daeth, Waw, &c,
are too far advanced to be consdered as the prototypes of the correspondng Brahma
etters, t becomes necessary to regard the seemngy modern forms of sa, sa and sa as
the resuts of an lndan deveopment, anaogous to that of the correspondng ramac
characters. Ths assumpton, of course, remans tenabe ony as ong as the two ramac
etters are not shown to be more ancent by new epgraphc dscoveres, whch event, to
|udge from the resuts of the Sn|r fnds, does not seem to be mpossbe. But, for
the present, they must be eft out of consderaton n fxng the termnus a quo for the
mportaton of the Semtc aphabet nto lnda ; and ths termnus fas between the tme
of the ncson of Mesa s nscrpton and of those on the ssyran weghts, from about 890
B.C. to about 750 B.C. probaby a tte more towards the ower than towards the upper
mt, or, roughy reckonng, about 800 B.C. nd varous crcumstances make t probabe
that ths was actuay the tme when the Semtc etters became known to the ndus.
s the ha and the ta of the Brahm are derved from forms of e and Taw
not found n the Phoencan nscrptons but ony n Mesopotama, t appears probabe
that ths s the Semtc country from whch the etters were brought over/5 lt agrees
wth ths nference, that the most ancent lndan works speak of sea-voyages n the
lndan 0cean at a very eary perod, and sea-borne trade, carred on by ndu vanas
n the same waters, s mentoned n ater, but st ancent, tmes. The we-known
Baveru ataka 6 bears wtness to an eary export trade of the vanas to Babyon ; and
the form of the word, n whch the second part //MlS represented by era, ponts to ts havng
arsen n Western lnda, where ra s occasonay substtuted for a, as n the Grnar and
8 . B. lS. lll, 2, 83-91.
85. ccordng to Benfey, lnden 25 , the Semtc aphabet came to lnda from
Phoenca ; accorng to . Weber, lnd Skzzen 137, ether from Phoenca or from Babyona.
86. o. 339, Fausb5ll, 3,126 ; cf. aso Pck, De Socae Gederung n nord ost.
lnden, 173 f.
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Shahba/gnrn form Twamaya for Ptoemaos. Severa other atakas, e.g., o. 63, whch
descrbe sea-voyages, name the ancent ports of Western lnda, Bharukaccha (the modern
Broach) and Surparaka (now Supara), whch were centres of the trade wth the Persan
Guf n the frst centures .D. and much ater. s accordng to the atakas the vanas
started from these towns, t s probabe that these trade-routes were used much earer.
Two of the most ancent Dharmasutras kewse bear wtness to the earer exstence of
trade by sea n lnda and partcuary on the western coast. Baudhayana, ll, 2. 2, for
bds Brahmanas to undertake voyages by sea, and prescrbes a severe penance for a breach
of the rue. But he admts, l, 2. , that the ortherners, were not strct n ths respect.
s the other offences of the ortherners, mentoned n the same passage, such as
deang n woo, seng anmas wth two rows of teeth, .e. horses and mues, show,
the term appes to the nhabtants of western and north-western lnda. lt naturay
foows that the sea-voyages referred to were made to western sa. The same author,
l, 18. 1 , and the st oder Gautama Dharmasutra, , 33, menton the dutes payabe to
the kng on merchandse mported by sea.87 ln accordance wth my estmate of the age
of the Dharmasutras and of the materas out of whch the atakas have been made
up, l ook upon these statements as referrng to the 8th-6th centures B.C.88 From st
earer tmes dates the we-known edc myth of the shpwreck of Bhu|yu n the
ocean where there s no support, no rest for the foot or the hand, and of hs beng
saved on the hundred-oared gaey of the svns.89 The scene of acton must of course
e n the lndan 0cean, and the story ponts to the nference [18| that the ndus
navgated these waters durng the earest edc perod. s, n addton, Semtc egends
such as that of the Food and of Manu s preservaton by a mracuous fsh occur n the
Brahmanas,90 we have a suffcent number of facts to furnsh some support for the
con|ecture that ndu traders, who probaby earnt the anguage of the country, |ust as
ther modern descendants earn rabc and Suah and other frcan anguages, may have
mported from Mesopotama not ony the aphabet, but perhaps aso other technca contr
vances, such as brck-makng whch was so mportant for the constructon of the ancent
Brahmanca atars. Wth ths assumpton, whch under the crcumstances stated appears
at east not qute unfouded, the lndan anas are credted wth havng rendered the
same servce to ther countrymen whch Sambhota or Thonm dd to the Tbetans, when
he fetched the eements of ther aphabet from Magadha, between .D. 630 and 660. 91
ln any case, t s a pror probabe that the anas were the frst to adopt the
Semtc aphabet 92; for they, of course, came most nto contact wth foregners, and
87. SB . , 228 ; xv, 1 6, 200, 217 ; cf. Mann , 158 ; v, 157, 06, and Dahmann,
Das Mahabharata, 176 ff.
88. B. lS. lll, 2, 16 ff. 89. Pv. , 116. 5 ; cf. 0denberg, edsche Pegon, 21 .
90. 0denberg, op. ct. 276. 91. . SB. lv, 1 f.
92. cf. Westergaard we bhandungen 37 ff.
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they must have fet most strongy the want of some means for recordng ther busness
transactons. The Brahmanas wanted the art of wrtng ess urgenty, snce they possessed,
as passages of the Pgveda show, 98 from very eary tmes a system of ora tradton for
the preservaton of ther terary treasure s.
evertheess, the odest known form of the Brahm s, wthout a doubt, a scrpt
framed by earned Brahmanas for wrtng Sanskrt. Ths asserton s borne out not ony
by the remnants of the Gaya aphabet of soka s stone-masons, whch must have
contaned sgns for the Sanskrt vowes l and U, and whch s arranged accordng to
phonetc prncpes, but aso by the nfuence of phonetc and grammatca prncpes
whch s ceary dscernbe n the formaton of the dervatve sgns. The hand of the
phonoogst and grammaran s recognsabe n the foowng ponts: (1) the deveopment
of fve nasa etters and of a sgn for nasasaton n genera from two Semtc sgns, as we as
of a compete set of sgns for the ong vowes,9 whch atter are very necessary for the phono
ogst and grammaran, but not for men of busness, and are therefore unknown n other
ancent aphabets ; (2) the dervaton of the sgns for the phonetcay very dfferent, but
grammatcay cognate, sa and sa from one Semtc sgn (Samekh); (3) the notaton of U by
the haf of va, from whch the vowe s frequenty derved by samprasarana ; ( ) the dervaton
of 0 from U (o beng the guna-vowe of ) by the addton of a stroke ; of / by a smp
fcaton of the sgn for ts gwna-vowe ; of l, the vrddh-vowe|, from the guna-vowe
of/; and of a from da, the former consonant beng frequenty a substtute for the
atter, as n e for de ; (5) the non-expresson of meda a, n accordance wth the
teachng of the grammarans who consder t to nhere n every consonant; the
expresson of meda a by the dfference between and , and of the remanng meda
vowes by combnatons of the nta ones, or of cursve smpfcatons of the same, wth
the consonants, as we as of the absence of vowes by gatures of the consonats, whch
apparenty ustrate the grammatca term samyuktaksara. ths has so earned an
appearance and s so artfca that t can ony have been nvented by Pandts, not by traders
or cerks. The fact that the anas and the accountants unt recent tmes used to omt a
meda vowes n ther correspondence and account books, permts even the nference that
an lndan aphabet, eaborated by such men, woud not possess any such vowe-sgns.
nd t s mmatera for the correctness of ths nference, whether the modern defectve
wrtng s a survva from the most ancent perod or s due to the ntroducton of the
rabc aphabet n the mdde ages.
proonged perod must, of course, have eapsed between the frst ntroducton of the
Semtc aphabet by the merchants, ts adopton by the Brahmns whch probaby dd not
take pace at once, and the eaboraton of the 6 radca sgns of the Brahm together wth
ts system of meda vowes and gatures.
93. Pv. v., 103. 5 ; cf. M M. SL. 506.
9 . cf. Wackernage, tnd. Grammatk 1. lv.
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s, accordng to the resuts of the precedng enqury, the eaboraton of the Brahm
was competed about B. C. 500, or perhaps even earer, the termnus a quo, about B.C. 800,
may be consdered as the actua date of the ntroducton of the Semtc aphabet nto lnda.
Ths estmate s, however, [19| merey a provsona one, whch may be modfed by the
dscovery of new epgraphc documents n lnda or n the Semtc countres. lf such a
modfcaton shoud become necessary, the resuts of the recent fnds nduce me to beeve
that the date of the ntroducton w prove to fa earer, and that t w have to be fxed
perhaps n the tenth century B.C., or even before that.
ll-T K P0ST l SCPlPT
6. ow t was decphered
The lndan aphabet runnng from rght to eft, the Kharosth p, 95 has been
decphered excusvey by uropean schoars among whom Masson, . Prnsep, Ch. Lassen,
. orrs, and . Cunnngham must be partcuary mentoned. 96 The cons of the lndo-
Grecan and lndo-Scythan kngs wth Greek and Prakrt nscrptons furnshed the frst cue
to the vaue of the etters. The resuts, whch the dentfcatons of the roya names and
ttes seemed to furnsh, were party confrmed, party rectfed and enarged, by the
dscovery of the Shahbazgarh verson of the soka edcts and . C. Bayey s Kangra
nscrpton n Brahm and Kharosth. The characters of the soka edcts are readabe
wth fu certanty, wth the excepton of a few gatures (see beow, 11, C, 3, ). Smary,
the nscrptons of the Sakas offer no dffcutes, and the new MS. of the Dhammapada
from Khotan 97 s n genera not dffcut to read. But consderabe portons of the nscrp
tons of the Parthan Guduphara and of the Kusana kngs Kanska and uvska, st
resst the attempts of decpherers and nterpreters.
7. Use and characterstcs
ln ts form, known to us at present, the Kharosth s an ephemera, chefy epgraphc,
aphabet of orth-Western lnda. The ma|orty of the nscrptons wrtten n Kharosth
have been found between 690 73030 . Long, and 330 350 . Lat., n the ancent
provnce of Gandhara, the modern eastern fghanstan and the orthern Par|ab ; and the
odest documents are confned to the dstrcts, the captas of whch were Taxa (Shah-De)
to the east of the lndus, and Puskaavat or Carsada ( ashtnagar) to the west of the rver.
Snge nscrptons have turned up further south-west n Bhawapur near Mutan, south n
95. Pegardng the name, see l above, and B. lS. lll, 2, 113 f,
96. P. l . , 178-185 ; , 128-1 3; W. . 2 2 ff.; . SB. xx, 71 ; C. SP 1, v ;
Centenary Pevew , 69-81 ; C. ClS. 3 ff. ; Senart, lP. , 22 ff. ; DMG. x, 129 ff.
97. See the next paragraph.
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Mathura, and south-east n Kangra, and snge words or etters n Bharahut, U||an and
Masur (Sddapura soka edcts98). Cons, cameos and MSS. wth Kharosth characters
have been carred much further north and north-east. The perod durng whch, accordng
to the documentary evdence at present avaabe, the Kharosth seems to have been used
n lnda, extends from the forth century B.C. to about the thrd century .D., the earest
etters occurng on the Persan sgo ( 8) and the atest perhaps on the Gandhara scuptures
and the Kusana nscrptons. s the note n the Fawanshun of .D. 668 (see above, 1)
shows, the Buddhsts preserved a knowedge of the exstence of the aphabet much onger.
therto, the Kharosth has been found (l) n stone-nscrptons. (2) on meta pates
and vases, (3) on cons, ( ) on cameos, and (5) on a onger known sma pece of brch
bark from a Stupa n fghanstan100 and on the Bhur|a MS. of the Dhammapada from
Khotan. The atter MS. has probaby been wrtten n Gandhara durng the Kusana perod.
The daect of ts text shows characterstc affntes to that of the Shahbazgah verson of
the soka edcts, and ts characters agree very cosey wth those of the Wardak vase.101 0n
the meta pates and vases, [20| the etters frequenty consst of rows of dots, or have been
frst punched n ths manner and afterwards scratched n wth a stus102. 0n stone vases
they are sometmes wrtten wth nk.103
ln spte of ts frequent utsaton for epgraphc documents, the Kharosth s a
popuar scrpt, destned for cerks and men of busness. Ths s proved by the throughout
98. B. lS. lll, 2, 7-53 ; C. SP. , 82 ff., p. 59, 63 ; v, 1 ff., p. 16, 28 ; W. , 55ff;
C. C l. 31 ff.
99. B. lS. lll, 2, he. ct.; The queston of the ower mt of the use of the Khearosth
s dffcut on account of the uncertanty regardng the date of Kanska and hs two
successors, a of whom S. Lev now paces n the 1st. Cent. D. ( . 1897, , 1 ff.).
The mt gven above s based on the assumpton that Kanska s dates refer to the Saka
era or to the th Cent, of the Seeucdan era. l st make use of t, not because l consder
t to be unassaabe, but for the reasons stated n W KM , , 169. The etters n the
nscrptons of Samvat 200 and 276 or 286 ( ashtnagar mage) ook more ancent than
those of the Kusnaa nscrptons. ccordng to a communcaton from Dr. Th. Boch.
Prof. oerne has read dates of the th. century of the same unknown Samvat on
recenty found Gandhara scuptures.
100. W. . p. 3 at p. 5 , o. 11 ; smar twsts have been found n orther Stupas,
see op. ct. 60, 8 , 9 , 106 ; but the fragments n Brtsh Museum sad to beong to them,
show no etters.
101. See 0denberg, Predvartenae zam|etkao Buddhsko rukops, napsanno psme-
nam Kharosth, St. Petersburg, 1897, and Senart, cad. des lnscrs, Comptes rendus,
1897, 251 ff.
102. l . x, 325. 103. W. . 111.
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hghy cursve character of the etters, by the absence of ong vowes, whch are useess for
the purposes of common day fe, by the expresson of groups of unasprated doube
consonants by snge ones (ka for kka) and of unasprated and asprated ones by the atter
aone (kha for kkha), and by the nvarabe use of the nusvara for a vowe-ess meda
nasas.10 The dscovery of the Khotan MS. makes t very mprobabe that there exsted
another form of the scrpt whch, beng more smar to the Brahm n competeness, woud
have been more sutabe for the Brahmanca Sastras.
The drecton of the Kharosth from rght to eft made t a pror hghy probabe that
ts eements had been borrowed from the Semtes ; and the amost exact agreement of the
forms for na, ba, ra and va wth ramac sgns of the transtona type nduced . Thomas
to assume a coser connecton of the Kharosth wth ths aphabet106. s vew has never
been dsputed; but of ate t has been gven a more precse form by l. Tayor and .
Cunnngham, who assgn the ntroducton of the ramac etters nto lnda to the frst
khaemenans107. The reasons whch may be adduced for ths opnon are as foows :
(1) The soka edcts from the western Pan|ab use for wrtng, edct , the word dp,
whch evdenty has been borrowed from the 0d Persan, and they derve from t the verbs
dpat, he wrtes and dpapat, he causes to wrte ; see above, 2, B. (2) The dstrcts
where Kharosth nscrptons occur, especay n earer tmes, are |ust those parts of lnda
whch probaby were sub|ect to the Persans, be t wth or wthout nterruptons, from
about B.C. 500 to 331. (3) mong the Persan sgo, there are some marked wth snge
syabes n Kharosth and Brahm108, whence t may be nferred that they were struck n
lnda durng the Persan perod, and that the Kharosth was current durng a great part of
the fourth century B.C., certany before the fa of the Persan empre n B.C. 331. Some
consderabe varatons n the Kharosth etters of the soka edcts, as we as the strongy
cursve forms of severa gatures, such as sta, spa &c. (see beow, 11, C, 2, 3), kewse
pont to the concuson that the aphabet had had a ong hstory before the mdde of the
thrd century B.C. ( ) Pecent dscoveres n Semtc epgraphy make t extremey probabe
that the ramac, whch was used aready n ssyra and Babyon for offca and busness
purposes sde by sde wth the cuneform wrtng, was very wdey spread durng the rue of
the khaemenans. umerous ramac nscrptons of ths perod have been found n
gypt, raba, and sa Mnor, and one even n Persa. Besdes, gypt has furnshed a
number of offca ramac papyr, and sa Mnor many cons wth ramac egends,
10 . B. lS. lll, 2, 97 f. 105. B. lS. lll, 2, 92 ff.
106. P. l . 2, 1 ff. ; regardng Kharosth egends on ate cons runnng from eft
to rght, see Proc. . SB. 1895, 83 f.
107. l. Tayor, The phabet, , 261 f. ; C. C l. 33. 108. . P S. 1895, 865 ff.
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struck by Persan satraps109. ln addton, there s the curous statement n the Book of
zra, l , 7, accordng to whch the Samartans sent to rtaxerxes a etter wrtten n the
ram scrpt and anguage. Takng a these ponts together, there are suffcent reasons to
warrant the asserton that ramac was commony empoyed not ony n the offces of the
satraps, but aso n the roya secretarate at Susa. The utmate cause for the offca use of
the ramac scrpt and anguage durng the khaemenan perod was, no doubt, that
numerous ramaeans hed appontments as cerks, accountants, mnt-masters and so forth
n the Persan Cv Servce. [21| When the Persan empre was rapdy but up on the
runs of more ancent monarches, ts ruers must have found the empoyment of the traned
subaterns of the former governments, among whom the ramaeans were foremost, not
ony convenent, but absoutey unavodabe. ln these crcumstances, t s but natura to
assume that, after the fu organsaton of the admnstraton by Darus, the Persan satraps
ntroduced ramaean subordnates nto the lndan provnces, and thereby forced ther
lndan sub|ects, especay the cerks of the natve prnces and of the heads of towns and
vages, to earn ramac. t frst, the ntercourse between the Persan and the lndan
offces probaby ed to the use of the ramac etters for the north-western Prakrt, and
ater to modfcatons of ths aphabhet, whch were made accordng to the prncpes of the
oder lndan Brahm110, and through whch the Kharosth, fnay arose. The adopton of
the rabc aphabet, durng the mdde ages and n modern tmes, for wrtng a number of
lndan daects, s somewhat anaogous, as t kewse happened under foregn pressure,
and as ts characters were and are used ether wthout or wth modfcatons. (5) Wth these
ast con|ectures agrees the genera character of the Kharosth, whch s ceary ntended for
cerks and men of busness (see above, 7). (6) Fnay, they are confrmed by the
crcumstance that the ma|orty of the Kharosth sgns can be most easy derved from the
ramac types of the ffth century B.C. whch appear n the Saqqarah and Tema nscrptons
of B.C. 82 and of about B.C. 500, whe a few etters agree wth somewhat earer forms
on the ater ssyran weghts and the Babyonan seas and gems, and two or three are more
cosey aed to the ater sgns of the Lesser Tema nscrpton, the Stee atcana, and the
Lbaton-tabe from the Serapeum. The whoe ductus of the Kharosth, wth ts ong-drawn
and ong-taed etters, s that of the characters on the Mesopotaman weghts, seas and
cameos, whch re-occurs n the nscrptons of Saqqarah, Tema and the Serapeum. 0thers 11
have compared the wrtng of the ramac papyr from gypt, whch party at east, ke the
Taurnenss, beong to the khaemenan perod. But t does not sut so we Many of ts
109. Cermont-Ganneau, Pevue rcheoogque, 1878-79 ; Ph. Berger, st, de 1 crt.
dans l ntqute, 21 , 218 ff.
110. Weber, lnd. Skzzen, 1 f. ; . Thomas, P. l . , 1 6 ; C. C l. 33 ; and
beow 9, B, .
111. . aevy, . 1885. , 2 3-267, beeves that Karosth to have been derved
about B. C. 330 from 16 sgns of the Papyr and of a Ccan con, and, Pevue Semtque,
1895, 372 ff., from the scrpt of the Papyr and of the ostraka from gypt.
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sgns are so very cursve that they cannot be consdered as the prototypes of the Kharosth
etters, and ts ductus s that of a mnute current handwrtng. Some speca resembances
appear to be, on a coser nvestgaton, the resuts of anaogous deveopments. Takng
a these ponts together, the Kharosth appears to have been eaborated n the ffth
century B.C.
9. Detas of the dervaton
The sub|oned comparatve tabe ustrates the detas of the dervaton. The sgns n
co. l. have been taken (wth the excepton of o. 10, co. l, a) from utng s Tabua
Scrpturae ramacae, 1892, cos 6, 8, 9, 11 and 12 ; those n co. ll, from the same work,
cos. 13, 1 , 15, 17, 19 and those n cos. ll, l from pate 1 of ths manua ; and a have
been reproduced by photothography.
Borrowed sgns11
Premnary remarks : The changes of the ramac sgns have been caused chefy by
the foowng prncpes : (1) by a decded predecton for ong-taed sgns wth appendages
at the upper end, the foot beng eft free for the addton of u, ra and the anusvara, and by
an averson to appendages at the foot aone ; (2) by an averson to sgns wth heads con
tanng more than two nes rsng upwards, [22| or wth transverse strokes through the
top-ne, or wth pendants hangng down from t, a of whch pecuartes woud have
been awkward for the nserton of the vowes /, e and o ; (3) by a desre to dfferentate the
sgns whch, atered accordng to these prncpes, woud have become dentca.
o. 1, , co. , eph, co. l, a (Saqqarah), wth a cursve change of the head to a
curve ; the poston and the sze of the etter make a connecton wth the forms n co.
l, b, or col. ll, mprobabe. - o. 2, ba, co. l, Beth, co. l, a, b (Tema, Saqqarah). wth
a cursve curve for the ange at the rght; the cursve form of the Beth of the papyr, [23|
co. ll, b, c, are further deveoped than the Kharosth sgns. o. 3, ga, co. l[, Gme,
derved from co. l or a smar form (compare co. ll, and utng, TS .1, a), wth a
cursve oop on the rght and a curve on the eft; smar oops are common n ater
gatures, see p. l, 33, 35, 36, ll ; 3 , lll ; and they occur even n;a, p. l, 12, ll.
o. , da, co. lll, --Daeth, derved from a form ke that n co. ll, b, whch, accordng to
co. l, a, occurs aready about B C. 600 on ssyran weghts. o. 5, ha, co. ll, e,
derved from a form ke that n co. l, a (Tema), wth the transposton of the pendant n
the mdde of the curve to the rght end of the foot n order to factate the nserton of /, e
and o (see premnary remarks, 2, page, [20.f ,| above, and beow under o. 17). o. 6, va,
co. lll, Waw, co. l (Tema, Saqqarah); the papyr n co. ll show more advanced forms.
112. B. lS. lll, 2, 99 ff. : cf. the more or ess dfferng attempts of . Thomas, P.l . ,
1 7 ; l. Tayor, The phabet, , pate at p. 236 ff. ; . aevy, . 1885, , 252 ff., Pevue
Semtque, 1895, 372 ff.
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o. 7,|a, co. lll, a, an, derved from a form ke those n co. l, a, b (Tema), the
eft corner beng turned upwards st further, whence the usua Kharosth etter n co. lll
s derved by omttng the stroke at the foot; the papyr, co. ll, show more advanced forms
123 56789101112131 151817181920lf MW/ S 1 1 f 7ft Wvr , r Uft| |w W|1 T1 ht tyv fr#1)1 M ) Wu lfr fc M y v n77f f2 1l 1n/ f1 | -v u5 v p / r /T 7l 0 7 1x /rf 7y 1r y ffM_ 3 r
g ; 7
unsutabe for comparson. o. 8, a, co. lll, C e/ , co. l (Tema), the sound of the
lndan so beng very smar to a paata a, as n German ch. o. 9, a, co. U, od,
derved ether from a form ke co. l, b, or drecty from one ke co. l, a ( ssyran weghts),
wth the omsson of the bar on the rght (see premnary remarks, 1) ; anaogous
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forms occurng n ater Pamyranan and Pahav ( .TS . cos. 21-25, 30-32,
35-39, 58). o. 10, ka, col. l, Kaph, derved by a turn from rght to eft from co. l,b
( ssyran weghts, Babyonan seas, &c.) and wth the addton of a top-stroke, n order
to dstngush the new sgn from a ( o. 11, co lll) and from pa ( o. 15, co. lll) ; the
sgns of the papyr, co. ll, dffer entrey. o. 11, a, co l, Lamed, a form ke those
n Co. l, a, c (Tema) beng turned topsy-turvy owng to the averson to sgns wth appenda
ges at the foot aone (premnary remarks, 1), and the curved ne beng broken and
attached ower n order to dstngush the new etter from .
o. 12, ma, Co. lll, a, b, Mem, derved from a form ke that n co .l,a,b
(Saqqarah) wth a curved head, by the omsson, of the transverse ne and a rudmentary
ndcaton of the vertca standng orgnay on the rght, whence comes the semcrcuar
ordnary ma of the soka edcts, co. l, c, st more mutated on account of the vowe-
sgns ; the forms of the Mem of the papyr, co. ll, are unsuted to be consdered the
prototypes of the Kharosth ma. o. 13, na, co. lll, a un, co. l, a, b (Saqqarah), a
ater dervatve beng the na of co. lll, b ; the un of the papyr, Co. ll, s agan unsuted
for comparson. o. 1 , sa, co. l, Samekh, co. l (Tema), wth transposton of the
santng bar to the eft end of the top-stroke from whch t hangs down, and wth connec
ton of ts owr end wth the ta of the sgn, whch has been pushed forward towards the
eft (seethe fgures n B.lS. lll. 2 ; 105) ; anaogous deveopments appear n abataean ( .
TS . cos. 6, 7) and n ebrew. o. 15, a, co. lll, a, Phe, co. l (Tema), turned
from rght to eft to dstngush t from ; n the more usua pa of co. lll, b, the curve
has been pushed ower down. o. 16, cat, co. Tsade, derved from an acute-anged
form ke co. l, a, b (Tema), wth the omsson of the second hook on the rght (see
premnary remarks, 2) and wth the deveopment of a hook beow the head, because the
vertca was made separatey ; the anaogous Tsade of co. ll, b, has been deveoped,
because the rght stroke of the head was made separatey and drawn to the vertca.
o. 17, kha, co. U, oph, derved from a form ke co. l, a, b (Serapeum) wth the
converson of the centra pendant nto an eongaton of the top-stroke on the eft; smary,
the pendant has been transferred to the rght end of the etter n the Tema form ( . TS .
co. 10). o. 18, ra, co. , Pesh, co. l, a, b (Saqqarah), wth compete remova of the
anguar protuberance on the rght. o. 19, sa, co. lll, S m, co. l (Tema), turned topsy
turvy owng to the averson to tops wth more than two strokes rsng upwards (premnary
remarks, 2), and wth a engthenng of the centra stroke owng to the predecton for ong-
taed sgns. o. 20, ta, co. , Taw, derved from a form ke that n co. l, a ( ssyran
weghts) or n co. l, b (Saqqarah), wth the transposton of the bar to the top of the [2 |
vertca, as n co. ll, a, the new sgn at the same tme beng turned from rght to eft n
order to avod the resembance .o pa ( o.15), and beng broadened norderto dstngush t
from vaand ra ( os. 6, 18) ; the oder form and the ntermedate steps appear n tha
( o. 20, co. l ,a) and ta ( o. 20, co. l , b) where the orgna Taw has been preserved,
and n ta ( o. 20, co. l , c) where the bar stands at the top (compare beow, B, 1, c.
and B, 2).
7
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B. Dervatve Sgns
(1) spraton: The aspraton s expressed by the addton of a curve or a hook,
whch probaby represents a cursve ha (Tayor), and for whch cursvey a smpe stroke
appears ; at the same tme, the orgna matrkas sometmes smpfed. (a) curve or a
hook s added to the rght of the vertca of ga n gha, o. 3, co. l , to the top of da n dha,
o. . co. l , a, and to the end of the second bar of ta, o. 20, co. l , c, from whch t
rses upwards, n tha, o. 20, co. l , d (propery tho). (b) hook, a curve, or cursvey a
santng stroke, appears to the rght of ba n bha, o. 2, co. l , a, b, the head of ba beng
converted at the same tme nto a straght ne and pushed somewhat more to the eft, n
order to avod the dentty wth ka, o. 10, co. lll. (c) ln the foowng asprates appear
ony cursve straght strokes, added on the eft n|ha, o. 7, co. l and pha, o. 15, co.
l , and on the rght n cha, o. 16, co. l , dha, o. , co. l , c, and tha, o. 20, co l ,
a, a of whch etters show, however, addtona pecuartes. ln cha, the tte pendant on
the eft of ca has been made horzonta and combned wth the stroke of aspraton to a
crossbar. ln dha, the head of da has been fattened nto a straght ne. Tha has been
formed out of the ancent ramac Taw, o. 20, co. l, a, turned from rght to eft, and the
stroke of aspraton contnues the bar of Taw towards the rght.
(2) Lnguas : ta has been formed out of the oder Taw, turned from the rght to the
eft, by the addton of a short bar, whch n the soka edcts usuay stands on the rght
and ower than that on the eft, as n o. 20, co. l , b. ln co. l , c, the sgn of nguasa-
ton stands on the eft, beow the ta wth the bar at the top. Ths form of ta, whch
appears rarey n the soka edcts, must formery have been common, as the tha has been
derved from t (see above, B, ,a). The da of o. , co. l , b, exacty resembes the
common ramac Daeth n co. l, b (Tema) and may be dentca wth t. lf the aphabet
mported nto lnda contaned two forms for da (co. l, a, b), both may have been borrowed,
and the more cumbrous one may have been used for the expresson of the fuer sound. lt
s, however, aso possbe that the da has been formed out of the da of o. , co. lll. a, by
the addton of the bar of nguasaton, paced vertcay on the rght. Thena, o. 13, co.
l , a, s kewse derved from na, co. lll, a, b, by the addton of a straght stroke gong
downwards; compare what has been sad above, , B, , regardng the use of a short
stroke for denotng the change of the quaty of a borrowed or dervatve sgn n formng
the f, 0, na, na and na of the Brahm.
(3) The paata na, o. 13, co. l , b, c, conssts of two na (co. lll, a) |oned to
gether ( . Thomas), and ustrates the modern lndan name for na and na. whch the
Pandts often ca the bg nakaras. The sgn, whch s reay not necessary for a cerk s
aphabet, has perhaps been framed ony because t exsted n the Brahm, the Pandt s
aphabet.
( ) Meda vowes, absence of vowe n gatures, and anusvara : Long vowes are
not marked, and a nheres, |ust as n the Brahm, n every consonant. 0ther vowes are
marked by straght strokes. ln the case of /, the stroke passes through the eft sde of the
top-ne or top-nes of the consonant; n u, t stands to the eft of the foot; n e, t
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descends on the eft sde of the top-ne ; n o, t hangs down from ths ne, see tho, o. 20,
co. l , d; for further detas see beow, 11, B. oned to , the same strokes form
/, U, and 0 ( o. 1 co. l , a-d). The absence of a vowe between two dssmar
consonants, except nasas, s expressed, as n the Brahm, by the combnaton of the two
sgns nto a gature, n whch the second etter s usuay connected wth the ower end of
the frst. Butra stands nvaraby at the foot of the other consonant, whether t may have
to be pronounced before or after t. Doube [25| consonants, except nasas, are expressed
by snge ones, and nonasprates and asprates by the asprates aone. asas mmedatey
precedng other consonants, are aways expressed by the anusvara, whch, n the soka
edcts, s attached to the precedng matrka.
The non-expresson of a, and the rues regardng the formaton of the gatures, no
doubt, have been taken over from the Brahm, ony mnor modfcatons beng ntroduced.
nd t seems probabe that the use of straght strokes for , u, e and o comes from the same
source. For, aready n the Brahm of a the soka edcts, u, e and o are ether reguary or
occasonay expressed by smpe strokes, and n Grnar s represented by a shaow curve,
often hardy dstngushabe from a straght stroke ; moreover, /, e and o stand n Brahm,
|ust as n the Kharosth, at the top of the consonants, and M at the foot. connecton of
the two systems of meda vowe-sgns s therefore undenabe, and that of the Brahm must
be regarded as the orgna one, snce ts sgns, as has been shown above, , C, 1, evdenty
have been derved from the nta vowes.
The notaton of /, U, and 0 by combnatons of wth the meda vowe-sgns s
pecuar to the Kharosth, and s attrbutabe to a desre to smpfy the aphabet. mong
the ater lndan aphabets, the modern Devanagar offers an anaogy wth ts 0 and U,
and the Gu|arat wth ts a , 5 f, S 0, and s [ U. Severa among the foregn
aphabets derved from the Brahm, as e.g. the Tbetan, show the prncpe of the
Kharosth fuy deveoped.
The anusvara, whch s used, as n the Brahm, for a vowe-ess nasas, s derved
from ma ( .Thomas). ln mam o. 12, co. l , t st has the fu form of ma but
usuay t undergoes cursve ateraton (see beow, 11, B, 5.)
10 The varetes of e Kharosth of Pate /ns
ccordng to Pate 1, the Kharosth shows four chef varetes, vz. : (1) the archac
113. Preparaton of Pate l:
1-37, Cos. l- , and 38, 39, Cos. l- lll, traced by Dr. Dedeknd from Dr. Burgess
mpressons of the soka edcts of Shahbazgarh and .vansehra.and reduced to photography.
1-37, Cos. l, ll. and 38, 39, Co. l , drawn by Dr. W. Carteer from P.
Gardner s autotypes of lndo-Grecan cons.
1-37, Cos, lll, l , and 22-25, Co. lll, traced from Dr. Burgess mpressons of the
Mathura on capta and the photograph of the Taxa copper-pate of whch a cootype
has snce then been pubshed n l. v, 56 (10 & 1 , Co lll, and 25, Col. lll).
1-37, Cos. - ll, and 31-37, Co. lll, traced or drawn accordng to Dr. oerne s
facsme of the Sd Bhar nscrpton, suppemented by some sgns from the Mankyaa
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one of the fourth and thrd centures B.C., found n the soka edcts of Shahbazgarh
(photo-thograph of edct ll n DMG. x, 151, and of edct ll. n l. , 16) and of
Mansehra (photothograph of edcts l- lll n . 1888, ll, 230, Senart, notes d
pgraphe lndenne, 1), wth whch the sgnature n the soka edcts of &ddapura (photo-
thographs n l. , 138-1 0), the egends on the odest cons (autotypes n C. C l. p.3,
os. 9, 12, 13) and the syabes on the Persan sgo (autotypes n . P S. 1895,865)
fuy agree.
(2) The varety of the second and frst centures B.C. on the cons of the lndo-
Grecan kngs, whch s mtated by some ater foregn kngs (autotypes n P. Gardner s
Cataogue of lndan Cons n the Brtsh Museum, p. -21).
(3) The varety of the Saka perod, frst century B.C. to frst century .D. ( ), on the
Taxa copper-pate of Patka (thograph n . P S. 1863, 222, p. 3, and cootype n l.
v, 56), and on the on-capta of the satrap Sodasa or Sudasa from Mathura, whch occurs
aso on some scuptures from Gandhara (autotype n . SB. lv, 1 , p, 10 ; nzeg. ph.
hst. Cl. W . 1896), on the Kadawa stone (W KM. x, 55, 327) and on the cons of
severa Saka and Kusana kngs (autotypes, P. Gardner, op. ct., p. 22-25).
( ) The strongy cursve scrpt of the frst and second centures .D. ( ), whch begns
wth the Takht--Bah nscrpton of Gondophernes ( autotype n . 1890,l, S. l. 3, p.
1, o. 1) and s fuy deveoped n the nscrptons of the ater Kusana kngs Kanska and
uvska (autotype of the eda nscrptons n . 1890, l, - S. l. 3, p. 1, o. 3, of the
Mankyaa stone, . 1896, l, S. l. 6, p. l, 2, of the Sd BhSr nscrpton, l . x, 32 ,
thograph of the Ward.k vase, .P S. 1863, 256, p. 10)11 , and occurs aso n the MS. of
the Dhammapada from Khotan ; see above, 7.
. The rchac arety. -
. The radca sgns.
[26| (1) sma stroke, rsng upwards at an acute ange, may be added at the foot
stone and geatne copes of the Wardak and Bmaran vases by 0denberg.
26-30, Co. lll drawn accordng to P. Gardner s autotypes of the oder Kusana cons.
1-20, Cos. lll, l , numeras drawn accordng to the mpressons and facsmes of
the soka edcts and ater nscrptons.
0der tabes of the Kharosth aphabet n P. lS. , 166, p. 11 ; W. . 262; C. l
(Cll. 1), p. 27 ; P. Gardner, Cat. l. C. Br. Mas. p. lxx. f. ; on Saet, achfoger ex. d.
Gr. (end) ; G. . 0|ha, The lnd. Pa. p. 26.
11 . 0ther facsmes of Kharosth nscrptons : (1) soka edcts n P S. 1850,
153; C. l (Cl . 1), p. 1, 2;C. SP. v, p. 5; S. lP 1 (end); 1 . x, 107; (2) Later nscrptons
n P. l . 1, 96 (p. 6), 1 (p. 9), 162 (p. 13); W. . 5 (p. 2), 262; C. SP. , 12 , (p.
59), 160 (p. 63); v, (p. 16), 28; . P S. 1863, 222 (p. 3), 238 (p. ), 250 (p.9), 256 (p. 10),
and 1877, 1 ; . SB. xx, 57; xxx, 176, 532; xxxx, 65;l . xv, 257; S. l. os. 3 ( .
1890, , p. 1, o. 2) and 5 ( . 189 , .p 5. os. 3 , 36 ) : a useess except the ast three.
115. Cf. DMG. x, 128 ff., 27 ff.
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of every etter endng wth a straght or santng ne, n order to mark ts end (pate l, 1,
ll; 6, ll, ; 7, ll; 8, ll ; &c.). lf a etter ends wth two santng nes, ke ya and sa
(3 , ll), the upstroke may be added to the eft. ln the soka edcts of Mansehra, dha
receves nstead occasonay a straght base-stroke (18, ).
(2) Ca has three varetes, (a) head wth obtuse ange (10, l, ll, l ) ; (b) head wth
curve (10, ) ; (c) head wth curve connected by a vertca wth the ower part (10, lll).
(3) The head of cha s kewse sometmes anguar (11,l, l ) and sometmes round (11,11),
and oses occasonay the cross-bar beow the head, as n the ater types. ( ) The fu form
ofy a occurs at east once n Shahbazgarh (12, l, ) and oftener n Mansehra, where once
(edct , 1, 2 ) the bar stands to the eft of the foot. The eft sde stroke of ya s often
curved (12, lll.) (5) ln na, the second shortened na see above, 9, B, 3) s sometmes
added on the rght (1 ,1, ) and sometmes on the eft (1 , lll, l ). 0ccasonay, the
rght sde of the etter s converted cursvey nto a vertca, as n the ater
nscrptons (1 , l ).
(6) The norma form of ta s that of 15,1,11; but the bar on the eft stands
occasonay ower than that on the rght (15, ; 38, ll), or both bars stand on the eft
(38, l), or the bar on the rght s omtted (commony n Mansehra) (15, lll).
(7) Ta (20) s mosty shorter and broader than ra (31), and ether ts two nes are of
equa ength, or the vertca one s shorter. Forms ke 20, , are rare. (8) D (22, ll)
shows twce, n Shahbazgarh edct l , 1,8, and Mansehra edct ll, 1,33 (where the
transcrpt n DMG. has erroneousy dr), a curve to the rght of the foot, whch s
probaby nothng but an attempt to ceary dstngush da from na. (9) Dha wth the eft
end turned upwards (23, ) s rare and a secondary deveopment (see above, 9, B, 1). ln
the abnorma dha of 38, lll (dhra), from Mansehra, the second bar s a substtute for a
very sharp bend to the eft (23, ). (10) The na wth the bent head (2 , lll) occurs not
rarey n the syabe ne.
(11) The greaty mutated ma (29, l) s more common than the forms wth remnants
of the od pendant (compare above, 9, , o. 12). lt appears nvaraby n connecton
wth vowe sgns and owes ts exstence to such combnatons.
(12) La wth a curve on the eft, as n the ater nscrptons (32, 11l), s rare n the
soka edcts, but occurs n Mansehra edct l. 1, 29.
(13) The cursvey rounded sa of 3 , lll, s rare ; but once, n Shahbazgarh edct
lll, 1,1, appears a sa hardy dstngushabe from ya. (1 ) The .sa wth a tranguar head
(36, ll), and that wth a rounded head (36, l, lll, l ), are cursve deveopments from the
od poygona form (36, ). The vertca stroke of sa s occasonay omtted, as n
Mansehra [27| edct l, 1, 27.
(15) The common forms of ha wth a curve (37, l, l ) or a short hook (37, lll, )
at the foot, are cursve deveopments of the ha of 37, ll ; see above, 9, , o. 5.
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B. Meda vowes and nusvara
(1) The/-stroke goes reguary across the eft sde of the horzonta strokes of the
consonants (6, lll ; 7, lll ; 15, ll, lll, &c.) ; n etters wth two horzonta or santng top-
strokes, t passes through both (1 , lll; 16, lll ; 38, lll, l ; &c.), kewse through both
the top-strokes of na (19, ). ln / (2, l), d (22, ll), and n, t stands |ust beow the head,
and n y (30, ll) t hangs n the eft sde.
(2) The e-stroke mosty corresponds n form and poston to the upper haf of the
/-stroke ( , l ; 6, l ; 12, ll; 19, lll ; &c.); n ( , ll) t may aso stand straght above
the head of .
(3) The o-stroke mosty corresponds n ts poston to the ower haf of the /-stroke
(5, l ; 12, l ; 1 , l ; &c.), but t stands further to the rght n the ange, formed by the
upper part of the etters, n go, gho (9, ll) and so (36, l ).
( ) The w-stroke stands reguary at the eft ower end of the consonant (3, l ; 8, lll;
10, l ; 12, lll ; &c.), but a ttte hgher up f the foot of the consonant s curved to the eft
(U, 3, ll), or to the rght (du, 22, l ), or has a hook on the rght (pru, 25, ; hu, 37, l ).
ln mu t stands to the eft of the top of ma (see mm, 29, ).
(5) The nusvara has the fu form of ma (see above, 9, B, ) ony occasonay n
mam (29, l ). More commony t s represented cursvey by a straght stroke as n mam
(38, l). or by two hooks at the sdes of ma as n mam (38, ). ln combnaton wth other
consonants endng n a snge santng or vertca ne, the nusvara s marked by an ange,
openng upwards, whch the foot of the consonant bsects (8, l ; 11, l ; 17, ; 19, ;
&c.), or, rarey n Shahbazgarh, oftener n Mansehra, by a straght ne, a substtute for
the curve of ma, as n tham (21, ). lf the foot of the consonant has some other appendage,
the nusvara s attached hgher upto the vertca, as n nam (1 , ); dam (18, ); vram (33,
); ham (37, ). The anguar nusvara s aways dvded n yam (30, ) and n sam, and
the one haf s added to the rght end of the matrka, and the other to the eft. Ths may
aso be done n kam and n bham (28, l ).
C. Lgatures.
(1) Bhye (38, l ), mma (38, ll) and my a (38, ll, b) show no changes or ony
very sght ones n the combned etters. ln other cases, one or the other s usuay mutated.
(2) For ra, whch must be pronounced sometmes before and sometmes after ts
Matrka (excepton n rta n Mansehra edct , 1, 2 ), appears, besdes sghty mutated
forms (n rt, 38, l , and rva, 39, l), (a) a santng ne, wth or wthout a bend, whch goes
through the mdde of the vertca of the combned consonant (as n gra, 38, l ; rta, 38, ll;
rt, 38, lll); (b) aso a curved or straght stroke at the foot of the combned sgn (rt, 38, ;
kra. 6, ; gra, 8, ; tra, 20, ; dhra, 23, ; 38, lll; pru, 25, ; bra, 27, ; vram, 33, ;
sru, 3 , ; str, 39. lll, l ). ln combnaton wth ma, the ra-stroke stands nvaraby at
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the rght top, as n kru (29, ), and n kra and bhra (28, ), occasonay at the rght end
of the hooks of those etters. Sometmes, especay n Mansehra, a curve open above, as
n thra(2 , l ), s substtuted for the straght stroke. The stroke and the curves, of course,
are cursve substtutes for a fu ra, attached to the foot of the combned consonants.
(3) ln vru (39, ll) the two consonants have been pushed the one nto the other, so
that the vertca does duty both for the va and the ra. The same prncpe s foowed n
the formaton of the gature sta (whch conssts ony n Shahbazgarh edct l, 1, 2, srestamat,
of sa wth a ta hooked nto the vertca, 39, l ). t the same tme sa s mutated, the
mdde of ts top remanng open and the hook on the eft beng omtted. Ths s ceary
vsbe n st (39, ) and str (39, l ), whe sta (39, lll), st (39, l), stu (39, ll) and str
(39, lll) are made more neggenty. The gature of sa and pa s formed accordng to [28|
the same prncpes, but the sa s mutated st more and merey ndcated by a tte hook
at the top of the vertca of pa n spa (39, ) and sp (39, ll). ln spa (39, l) the hook
stands on the sde-mb of pa.
( ) The gature n 38, ll seems to have two dfferent meanngs. ln Shahbazgarh
edct , 1, 21, the sgn appears n the representatve of the Sanskrt tadatvaya, whch n the
daect of the soka edcts mght be ether tadatvaye or tadattaye, and n Mansehra t
occurs frequenty n the representatve of the Sanskrt atman. s the Kusana nscrptons
offer a smar sgn (31, lll) n the representatve of the Sanskrt satvanam, we have pro
baby to read tva n Shahbazgarh edct , 1, 21, and to assume that the curve at the foot
of ta represents a va, |ust as t stands n thra (21, l ) for the smar ra. Ths expanaton
s confrmed by the gatures 30, lll, and 37, lll, whch most probaby are equvaent to
sva (lsvara) and sva (vsharasvamn). ln Mansehra (especay edct ll) the sgn 38, ll,
has to be read tma.117.
12. Changes n the ater varetes1 1
. The radca sgns
(1) The meanngess upward stroke connected wth the foot of the vertcas occurs
ony occasonay on the lndo-Grecan cons (7, l ; 20, l ; 36, l). More frequenty t
116. 0. Franke, achr. Gott. Ges. d. Wss., 1895, 5 0, and DMG. 1, 603, proposes
to read fa and | for the sgns whch l read spa and sp.
117. The MS. of the Dhammapada shows ths same sgn both n the termnatons of
the absoutves n tva (tva) and n atma (atman), and thus further confrms the expanaton
proposed.
118. Pegardng the characters on the lndo-Grecan cons, see W KM. v, 193 f.;
regardng the scrpt of the Saka and Kusana nscrptons, see .P S. 1863, 238, p.
(where, however, n l. 1 the second ch must be deeted, n 1. 2 sa must be substtuted for
s, and tha for tt and n 1. 3 rya for rs, and the sgns for sy n 1. are doubtfu , and 0.
Franke, DMG. 1, 602 ff.
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appears detached to the eft of the sgns, as n (1, l), and even wth ha (37, l).
cursve substtute s the very common dot, as n ha (37, ll) ; compare aso ma (29, ll).
Fnay, varous etters, ke ta (20, ll) and na (2 , ll), receve on the lndo-Grecan cons
a horzonta base-ne (see above, 11, , 1). ln the varety of the Saka perod, the ends
of the vertcas show sometmes a meanngess hook, as n ca (10, lll) and n sa (36, l ),
or a straght stroke on the rght, as n s (35, lll). The same hook appears aso n the
cursve scrpt of the Kusana perod (sa, 35, ), or a horzonta stroke to the eft, as n
(1, l), ka (6, ), dha (23, l), na (2 , ll), h (27, l), ya (30, ), as we as curves both
to the rght and eft, as n kha (7, ), ca (10, ll), dh (16, l), gh (9, ), ba (21, ), m
(29, l), where the curve has been added to the vowe-stroke.
/
(2) ln the Saka and Kusana varetes, the head of ka s commony converted nto a
curve (6, lll), and n the Kusana varety ths curve s connected wth the sde-mb of
ka (see 6, ). (3) ln a the ater varetes, the top of kha s made onger and curved to the
rght (7, l- l ; 39, l ).
( ) ln the Saka type, we have a cursve form of ca, derved from 10, lll, n whch the
eft end of the ower porton of the sgn s attached to the short vertca beow the top
Smar, st more cursve, forms are common n the Kusana varety ; see 10, , and ll
(5) the ater varetes show the cha wthout the cross-bar, and the vertca s
occasonay made to shnt so that the sgn ooks ke mo. (6) ln the ater varetes, the eft
sde-mb of |a s neary aways rounded, and n the Kusana varety the head of the sgn
often conssts of a shaow curve, from the eft end of whch the vertca hangs down (12
l). ence s deveoped the ooped |a (12, ll) of the Bmaran vase. The fu ./a wth the
bar across or to the eft of the foot occurs on the lndo-Grecan cons (12, ll) (7) fn n
the ater varetes, one sde of na nvaraby shows a vertca (1 , lll, l )
(8) The ony known ta of the Saka perod n the gature ste (22, lll) shows the
archac form wth one bar on the eft ; compare 15, lll. ln the Kusana varety, the two
bars to the rght and eft (15,1) are converted nto a straght ne, whereby ta becomes tha
(15, - ll). The sma stroke sat the top of tu (15, l) are, as Feet s mpresson of the
Sd Bhar nscrpton shows, due to rents n the copper. The correct readng of the word
n whch t occurs, s kutubn nstead of kchubn ( oerne). (9) ln a [291 the 1
varetes, tha (16, lll, , l oses the hook at the end of the second bar.
(10) 0n the lndo-Grecan cons, ta (20) s very smar to ra ; n the Saka
nscrptons, t s ony one-thrd of the sze of ra, and n the Kusana varety the two
etters are agan very smar.
(11) The Saka da or do (22, l ) s derved from the form 22, ll, whe the sgns 22,
lll and , come from the ordnary da of the soka edcts. The Kusana form (22,
shows an nverted curve at the head.
(12) The nscrpton of Gondophernes and some cons of that kng and of zses
(P. Gardner, Cat. lnd. C. Br. Mus. p. 9 , o. 22), show the frst n the kng s name
a pecuar sgn (26, ) usuay read pha, but possby meant for fa, as 0. Frank
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proposes, DMG. 1, 603. (13) ln the Kusana varety, the rght end of the horzonta
top of bha s occasonay connected wth the vertca f_8, ). and sometmes the top
stroke s connected wth the sde-mb, |ust as n ku (6, l). (1 ) The fuer ma
(29, l) s common on the lndo-Grecan cons, and for ts santng stroke the ater cons
often show a dot (29, ll). ln the mu of the Saka and Kusana varetes (29, l , ll)
ma s ad on ts sde, the rght part of the semcrce rses hgh up, and the eft s bent
downwards; compare the ate mum (33, lll).
(15) ln the Kusana nscrptons, ya often becomes a curve or rhombus-ke fgure,
open beow (30, l, ll). (16) ln the ater varetes, the eft mb of a (32, lll, )
s nvaraby round, and n the Kusana type t s often attached to the top of the vertca
(32, l. ll). (17) ln ater tmes, the head of va (33, lll, ) s nvaraby rounded.
(18) quay, sa (3 , lll, ) s often made round and smar to ya. (19) ln ater
tmes, sa (36, ll- l) nvaraby oses the ne connectng the eft sde of the head wth the
ta, and the new form becomes n the Kusana nscrptons often hghy cursve ; see 36, l.
B. Meda vowes and nusvara
(1) Meda / often crosses the vertca ow down ; see / (2, ll, lll, ), d (22, l)
n (2 , l), &c. ; and n the Kusana varety t gets a hook n m (29, l). Meda o ke
wse s occasonay attached ow down to the vertca, see ro (31, l); ho (37, ll).
(2) The e-stroke stands n nvaraby on the rght of the ( , l- 1ll), and t may
snk down as ow as the foot. The short stroke s then converted nto a ong bent ne
( , , ll) or receves a hook at the end ( , l). 0ccasonay e stands aso at the foot of
other etters, as n se (3 , l , Mathura on-capta).
(3) 0n the lndo-Grecan cons, meda u keeps ts od form; but n |u (12, ll)
the stroke rses upwards on account of the base-ne of |a, kewse n pu (25, ll) on
account of the bend n the pa. ln ater tmes, u s represented by a curve or a oop, as n
U (3, lll), ku (6, l). khu (7, l), &c ; n mu (29, l , ll), the curve opens to the rght.
( ) The nusvara s marked by a ma, ad on ts sde, whch ether s connected
wth ts matrka, as n m (1, ll), 1m (2, ll ), thm (16, l), or stands separate to the eft.
as n yam ( 30, lll ), or may be paced beow ( see mahamtasa n the Taxa copper-pate,
ne 1).
C. Lgatures
(1) The gatures of the lndo-Grecan cons, such as kra (6, ll), khre (39, l ),
stra (38, l ), and those of the Saka nscrptons, se (22, lll), khsa (25, lll), sta
(23, lll), show ony sma changes. The same remark appes to the gatures on the
cons of he Sakas and the oder Kusanas, where, however, some new groups appear,
such as psa (26, lll), rma (28, lll); compare the shape of ma n P. Gardner, (op. ct..
p. 25, l, 2), spa (29, lll), whch has been mosty msread spa on account of the Greek
Spayrses, sva (30, lll), wth the va turned nto a curve (see above, 11, C, ), and the
8
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doubtfu representatve of dph (27, lll) n Kadphses, the upper part of whch s pany
p, whe the ower one does not correspond to any known etter.
(2) mong the gatures of the cursve Kusana nscrptons, some, ke gra (8, l),
bhra (28, ll), exacty agree wth the archac forms, and [30| durng ths perod we st
fnd even the od vra (rva) (39, l) n the word sarva. The gatures tva (31, lll), tsa
(32, lll), often msread as tsa, ska (35, lll), and stu (36, lll) show the new Kusana
forms of the component parts. But the sa of sva (37, lll) s bady mutated, and the
oops ofrya (3 , lll), rva (33, ll), sya (35. ll), and sya (36, ll) 9 are new cursve
formatons. ln a words where one woud expect sta, the Kusana nscrptons show
tha (16, , l). Probaby the omsson of the bar on the rght (compare 23, lll) s
merey cursve, and the sgn has to be read both tha and sta, as the case may requre.
The MS. of the Dhammapada has both sgns.
lll. T Cl T BP Ml D DP lDl FP0M B0UT
B. C. 350 T0 B0UT . D. 350.
13. ow t was decphered
The frst schoar who read, n 1836, an nscrpton n the odest Brahma characters,
the egend on the cons of the lndo-Grecan kng gathoces, was Ch. Lassen. 120 But
the whoe aphabet was decphered by . Prnsep n 1837-38121. s tabe122 s, wth the
excepton of the sgns for U and 0, qute correct, as far as t goes. Snce hs tme, sx
mssng sgns have been found, among whch 7, U, sa, sa and a have been gven n Pate ll
of ths manua, whe ha, dscovered by Grerson n Gaya, s fgured n my lndan Studes,
lll. 2, pp. 31, 76, and on 16, C, beow. The exstence of U n the thrd century B. C.
s assured by the Gaya aphabet of soka s masons123. U and sa have been frst recognsed
by Cunnngham12 . 0ne form of sa has been frst ponted out by Senart125 and another
by oerne1-6. l have found a n the Sanc votve nscrptons127. Pegardng 7,
compare beow, 16, C, .
7 . Common characterstcs of the ancent nscrptons
The forms of the Brahm and Dravd, used durng the frst 600 years, are known at
present ony from nscrptons on stones, copper-pates, cons, seas and rngs128, and there
s ony one nstance of the use of nk from the thrd or second century B C.129. The vew
119. 0. Franke, op. ct., 60 , proposes to read ths ssa ; but cf. 35, lll, whch can
be ony sya.
120. C. SP. , ll. 121. C. SP. , lll- l ; . SB. v, 60 ff.
122. . SB. v, 223 ; P. l . , 0 p. 39. 123. B. lS. lll. 2, 31.
12 . C. l (Cll. 1), p. 27. 125. S. lP. , 36. 126. . SB. lv, 7 .
127. l. , 368. 128. . BBP S. 10, xx. 129. See above 2, B (end).
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53
of the deveopment of the characters durng ths perod s, therefore, not compete. For,
n accordance wth the resuts of a paeograhc research, the epgraphc aphabets are
mosty more archac than those used n day fe, as the very natura desre to empoy
monumenta forms prevents the adopton of modern etters, and as, n the case of
cons, the mtaton of oder specmens not rarey makes the aphabet retrograde. The
occurence of numerous cursve forms together wth very archac ones, both n the
soka edcts (see above, 3) and aso n ater nscrptons, ceary proves180 that lndan
wrtng makes no excepton to the genera rue. nd t w be possbe to use the
numerous cursve etters for the reconstructon of the more advanced aphabets, whch
were empoyed for manuscrpts and for busness purposes.
The fu recognton of the actua condton of the lndan wrtng s obscured aso
by the fact that the nscrptons of the earest perod, wth two exceptons, are ether
n Prakrt or n a mxed anguage (Gatha daect), and that the orgnas, from whch
they were transferred to stone or copper, were drafted by cerks and monks who possessed
tte or no educaton. ln [31| wrtng Prakrt these persons adopted neary throughout
fn wrtng the mxed daect ess constanty) the practcay convenent popuar
orthography, n whch the notaton of ong vowes, especay of and u and of the
nusvara, s occasonay negected as a matter of sma mportance, and n whch
doube consonants are mosty represented by snge ones, non-asprates are omtted
before asprates, and the nusvara s put for a voweess meda nasas 8. Ths
mode of speng contnues n the Prakrt nscrptons wth great constancy unt the
second century . D. The constant doubng of the consonants appears frst n a Pa
nscrpton of artputta Satakann, kng of Banavas, whch has been recenty found
by L. Pce132. The onger known nscrpton of the same prnce (1 . xv, 331) does
not show t. Besdes, we fnd n some other, party much oder, Prakrt documents,
fant traces of the phonetca and grammatca speng of the Pandts. Thus, the
soka edcts of Shahbazgarh offer some nstances of mma (see above, 9, B, ), the
ask nscrptons os. 1 , 15, and Kuda o. 5, have the word sddha, and Kanher
o. 1 ayyakena133. Such devatons from the rue ndcate that the wrters had
earned a tte Sanskrt, whch fact s proved aso for the wrter who drafted the Kas
edcts by the, for the Pa absurd, form bamhmane, for bambhane (Kas edct lll, 1. 39).
Wth the excepton of the Ghasund ( agar) nscrpton, whch contans no
word wth a doube consonant, a the documents n the mxed daect offer nstances
of doube consonants whch sometmes even are not absoutey necessary. Pabhosa
o. 1 has Bahasatmttrasa and Kassapyanam, o. 2 has Tevanputtrasya, ask o.
5 has sddham, and Kare o. 21 has Setapharanaputtasya 18 . nd the ana nscrptons
from Mathura furnsh numerous anaogous cases135. The ony known Sanskrt
130. B. lS. lll. 2, 0- 3. 131. See above 7.
132. ccordng oan mpresson and a photograph kndy sent by Mr. L. Pce.
133. B. SPWl. v, p. 5 and 52 ; v, p. 51.
13 . l. , 2 2; B. SPWl. v, p 52 and 5 . 135. l. , 371 ff. ; , 195 ff.
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56
nscrptons of ths perod, the Grnar Prasast from the regn of Pudradaman and
Kanhcr o. ll136, n genera show the orthography approved by the phonoogsts
and grammarans, wth a few rreguartes n the use of the nusvara, e. g., pratanam
a (Grnar Prasast, 1.2), sambamdha (1,12) whch have been caused by the nfuence
of the popuar orthography, but are found n the best MSS. wrtten by Pandts. The
orthographc pecuartes, |ust dscussed, have therefore nothng to do wth the
deveopment of the aphabet, but merey show that n ancent, as n modern, lnda the
speng of the cerks dffered from that of the earned Brahmans, and that both methods,
then as now, mutuay nfuenced each other and caused rreguartes.
second pecuarty137, found n many nscrptons n Prakrt and n the mxed
daect, s the frequent erroneous empoyment of the sgns for the sbants. ln the soka
/
edcts of Kas, of Sddapura and of Barat o. ll188, on the Bhattprou vases, n the cave
nscrptons of agar|un and of Pamnath189, and n the Mathura nscrptons of the
Kusana perod, nay even n the two odest Ceyonese nscrptons, sa or sa are used often
for sa, and sa for sa, and sa for sa and sa. The reasons for ths promscuous use of the
sbants are, frst, the crcumstance that the schoo aphabet, whch the cerks earned, was
orgnay ntended for Sanskrt and contaned more sbants than the ancent vernacuars
possessd, and secondy, the neggent pronuncaton of the casses desttute of grammatca
tranng. The western and southern Prakrts very probaby possessed, then as now, both
the paata and the denta sbants, and t was probaby the custom, as s done aso n our
days, to exchange the two sounds n the same words. The natura consequence was that the
feeng for the rea vaue of the sgns for sa and sa dsappared among the Pakrt-speakng
casses, whe the sa of ther schoo-aphabet, for whch there was no correspondng sound
n ther vernacuars, must have appeaed to them as a sgn sutabe to express sbance.
The Sanskrt nscrptons of a centures, especay the and-grants whch were drafted by
common cerks, the MSS. of works wrtten n the modern Prakrts, and the documents
from [32| the offces of modern lnda, wth ther countess mstakes n the use ofthe sbants,
offer abundant proof for the correctness of ths expanaton ofthe errors n the od
nscrpton. The expanaton s aso confrmed by the occasona occurenceof nato for na,
once n the separate edcts of Dhau and once of augada, though na aone s permssbe
for ther daect. ln these cases, too, the error seems to have been caused by the fact that
the schoo aphabet contaned both na and na. The cerks, who had earned t, each
made once a sp, and put n the for them redundant sgn. The dfferent opnon1 1,
accordng to whch the exchange of the sbants n the soka edcts ndcates that
the vaues of the Brahma sgns were not competey setted n the thrd century B.C.,
rests on the now untenabe, assumpton that the Brahm was eaborated, not for wrtng
Sanskrt, but for the Prakrt daects.
136. B. SPWl. , p. 1 ; v, p 51. 137. B. lS. lll, 2, 3, note 3.
138. C. l (Cll. 1), p. 1 . 139. C. l (Cll. 1) p. 15.
1 0. B. SPSl. 1, 128. note 9 ; 129, note 33.
1 1. S. lP. , 33 ff. : B. SlP. 2. note 1.
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57
15. The varetes of the Brahm and Dravd n Pates ll and ///. 2.
Pates ll and lll show the foowng ffteen scrpts of the frst perod :
(1) The varety of the ran con, runnng from the rght to the eft (p. ll. co. l),
whch probaby dates from the th century B. C.
1 2. Preparaton of the Pates :
PL T ll
Co. l : drawn accordng to a cast of the ran con ; cf. C. C l. p. ll, o. 18 ;
from Patna sea, C. SP, xv, p. 2.
Cos. ll, lll : cuttngs from facsme of Kas, l. , 7 ff.
Cos. l , : cuttngs from facsme of Deh-Svak, l . x, 306 ff.
Cos. l, ll : cuttngs from facsmes of augada, B. SPSl. , p. 67, 68, 69 ; xx, l,
from Padha, l. , 2 5 ff. ; and xv, ll, drawn accordng to mpresson of Sahsaram.
Cos. lll- : cuttngs from facsmes of Grnar, l. , 7 ff.; 3 , ra, between
ll, lll, from Pupnath, l . v, 156.
Cos. l, ll : cuttngs from facsmes of Sddapura. . , 13 , ff. , ll, drawn
accordng to mpresson of Barat, o. l ; 5, l, accordng to facsmes of Bharahut,
DMG. x. 58 ff.
Cos. lll- : cuttngs from facsmes n l. , 323 ff.
Co. l: traced from the facsmes n . SB. lv, 77, p, 5 a.
Co. ll: cuttngs from facsmes n . xx, 361 ff.
Co. Tll: traced from the facsmes n l . xv, 139 ; 6 from facsmes of Bharahut,
o. 98, DMG. x, 58 ; and 1 from mpresson of Sand Stupa l, o. 199.
Co. l : cuttngs from facsme n l. , 2 0 ff.
Co. : cuttngs from facsmes n l. , 396, o. 33, and l. , 195. o. 1.
Cos. l, ll : drawn accordng to Cunnngham s photographs of the athgumpha
nscrpton of Kharavea.
Cos. lll, l : cuttngs from facsmes n B. SPWl. v, p. 51, os. 1, 2.
PL T lll
Cos. l, ll : cuttngs from facsmes n l. . 199, os. 2 & 5, and Cunnngham s
photograph of the ora we nscrpton ; cf. C. SP. xx, p. 5, o. .
Cos. l, : cuttngs from facsmes of dated Kusana nscrptons n l. , 371 ff, and
, 195 ff.
Co. l: drawn accordng to facsme n B. SPWl. , 128, p. 1 .
Cos. ll- l : cuttngs from facsmes n B. SPWl. v, p. 51, o. 19; p. 52,
os. 5, 9, 10, 18, 19; p. 53, os. 13, 1 ; p. 55, o. 22 ; p. 8, o. 3 ; and tracngs
for Co. , from p, 5, os. 5, 6, 11.
Cos. ll, lll : cuttngs from facsmes n B. SPWl. 1, p. 62, 63.
Cos. l , : cuttngs from facsme n l. , lff. The background of a the cutt
ngs and ndstnct strokes have been touched up.
Scae of Pate ll 0 5ofthe cuttngs, except 13,11, and the sgns n cos. l, ll,
lll, l , whch have the same sze as n the facsmes. Scae of Pate lll 0 7.
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(2) The oder Maurya aphabet of the oka edcts1 8 (p. ll, cos. ll- ll), whch
occurs aso wth oca varatons on the Persan sgo1 and the od cons from Taxa,
&c1 5, n the ma|orty of the nscrptons on the Bharahut Stupa (p. ll, 6, lll ; 5, l),
n Gaya1 6, Sanc1 7, and Parkham1 8, on the Patna seas, on the Sohgaura copper
pate1 9, and on the stone of Ghasund or agar (p. ll, co. l). and probaby prevaed
at east n the atter haf of the th and n the 3rd century B. C.
(3) The Dravd of Bhattprou (p. ll, cos. lll- ), whch s connected wth the
southern varety of the Maurya type, but ncudes many very archac sgns; about B.C. 200.
( ) The ater Maurya aphabet of Dasaratha s nscrpton (p. ll, co. ll), cosey
reated to the characters on the cons of the lndo-Grecan kngs gathoces and Panta
oon1 ; about B. C. 200 to 180.
(5) The Sunga aphabet of the Torana of Bharahut (p. ll, co. lll), whch agrees
wth that of the Pabhosa nscrptons ( p. ll, co. l ), of the ater votve nscrptons on
the ras of the Bharahut and Sanc Stupas151, of the odest Mathur nscrptons159
(p. ll, Co. ), of the Pwa nscrpton158, and so forth15 ; 2nd to 1st centures B.C.
(6) The oder Kanga aphabet of the Katak ( athgumpha) caves (p. ll, Cos. l,
ll); about B. C. 150.
(7) The archac aphabet of the western Dekhan n the anaghat nscrpton (p. ll,
Cos. lll, l ), whch s found aso n ask o. 1, n Ptakhora, and n |anta
os. 1, 2 5; from about B. C. 150 to the 1st century . D.
(8,9) The precursors of the ater northern aphabets, the aphabet of the nscrptons
of the orthern Ksatrapa Sodasa and of the archac votve nscrptons from Mathura (p.
lll, Cos. l, ll), 1st century B.C. to 1st century . D. ( ), and the Kusana aphabet of the
regns of Kanska, uvska and asudeva (p. lll, Cos. lll- ), 1st and 2nd ( ) centures .D.
(10-15) The precursors of the ater southern aphabets, the aphabet of Kathavad
from the tme of the Western Ksatrapa Pudradaman (p. lll, Co. l), about . D. 150 ; the
1 3. Cf. the foowng trustworthy facsmes of soka edcts not mentoned n ote
1 2 above ; B. SPWl. , 98ff, Grnar ; l . x, 306 ff, ahabad ; l . xx, 122 ff., Deh-
Mrat, ahabad ueen s edct, ahabad Kosamb edct; l . xx, 36 , Barabar caves ;
l . xx, 299, Sahsaram and Pupnath ; , 2 5 ff, Matha and Pampurva; l. , 366,
SSSc ; . 1887, l, 98, Barat o l ; and the tabe of etters n B. SPWl. v, p. 5.
1 . . P S. 1895, 865 (p). 1 5. C. C 1. p. 2, 3; p. 8, o. 1; p. 10, o. 20.
1 6. C. MG. p. 10, os. 2, 3. 1 7. Facsmes n l. , 366 ff.
1 8. C. SP. xx, p. 6. 1 9. Proc. SB. May- une, 189 , p. 1.
150. P. Gardner, Cat., of lnd. Cons Br. Mus., ps. 3, .
151. P. n DMG. x, 58 ff.; l. , 366 (facsmes of Stupa l. os. 288, 377, 378).
152. Cf. pate n Sxth 0renta Congress, 3, 2, 1 2. 153. l . x, 121.
15 . Cf. C. C l. p. , os. 8-15 ; p. 5; p. 8, o. 2 ff : p. 9, os. 1-5 ; C. MG. p.
10, o. ; B. SPWl. v, p. . Bha|a os. 1-6, Kondane.
155. B. SPWl. v, p. , Pakhora, os. 1-7 ; p 51, ask, o. 1.
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archastc type of the western Dekhan from the tme of Ksatrapa ahapana (p. lll,
Co. ll), begnnng of the 2nd century .D. ( ) ; the more modern-ookng aphabet of the
same dstrct (occasonay wth ony fant traces of southern pecuartes) from the
tme of ahapana (p. lll, Cos. lll, l ), of the ndhra kng Gotamputa Satakan
(Co. ), of the ndhra kng Puumay CCo. l), of the ndhra kng Gotamputa
Sryana Satakan (Co. ll), of ask o. 20 (Co. lll), and of the bhra kng lsvarasena
(Co. l ), 2nd century . D. ; the ornamenta varety of the same dstrct wth more
fuy deveoped southern pecuartes, from the Kuda and [33| unnar nscrptons
(Cos. , l), 2nd century . D. ; the hghy ornamenta varety of the eastern
Dekhan from aggayyapeta (Cos. ll, lll), 3rd century .D. ( ); and the ancent cursve
aphabet of the Prakrt grant of the Paava kng Svaskandavarman (Cos. l , ),
th century . D. ( ).
16. The 0der Maurya phabet : Pate ll.
. Geographca extenson and duraton of use1 .
The oder Maurya aphabet was used over the whoe of lnda, and t seems to have
found ts way nto Ceyon at the atest about B. C. 250. For, the two odest Ceyonese
nscrptons157, from the tme of the kng baya Gamn, whch probaby beong to the
end of the nd or the begnnng of the 1st century B. C., show characters whch appear to
have been deveoped from those of the soka edcts. nd the cose reatons between
soka and Tssa of Ceyon, reported by the Southern Buddhsts, make an mportaton
of the Brahm from Magadha nto Ceyon not mprobabe. lt s, however, possbe that
the Brahm aphabet was ntroduced even earer nto Ceyon by lndan coonsts1- 8.
The upper mt of the use of the oder Maurya aphabet cannot be fxed wth
any certanty. But the shape of some of the characters on the Persan sgo (above
15, 1) makes t probabe that even ts more advanced forms exsted before the
end of the khaemenan rue n lnda (B. C. 331). lts odest prmary forms, no doubt,
go back to much earer tmes, as aso the statements of the tradton, dscussed above,
tend to show. [3 | The ower mt of the use of ths type cannot be very dstant from
the end of soka s regn (about B. C. 221 ), and must fa about B.C. 200. Ths estmate
s supported by the character of the wrtng n the nscrptons of soka s grandson
Dasaratha159, whch were ncsed mmedatey after hs coronaton (anamtayam
abhstena), .e., probaby |ust about the end of the 3rd century B.C., and of the egends
on the cons of the lndo-Grecan kngs Pantaeon and gathoces, who rued n the
begnnng of the 2nd century B.C.100 The etters of the agar|un cave nscrptons (p.
156. Cf. B. lS. lll, 2, 9ff. 157. . Mer, nc. lnscrs. from Ceyon, p. 1.
158. Cf. M, De va Wckramasnghe n . P S. 1895, 895 ff.
159. L. l . ll, 2, 257 ff.
160. on. Saet, achfoger ex. d. Gr.,3| ; P. Gardner, Cat. of lnd. Cons Br.
Mus l.
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ll, co. ll) are sharpy dstngushed from those of the soka edcts, party by the far
advanced forms of|a, ta, da, a and party by the nvarabe and consderabe reducton of
the vertca strokes. The second pecuarty re-occurs on the cons of the two lndo-Grecan
kngs, whch show aso a further deveopment of the northern |a of p. ll, 15, lll.
Though the shortened etters were by no means unknown to the wrters of the soka edcts
(see tabe on p. 7), ther constant use for epgraphc documents s, to |udge from the
avaabe materas, a characterstc of the types of the second and subsequent centures.
nd l beeve that a nscrptons showng ong vertcas must be assgned to the 3rd
century B.C., and those wth short ones to ater tmes.
B. Loca varetes.
The pecuar crcumstances, under whch the soka edcts were ncsed, were most
unfavourabe to a fu expresson of the exstng oca varetes. Frst, the fact that a of
them were frst drawn up n the mpera secretarate at Pataputra and then forwarded
to the Governors of the provnces, must have proved a serous obstace. s the
dfferences n the grammatca forms and sma ateratons n the text ndcate, the edcts
were coped by the provnca cerks before they came nto the hands of the stone masons.
lt s a matter of course that the scrbes of the Pa|ukas, n copyng them, were nfuenced
by the forms of the etters n the orgnas.and that they mtated them, be t nvountary
or out of respect for the head offce. Further, t s probabe that the provnca cerks
were not aways natves of those dstrcts n whch they served ; and ths crcumstance
must have contrbuted to efface or to modfy the use of the oca varetes. Most of soka s
governors w, no doubt, have been sent from Magadha, the home of the Maurya race,
and many w have been transferred n the course of ther servce from one provnce to
another. Those acquanted wth the condtons of the Cv Servce n the atve States
of lnda, whch st preserve the ancent forms common to the whoe of sa, w regard
t as probabe that the governors, on takng charge of ther pos. s, mported ther
subordnates, or at east some of them, be t from ther natve country or from the
dstrcts whch they formerey governed. The case of Pada, the wrter of the Sddapura
edcts, confrms ths nference. s he knew the Kharosth, -he probaby had mmgrated,
or been transferred, to Masur from the north of lnda.
ln spte of these unfavourabe condtons t s possbe to dstngush n the wrtng
of the soka edcts at east two, perhaps three, oca varetes. Frst, there s a northern
and a southern one, for whch, as n the case of the ater aphabets, the ndhya or,
as the ndus say, the armada, forms the dvdng ne. The southern varety s most
strongy expressed n the Grnar and Sddapura edcts, ess ceary n the Dhau and
augada edcts, by dfferences n the sgns for , , kha.|a, ma, ra, sa, the meda /, and
the gatures wth ra (see beow, under C, D). comparson of the characters of the
most cosey aed northern and southern nscrptons confrms the assumpton that the
dfferences are not accdenta. lf the characters of the Sddapura edcts do not aways
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61
agree wth those of Grnar, [35| the dscrepances w have to be ascrbed to the northern
descent of the wrter Pada or to hs servce n a northern offce.
ven the wrtng n the northern versons s not qute homogeneous. The par
edcts of ahabad, Matha, gva, Padera, Padha, and Pampurva, form one very
cosey connected set, n whch ony occasonay mnute dfferences can be traced, and
the edcts of Barat o. l, Sahsaram, Barabar, and Sand, do not much dffer. tte
further off stand the Dhau separate edcts (where edct ll. has been wrtten by a
dfferent hand from the rest), the Deh-Mrat edcts, and the ahabad ueen s edct,
as these show the anguar da. ery pecuar and atogether dfferent s the wrtng of the
rock edcts of Kas, wth whch some etters on the cons of gathoces and Pantaeon
(but aso some n the augada separate edcts) agree. Perhaps t s possbe to speak aso
of a north-western varety of the oder Maurya aphabet.161
C. The radca sgns or Matrkas
Sgns begnnng wth vertcas show aready n the soka edcts occasonay a
thckenng or a very short stroke ( Serf) at the upper end, as n cha (p. ll, 1 , ll), pa
(28, ll) ; compare the cases noted l. , 8, and B. SPSl, , 115.
(1, 2)162 ln addton to the eght forms of , , gven on page [6| above, the pate
shows a nnth n co. l, wth an open square at the top (compare ma, 32, l, ll) ; a
tenth, wth the ange separated from the vertca, occurs n o. 1 of the Sddapura ns
crptons, edct l, ne 2, 3. The forms wth the bent vertca (Cos. ll, l) have been
caused by wrtng the upper and ower haves of the etter separatey. The addton of
the stroke, markng the ength of the vowe, to the rght top of the vertca (Cos. lll,
l ), s a pecuarty of Grnar.
(3) The forms of / n Cos. [ll, l , are the common ones; that n Co. ,
whch agrees wth the / of the Gupta perod and ater types, s rare. ( The rare 7,
whch, as may be nferred from the Gaya aphabet of the masons, exsted aready n the
3rd century B.C, occurs aso n the Mahabodh Gaya nscrptons, p. 10, os. 9, 10,
where Cunnngham reads lm, because t appears n the representatve of the Sanskrt
lndra. Though ths readng s possbe, l consder t mprobabe, as t woud be
necessary to assume for /a not traceabe form, consstng of two dots sde by sde wth
a thrd dot above on the eft, thus,:. ln ater tmes (see p. l, , , ll) the anges
of the square are turned towards the top and the bottom nes.
(5,6) utzsch ( DMG. x, 71) admts that the sgn 6, lll, ooks ke U, but
prefers to read 0 for ngustc reasons, whch seems to be unnecessary accordng to .
161. Cf. B. lS. lll. 2, 36ff.
162. The bracketed rabc fgures of secton C correspond wth those of pate ll;
for 16, C to , cf. aso B. lS. lll, 2, 58 ff.
9
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62
Mer, Smpfed Pa Grammar, 12 f. The exstence of U n the 3rd century may be
nferred from the Gaya aphabet of the masons.
(7) dd the horseshoe-form of (Kas edct , 16, &c.) from the comparatve tabe
on page 30 above, o. 16 Co. , / . The haf-round of Co. ll occurs aso n Sanc
Stupa l, o. 173. The T, whch has been paced n ths row (Co. l), exsted n the
3rd century, as may be nferred from the Gaya aphabet of the masons. Pegardng the
0 of Dhau and augada n Co. l, see above, , B, , a.
(9) The dagger-shaped ka occurs occasonay n a versons of the soka edcts,
most rarey n Grnar. (10) The odest among the seven forms of kha s that n co. ll
(Kas) and co. l ( augada separate edcts and Bharahut Stupa nscrpton). ence come
frst the northern kha, wth the oop on the rght, co. lll (Kas and Bharahut), and a
form, neary dentca wth that of co. lll, n augada separate edct l, 1. . The next
dervatve from ths s the kha wth a bent vertca and a dot at the foot, n cos. l , .
Lkewse of northern orgn s the kha wth the trange at the foot, n khya, 3, ; compare
Mahabodh-Gaya, p. 10, o. 3 and Bharahut. nother dervatve from the prmay
form n co. lll, s the kha of cos. ll, l - ll, wth a pont at the foot of the perfecty
straght vertca, and t occurs both n the south n Grnar, Sddapura, Dhau, and augada,
and n the north n ahabad, Deh-Mrat, Mathn, Padha, Pampurva, and Barat o. l.
The kha, consstng of a smpe hook wth the omsson of the dot, n co. lll, s confned
to the southern versons and s partcuary common n Grnar. (11) The go, whch s
orgnay ponted at the top, s sometmes sghty rounded, n cos. l , l, - ll. (12)
The prmary anguar gha appears occasonay n Kas (co. lll) and n the augada separate
edcts. l add here the fgure of ha from the Gaya aphabet of the masons, whch has been
dscovered after the preparaton of the pates ; compare my lndan Studes, p
lll. 2, pp. 31; 76. U
(13) The prmary ca wth ta (see above, , , 18) occurs aso n Sanc Stupa l,
os. 269 and 28 ( l. , 368). (1 ) The prmary cha wth unequa [36| haves n cos. l,
ll, becomes frst a crce, bsected by the vertca, cos. lll, l , and hence s derved the
ater usua form wth two oops n co. ll, and n the Gaya aphabet. (15) The forms of
|a, a of whch have been derved from they of the DrSvd (cos. lll- 1) may be dvded
(a) nto essentay northern forms wth a oop n co. lll (Kas and Matha), or wh a
dot n cos. l , ( ahabad, Deh-Svak, Deh-Mrat, Barat o. l, gva, Padera.
Dhau, augada, and Sddapura), or wth a short centra stroke n co. ll (Kas, augada
separate edcts, Sahsaram and Pupnath), and (b) nto southern forms, those n cos. lll,
, l, l (Grnar, Dhau, augada, and Ghasund) and that n co. l (Grnar).
(18) ln addton to the semcrcuar to, we often fnd secondary forms, fattened
above or beow or at both ends, as n cos. ll, l, l. (20) Wth the round-backed da
of Kas n co. lll, compare aso the smar d n the ahabad ueen s edct, ne 3.
(23) From the prmary ta n co. lll, and 3, lll (tu), whch s often turned sdeways
(see comparatve tabe at page 30 above, o. 22, , b) comes (a) the form wth the round
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- 63

sde-mb n cos. l , , l, as we as that n co. l, and 3, co. ll (//), and (b) the
very common ta wth the ange |ust beow the vertca n co. l, from whch fnay the
tertary form wth the semcrce for the ange n co. ll (common n ater tmes) appears
to be derved. (25) From the prmary rounded da n cos. ll, lll, comes (a) the anguar
form n cos. l , (Deh-Mrat, Deh-Svak, ahabad-Kosamb edct, and ahabad
ueen s edct), and (b) the cursve da n cos. ll, l (Grnar, augada, &c. rarey). (26)
The orgna dha of cos. - ll appears ony n Deh-Svak (rarey) and n the augada
separate edcts (constanty).
(28, 29) The anguar pa and pha of co. ll. and co. l, occurs here and there n
varous versons. (30) dd the ba of the comparatve tabe, page 30 above o. 2, , a,
whch s not rare n Kas and other versons. (31) The secondary bha wth the straght
stroke on the rght, co. l, and that wth the rounded back, co. l ( augada separate
edcts), appear aso n Bharahut (constanty), Sanc (often), Barabar and Kas. (32)
The secondary ma wth the semcrce at the top occurs throughout n the northern
nscrptons, except n the Sohgaura copper-pate, whch offers a ma wth an open square,
smar to that of Sddapura, cos. l, ll. The oder ma wth the ange above the crce,
cos. lll- , s a southern form, and s confned to Grnar (excusvey) andDhauard
augada (rarey/.
(33) The notched ya n cos. l , , ll, l, s used ether constanty or chefy n
Deh-Svak, Deh-Mrat, Matha, Padha, Pampurva, gva, Padera, and Kas. lt
s aso very common n Dhau, augada, and Sddapua. But n Grnar the ya wth the
curve beow s the usua one, cos. lll, , ll, besdes whch that wth the ange, co. l ,
s found occasonay. ln wrtng the notched ya, the eft haf of the sgn has been made
frst, and the rght haf has been added afterwards. ln the ya wth the curve beow, the
vertca and the curve have been drawn separatey, as may be seen from (yarn n o. 1 of
the Sddapura nscrptons edct 1, ne . (3 ) dd the forms of ra from Grnar gven n
the comparatve tabe on page 30 above, o. 20, , a and c. The corkscrew-ke ra of
Ghasund, co, l, and the tertary, amost straght-ned fom, of Pupnath (between
cos. ll, lll), seem to be northern cursve forms of the etter. (35) The anguar a of
cos. lll, , appears occasonay n most versons, whereas the hghy cursve fcm n
co ll s confned to the augada separate edcts. 136) dd the modern-ookng va of
the comparatve tabe on page 25 above, o. 19 (Kas). The va of Sddapura n co.
ll fattened beow, and the tranguar one of Ghasund n co. l, appear occasonay
n other versons. The va of co. l , whch resembes a ca turned round from rght to
eft, s found aso n vesagame, Sohgaura, ne 2.
(37) dd the broad-backed sa of the comparat e tabe on page 30, o. 21. l c ;
and compare the sa n Kas edct lll, 1, nes 35. 37, 38; 2, nes 17, 19. (38) The
con|ecturareadngofthesgnsofKasncos.1, lll, s based on Senart s lnscrptons
de Pyadas, , 33 f. The sa from whch the ater forms have been derved s that of co.
l. (39) The prmary sa wth the straght sde-mb has been preserved ony n the
south (Grnar and Sddapura). The cursve form n co. ll occurs aso n Kas.
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6 -
( 0) dd the probaby prmary ha of Sddapura n the comparatve tabe on page
30 above, o. 5, , o, whch [37| s found aso n KasL The cursve ha of co. ll s
confned to the augada separate edcts ; a somewhat dfferent cursve occurs n mahamata|
ahabad Kosamb edct, .ne 1. .
( 1) certan [a s not found n the known nscrptons of the 3rd century, as the
// of Sanc, n co. lll, beongs wthout doubt to the 2nd century B.C. But ft s possbe
that the da wth the dot, 20, co. l (Padha), has to be read ld. The sgn appears n
Deh-Svak, Matha, and Padha (edct ) n the representatve of the Sanskrt dud or
du , and n Matha and Padha n the representatve of dvadasa, whch n Pa usuay
becomes duvadasa. The dot may be, as n kha and |a, a substtute for a crce. lf such a
modfcaton of da was reay used for a, the sgn must have been derved from the anguar
da neary n the same marner as the ater a, was framed out of the round-backed da
(see above, , B, 6).
... , .
D. Meda vowes and nusvara
. . . . .
. , .
(1) The orgnay straght stroke fora s often turned upwards n Kas (see,
for nstance, sa, 37, lll) and occasonay n other versons, after the manner prevaent
n ater tmes. ln kha (10, , l), |a (15, l, &c.), ta (19, ll), tha (18, ll), tha (2 , ll), the
5-stroke s added to the mdde of the etter. Bharahut offers aso a|a ke that of 15, l.
(2) The anguar/ (see, for nstance, kh, 10, ll) becomes, reguary n Grnar
(see dh, 21, l ) and rarey n the augada separate edcts (see kh, 10, ll), a shaow
curve, whch n kh (10, lll), n n (27, l ), and other etters endng n vertcas,
maybe attached to the mdde of the consonant, and whch frequenty s very much
ke a. ln Kas edct lll, 2, 10, the meda/ of// ( 3, ll). stands .twce to the eft
of ts consonant, kewse n t n ahabad edct l (end), ud n h n the Sohgaura
copper-pate, ne . (3| The meda / of Grnar usuay conssts of a shaow curve
bsected by a vertca (d, 25, l ); but n t (18, l ) t s marked by two vertca strokes, .
and n th (2 , l ) by two santng ones.
( ) The fu u whch s dentca wth U occurs n the dhu (26, lll) of Kas severa
tmes. lt s aso recognsabe n ku(9, ), gu (11, l ), du (20, ll), and other etters
endng n vertcas, whch atter have to do doube duty as parts of the consonants and of
the vowe; see beow, the remarks on some gatures under , 1. sewhere we have
secondary forms ; (a) such as omt the horzonta, n dhu (26, ll), pu (28, lll), &c ;
(/;) such as omt the vertca, n /w (23, ), &c. ln tu the w-stroke s occasonay tuned
upwards, as n 23, lll, and 3, lll ; compare the ater tu of p, 11l,21, l .-(5)The
dentty of meda u wth 0 s st recognsabe n etters endng n vertcas, as n MM
(31, ), &c., where the vertca agan does doube duty. But mosty the vowe s expressed
by two strokes, ether parae as n dhu ( 26, ) and n yu ( 33, ll ) or paced otherwse
as n / w(28, lll, l).
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65
l- f (6) Sgns ke ge (11, l ) perhaps offer st remnants of the hook-form of meda e,
nto whch the orgnay super-mposed trange no doubt was reduced at frst (see above,
, C, 1); and the e-strokes of khe (10, lll), ge (11, lll, and gye ( 2, ll), .whch
sant downwards from the eft to the rght, may have to be nterpreted n the same
way. ln |e .(15, ll), te (18, ), the (19, ll), and the (2 ; ll), the vowe stands
opposte to the mdde of the consonant; n khe t s; often attached to the eft end
of the hook. (7) Meda a occurs ony n tra (23, l ,) and tha (2 , ), both n Grnar,
and n ma (32, ll ; Sddapura).
(8) Meda o preserves mosty the orgna shape of 0 very fathfuy (see above,
, C, 1). The ater cursve o wth the two bars at the same heght appears however n
go ( , ; Deh-Svak), and ho ( 0, ; Deh-Sva||k), as we as n the yo of the Persan
sgo. ln mo (32, ll, ; augada separate edcts, Math a, Padhaand Grnar), the o has
been formed n a smar manner. ln the second form, the bars stand opposte the mdde,
and ndcate that anaogous ma and me exsted aready n the 3rd century B. C., |ust as
ater ; see p. lll, 30, , ll. ln the no of Kas edct , ne 1 we have a ooped
o, smar to that n o of p. lll, 33, , and n ater sgns:
(9) The nusvara mosty stands opposte the mdde of the precedng MStrka, as n
mam (32, lll). But n connecton wth f t s paced reguary n [38| Deh-Svak,
Deh-Mrat, Matha, Padha, augada, and Dhau, nsde the ange of the vowe, as n
m ( 8, l). There are aso other cases n whch t occasonay appears, as n the
ater scrpts, above ts Matrka, and sometmes, as n mam ( 32, ll ), t snks to the l oot of
the atter ; see above, , B, 2 e.
. Lgatures
f) ln the ordnary gatures of the soka edcts ( 2,1l- ll, - ll ; 3, - lll,
l, ll; , lll- ll, l, ll; 5,1 , , ), n those of Bharahut ( 5, l) and of;
Ghasund ( 2, 3, l), the consonants are paced beow each other n ther natura order
and suffer no matera changes. 0ccasonay, however, as n k a ( 2, 11,1 ), kye ( 2, lll),
g ya ( 2,. l), and gye ( 2, ll), a snge vertca stroke does duty both for the upper and
the ower consonant, |ust as n the modern gatures kva, kta, and so forth ; compare aso
the Kharosth gatures. above, C, 3. .
(2) But there are cases of greater rreguartes, especay n Grnar, where (a) the
second sgn s sometmes greaty mutated or made cursve, as n vya ( |ll), mya( ,
lll). .v//and stu ( 5, lll, l ) ; (b) the sgn for the second consonant s sometmes paced
/
frst (Grnar and Sddapura) for convenence sake163, as n sta, tt ( 2. lll, l ), tpa,
tpa ( 3, l , ), vvo ( , ); and (c) n gatures wth ra, ths sgn s ether (both
n Grnar and Sddapura) nserted n the vertca nes of the other consonant (kra, 9, ;
163. 0. Franke Gurupt |akaumud 26, thnks that these groups shoud be read xa.
tst as they are wrtten.
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66
tram, 23, ; dra, 25, ll ; bra, 30, ; vra, 36, ; sru, 39, ;, or (n Grnar aone)
s ndcated by a sma hook at the top of the combned sgn (tra, 23, l ; pra, pra,
28, l , ; &c.). The poston of ra aways remans the same, whether t s to be pronoun
ced before or after the combned consonant, and thus 36, , has the vaue both of rva and
of vra. The nserton of ra n the eft vertca of ba n bra (30, ) probaby goes back to
the perod when the wrtng went from the rght to the eft. 0therwse t ought to stand
n the rght vertca.
17. The Dravd of Bhattprou : Pate ll
To the remarks on the vaue of the Dravd of Bhattprou for the hstory of wrtng
n lnda (above, page 26), and to the expanatons of ts pecuar sgns (above, 6, , 3, 7,
12, 15, 18 ; B, c, 5 ; and C, 2), l have now to add the reasons for the assumed readng of
the sgn n p. ll. 38, lll- . lt seems to me certan that orgnay t had the vaue of s.
For there can be no doubt that t expresses a sbant, and that the Dravd s, ke the
Brahm, an aphabet nvented n order to wrte Sanskrt (see above, 6, C, 2). s sgns
for two of the three Sanskrt sbants are easy recognsabe, the paata n 37, lll, l ,
and the denta n 39, lll, l , , the thrd sgn can ony have been ntended to express
the ngua sbant. But t s a dfferent queston, whether n the words of the Prakrt
Bhattprou nscrptons, n whch the sgn occurs, the ngua sbant was actuay pro
nounced, or whether, owng to the neggent orthography of the cerks, the sgn has been
put where the pronuncaon was s or s. certan answer to ths queston s for the
present mpossbe. lt coud be gven ony f we knew more about the ancent Prakrt of the
Kstna dstrcts [39| than s actuay the case. But the correct use of sa n s manudesanam
(Bhattprou, o. ) ndcates that the daect possessed two sbants; and t can ony
be doubted, whether s has been put erroneousy for s, as often happens n the ana
nscrptons from Mathura (compare l. , 376), or whether t was st the ngua sbant.
nother pont n the character of the Dravd, whch requres speca menton s, that ts
sgns, whch agree wth those of the Brahm, n severa cases present characterstc pecuar
tes of the southern varety. Ths may be seen (1) n the anguar , ; (2) n the kh (10,
lll, ) consstng, ke that of Grnar, merey of a vertca, wth a hook at the top ;
(3) n the dh, whch has the same poston as that of the augada separate edcts and the
anaghat nscrptons ; ( ) n m, whch though turned topsy-turvy, retans the ange of.
the ma of Grnar ; and (5) n s, whch mosty has the straght sde-mb, as n Grnar and
/
Sddapura.
s the nscrpton on the crysta prsm ( o. ), found wth the stone vesses, shows
the ordnary Brahm except n the da openng to the rght, t foows that the Dravd was not
used excusvey even n the Kstna dstrcts, but together wth the common od lndan
aphabet. The sma number of the nscrptons htherto found, makes t mpossbe to
say anythng defnte regardng the spread of ths aphabet. nd t s equay dffcut to
fx wth certanty the tme and the duraton of ts use. s kng Kubraka or Khubraka
(Kuvera) s not known from other sources, we can ony fa back on the never absoutey
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certan paeographc ndcatons. The sgns, whch agree wth the Brahm, pont to the
tme mmedatey after soka, or about 200 B.C. ln favour of ths estmate s partcuary
the occurrence of the ong vertcas, the nvaraby round g, and the r, whch s aways
represented by a straght ne.
18. The ast four aphabets of Pate ll
ln addton to the nscrptons of Dasaratha (Co. ll), whch very probaby beong
|ust to the end of the 3rd century B.C. (see above, 16, ), ony those of the Ceta kng
Kharavea of Kanga (Cos l, ll) and those of the ndhra queen ayanka n the
anaghat cave (Cos. lll, l ) can be dated approxmatey. Kharavea s nscrpton
must have been ncsed betweeen B.C. 157 and 1 7, as the kng s thrteenth year s sad to
correspond to the year 165 of the tme of the Murya (Maurya) kngs16 , am t fxes aso
the tme of the anaghat nscrpton. For, accordng to ne , Kharavea asssted n the
second year of hs regn a western kng caed Satakan. Ths Satakan probaby s dentca
wth the frst ndhra prnce of that name mentoned n the Puranas, whose nscrbed mage
s found n the anaghat cave. ence the date of the arge nscrpton, whch was ncsed
durng the regency of Satakan s wdow ayanka, cannot be much ater than B.C. 150185.
Paeographc evdence s amost the ony hep for fxng the tme of Dhanabhut s
nscrpton on the torana of the Bharahut Stupa (Co. lll, whch was ncsed durng
the rue of the Sungas , as we as that of the Pabhosa cave nscrptons (Co. l ) and
of the odest votve documents from Mathura (Co. ), a of whch offer (see above, 15,
5) the Sunga type of the ancent Brahm. To |udge from the evdenty cose connecton
of ther characters, party wth the younger Maurya aphabet and party wth the Kanga
scrpt, the sgns of Cos. lll, l , probaby beong to the second century B.C. Those
of Co. may date from the frst century B.C., as the eongaton of the ower parts of
the vertcas of , (1, 2), the broad back of sa (37), the cursve a ( 1) and the
subscrbed ra n dra ( 2), whch s twsted to the eft, pont to a ater tme.
The tendency to shorten the upper vertca nes, mentoned aready above ( 16, ),
s, though here and there not fuy carred through, common to a the four scrpts.
The broadenng of the etter or of the ower parts of ga, ta, pa, bha, ya, a, sa, and ha, s
found ony n the ast [ 0| three aphabets ; and the thckenng of tops of the upper
vertcas, and the use of the so-caed Serf, are partcuary remarkabe ony n the Sunga
and Kanga aphabets Tendences n the drecton of ater deveopments, are found, not
ony n the etters of Co. , aready mentoned, but aso n the round da (20, ll,
lll), so characterstc for atter southern aphabets, n na wth the curved upper
horzonta ne (22, lll, l ) n the party or entrey anguar ma (32, l , ll),
16 . Sxth 0renta Congress, , 2, 1 9 ; cf. 0strechesche Monatsschr fur d. 0r.,
188 . 231 ff.
165. Sxth 0renta Congress, , 2, 1 6 ; dfferenty Bhandarkar. ary st, of the
Dekkan, , 3 , who assgns Satakan to the perod B. C. 0 to . D. 16.
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63
n tbe semcrcuar meda of k (9, ll), b (30, ll), and v (36, l ), as we as n
the detached o of go (11, ll), tho (19, l ) and tho (2 , l ). The snge meda
au of the pate, n pau (28, lll), deserves to be noted.
s regards the geographca dstrbuton of these types, the younger Maurya aphabet
beongs not ony to the north-east (Bhar), but aso to the north-west, where tsy a and sa
are found on the cons of the two lndo-Grecan kngs, mentoned above ( 15, ). The
Kahga aphabet s of course that of the south-eastern coast, and the type of the
anaghat nscrptons that of the western Dekhan. Fnay, the Sunga type probaby
represents the scrpt of the centre of lnda. lt, however, extends aso to the west, as the
same or very smar characters are found n the caves of the Maratha country ; compare
15 above, 5, note 153.
ery tte can be sad regardng the duraton of the use of these scrpts. The lndo-
Grecan cons show that the younger Maurya characters were used n the frst haf of the
2nd century B.C.106 The Kahga scrpt s vsbe aso n the nscrptons of Kharavea s
next descendants.167 lf Burgess has correcty fxed the tme of the Ptakhora caves,168
t woud foow that the scrpt of the anaghat nscrptons contnued to be used n the
frst century .D.
19. The Precursors of the orthern phabets
. The phabet of the orthern Ksatrapas : Pate l
lmmedatey connected wth the atest forms of the Sunga type n the odest ana
nscrptons from Mathura (p. ll, Co. ) s the aphabet of the orthern
Ksatrapas on the cons and n the nscrptons of the Mahaksatrapa Pa|uvua or Pam|ubua
and of hs son Sodasa, or Sudasa, who rued n the frst century B. C. or . D. ( )
over the same town 69. nd some archac votve nscrptons from Mathura, as we
as egends on certan lndan cons, exhbt the eary etters of the same type 170.
The characterstcs of ths type (p. lll, Cos. l, ll) are the equasaton of a the
upper vertcas, except n a (33, l) ; the constant use of the Serf, occasonay repaced,
as n bha (29, l), by a na-head or wedge ; and the the constant use of anguar forms
for gha (10,1), |a (13, l, ll;, pa (26, l, ll), pha (27, l), ma (3D, l, ll), a (33, l), sa
(36,1), and ha (38,l, ll). 0ther, mosty cursve, nnovatons are found n the pecuar
ca (11,1); n the santng anguar da (18, l); n da (23, l) ; n the broadened bha
(29,1, ll.) ; n ra wth curve at the end (32, l, ll), whch occasonay reappears aso ater
(see p. l , 33, l ) n northern nscrptons ; n the meda vowes a (whch n ha, 38, ll,
rses upwards, but n ra, 32, l, keeps ts ancent form), / (n d, 23,1), o (n gho, 10, l,
166. Cf. above 16, (note 159)
167. Sxth 0renta Congress, , 2, 179, Udayagr nscrpton os. 3, .
168. Buddhst Cave Tempes, 2 6. 169. See above. 10.
170. Cf. aso facsmes n C. SP. , p. 13, o. 1 ; l. ,392, o, 17 ; C. C l.p.
3, o. 1 ; p. 6 ; p. 8, o. 2 ff.
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and so, 35, ll); and n the poston of the nusvara above the ne (n nam, 20, l).
The ka shows, besdes the od form n 7,l, ll, the ater one wth the bent bars n ksa
( 0, l). The upper part of the abnorma va (3 , ll) wth two tranges, whch sometmes
s found aso n the Kusana nscrptons 171 and esewhere, [ 1| probaby represents a
hoow wedge. The nscrptons of ths cass for the frst tme show172 the meda r
whch conssts, exacty ke that of the Kusana nscrptons n vr (3 , lll), of a straght
ne santng towards the eft.
B. The aphabet of the Kusana nscrptons : Pate l
The next step n the deveopment of the Brahm of the orthern lnda s ustrated
by the nscrptons from the tme of the Kusana kngs Kanska, uvska and asuska or
asudeva (pate lll, Cos. lll- ), the frst among whom made an end of the rue
of the oder Sakas n the eastern and southern Pan|ab. The nscrptons wth the
names of these kngs, whch run from the year to the year 98 (accordng to the usuay
accepted opnons, of the Saka era of . D. 77-78, or of the th century of the Seeucd
era) 178, are very numerous n Mathura and ts neghbourhood, and are found aso n
eastern Pa|putana and n the Centra lndan gency (Sanc) 17 . ln spte of great
varatons n the snge etters, whch occasonay exhbt the more modern forms n the
oder nscrptons and the earer forms of the orthern Ksatrnpa type n the ater
documents, the aphabet possesses a very characterstc appearance, and nobody who
once has seen the squat and broad etters of the Kusana perod w ever make a mstake
by assgnng them to other tmes.
s regards the detas, the foowng nnovatons deserve speca menton 175 :
(1) Sde by sde wth more ancent sgns, the of Co. l shows a form eadng up to the
modern of the agar of Western lnda ; compare aso p. l , 1, l , l ff. (2) The
bar denotng the enght of s attached ow down (2, lll, l ) ; compare p. l , 2, ll ff.
(3) Three strokes, one of whch s set up vertcay, take the pace of the three dots of /
(3,111)- ( ) The horzonta stroke of U occasonay shows a curve at the eft end
( ,1 ,). (5; The base of the tranguar (5, l , ) s mosty at the top ; compare p.
l , 5, ff. (6) The kha (8, lll- ) s mosty tranguar beow, and ts hook s often
sma. (7) 0ne of the two orgnay horzonta strokes of na s aways turned nto a
171. l. , 20 , o. 12 ; 207, o. 32 ; hoow wedges are found aso n the facsmes
n C. SP. x, p. 23, o. 1 ; F. Gl (Cll 3), o. 23.
172. ln vrsnnam, C. SP. xx. p. 5. ne 2.
173. l . x, 213 ; C. ClS. 51 ff., 57 ; Bhandarkar, ary st, of Dekkan, ,26, note
1, thnks that Kanska rued ater ; but S. Lev . . 1897,l, 5ff. paces even asudeva n
the frst century .D. ; the years and 5 of ths era occurs n l. , 201, os. 11, 12 ;
Kanska the year 7, l. , 391, o. 19.
17 . See facsme, l. , 369. 175. Cf. my remarks, l. , 371 ff ; , 197.
10
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70
curve notched n the mdde, and sometmes both are changed n ths manner, as n 20,
lll, l ; occasonay the vertca s spt up nto two nes, whch are attached to the ends
of the eft horzonta ne, each bearng a porton of the curved top-bar (20, ). (8) The
ta shows sometmes, but rarey, a oop, as n st ( 3, l ). (9) The ower end of da (23,
lll- ) s drawn further to the rght, and the buge on the rght becomes arger. (10)
The dha (2 , lll, l ) becomes narrower and ponted at the ends. (11) The horzonta
stroke of. na s curved (25, lll) or ooped (25, l ), whereby the st more modern ookng
form n 25, , s deveoped. (12) The ya (31,111- ) mosty has a hook or crce on the
eft mb, and n gatures s ether ooped as n ryya ( 2, 111), or bpartte as n ryya
( 1, ). (13) The va s occasonay rounded on the eft (3 , ), or becomes smar to ca,
as n rvva ( 2, l ). (1 ) The sa (35, lll- ) becomes narrower, and ts mdde stroke es
horzontay across the nteror ; sometmes the eft down-stroke bears a Serf at the end,
or the rght one s made onger, |ust as n ga (9, ) ; compare p. l , 36,1 ff. (15) The
centra bar of sa (36, lll- ) goes straght across the nteror of the etter. (16) The eft
mb of |a s occasonay, but rarey, turned nto a oop (3 ,, l ; , tumpat pate l , 38,
l ff.
these pecuartes, as we as the advanced forms of the meda vowes, of a n
ra (32, l ), of wn ku (1, l , ) and n stu ( 3, ) 6, and of o n to (21,l ), reappear
constanty n the northern aphabets of the next perod, those of the Gupta nscrptons
(p. l , Cos l- ll) and of the Bower MS. (p. l, Cos. 1-), or are precursors of the
forms of those documents. The terary aphabets used n Mahura durng the frst two
centures . D., very key were dentca wther cosey smar to the ater ones, and
the admxture of oder forms, observabe n the nscrptons of the Kusana perod, may
be due purey to an mtaton of oder votve nscrptons.
ttenton must be caed to the meda r n /; (21, l ) and [ 2| n vr (3 , lll), for
whch we have aso once 177 the form of p. l , 3, lll ; kewse to the ra her common
fnam, whch resembes that n ddham ( 1, lll), and to the sarga, whch ooks exacty
ke the modern one (compare 0, 1, l and frst appears n these nscrptons178. The
broad strokes of the etters and ther thck tops ndcate that they mtate an aphabet
wrtten wth nk.
20 The Precursors 0f The Southern phabets
. The aphabet of the Ksatrapas of Mava and Gu|arat: Pate l
Whe the nscrptons of orthern lnda thus show n the frst and second centures
. D. the begnnng of the deveopment of a new oca varety of the Brahm, we fnd n
the documents from Western and Centra lnda, as we as from the Dekhan, the frst steps
eadng up to the ater southern aphabets. The nscrptons and cons of the Ksarapa
176. Cf. the tu of pate ll, 3, lll. 177. l. , 389, o. 13.
178. Cf., for nstance, nah, l. 1, 382, o. 3.
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dynasty of Mava and Gu|arat, descended from Castana or Tastanes, ustrate the western
wrtng, and Co. l, taken from the Grnar Prasast of the regn of Pudradaman (about
. D. 160)179 gves a specmen of t. Ths scrpt agrees wth the ater southern aphabets
( 27, beow) n the foowng characterstc ponts : -(1) n the curves at the ends of and
(1, 2), ka (7), na (15), ra (32), and of meda u and u (not n the pate) ; (2) n the round-
backed da (18); (3) n the ba (28) notched on the eft ; ( ) n the a (33) wth the vertca
bent to the eft; and (5) n the meda r (see sr, 37), whch s dffcut to dstngush from
ra. lts other etters, for nstance, sa (35), and the trpartte subscrbed ya of ya ( 2),
party agree wth those of the nscrptons of Sodasa, and party. for nstance, kha (8),
na (25) wth the bent base-ne, pa (26) wth the notch n the eft vertca, ya (31), wth the
curve on the eft, and the frequenty rounded va (3 ), wth the types of the Kusana perod.
Pecuar s ts ta (16). lts cursve meda u, whch s used ony n nu (25), and n ru
(compare p. ll, 33, lll), and the an n yau (31), besdes whch the oder form of p. ll,
28, lll, s used, appear here for the frst tme.
The etters on the somewhat oder cons180 of Pududaman s grandfather Castana
and of hs father ayadaman, whch probaby were struck n U||an, exhbt no matera
dfferences. mong the ater Ksatrapa nscrptons181, that from unagadh, ncsed
durng the regn of Pudradaman s son Pudrasmha, fuy agrees wth the Grnar Prasast.
The Gunda nscrpton of the same prnce from the year 103 ( or, accordng to the usua
assumpton, from .D. 180), and the asdan nscrpton of Pudrasmha s son Pudrasena
from the year 127 ( ) or .D. 20 -205, show a few more advanced characters. Both these
documents offer the bpartte subscrbed ya ; and the second has severa tmes the northern
ma of the Gupta perod (p. l , 31,1 ff.), as we as the e standng above the ne (compare,
for nstance, ne, p. ll, 27, ). The same ma, or a smar sgn wth a straght base-stroke,
appears aso frequenty on the cons of the ater Ksatrapas182. lts occurence probaby
ndcates a northern nfuence, perhaps that a northern aphabet was used at the s;me tme ;
compare 28 beow, .
B. The aphabets of the cave-nscrptons of the western Dekhan and the Konkan : Pate lll
[ 3| The wrtng of the western Dekhan and the Konkan n the caves of ask,
unnar, Kare, Kanher, Kuda, &c., shows three varetes, an archastc or retrograde
type, a more advanced one wth mosty fant traces of southern pecuartes, and an
ornamenta one. The frst two appear n the odest dated nscrptons of the Saka Usavadata
179. Bhandarkar, ary st, of the Dekkan, 2, 26ff; C. CMl. 3-5; Bhagvana,
. P S. 1890, 6 2 ; Bher, De nd. lnschr. u. das. tr. d. nd. Kunstpoese, 6ff.
180. C. CMl. p. 1 ; . P S. 1890, p. at p. 638 ; B. SPWl. 2, p. 7.
181. Cf. facsmes n B. SPWl. , p. 20 ; . BBP S. 8, 23 ; Sanskr. and Prakr.
lnscrs. bhaunagar, p. 17-16 (unreabe).
182. Seethe pate cted n note 180 above.
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or Usabhadata (Psabhadatta)183, the son-n-aw of the Ksaharata kng and Ksatrapa
ahapana from the years 1 to 5 of, accordng to the usua assumpton, the Saka era18 ,
or from .D. 118 to 122. The Kare nscrpton o. 19 (Co. ll) offers the archastc or
retrograde type, among the etters of whch gha (10), |a (13), da (23), bha (29), ya (31), a
(33), sa (37) and ha (38) come cose to the forms n the oder aphabets of p. ll, especay
to those of the odest ndhra nscrptons n Cos lll, l . The same varety s
found n some other, party oder, nscrptons of the same caves185, and must be regarded
as a drect deveopment from the ancent ndhra type. lt shows ony very fant traces of
the southern pecuartes enumerated above. The curves at the ends of the vertcas are
ony rudmentary. The vertca of a s curved, but to the rght. The tranguar dha (2 ),
whch appears here for the frst tme, s found aso n other aphabets of ths pate (see
Co. l ff.) ; the abnorma kha (8) s confned to Kare o. 19.
ganst ths rather cumsy aphabet, we fnd n Usavadata s nscrptons from ask
(Cos. lll, l ) very neaty made etters, the ductus of whch resembes that of Sodasa s
nscrptons (Co. l) and of the Grnar Prasast (Co. l). They show no trace of archac
forms, and traces of the southern pecuartes are fant or entrey wantng. 0ny the
southern da (18) s dstnct and constant. oteworthy are sa (35, 2, 1l1), whch agrees
wth that of Co. l, the fna mm ddham ( 1, lll), and the trpartte subscrbed ya n
bhyah( , l ).
ery smar to ths scrpt s that of the ask nscrptons ( o. 11, a, b, Co. ) of
the ndhra kng Gotamputa Satakan, who destroyed the Ksaharata dynasty, possby
|ust ahapana and Usavadata, and of hs son Sr-Puumay, Puuma or Pumav ( ask
o. 1 Co. l), who s mentoned by Ptoemy as Sr-Poemos or Poemcs 86. The ony
matera dfference occurs n the tranguar dha (2 , l; compare Co. ll), whch however s
by no means constant. eary of the same type are the aphabets shewn n Co. ll, from
the ask nscrpton of the somewhat ater ndhra kng Gotamputa Sryana Satakan,
n Co. ll from the undated nscrpton ask o. 20, and n Co. ll from ask o.
12, ncsed durng the regn of the bhra kng lsvarasena187. ln Co. l , however, we
have a pecuar form of ta (21) deveoped from a ooped form, a ooped na (25) somewhat
dfferng from the northern form n Co. l , a ra (32) wth a stronger curve, and a a (33)
wth the vertca bent towards the eft ; further n Co. ll a ooped ta (211 and n Co.
l , a ta (21 | and a na (25) derved from ooped forms, a ya (31) wth a curve on the eft,
183. Usabhadata ony n Kare o. 19, B. SPWl. , p. 51.
18 . Thus Bhandarkar, ary st, of the Dekkan, 2, 26, and Bhagvana, . P S,
1890,6 2; see aso Bher, De nd. lnschr. u. das. ter der nd. Kunstpoese. 57 f ;
whe Cunnngham CMl. 3f., refers ahapana s dates to the Mava era of B.C. 57-66,
and 0denberg, l . x, 227, paces ahapana between .D. 55 and 100.
185. Kare, os. 1-1 , B. SPWl. v, p. 7, 8 ; ask, o. , op. ct., p. 51.
186. See the works quoted n note 18 above.
187. ccordng to BhagvanaTs estmate, . P S. 189 , 657, somewhat ater than
ahapana .
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a a (33) bent towards the eft, a cursve subscrbed na n |nah ( 0), and a pecuar, r-ke,
meda u n /M (23), whch reappears n ater southern nscrptons ; compare, for nstance,
bhu, p. ll, 30, ll, and the u n /w, p lll, 21, ll, l .
Cos. , l, gve two somewhat dfferng specmens of the ornamenta varety of
ths perod accordng to the undated nscrptons of Kuda ( os. 1-6, 11, 20) and of unnar
( o. 3). Both agree n the ornamenta treatment of meda / and . But the Kuda
nscrptons extend t to the curves at the ends of a vertcas, and show notches n the
eft [ | strokes of pa (26) and ba (28 ; compare Co. l). ln Co. l,there are two other
noteworthy sgns, the bpartte subscrpt ya myya ( 0), and sa wth the horzonta bar
n sr ( 1 ; compare 35, lll- ). 0rnamenta forms, resembng those of Cos. , l,
are found aso n the approxmatey databe nscrptons of Puumay n Kare os. 20, 22,
and of the mnster of the queen of hs successor asthputa Satakan n Kanher o. 11.
The frst two of these documents show a ooped ta and a na ke that of Co. ll ; the
thrd exhbts the neat characters of Western Ksatrapa nscrptons. lt s, therefore,
certan that durng the 2nd century .D. a these three varetes were used promscuousy
n the western Dekhan and the Konkan188 and the nscrptons from the maravat
Stupa189prove that they occured aso on the eastern coast of lnda. The contemporaneous
empoyment of more advanced types and of more archac ones wth an admxture of more
modern sgns w have to be expaned n ths, as n other cases, by a desre to seect
archac and monumenta forms for epgraphc purposes and a faure to competey carry
out ths ntenton.
C. The aphabet of the aggayyapeta nscrptons : Pate lll
ln the Kstna dstrcts of the eastern coast, a st more ornamenta aphabet, found
n the aggayyapeta nscrptons from the tme of the lksvaku kng Srvra Pursadatta
(Cos. lF, lll), as we as n some maravat nscrptons190, was deveoped out
of the ornamenta varety |ust dscussed, probaby somewhat ater, n the 3rd century
.D. 0ne of ts most promnent characterstcs s the very consderabe eongaton of
the vertcas of/ , , ka, na, ra and a, as we as of the meda/,/and u. To a ater
tme pont the cursve forms of tha and ha whch atter agrees wth the northern Gupta
form (p. l , 39, l, l), and the meda e of me (30), whch, wth ts downward curve,
188. Cf. facsmes n B. SPWl. o. v, p. 5, Kuda os. 12-18 ; p. 6, Kuda os.
20-28 ; Mahad os. 1- ; Ko os. 3, 5; p 7, Bedsa os. 1-3 ; p. 8, Kare os. 15-18 ;
Saarvad o. 19 ; unnar o. 1, 2 ; p. 9-51, unnar os. -3 ; p. 52, ask o. 6a; p.
5 , unnar o. 32 ; Kare o. 20 ; p. 55, ask os. 17-19, 21-2 ; and vo. v, p. 51,
Kanher os. 2-5, 10, 12-1 .
189. B. SPS. , p. 56, 57 ; p. 58, os. 23-3 , 37 ; p. 59, os. 39, 8 ; p. 60, os.
51-53, 55, 56; and the autotypes of the ndhra cons, C. C l. p. 12, and . BBP S. x.
p. 3.
190. B. SPSl. , p. 58, os. 35, 36 ; p. 59, os. 38, 0- 2 ; p. 60, o. 6 ; p. 61,
o. 5 ; p. 62.
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agrees wth the e of the ater southern nscrptons (compare 30, l , , and p. ll,
35, ), and meda u n tu (21 ; compare Co. l , and p. ll, 30, ). The meda u
of tu ( 0), n whch the stroke expressng the ength of the vowe has been attached to the
head of the consonant, s entrey abnorma.
D. The aphabet of the Paava Prakrt and-grants : Pate lll
The hghy cursve wrtng of the Prakrt and-grants of the Paava kngs |ayabu-
ddhavarman and Svaskandavarman from Kanc (Con|everam) n the Tam dstrcts 191,
shows n ts ductus a certan reatonshp to the aggayyapeta nscrptons. But t s not
doubtfu that these documents are much ater, though t s for the present mpossbe
to fx ther dates exacty. The use of Prakrt for offca purposes perhaps ndcates that
they are not ater than the frst hat of the th century . D. The broad (5, ) wth
the rudmentary vertca to the rght (compare p. ll, 6, l ff.), the da wth a ta n ndam
( 0, ; compare p. ll, 19, l f.), the subscrbed tha open on the rght n ttha( ,
l ; compare p. ll, 5, ), and the constanty ooped o n o (33, ; compare p.
ll, 3 , lllf, lll, ll) pont to the ater perod.
l . T 0PT P LP B TS FP0M B0UT .D 350192
21. Defnton and varetes.
[ 5| By the term northern aphabets l understand wth Burgess, Feet 198, and
others, that arge group of epgraphc and terary scrpts, whch from about . D. 350
191. Cf. facsmes n l . x, 100 ; l. , lff. 193. F. Gl (Cll. 3), 3f., and passm,
192. Preparaton of Pates l , and l:
PL T l
Cuttng from facsmes.
Cos. l, ll, lll : from F.Gl (Cll.3), p. 1. Co. l : from F.Gl (Cll.3), p. 5.
Cos. , l: from F.Gl (Cll.3), p. 9, . Co. ll : from F. Gl (Cll.3) p. 9, B.
Co. lll : from pate at l., 238. Co. l : from F. Gl. (Cll. 3), p. 16.
Co. : from F. Gl (Cll. 3), p. 22.
Cos. l, ll: from F. Gl (Cll. 3), p. 30, B, and 31, , B.
Cos. lll, l : from F. Gl (Cll.3), p. 1, . Cos. , l : from pae at l. , 10.
Co. ll: from pate at l . x, 172, os. 1,8, 9.
Cos. lll, l : from F. Gl (Cll.3) p. 28. Co. from pate at l . xv, 23 .
Co. l : from pate at l . xv. 112. Co. ll from pate at l . x, 108.
Co. lll : from pate at l . xv, 1 0.
PL T
Co. l : from photothograph of mpressons of l. , 97.
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75
conquers the whoe wde terrtory north of the armada, wth the excepton of Kathavad
and northern Gu|arat, and whch, spreadng n the course of tme more and more, fnay
s used n a number of varetes for neary a the ryan anguages of lnda. Ther
orgn s to be found n the cursve forms, whch frst appear n the addton to the soka
edct l of Dhau, and n a number of sgns of the Kas verson (see above, page 2
f.) and ater are found, occasonay or constanty, n some of the ana votve nscrptons
of the Kusana perod (see above, 19, ). Ther genera type s that of a cursve aphabet
The other coumns cut from facsmes.
Co. ll : from pate at . , 160. Co. l : from pate at l. , 2 2.
Co. l : from pates at l . v, 65, and x, 158.
Co. : from unpubshed facsmes of l . x, 13 . Co. l: from pate at l . xv, 310.
Co ll: from unpubshed facsmes of ., 162. Co. lll : from pate at . . 77.
Co. l : from pate at l, , 120. Co. : from pate at l . v, 50.
Co. l : from pate at l . v, 192. Co. ll: from pate at l . xv, 11.
Co. lll : from pate at l. , 23 . Co. l : from pate at 1 . xv, 205.
Co. : from pate at l. , 297.
Co. l : from Bhatnagar Sankr. and Prakr. lnscrptons, ps. 0, 1.
Co. ll : from pate at l . xv, 22. Co. lll : from pate at l. , 308.
Co. l : from pate at l. , 350. Col. ; from pae at l . xv, 130.
Co. l : from pate at l . x, 71. 337. Co. ll : from pate at l . xv, 25 .
Co. lll : from pate at l. , 3 .
PL T l
Cuttngs from facsmes.
Cos. l, ll, lll, l : from pates n oerne s Bower MS, parts 1, 2,
Cos. , l, ll, l : from necd. 0ron., r. Ser., , 3, p. 6, Cos. 1, 2, 3.
Co. lll : from pate at enna 0renta Congress, ryan Secton, 127ff.
Co. l : see above wth cos. , l, and ll.
Co. : from Benda, Cat. Buddh, MSS , p. 2, , and Bern 0renta Congress,
lndan Sectan, p. 2, 1.
Co. l : from Benda, op. ct., p. 3, 1.
Co. ll: from Bern 0renta Congress, lndan Secton, p. 2, 2, 3.
Co. lll : from enda, op. ct., p. 1. 3.
Co. l : from necd. 0xon, r. Seres, , 1. p. .
Cos. , l, ll : from Leumann, photogr. of Deccan Coege Coecton, 1880-
81, o. 57 : 7, , l ; 1 and 16, ; 19 and 23, , l ; 2 , ; 27, , l ;
35, 37 and 1, ll, added from Leumann s sesa a syaka, p. 35 ; 7, ll, and 8,
9, 10, , and 12, 1 , 16, l, added from photogr. of the Poya satc Socety s
Ganaratnatnahodadh.
Cos. lll, l : from pates at enna 0renta Congress, ryan Secton, 111 ff.
Scae of the three pates two-thrds of the facsmes.
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76
wth sgns reduced at the top to the same heght, and made throughout, as much as
possbe, equa n breadth. s the occurrence of ancent MSS. and varous pecuartes
of the etters, such as the formaton of wedges out of the Serfs at the ends of the vertcas,
ceary prove, they were aways wrtten wth a pen or a brush and nk. Ther most
mportant common characterstcs are: (1) The absence of curves at the ower ends
of the vertcas of , , ka, na, &c. (wth occasona exceptons for ra), (2) the use
of the Serf at the eft down-strokes of kha, ga, and sa ; (3) the dvson of the orgna
vertca of na and of ts upper bar; ( ) the use of a ooped na and of a ta wthout a
oop ; (5) the transformaton of the ower porton of ma nto a sma knob or oop
attached to the eft of the etter; (6) the shortenng of the vertca of a ; (1 the turn
of the meda / to the eft, whch s soon foowed by the twst of meda to the rght;
(8) the deveopment of curves, open to the eft, at the end of the orgnay horzonta
meda u ; and (9) the use of a curve, open to the rght, for meda r.
Whe a the aphabets represented n pates l , , l show these common
characterstcs or further deveopments from them, they may be dvded, accordng to
other pecuartes, nto seven arger groups, most of whch agan comprse severa
varetes :
(1) The epgraphc orth-lndan aphabet of the th and 5th centures, commony
caed the Gupta aphabet, whch, accordng to oerne s researches 19 has an eastern
and western varety, among whch the second agan has two branches, and wth the western
varety of whch the terary aphabet of the Bower MS. and of some other documents
from Kashgar s cosey connected.
(2) The acute-anged or Sddhamatrka ( ) aphabet wth wedges at the vertcas of
the etters, whch s frst found n the pam eaves of oruz, and towards the end of
the 6th century n the Mahanaman nscrpton from Gaya and n the Lakkhamanda
Prasast.
(3) The agar wth ts ong-drawn, taed, etters, and ong top-strokes, the
frst certan traces of whch occur n the 7th century.
( ) The Sarada aphabet, a northern varety of the Western Gupta type, frst
found about . D. 800.
(5) The eastern Proto-Benga aphabet wth much rounded, cursve etters, and
wth hooks or hoow tranges at the tops of the vertcas, frst traceabe n the th century.
(6) The hooked aphabet of epa, [ 6| whch s cosey connected wth the
Proto-Benga occurs n MSS. from the th century onwards.
Durng the th and 5th centures, the rue of these aphabets to the north of the
armada s by no means undsputed. ln the west we fnd, as far north as B|ayagadh
(Bhartpur|, nscrptons n southern characters, or wth an admxture of southern etters
(see beow, 27). ln the 6th and 7th centures ths mxture no onger occurs. 0ny
the so-caed arrow-head type (see beow, 26, C), the seventh varety on pates l - l,
19 . . SB. lx, 80 ff; and l . xx, 29 ff.
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77
whch appears n rather ater tmes n Benga and epa, offers an nstance of the mporta
ton of a southern scrpt nto orthern lnda.
0n the other hand, we meet, from the 7th century, wth nscrptons n northern
characters frst on the coast, n the west n Gu|arat, 19B and n the east even beyond
Madras. 19 Documents of ths knd appear from the mdde of the 8th century aso n the
centra Dekhan, and durng the 12th and 13th centures they penetrate as far as |ayana-
gara n the Kanarese country (see beow, 23). But they never come nto soe use beyond
the northern mt of the Dravdan dstrcts.
The ancent MSS htherto found n Kashgar, apan and epa, the odest of whch
probaby were wrtten n the th century197, show ony northern etters. The pam-eaf
MSS of Western lnda, whch begn n the 10th century, agree wth the nscrptons of
the perod, and prove that the northern agar was generay used n Pa|putana, Gu|arat198
and n the northern Dekhan as far as Devagr (Dauatatad)1 8. The gradua advance of
the northern characters towards the south probaby s expaned by the predecton of
many southern kngs for northern customs, and by the mmgraton of northern Brahmans,
castes of scrbes, and Buddhst and ana monks, to whch facts the statements n varous
nscrptons and the hstorca tradton bear wtness.200
22. The so-caed Gupta phabet of the th and 5th Centures .D. : Pate l
. aretes
The dfferences between the eastern and western varetes of the so caed Gupta [ 7|
aphabet appear n the sgns for a, sa, and ha.301 ln the eastern varety the eft mb of a
(pate l , 3 , l-lll, , l) s turned sharpy downwards; compare the a of the augada
separate edcts (see above, 16, C, 35). Further, the base-stroke of sa (l , 37, Ml, , l)
s made round and attached as a oop to the santng centra bar. Fnay, the base-stroke
of ha (l , 39, l-lll, , l) s suppressed, and ts hook, attached to the vertca, s turned
sharpy to the eft, exacty as n the aggayyapeta nscrptons (see above, 20, C). ln the
western varety these three etters have the oder and fuer forms.
195. Fragments of nscrptons wth northern characters of ths perod, from aabh,
are preserved n the Museums of Bombay (the Branch of the Poya satc Socety) and
Pa|kot. Cf. aso the sgn-manuas on the Gur|ara and-grants, . P S. 1865,2 7 ff.
196. B. SlP. , and pate 22 a ; l . xv, 161, 172.
197. l agree wth oerne, who consders certan portons of the new Godfrey Coec
ton from Kashgar to be oder than the Bower MS. ; . SB. lxv, 258.
198. Kehorn, Peport on Sanskrt MSS., 1880-81, lff. ; Peterson, Second Peport,
ppendx l, and Thrd Peport, ppendx l.
199. . P S. 1895, 217. 200. Cf. B. SlP. xx, 53 ff. ; Feet n l. , 2.
201. Cf. oerne, . SB. lx, 81, who mentons sa aone, because hs remarks refer
aso to the type dscussed beow n 23.
11
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The specmens of the eastern varety n pate l have been taken from the odest
Gupta nscrpton, arsena s ahabad Prasast (Cos. l-lll), whch certany was ncsed
durng the regn of Samudragupta902, probaby between .D. 370 and 390, and from the
Kahaum Prasast of .D. 60 (Cos. , l) of the tme of Skandagupta. lt appears,
besdes, n Feet s Gupta lnscrptons (Cll. 3) os. 6-9, 15, 6 , 65, 77 ; n Bhagvana s
nscrptons from epa, os. 1-3203 ; and n Cunnngham s Gaya nscrpton of Samvat
6 20 . The fact that Feet s o. 6 s found far west, near Bhsa n Mava, may be expaned
by ts havng been ncsed, durng an expedton of Candragupta ll to Mava, at the
command of hs mnster, who cas hmsef an nhabtant of Pataputra. othng s known
regardng the orgn of Feet s o. 77, whch s ncsed on a sea, purchased n Lahore,
but possby manufactured n astern lnda.
The western varety of the Gupta aphabet agan appears n two forms, a cursve
round-hand and an anguar, monumenta, type. The second form, whch shews very
characterstc thck top-nes and a hooked ra (33), s represented n pate l , Co. l , by
the aphabet of the Bsad Prasast of .D. 15. nother fne exampe s found n Feet s
o. 32, from the Meharau ron par near Deh. Specmens of the cursve form are gven
n Co. ll from the lndor copper-pate of .D. 65, n Co. lll from Toramana s Kura
nscrpton probaby of the second haf of the 5th century205, and n Co. l from the
Kartaa copper-pate of ayanatha of Uccakapa, dated the year 17 or probaby .D.
2320 . The same type s found n Feet s os. , 13, 16, 19, 22-31, 36, 61, 63, 66, 67, 69,
7 , 76, and n the ana votve nscrptons from Mathura, ew Seres, os. 38, 39207. lt
deserves to be noted that Feet s o 13 from Bhtar s found n a dstrct where one woud
expect the eastern varety. Feet s o. 61, the ana nscrpton from Udayagr n Mava,
shows a mxture of the northern characters wth southern ones, as t offers throughout ,
, wth a curve, and once a southern r. Perhaps the same may be sad of Feet s o,
59, the B|ayagadh nscrpton from Bhartpur n Pa|putana, where ra shows a curve at the
end and meda / and resembe those n pate lll, Co. l. The characters on the Gupta
cons208 are frequenty retrograde, and offer, e. g., the anguar ma of the Kusana perod.
B. Characterstcs of the epgraphc Gupta aphabet
The foowng partcuary mportant or characterstc pecuartes of the Gupta
nscrptons deserve to be notced n deta:
202. SB. W . 122, l, 32 ff.
203. l . x, 163 ff.; n my opnon the era s not, as Feet hods n Gupta lnscrptons
(Cll. 3), lntroducton, 95, 177 ff., that of . D. 318-19, but one pecuar to the epaese,
the exact begnnng of whch has st to be determned.
20 . C.MG. p. 25 ; the era may be that of the Guptas. 205. l . xv. 225.
206. ccordng to Feet, l . xx, 227 f., the kngs of Uccakapa probaby dated
accordng to the Ced or Kaacur era of . D. 2 9.
207. l. , 210.
208. . SB. lv, p. 2- ; . P S. 1889, p. 1- , and p. 3 ff., and 1893, pl.2.
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(1) The ower parts of the rght-hand vertca of , , ga, da, ta, bha, and sa are so
much eongated, and those of ka and ra reman so ong, that these eght sgns have about
doube the ength of those wthout vertcas. Ths s partcuary vsbe n the oder stone
nscrptons ; on the copper-pates they are often shortened.
(2) The rght-hand porton of gha, pa, pha, sa and sa shows an acute ange, whereby
ater the deveopment of tas or vertcas on the rght of these sgns has been caused.
(3) Snce the mdde of the 5th century, the ower porton of the eft mb of (l,
l , l) shows the curve, open to the eft, whch appears n a the ater forms of the
etter ; the sgn of the ength of (2, ll-l ) [ 8| s attached to the foot of the rght
vertca.
( ) ln addton to the / of the Kusana perod (3,l, ), there occur, owng to the
predecton for etters fattened at the top, the aso ater frequent / wth two dots above
(3, ll), and that consstng of a short horzonta ne wth two des beow (3, l ), whch
atter s the parent of the ater southern /(pates ll, lll, and 28 beow) and of that of
the agar (beow, 2 , , ).
(5) The rudmentary curves at the eft end of U, U and 0 are more fuy deveoped
n the 5th century ; compare above, 19, B, .
(6) The guttura ha begns to appear nstead of the nusvara before sa and ha (11,
ll), perhaps n consequence of the fauty pronuncaton, bamed a the &ksaszog.
(7) The thrd horzonta ne of |a (1 , l-lll, ll, lll), begns to sant downwards,
and occasonay shows a curve at the end, whereby ater the new forms of Cos. l- lll
are caused.
(8) The paata na (16, l, ll ; 2,1, l, ll. l) s frequenty made cursve and
round, and s occasonay ad on the sde n order to save space ; compare ako|nah, pate
lll, 0, l . But oder, anguar, forms kewse occur ( 2, ).
(9) The ta (17, l-lll, l ) s often fattened down at the top.
(10) The na of 21, l, ll, shows a tte stroke at the rght end, caused by an
nexact formaton of the hook on the rght, and n the second sgn a cursve oop on
the eft ; n 21, lll, the etter has been ad on the sde and somewhat resembes the
agar na.
(11) The tha (23, l, -1 ) s mosty eptca or fattened on the rght, and a cross
bar often repaces the dot n the centre ; but the od form kewse survves (23, ll, lll) 210.
(12) The ya (32,1-l ) s mosty trpartte, but sometmes, partcuary n ye, ya
and yo, transtona forms wth the oop, ke the ater ones n 32, lll, l, appear,
whch ead up to the bpartte, |o211. The odest nstance of the ndependent ooped ya s
found n Feet s o. 59 of .D. 371, but the Kusana nscrptons show the ooped subscrpt
ya even earer (see above, 19, B, 12).
(13) The eft mb of sa (38, l-lll, , l, lll) often becomes a oop, as happens
aready n some Kusana nscrptons ( 19, B, 16). substtute for the oop s the trange
209. aug, Wedscher ccent, 6 . 210. Cf. facsme n F. G (Cll. 3), o. 61.
211. . SB. lx, 83 ff.
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(probaby gftn g the outnes of a wedge), whch occurs n the three most ancent nscrp
tons from e ; compare the ater sa of 38, ll. But the oder hook s equay common.
(1 ) The rare a ( 0, Ml) s found aso n Feet s o. 67, ne 1.
(15) The sgns for the meda vowes agree n many partcuars wth those of the
Kusana pero d. But the open semcrce for a n ta (17, ll), whch s found aso n na, s
an nnovaton. Further, the meda /, for nstance, of kh(&, lll, l, l ), s drawn further
to the eft than n the earer nscrptons. ln some nscrptons ke Mathura, ew Seres,
os. 38, 39, the meda conssts merey of a curve, gong to the rght, though the form
wth two horns (as n d, 2 , l), and a ooped one (as n bh, 30, l ), are more common.
Meda u s mosty represented by the st used curve, whch n ru (33, lll, l) appears
abnormay at the end of ra ; but n gu (8, ll; l), tu, bhu (30, l) and su (36, l) the vowe
rses upwards. For meda u there are, besdes an od form n gu (9, l ), other combna
tons n bhu (30, ll, l) and ttu ( 2, ll) and a ater very common, cursve form n dhu (25,
ll, l). 0ne of the Matras of a and o s often paced vertcay, as n ga, 32, lll; n go,
9, lll ; and n no, 21, lll.
(16) The desre to save space causes the cursve na, ta (see sta, 5, l ) and tha
(see stha, 5, ; stha, 6, l ) to be ad on the sde, n case they form the second ements
of gatures. From the 5th century, rya ( 5, ll) s expressed by a fu ra wth a
subscrpt ya.
(17) The frst certan rama (see ddham, 3, ll), consstng of a horzonta stroke
above the sma fna, dates kewse from the 5th century ; the nothern hvamuya
(hka, 6, ll) and the Upadhmanya (hpa, 6, lll) occur aready n the th century.
C. The Gupta aphabet n manuscrpts
mong the types of the Bower MS, whch beongs, accordng to oerne s and my
own opnon f 2, to the 5th century, l have gven [ 9| n pate l, Cos. l-l , ony the
aphabet of the porton whch oerne marks , snce the pubshed parts of hs B and C
are not suffcenty extensve for a paeographc enqury. lts characters dffer very tte
from those of the epgraphc documents of the Gupta perod, especay from the copper
pates. The Serfs at the tops of the vertca strokes, however, are made more carefuy
and neaty, throughout worked up wth the atter nto rea wedges. lf a etter ke gha
(pate l, 18, l-l ) has severa upstrokes, the Serfs are added reguary to a of them.
Smary, the ower ends of vertca strokes more reguary bear Serfs or are converted
nto wedges or tte buttons. The greater reguarty of the wrtng s what may be expected
n a good MS, the matera of whch offers fewer dffcutes than stone or copper. The
nvarabe use of the Serfs has ed to the formaton of the ka (15, l ), wth the oop on
the eft218 (compare 15, l, lll), whch appears occasonay n the Bower MS, but s
212. . SB. lx, 92 f; W KM. v, 10 f. The dscovery of an nscrpton of the 7th.
century wth mosty trpartte ya, l. v, 29 makes a modfcaton of oerne s argumen
taton necessary, but does not nvadate hs fna resut.
213. necd. 0xon., ryan Seres, , 3, 76.
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81
notceabe ony ater, snce .D. 5188-89 (see pate l , 7, lll), n the nscrptons. Further,
the Bower MS, offers n rare cases, e.g. n prayo|ayet (fo. 31a, 11), an archac form of
the bpartte ya. Fnay.t makes us acquanted wth some sgns whch, owng to the
rarty of the sounds expressed by them, cannot occur frequenty n the nscrptons and
htherto have not been traced n those of the th and 5th centures. To these beong the
ong 7 ( ,1), n whch the upper and ower dots of the ancent sgn (compare pate l, ,
, ll) have been converted nto a straght stroke, and further the short P, whch ceary
conssts of a ra and a meda r (compare above, 1 ; and beow, 2 , , 7), aso the U
(1 ,l, ll), whch fuy agrees wtb the epgraphc character of . D. 532 (pate l , 6, )
and the subscrpt r of nr (3 , lll) whch conssts of two r, paced horzontay sde by sde.
23. The acute-anged and agar types : Pates l , , l
bout the begnnng of the sxth century we fnd n the northern nscrptons, both
of astern and Western lnda (pate l , Cos. - ll) 21 , dstnct begnnngs of a new
deveopment whch frst eads to the forms of the Gaya nscrpton of .D. 588-89 (pate
l , Cos. lll, l ) and of the probaby not much ater Lakkhamanda Prasast (pate l ,
Cos. , l)215. Ther chef characterstc s that the etters sope from the rght to
the eft, and show acute anges at the ower or at the rght ends, as we as that the tops
of the.vertca or santng nes nvaraby bear sma wedges, and ther ends ether show
the same ornaments or protuberances on the rght. These pecuartes are observabe n
a arge number of nscrptons of the next four centures, and t seems to me advsabe to
cass ,the characters of the whoe group as those of the acute-anged aphabet .
Formery21 the term na-headed was frequenty apped to them. 0f ate ths has been
gven up and no new generc name has been proposed. Thus Feet says, n hs edton
of the Gaya nscrpton217, ony that the etters beong to the nothern cass of aphabets.
Possby the lndan name may have been Sddhamatrka (p). For Berun218 states that
an aphabet [50| of ths name was used n hs tme (about . D. 1030) n Kashmr and n
Benares, whe the agar was current n Mava. lf the usua wrtng of Benares resembed
that of Kashmr, t cannot have had the ong horzonta top-strokes whch aways charac
terse the agar. Berum s note s, however, too bref and vague for a defnte settement
of the queston.
The two nscrptons, mentoned above, whch, ke the other contemporaneous
cognate documents, are connected wth the western Gupta aphabet, mark the frst step n
the deveopment of the acute-anged aphabet durng the sxth century. nd to the same
subdvson beong, among the MSS, the oruz pam-eaves, whch, accordng to the
apanese tradton, certany exsted n the second haf of the 6th century 29. lf
21 . Cf. aso the facsmes n F. Gl (Cll. 3), os. 20, 2 , 33, 3 , 36, 37, 7, 51, 70,
75, and of the sea of Kumaragupta ll, . SB. lv, 8 .
215. Cf. aso the facsmes n F. Gl (Cll. 3), os. 72, 76, 78, 79, 80.
216. See, e.g., Tod, nnas of Pa|asthan, , 700 ff, Madras edton.
217. F. Gl (Cll. 3), 27 . 218. lnda, , 173 (Sachau).
219. necd. 0xon., r. Seres, , 3, 6 .
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82
fourteen years ago, when l wrote my paeographca essay on these eaves n the necdota
0xonensa tne facsmes of the Gaya and Lakkhamanda nscrptons had been accessbe,
t woud have suffced to compare ther etters n order to prove the correctness of the
statements of the apanese.
The characters of msuvarman s nscrpton of . D. 635 (pate l , Co. ll) and
of the neary contemporaneous phsad Pras ast of dtyasena (pate l , Cos. lll,
l ) show the further progress of the acute-anged aphabet durng the 7th century. lt
must, however, be noted that msuvarman s nscrptons and other epaese documents of
the same tme have the round sa and thus are aed wth the eastern Gupta character,
whe the phsad Prasast and ts aes from lnda proper are connected wth the western
varety of the od northern aphabet 220. Feet cas ths second varety, on account of
the more marked twst of the ower ends of the strokes, the Kuta varety of the
Magadha aphabet of the 7th century. 221 l fee dsncned to adopt the term Kuta,
whch was frst used by Prnsep 222, and snce has been empoyed by many other wrters,
because t s based on an erroneous renderng of the expresson kuta aksara n the Deva
Prasast 228. l woud remove t from the paeographc termnoogy. Kehorn kewse
avods t n hs paeographc remarks on varous nscrptons of ths perod 22 .
Durng the 8th-10th centures, the deveopment of he acute-anged or Sddhamatrka
aphabet progresses more and more n the drecton of ts successor, the agar aphabet,
whch atter n ts od orth-lndan form s dstngushed merey by the substtuton
of straght top-strokes for the wedges on the vertcas. Documents wth a mxture of
wedges and sraght top Strokes are aso found ; and occasonay t becomes dffcut to
decde how a partcuar nscrpton s to be cassed.
To ths thrd and ast varety 225 of the acute-anged aphabet beong the characters
of the Muta copper pates (pate l , Co. ) of . D. 708-709 226, of the Dghva-
220. Cf. aso the facsmes n l . x, 163 ff., os. -10, 12 ; Benda, ourney n
epa, 72, os. 1, 2 ; and oerne s remarks n . SB. lx, 85.
221. F. Gl(Cll. 3), 201, 28 ; L , 328, note 1. 222. . SB. v, 778, p. 1.
223. l. , 76. ln conformaton of my expanaton of the phrase, kutanyaksaran
vdusa, by hm who knows crooked etters , .e., etters dffcut to read, l woud pont
to kramankacarta, xv, 2, where we have the statement that queen Suryamat dd not
aow hersef to be cheated, kayasthah kuta-pbhh, by wrters usng crooked
aphabets .
22 . Cf. hs remarks on nscrptons of ths cass, l . xv, 308 ; xx, 55 ; xx, 123 ; xx,
169; , 179 ; , 117, 160.
225. Cf. for ths and the precedng varetes, the facsmes at l , , 258 ; v, 180 ; x,
17 ff., os. 11, 13, 1 , 15 ; x, 31 ; xv, 310; xx, 58 ; Benda, ourney n epa, p. 10, 11,
13 ; l, , 179 ; C. SP. xv, p. 9 ; and the autotypes of cons n C. CMl. p. 3, os. 7-1 ;
p. 6, o. 20 ; and p. 7.
226. ccordng to Feet, l . xv, 231, transtona type from whch the orth-lndan
agar apabet was soon after deveoped .
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83
Dubau pate, probaby of . D. 761 (pate l , Co. l) 227, of the Gwaor nscrpton
of . D. 876 (pate , Co. ), and of the Ghosrava nscrpton of the 9th or 10th century
(pate , Co. l) , as we as, among the MSS. those of the Cambrdge MS. o. 10 9
(pate l, Co. ll), dated n the year 252 229, probaby of msuvarman s era of . D.
59 280, or n . D. 8 6. n ntermedate poston between the acute-anged and the
agar aphabets, s occuped by the etters of the Pehoa Prasast of about . D 900 (pate
, Co. lll) of the Deva Prasast of .D. 992 or 993 (pate , Co. lll) and of the copper
pates of the Paramara kng akpat ll of .D. 97 (pate , Co. ) 281. They no doubt,
show the wedges ; but these are so broad that they produce the same effect as the ong
straght top-strokes, and that, e.g., the open tops of/l, , gha, pa, &c., are cosed, |ust
as n the agar nscrptons. Specmens of the mxture of wedges and straght top-
strokes, mentoned above, are found n the Padhanpur and an-Dndor copper-pates
of the Pastrakuta kng [51| Govnda lll of .D. 807-808 (pate , Co. l ) 2, and the
arsa nscrpton of the Cahamana graha ll of . D. 973 (pate , Co. l )288.
The ast-mentoned two nscrptons are, however, by no means the odest documents,
n whch agar etters occur. The frst undoubtedy genune specmens 28 are found n
the sgnatures of the Gur|ara prnces on the copper-pates of Kara (of . D. 628 and
633), of Dabho ( . D. 6 2), of ausar ( . D. 705), and of Kav ( .D. 736)2ss, the texts
of whch are wrtten n a southern aphabet. ln the frst-mentoned three sgnatures, the
agar etters are n the mnorty, as most of the sgns show ether more archac
northern or southern forms. 0ny n the fourth sgnature the agar s used throughout
and s fuy deveoped. But the most ancent document, wrtten throughout n agar,
s the Samangad grant of the Pastrakuta kng Dantdurga of .D. 75 (pate l , Co
ll)236. Much of the same type are the charaters of the Kanher nscrptons os. 15
and 3 (pate , Co. ) 287, whch were respectvey ncsed n .D. 851 and 877 durng
the regns of the Sahara prnces Puasakt and Kapardn ll.
The Samangad and Kanher nscrptons, together wth some others of the 9th
227. ccordng to Feet, l . xv, 106, orth-lndan agar .
228. Cf. l . xv, 308.
229. Benda, Cat. Cambr. Buddh. MSS. from epa, Ll ff. ; nec, 0xon , r, Seres,
. 71 ff.
230. S. Lev, . 189 , ll, 55 ff. 231. L , 76 ; l . v, 8.
232. l . v, 59 ; x, 158 ; cf. aso facsmes n l. , 103, and l . xv, 200.
233. Cf. aso facsme, l . xv, 17 .
23 . The genuneness of the earer Umeta and Bagumra pates (l . v, 63 ; xv, 199)
s dsputed (l . xv, 91 ff.) ; ther agar etters have been gven n nec. 0xon., r.
Seres, , 3, p. 6.
235. See facsmes, . P S. 1865, 2 7 ff. ; l. v, 0 ; l . v, 113 ; x, 78 ; and the
remarks n SB. W . cxxxv, 8, 2.
236. l . x, 105. 237. l . x, 235 ; xx, 21.
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8
century s8, show the archac varety of the southern agar, the fuy deveoped form of
whch s exhbted n the copper-pates of Kauthem (pate , Col. ll) 89, whch were
ncsed durng the regn of the CSukya kng kramadtya n .D. 1009-10. The
southern agar, of the 8th-th centures, whch dffers, from ts northen sster of the same
perod chefy by the want of the sma tas santng to the rght from the ends of the
vertcas, and n genera by stffer forms, besdes occurs n numerous nscrptons of the
Saharas and adavas from the Maratha country and the Konkan, as we as of a Patta
prnce from the Begaum coectorate 0. lts atest deveopment durng the 13th-16th
centures s found n the nscrptons of the kngs of |ayanagara or dyanagara n the
Kanarese country2 1. lt st survves n the Babodh or Devanagar of the Maratha
dstrcts, and n Southern lnda t has produced the so-caed andnagar whch s st
used for MSS .
ln orthern and Centra lnda, the agar appears frst on the copper-pate of the
Mahara|a nSyakapaa of Mahodaya (pate l , Co. lll) 2 8, probaby of .D. 79 ,
whch however exhbts some archasms and pecuartes n the sgns for kha, ga, and na,
found aso n ater nscrptons from astern lnda. The fact that an earer nscrpton
from the Kanarese country, the ncson of whch s due to a Brahman from orthern
lnda (see l. , 1 lT.), shows a mxture of agar and acute-anged etters, makes t
probabe that the northern agar was n use at east snce the begnnng of the 8th
century. From the next century, we have ony a few nscrptons n northern agar .
But after .D. 950 ther number ncreases, and n the 11 th century the scrpt becomes
paramount n neary a the dstrcts north of the armada.
The characters of the Syadon nscrptons from Centra lnda (pate , Col. ll),
the dates of whch run from . D. 968, and those of the copper-pate of the frst Cauhkya
of Gu|arat, ncsed n . D. 987 (pate , co. l) 2 5, show the forms of the northern
agar of the 10th century. The copper-pates of the Pastrakuta (Gahadavaa) kng
Madanapaa of Kanau| n orthern lnda, dated .D. 1097 (pate , Co. ll), the U day pur
Prasast of the Paramaras of Mava (probabe date about .D. 1060) n the west of
Centra lnda (pate , Co. lll), the anyaura pates of the Candea Devavarman of
. D. 1050 (pate , Col. l ) and of the Kaacur Karna of Trpura, dated . D. 10 2
(pate , Co. ), both from the eastern part of Centra lnda, and the pates of the
238. Cf., e.g., the mbarnath nscrpton, . BBP S. x, 219 ; x, 33 ; l . xx, 2 2.
239. l . xv, 15 ff.
2 0. Cf. aso the facsmes, l . v, 30 ; x, 32 ; xv, 1 1 ; xv, 122 ; . BBP S. x,
1 ; xv, 386 ; l. , 272, 300 f., 306 f.
2 1. Cf. the facsmes. l. , 38 f., 152 ff. ; B. SlP. p. 30. and the aphabet, p. 20.
2 2. B. SlP. 52 (where the andnagar s derved erroneousy from the Sddba-
matrka), and p. 21.
2 3. l . xv, 1 0. 2 . See the facsme. l . x, 6 .
2 5. See above, 21, note 192 ; cf. aso the facsmes at l . x, 250, 263 ; xv, 202 ;
l. , 122 ; . BBP S. xv, 239.
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Cauukya Bhma l of Gu|arat, dated . D. 1029 (pate , Co. l), gve specmens of the
northern agar of the th century 2 . Fnay, the northern agar of . D. 1100-1207
s ustrated by the aphabets of a pate of ayaccandra, the ast Pastrakuta (Gahadavaa)
kng of Kanau|, dated .D. 1175 (pate , Co. ), of the pates of the ast Cauukya
of Gu|arat, Bhma ll., dated .D. 1199 and 1207 [52| (pate , Co. l), of the pate of
the Paramara Udayavarman of Mava, dated .D. 1200 (pate , Co. ll), and of the
Patnapur stone nscrpton from the regn of the Kaacur a|aa of Trpura, dated .D.
111 (pate , Co. lllp .
Wth the characters of these agar nscrptons, agree those of the now numerous
ancent pam-eaf MSS. from Gu|arat, Pa|putana, and the northern Dekhan, the dates of
whch run certany from the th, and possby from the 10th century. Cos - ll
of pate l exhbt ther aphabet chefy accordng to Leumann s photographs and tracngs
of the esavasyakabhasyatka, dated . D. 1081, together wth some suppements from
the Poya satc Socety s Ganaratnamahodadh, of .D. 1229 2 8. But a number of MSS.
from epa, beongng to the 11 th and 12th centures, show the northern agar of the
precedng century. nd Co. lll of pate l offers a specmen from o. 866, the odest
Cambrdge MS. of ths cass, whch s dated .D. 10082 8. 0f the same type s the aphabet
of pate l. Co. l , taken from the reproducton of Co. 1 of Wye s copy of the
a|racchedka n necdota 0xonensa, ryan Seres, 1, 1, pate .
2 . Detas of the Changes n the cute- nged and the agar phabets2 0
. The Matrkas
mong the numerous changes, whch the etters of the acute-anged and agar scrpts
undergo n course of tme, the foowng more mportant ones, affectng the Matrkas or
radca sgns, deserve speca menton :
2 6. See above 21, note 192 ; Cf. aso the facsmes at l . v, 53, 5 ; v, 0 ; x,
126. 202 ; xv, 36 ; xv, 208 ; xv, 3 ; l. , 216, 316 ; , 50.
2 7. See above 21, note 192 ; cf. e.g., the facsmes at l . x, 72 ; xv, 226 ; xv, 130.
2 8. Kehorn, Peport on Sanskrt MSS. for 1880-81, pp. v, 37 ; . P S. 1895,
2 7, 50 ; cf. aso the facsmes, Pa. Soc , 0r. Seres, p. 1, 2, 3, 58 ; Cat. Bern Sansk.
und Prakr. dschft., Band 2, 3, p. 1. ln the margna gosses of the sesavasyaka and
other MSS frequenty appear other cursue aphabets ; see Leumann s edton, p. 35.
2 9. Benda, Cat. Buddh. Sanskrt MSS from epa, pp. xxv f., lf. ; cf. aso the
facsme, Pa. Soc., 0r. Seres, p. 16. ccordng to 0denberg (etter of 7th pr, 1897),
the aphabet of these epaese MSS. s the so-caed Lan|a scrpt, n whch s wrtten a
compete MS. of the Saddharmapundarka, preserved n St. Petersburg.
250. Cf. for ths paragraph, Benda, Cat. Cam rdge Buddhst MSS from epa,
x-l ; nec. 0xon., ryan Seres, , 3, 73-87.
12
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(1) The sgns for , gha, ca, tha, dha, pa, ba, ma, ya, a, va, sa and sa, deveop
graduay, the ater the more dstncty, shorter or onger tas, whch frst sant off
towards the rght beow the bottom-ne of the etters, but ater, n the agar, become
vertca strokes, except n the case of . [53| From the 10th century smar pendent nes
appear n the mdde of cha (pate , 16, ll, lll, &c. ) and of dha (pate , 23,),
ofpha (pate , lll, &c) and of ha (pate , 2, ll-l , &c.), whch the agar, too, retans
n cha and ha and converts nto a meda vertca n the case of pha. ln the acute-
anged scrpt, kha, ga, tha, dha, and sa frequenty show on the rght a sma horn-ke
protuberance or an eongaton of the vertca, whch, owng to the fattenng of the tops,
the agar agan dscards except n the case of dha. Both the ast mentned pecuartes
are due to the crcumstance that the wrteres drew the eft and rght portons of the
etters separatey and negected to |on carefuy the two haves951. ln course of tme these
rreguartes became characterstc features of most of the etters.
(2) ln consequence of the eongaton of the ends of the wedges and of the use of
ong straght top-strokes, the heads of , , gha, pa, ma, ya, sa and sa are graduay
cosed, both n the acute-anged and the agar scrpts 25 .
(3) The ower porton of the eft haf of and amost nvaraby conssts of a
curve, open towards the eft, whch frst appears occasonay n the Kusana nscrptons
(see above, 19, B, 1) and ater reguary on the Lccakapa pate (pate l , 1, l ). lt
s preserved n the Babodh of the Marathas and s common n the Bombay edtons of
Sanskrt works. ln other ate specmens of the agar, t s repaced by two santng
strokes (pate , 1, 2, l), to whch a thrd, a remnant of an earer wedge at the foot
of the vertca, s added ower down. Ths form s the parent of the , , used n the
Benares and Cacutta prnts. Up to the 8th century, the ong s nvaraby dfferentated
by the addton of a curve to the rght end of . Later, ts mark s a downward stroke,
whch s attached ether to the rght of the top (e. g., pate l , 2, l) or to the mdde
(pate l , 2, ll) and thus reoccupes the same postons whch the correspondng horz
onta bar has n the soka edcts 253. ln the MSS, the downstroke at the top s found
even earer (pate l, 2, l).
( ) The sgn for / s mosty derved from the Gupta form of lndor (pate l , 3, ll)
by the substtuton of a curve for the thrd dot (pate l , 3, l- lll ; , 3, ll-l , &c. ;
l, 3, -l ). But n addton there s (pate , 3, , ll, lll, &c ; l, 3, ll- ) a
dervatve from the / of the Uccakapa pates (l , 3, l ), n whch the upper dot s
repaced by a straght ne ; and ths / s the parent of the modern Devanagar /, n whch
he two ower dots have been changed nto curves and fnay have been connected. ln
ana MSS., the/wth two dots above and a curve beow occurs occasonay as ate as
the 15th and 16th centures. The unque eary forms of the ong 7 (pate l, , , ll),
as we as ther ater deveopment (pate l, , ), whch has foowed the anaogy of /,
deserve attenton.
251. nec. 0xon., ryan Seres, , 3, 70. 252. See above 23.
253. See above 16, D, 1, 2 ; and p. ll, 2, ll- .
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(5) U and U nvaraby show at the ower end a ta, drawn towards the eft,
whch n course of tme s deveoped more and more fuy.
(6) The curve of |P, attached to the rght of the ra, becomes very shaow and
ong n the oruz pam-eaves (pate l, 7, ), and ths shaow curve s the precursor
of the vertca ne of the ater pam-eaf MSS. of Western lnda (pate l, 7, - l1).
ln the Cambrdge MS. o. 10 9 (pate l, 7, ll) and n o. 1691, the /--curve s attached
to the ower end of the ra.
(7) mong the sgns for &, L and L, whch are frst traceabe n the MSS. of ths
perod (pate l, 8-10, , ll, ), the ong / s ceary formed by the addton of a
second r-curve to the short P. ln the Cambrdge MSS. os. 10 9 and 1691, L s
represented by a cursve southern a (see pate ll, 3 , l-1 ), |ust as the odest meda
/ n k ( ll, 2, l ) s dentca wth another form of a ; and the ong L s derved from
the short vowe by the addton of a second a, turned n the opposte drecton. ln the
Land L of the oruz pam-eaves (pate l, 9, 10, ), the a has been turned round
towards the eft, and respectvey one and two /--curves have been attached to the foot.
nd the combnaton / (d -r remans [5 | aso n the agar both of the pam-eaves from
Western lnda (pate l, 9, 10, ) and of our days, the reason beng no doubt the
pronuncaton lr, whch s customary both there and n other parts of lnda. These
paeographca facts agree wth the tradton of the Chnese Buddhsts who, as S. Lev
has dscovered, 2B ascrbe the nventon of the sgns for the qud vowes to a South-
lndan, ether to Sarvavarman, the mnster of the ndhra kng Satavahana, or to the
great Buddhst teacher agar|una.
(8) and l nvaraby turn the base of the trange upwards, and ths nnovaton
s found aready n the nscrptons wth transtona forms (pate l , 2, , l).
(9) Ka shows amost nvaraby255 on the eft a oop, caused by the connecton of
the end of the bent cross-bar wth the Serf 0T wedge at the foot of the vertca, except n
combnatons wth the subscrbed vowes u and r (see e.g., pate l , 7, l ; , 10, lll ;
l, 15, l, ll) or wth other consonants (see, e.g., pate l , 1, l ; , 3, ll, lll;
l, 9, , , lll). ln the agar nscrptons, the ooped form occurs, however, not
rarey aso n the atter cases (see, e.g., pate l , 7, , ll ; , 3, ll, - lll).
(10) The oop or trange of kha, whch represents the ancent crce (pate ll, 10, l,
and above, 3, , 19), stands, n a the greaty varyng forms of the etters, at the eft of
the vertcas. The very consderabe dfferences n the shape of the eft mb are party due
to the fattenng of the top of the etter and st more to the varous ornamenta changes
of the wedge, whch frst was added to the ower end of the ancent hook.
(11) The dot to the rght of ha, whch s so characterstc n the modern Devanagar
etter, appears aready on the Benares copper-pate of Kama of .D. 10 2 n the word
25 . Communcaton by etter.
255. n excepton s, e. g., the harapatan nscrpton, l . v, 180, whch shows
throughout the od dagger-shaped form.
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|angama (ne 11. end)956, whe our pates offer ony an exampe from a much ater
document (see pate , 1 , l ). The dot may possby have been derved from the
protuberance, whch s often found at the end of the top-stroke of the etter (see, e.g.,
pate , 1 , , l, lll).
(12) The centra bar of |a frst s made to sant downwards (pate l , 1 , l- lll,
c.) and then changed nto a vertca ( , 17, lll, &c l, 22, ll, &c ). t the same
tme, the upper bar becomes the top-stroke of the etter, and the owest s graduay
converted nto a doube curve.
(13) The rght mb of the ndependent na of the oruz pam-eaves ( l, 2 , ) s
turned upwards, and the same form occurs occasonay n gatures. But n the atter the
sgn s usuay ad on ts sde, ts anges are converted nto curves and the rght mb s
attached to the end of the greaty shortened vertca. ence t often ooks ke na (see
pate l , 16, l, &c ; , 19, l , , &c ). ln the agar of the th and ater centures,
the subscrpt ra s attached to the eft mb of |a (pate , 19, ll- l ; l, 2 , l),
and the cursve |na of the modern Devanagar, whch the ndus now consder to be a
Matrka, s due to smpfcaton of ths form.
(1 ) Snce the 6th century, a wedge s often paced above the ngua ta (pate l ,
17, ll ; , 20, ll, l ; l, 25, l) ; and n the agar a horzonta ne wth a short
vertca or santng stroke appears n the pace of the wedge (pate l , 17, l, ll ; ,
20, lll, &c ; l, 25, ).
(15) Smar addtons appear above the ngua tha snce the 10th century (pate ,
21, , &c; l, 25, ).
(16) Snce the 9th century, the round-backed ngua da of the southern aphabets,
endng wth a curve open to the eft, comes nto use (pate , 22, ll, lll, &c).
(17) The suppresson of the orgna base-stroke of the ngua na occurs n gatures
(nda, pate l , 21, l ) snce the 7th century, and n the uncombned sgn snce the 8th
century (pate , 2 , lll) ; compare aso above, 22, B, 10, and pate l , 21, lll. The
sgn soon after assumes the modern form and conssts of a straght top-stroke wth three
nes hangng down from t (pate , 2 , ll, &c ; l, 29, , &c ).
(18) The modern form of ta wth the vertca on the rght, whch occurs aready n
the soka edcts, reappears n the 8th century (pate l , 22, l and becomes the reguar
one n the 10th century.
(19) The modern form of tha, whch has been derved from the notched one of the
7th century (pate l , 23, ll), s found aready n the nscrptons of the same perod
(pate l , 23, lll, &c).
(20) [55| ln the 7th century, the ower end of da s more ceary defned by a
5en/(pate l , 2 , ll, &c), whch soon after s changed nto the characterstc ta of
the modern etter.
256. l. , 297.
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(21) ready n the 7th century, the rght sde of na becomes occasonay a
vertca, to the eft of whch the oop s attached (pate l , 26, lll, l ) ; compare
aso beow, 30.
(22) 0n the transformaton of pha by the deveopment of a centra vertca (see
above, under 1), the curve of aspraton s attached frst to the top of the new sgn (pate
l , 28, ll ; , 31, lll, &c.). But n the th century t snks ower down (pate , 31,
ll), and t occupes aready n the 12th century the poston whch t has n the modern
Devanagar etter (pate , 31, - l). Petrograde archac forms, ke those n pate
, 31, ll, l , are, however, not rare. Ther occurrence has probaby to be expaned by
the nfuence of the popuar cursve aphabets.
(23) s va was very generay pronounced ba, the ancent sgn for ba was ost n
orthern, Centra and Western lnda, and t was repaced by va n the nscrptons of the
7th and ater centures (pate l , 29, ; , 32, ll, &c.). ln the MSS. the substtuton
occurs even earer (pate l, 37, , l). new ba, consstng of va wth a dot n the
centre of the oop, occurs snce the th century (pate , 32, l), and ths form s the
parent of the modern Devanagar etter.
(2 ) The eft mb of bha, mosty an nverted wedge wth the pont towards the
rght, s frequenty changed nto a trange, open at the appex, from whch the ower
porton of the orgna vertca hangs down (pate l , 30, l , &c. ; , 33, ll, &c.). The
modern Devanagar bha appears n the 12th century (pate , 33, , &c.) and seems to be
derved from the form wth the wedge, for whch atter a Serf was substtuted.
(25) Snce the 8th century, ma usuay has on the eft a cursve oop (pate l , 31,
, l), whch n the MSS s mosty fed n wth nk (pate l, 39, - ll).
(26) Both the MSS., and most nscrptons, wth the excepton of one from Udaypur
(above, note 212), and some from epa (note 220), offer excusvey the ooped or the
bpartte ya, whch atter occurs aready n the nscrptons of the Kusana perod,257 and
has been derved from the ooped form.258 ln the epaese nscrptons of the 7th century,
whch show the eastern sa,259 we fnd a trpartte ya wth a sma crce at the top of the
frst upstroke (pate l , 32, ll) ; the Udaypur nscrpton has both the ordnary trpartte
ya of the Gupta perod, and aso the bpartte etter.
(27) The rght extremty of the wedge at the ower end of ra s often greaty
eongated n the nscrptons of the 7th and ater centures (pate l , 33, 1ll- l, &c.),
and sometmes ony the outnes of the wedge are marked. These forms are the precursors
of the modern taed ra.
(28) Snce the 7th century, we fnd a cursve sa (pate l , 36, lll ; 2, l ;
, 39, ll, lll, &c. ; l, , - ll), the eft haf of whch has been turned nto a oop
wth a tte ta on the rght.
257. See above 19, B, 12. 258. . SB. lx, 87. 259. . SB. lx, 85.
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B. Meda vowes and so forth
(1) Meda a, e, o, au, as we as one of the Matras of a, are paced very frequenty
above the ne, and are then, partcuary n the stone nscrptons, treated more or ess
ornamentay (see, e.g., pate l , Cos. lll- lll). More rarey meda / and are treated
n the same way.
(2) The tas of the curves of meda / and are reguary drawn down ow, respec
tvey to the eft and the rght of the Matrka, whe the dfferences n the curves at the top
dsappear. These forms ead up to the / and of the mordern Devanagar.
(3) Meda u s expressed very frequenty by the nta U of the perod (pate l ,
30, ll, l , l, ; l, , l). [56| But an oder form, found, e.g., n pu (l ,
27, l), s aso common and appears to be the parent of the modern u, whch occurs
aready n the western pam-eaf MSS (see pu, pate l, 35, l).
( ) Snce the 7th century 26o frst on the Banskhera pate of arsa, the hva-
muya s occasonay expressed by a cursve sgn, consstng of a oop under the wedge of
ka (pate , 7, lll).
(5) Snce the 7th century, the Upadhmanya s occasonay expressed by a curve
open above, wth cured ends and sometmes wth a dot n the centre. Ths sgn s attached
to the eft sde of the Matrka (pate l , 6, lll ; , 8, ll). lt seems to be derved
from a form ke that n pate ll, 6, l .
(6) ln the oder nscrptons, the rama s st frequenty paced above the voweess
consonant, for whch nvaraby a fna form s used ; and t receves a ta, whch s
drawn downwards to the rght of the Matrka (see, e.g., pate l , 22, l ). But even
more commony t stands beow the consonant, and t occurs n ths poston aready n
the nscrptons wth transtona forms (pate l , 22, l) 261.
C. The gatures
(1) Both n the nscrptons and n the MSS of the 6th and ater centures, we
fnd occasonay gatures, n whch the second consonant s paced to the rght of the
frst, nstead of beow t (see, e.g., pate l , 5, l; , 7, ll ; l, 51, l). 262
(2) For the stone nscrptons of the acute-anged aphabet, the subscrpt ya
frequenty s made ornamenta and drawn far to the eft. Snce the 7th century, and
occasonay even earer, the rght-hand upstroke of ya s drawn up as far as the upper
ne of the whoe sgn (see, e.g., pate l , 6, lll, l ; 3, 5, lll ; l, 51, l).
(3) Pa, beng the frst part of a compound consonant, usuay stands above the ne
260. Cf. the facsme of the harapatan nscrpton, l . v, 180 ; See aso l . x, 162.
261. Ths s the reguar form snce the 9th century.
262. nec. 0xon, r. Seres, l, 3, 87.
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and s expressed by a wedge, or by an ange or a curve open to the rght. But n
the eft sde of ma s shortened, and the top of the wedge, whch s paced on ths short
ened nes, does not protrude above the upper ne (pate l, 9, l). Smar depressons
of the superscrbed ra are found n connecton wth other consonants n the phsad
nscrpton 263, on arsa s copper-pates, and n some MSS (pate l, 51, lll, l ).
Unt the 9th century, rya s often expressed by a fu ra wth a subscrbed ya (see, e.g.,
pate l , , lll ; 5, ll ; and compare l. , 103).
25. The Sarada phabet : Pates and l
. The Sarada scrpt 26 .
Whch s easy recognsed as a descendant of the western Gupta aphabet,
appears snce about . D. 800 n Kashmr and n the north-eastern Pan|ab
(Kangra and Chamba). The odest known Sarada nscrptons are the two Ba|nath
Prasasts from Kragrama (Kangra), dated .D. 80 ; see pate , Co. l. ot much ater
are the cons of the arma dynasty of Kashmr, where the Sarada forms are kewse fuy
deveoped985. nd t s not mprobabe that the Bakhsha MS, found n the usufza
dstrct (pate l, Co. lll), beongs to the same or even a somewhat earer perod 268.
The thrd specmen of the Sarada n pate l, Co. l , whch utmatey s derved from
Burkhard s pate l, n hs edton of the Kashmran Sakuntaa267, dates perhaps ony from,
the 16th or 17th century ; t has been gven merey because at present no reproductons of
more ancent MSS are accessbe 268. ln consequence of the frequent emgratons of the
trave-ovng Kashmran Pandts, Sarada MSS are found n many towns of orth- Western
lnda further east n Benares, and margna gosses n Sarada characters are found even
n ancent agar MSS from Western lnda269. [57| modern cursve varety of the
Sarada s the so-caed Takkar or Tacar 270 of the Dogras n ammu and the
neghbourhood, whch of ate has been mported aso nto Kashmr.
B. genera characterstc of the Sarada of a perods s found n the stff, thck
strokes whch gve the characters an uncouth appearance and a certan resembance to
those of the Kusana perod. The foowng sgns show, aready n the earest perod,
pecuar deveopments :
263. F. Gl (Cl. 3), 202 ; Kehorn, l. , 179 f.
26 . Cf. for ths paragraph, Kashmr Peport ( . BBP S. x), 31 ; . SB. lx, 83.
265. C. CMl. p. , 5.
266. Seventh 0renta Congress, r. Secton, 133; l . xv, 33,275.
267. SB. W . cv.
268. good facsme from a Sarada MS. of the same perod s found n the Cataogue
of the Bern Sanskrt aud Prakrt MSS, o. 2, 3, p 2 ; an nferor one, from the lnda
0ffce MS. 3176, together wth a tabe of the etters and gatures, n Pa. Soc., 0r.Ser.
p. .
269. SB. W . cxv,.53 .
270. Kashmr Peport ( . BBP S. x) ,32 ; for the aphabet, see . P S. 1891, 362.
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(1) The/, whch conssts of two dots, paced sde by sde, and (compare the 7 of
the Bower MS.) a ra-ke fgure beow, whch represents the other two dots (pate , ,1;
l, , l ).
(2) The quadranguar ca (pate , 15,1 ; l 20, lll, l ).
(3) The ngua da, whch shows n the mdde a oop, nstead of an acute ange, and
a wedge at the end (pate , 22, l ; l, 27, lll, l ).
( ) The denta ta, whch, beng derved from a ooped form, has ost ts eft haf,
whe the rght has been converted nto a curve (pate , 25,1 ; l, 30, lll, l ).
(5) The denta dha, whch s fattened at the top and s beow so broad that t
resembes a Devanagar pa.
(6) The va, whch, owng to the connecton of the eft sde of the curve wth the
top-stroke, cosey resembes dha (pate , 38, l ; l, 3, lll, l ).
(7) The quadranguar sa, whch exacty resembes a agur sa (pate , 39,1; l,
, lll, l ).
(8) The anguar meda r (pate , 3, l ; l, 3, lll), and the detached o, whch
stands by tsef above the ne (pate , 2 , l ; l, 31, l ), and wthout doubt s derved
from the Gupta o (pate l , 3 , l ).
(9; Them, whch, as a frst part of gatures, s nserted nto the eft sde of the
second etter, |usst as n the phsad nscrpton271.
The other etters of the earer documents dffer very tte from those of the western
Gupta aphabet, and the changes, whch are found, a occur aso n the acute-anged
scrpt. The constant use of the bpartte ya, of the na wth the suppressed base-stroke
(see above, 2 , , 17), of the and , drawn down respectvey to the eft and the rght
of the consonant ( 2 , B, 2), and of the smpfed hvamuya (pate , 7,l), ndcates
that the separaton of the Sarada from the Gupta aphabet dd not take pace before the
7th century.
/
ln the ater Sarada (pate l, Co. l ), further abnorma deveopments are notceabe
n U, , l, 0, U, |a, na, bha, rtha (whch atter occurs aso n pate l, Col. lll), and
owng to the use of ong top-strokes the heads of severa etters, such as , l and ya,
are cosed.
26. astern aretes of the agar phabet and the rrow- ead Scrpt
. Proto-Bznga: Pates and l
Towards the end of the th century, the agar nscrptons of astern lnda shew
such dstnct traces of changes eadng upto the modern Benga wrtng, and these changes
271. See above, 2 , C, 3.
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93
become so numerous n the 12th century, that t s possbe to cass ther aphabets as Proto-
Benga. n approxmate dea of the deveopment of the Proto-Benga may be obtaned by
comparng the characters of the foowng documents, represented n our pates : (1) of
the Deopara Prasast of about .D. 1080-90 (pate . Col. lll), whch ncudes the
Benga , kha, na, ta, tha, ma, ra, a, and sa ; (2) of adyadeva s and-grant278 of .D.
11 2 (pate , Co. l ), wth the Benga. , , l, kha, ga, na, ta, tha, dha, ra and va
and (3) of the Cambrdge MSS o. 1699, 1, 22 , of .D. 1198-99 (pate l, Col. ), whch
offers the Benga , , U, P, P, L, L, , l, U, ka, kha, ga, ta, tha, na,ma, ya, ra,va and
sa, as we as transtona forms of gha, na, na, and sa.
0ny a few among the Proto-Benga etters are now oca formatons. The great
ma|orty occurs aready n other oder scrpts, be t n exacty the same or n smar shape.
[58| Thus, ts P, P, L and L agree cosey wth the correspondng characters of the oruz
MS (pate l, 7-10, ), ts U wth that of the odest MS from epa (pate l, 6, ll;
compare aso the Sarada, l, 6, l ), and ts U wth that of the Bower MS (pate l, 1 ,1
ll). lts sgns for , , ka, na, ma, ya, va, sa and sa occur repeatedy n varous aphabets
of the 8th-10th centures, gven n pates l , . lts kha, opened on the rght, fnds an
anaogy n that of the Bower MS (pate l 16, l), and ts tha, kewse opened on the rght,
somewhat resembes that of pate , 26, l . Fnay, the ga and na wth the vertcas,
rsng on the rght above the ne, have precursors n the etters of the 9th and 10th
centures wth horn-ke protuberances (pate , 12, 2 , ll-l , l; compare aso above,
2 , . 1). ven the ra, resembng va (pate , 36, l ; l, 1, 9, ), may easy be
recognsed as due to a sghty abnorma deveopment of the wedge at the end of the etter,
for whch, forms from Western and Centra lnda n pate , 36, lll, l , offer more or
ess cose anaoges. 0ny the and l, open on the eft, and the pecuar na n nca (pate
, 19, lll) and n|na (pate l, 2 , ), appear to be purey oca new formatons. nd
ths may be true aso of the ta (pate , 25, lll, l ; l, 30, ), whch, however, does
not dffer much from the Sarada sgn and from the fna t of some other aphabets.
The most strkng and mportant among the pecuartes of the Proto-Benga,
dscarded n the modern Benga scrpt, are the sma tranges wth the rounded ower sde
and the paese hooks , whch are attached to the eft of the tops of varous etters.
The trange s found n ks (pate , 7, lll) and n very many etters of pate , Co.
l ; whe the hook occurs n the ka and ta of pate , 25 and 3, lll275. lf further
we compare the Tarpan-Dgh nscrpton of Laksmanasena270, where the tranges and
hooks frequenty appear aternatey n connecton wth the same etters, t becomes
272. l. , 305 f. 273. l. , 3 7.
27 . Cf. Ben a, who sghty dffers n Cat. Sanskr. Buddhst MSS from epal,
xxxv, and etter-press of Pa. Soc., 0r., Seres, p. 81.
275. Both the trange and the hook are found n the Gaya nscrpton, l . x, 3 2.
276. . SB. x. p. 1, 2.
13
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9
evdent that the epaese hook s a cursve substtute for the trange. The trange
tsef s a modfcaton of the top-stroke wth a sem-crce beow, occasonay met wth n
ornamenta nscrptons from orthern and Centra lnda, as, e.g., n nayakapaa s pate
(etters wth ths pecuarty have not been gven n pate l , Co. lll) and n the
Candea nscrpton n Cunnngham s rchaeoogca Peports, o. x, pate 33, o. 3.
Ths ast mentoned form agan s connected wth, and gves the outnes of, the thck
top-strokes, rounded off at both ends, whch are not rare n ornamenta MSS ke that
fgured by Benda, Cataogue of Sanskrt Buddhst MSS from epa, pate 2, os. 1, 2,
and n the aphabet of pate l, Co. l (see partcuary nes 5, 7, 5, 30, 3 , 37, 9).
mong the abnorma snge sgns, not receved nto the modern Benga, the
foowng deserve speca remarks :
(1) The forms of / n pate , 3, lll, and l, 3, , are cursve deveopments of
the ancent / n pate l , 3, l , &c. But the / and 7 of pate , 3, , l , appear to be
southern forms ; compare pate ll, 3, l - l.
(2) The curous ta of pate , 20, l , seems to have been produced by an
abnormay strong deveopment of a epaese hook wth a Serf at the end, paced
above the ancent round ta, whch s represented by the second ower curve on the eft ;
compare the ta of Co. lll, and that of the Cambrdge MS o. 1693 (Benda,
op. ct., pate ).
(3) The na of pate , 29, l , wthout a connectng stroke between the oop and
the vertca, s due to the strongy deveoped predecton for cursve forms, whch s
vsbe aso n other etters of adyadeva s nscrpton, such as , , sa and the gature
tkr (pate , 7, l ).
( ) The tranguar meda u, for nstance of ku (pate , 10, l ), whch appears aso
n Laksmanasena s Tarpan-Dgh grant and other eastern nscrptons, gves outne of the
oder wedge-shaped form, found, e.g., n thu (pate , 26, lll) and n su (pate l, 5, ll).
(5) The nusvara of vam (pate , 38, l ) and of ram (pate l, 15, ) has been
paced on the ne, as n the 0d-Kanarese (see beow, 29, C, 5) and the modern Grantha,
and a rama stands beow t.
(6) ln the 0m of pate , 9, lll, we have the odest exampe of the occurrence of
the modern nunaska. ln ths case, t shows a tte crce nstead of the more usua dot,
whch s found n the 0m of pate l, 13, l. Both forms are rather frequent n the eastern
nscrptons of the 12th century277, whereas n the west278 they are more rare and are
confned to the word 0m. The nunaska, whch l have not found n any lndan nscrpton
oder than the th century, probaby s an ntentona modfcaton of the nusvara,
nvented because n edc MSS the nunaska must be substtuted for an nusvara
foowed by qud consonants, sbants and ha.
277. Cf. the Gaya nscrptons n C. SP. , p. 37, o. 12 ; p. 3.8, o 13.
278. See the Mahoba nscrpton, C. SP. xx, p. 21.
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95
(7) [59| The sarga of vah (pate , 38, lll) carres a wedge at the top, whch
addton appears aso n other ornamenta scrpts (see, e.g., pate l, 30, l ) ; n the h of
pate l, 51, (compare aso l, 1, l, and the Gaya nscrpton,), t has been
changed cursvey nto a form resembng our fgure 8. ln the Gaya nscrpton (l . x,
3 ), as we as n MSS of ths perod 279, t receves aso a sma ta (compare tah, pate
l, 30, l ).
B. The epaese hooked characters : Pate l
ccordng to Benda s carefu examnaton of the MSS from epa 280, the hooked
characters frst occur n the 12th century and dsappear towards the end of the 15th. The
facts, stated above, whch prove the occurrence of the epaese hooks n Benga nscrp
tonsofthe 12th century and expan ther orgn, eave no doubt that the ntroducton
of ths modfcaton of the top-strokes s due to the nfuence of Benga, whch, as Benda
has recognsed 281, makes tsef fet aso n other ponts.
The frst of the two specmens of ths character n pate l, Co. l, whch s derved
from the Cambrdge MS o. 1691, of . D. 1179 2a2, shows n the ma|orty of the etters
the forms of the oruz Pam-eaves and of the Cambrdge MS o. 10 9 (Cos. - ll),
wth a few sma modfcatons, such as mght be expected n a much ater document.
lrrespectve of the hooks, speca Benga pecuartes are observabe ony n /, l, and
l. Generay speakng, these remarks hod good aso for the second specmen n pate
l, Co. ll, from the Brtsh Museum MS, 0renta o. 1 39, of . D. 1286 88. But
n ths scrpt the Benga nfuence s vsbe n /. , na, dha, and xa ( compare the transtona
forms of , 39, lll, l ), whe ts /s very archac.
epa and Tbet seem to have preserved a number of other, mosty ornamenta,
aphabets of astern lnda,985, hand-drawn tabes of whch have been gven by B. odgson
( satc Pesearches, o. xv) and by Sarat Chandra Das ( . SB., o. lv, pates 1 to 7).
But up to present tme no reabe materas are avaabe, on whch a paeographca
examnaton of these scrpts coud be based.
279. Cf. the facsmes of Benga MSS. n Pa. Soc., 0r. Seres, p. 38, 82,69 ; Pa|en-
draa Mtra, otces of Sanskrt MSS, , p. 5, 6 ; v & v ; and the proto-Benga
nscrpton, . SB. x, 318, p. 18.
280. Benda, Cat. Sanskr. Buddhst MSS from epa, xx ff.
281. op. ct., xxxv, xxxv.
282. op. ct., p. 3, ; Bern 0renta Congress, lndan Secton, p. 2, 1.
283. Pa. Soc., 0r. Seres p., 32 ; Bern 0renta Congress, lndan Secton, p. 2, 2. 3.
28 . For facsmes of MSS wth epaese hooked characters , See Benda, Cat.
Sanskr. Buddhst MSS from epa, p. 3 ; Pa. Soc., 0r. Seres, p. 3, 57 ; Cowe &
ggeng, Cat. Buddhst MSS of the Poya satc Socety, . P S. 1876, 1 ff. ; for the
aphabet, see Benda, op. ct., p. ; . Katt. de CCC Canakyae sentents.
285. Cf. aso Feet s remarks on ornamenta characters, l . xv, 36 .
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.
C The arrow-head aphabet : Pate l
r The arrow-hedd aphabet, pate l, Cos. lll, l , whch C. Benda, ts ds
covered286, s ncned to dentfy wth Berun s bhaksuk p, appears to be confned to
astern lnda. lf, of course, has no connecton wth the agar, but, as Benda ponts
out n hs very carefu descrpton, s the mmedate offsprng of an ancent form of the
Brahm. lt woud seem that the , , ka, na, ra, and perhaps aso the|ha of the present
aphabet have curves at the ower end. Ths pecuarty, as we as the pecuar , noted
by Benda (compare pate lll, 8, lll) and the absence of a dfference between r and ra,
seem to ndcate that the present aphabet beonged to the southern scrpts, for whch
these ponts are characterstc (compare pate lll, Cos. - , and pates ll, lll/. lts
ponted kha, ga, and sa kewse occur n southern aphabets (see pate lll, 8, ll ; ll, 9,
l, l ; ll, 11, ll ; 36, l , l, ). nd the forms of na, ta and na perhaps
pont rather to the south-west than to the south (compare pate ll, Cos. l, ll, &c.).
0ny n the case of the ooped sa t s possbe to th.nk of northern (Gupta) nfuence ;
but the possbty that t s an ndependent new formaton s not excuded. n nscrpton
n the same aphabet, and shewng wedges nstead of arrow-heads at the top of the etters,
has been dscussed by Benda n l . xx, 77 f.
. T S0UT P LP B TS
27. Defnton and varetes
[60| Wth Burne and Feet, l understand by the term southern aphabets the
scrpts of pates ll and lll237, whch, deveoped out of the characters of the ndhra
286. Seventh 0renta Congress, ryan Secton, 111 ff. ; and Tenth 0renta Congress,
Part ll, 151ff.
287. Preparaton of Pates ll and lll :
PL T ll
Cuttngs from facsmes
Co. l : from F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 5, p. 3 B ; wth from o. 62, p. 38, B.
Cos. ll & lll : from F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 18, p. 11. Co. l : from pate at l . v, 66.
Co. : from pate at l . v, 205 ; wth , , U, gha, dhau, ha, ksa, tta, from pate at
l . v, 9, and nta from pate at l . v, 68.
Co. l : from F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 38, p. 2 .
Co. ll : from F. Gl (Cll. 3). o. 39, p. 25.
Co. lll: from pate at l. , 20, o. 1; wth /, na, ba, nca, bra, ya, from o.3, at p. 22.
Co. l : from pate at l . x, 78.
Co. : from F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 55, p. 3 ; wth U and U from o. 1, p. 27, and
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97
perod, have been generay used snce about .D. 350 n the terrtores south of the
ndhya, and most of whch st survve n the modern aphabets of the Dravdan dstrcts.
Ther most mportant common characterstcs are :
(1) The retenton of the ancent forms, open at the top, of gha, pa, pha, sa and sa,
of the od ma and of the trpartte ya whch s ooped ony occasonay, especay
n the Grantha.
(2) The retenton of the ong stroke on the rght of a, whch, however, s mosty
bent towards the eft.
(3) The da wth the round back.
( ) The curves, orgnay open at the top, at the ends of the ong vertcas of , ,
ka, na. and ra, as we as of the subscrpt ra and of meda u and u.
(5) The meda r wth a cured curve on the eft, wth occasona exceptons
occurng n kr.
U from |anta o. 3, B. SPWl. v, p. 57.
Col. l : from F. Gl (Cl. 3), o. 56, p. 35. Co. ll : from pate at l . v, 35.
Co. lll : from pate at l . v. 37 ; wth /, hsa, |ye, nam, tsa, from pate at l . v, 2 .
Co. l : from pate at l . x, 58 ; wth , U, and echa from pates at l . v, 161, and
k from pate at l . v, 72, and a from pate at l . v, .
Co. : from pate at l . x, 10 , Feet s o. 9 ; wth 7 (3. , b), hge, s, and //
from Feet s os. 99, 100, pate at l . x, 16 , and //a from Feet s o. 95, pate at l .
x, 10 .
Co. l : from pates at l . v, 2 ff. Co. ll : from pate at l . x, 137.
Co. lll : from pates at l . v. 320. Co. l : from pate at l . x, 123.
Co. : from pates at l . v, 50ff. Co. l : from pates at l . v, 15 ff.
Co. ll : from utzsch s Sll. , p. 10. Co. lll : from utzsch s Sll. , p. 9.
Co. l : from utzsch s Sll. , p. 11.
PL T lll
Cuttngs from facsmes
Co l : from pates at l . x, 158 ff. Co. ll : from pate at .x, 126, Feet s o. 123.
Col. lll : from pates at l . x, 1 . Col. l : from pates at l . x, 186 ff.
Co. : from pates at l . v:, 16. Co. l : from pates at l . xv, 50 ff.
Co. ll : from pate at l . v, 138 ; wth , U, ca, and tta from pate at l . x, 75.
Co. lll : from pates at l . x, 12ff. Co. l : from pate at l. , 62.
Co. : from pate at l . x, 275. Co. l : from pate at l . xv, 1 .
Co. ll : from pate at l. , 18. Col. lll: from utzsch s Sll. , p. 13.
Co. l : from pate at L , 76. Co. : from pate at l. , 1 .
Co l: from utzsch s Sll. , p. 12. Cos, ll: lll: from utzsch s Sll. ,p.
Cos. l , : from pate at L , 72, the ower part.
Cos. l, ll : from pate at L , 72, the upper part.
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98
ccordng to other pecuartes, the southern aphabets may be dvded nto the
foowng varetes288 :
(1) The western varety, whch, beng strongy nfuenced by the northern aphabets,
s the rung scrpt between about .D. 30 and about .D. 900 n Kathavad, Gu|arat,
the western porton of the Maratha dstrcts, .e., the Coectorates of ask, Khandesh and
Saturn, n the part of adarabad ( |anta) contguous to Khandesh and n the Konkan,
and whch, durng the 5th century occasonay occurs aso n Pa|putana and the Centra
lndan gency, but atogether dsappears n the 9th century n consequence of the nroads
of the agar aphabet (see above, 21).
(2) The Centra-lndan scrpt, whch n ts smpest form cosey agrees wth the
western varety, but n ts more deveoped form, the so-caed box-headed aphabet ,
shows greater dfferences, and whch from the end of the th century s common n
northern adarabad, the Centra Provnces and parts of the Centra-lndan gncy (Bunde-
khand), but appears aso occasonay further sou. . n the Bombay Presdency and even n
Masur.
(3) The scrpt of the Kanarese and Teugu dstrcts of the Dekhan, .e. of the
southern porton of the Bombay Presdency (the southern Maratha States, Shoapur, B|apur,
Begaum, Dharwar and Karwar), of the southern terrtory of adarabad (roughy speakng
south of Bdar), of Masur, and of the north-east porton of the Madras Presdency
( zagapatam, Godavar, Kstna, Karnu, Beary, nantpur. Cuddapah, eore), whch
appears frst n the Kadamba nscrptons of the 5th and 6th centures, and after a ong
deveopment eads to the very smar and temporary dentca Kanarese and Teugu
round-hand.
( ) The ater Kanga aphabet of the north-eastern coast of the Madras Presdency
between Ccacoe and the fronter of 0rssa (Gan|am), whch s strongy mxed wth
northern etters and n ater tmes aso wth Grantha and Kanarese-Teugu characters,
and whch occurs n nscrptons of the 7th-12th centures.
(5) The Grantha aphabet of the eastern coast of Madras, South of Pukat ( orth
and South rcot, Saem, Trchnopo, Madura and Tnneve), whch frst appears n
the ancent Sanskrt nscrptons of the Paava dynastes, and survves n the modern
Grantha and ts varetes, the Maayaam and the Tuu.
The Tam aphabet of the same dstrcts and of the western coast of Madras
(Maabar) probaby s derved from a northern scrpt, mported n the th or 5th century,
but greaty modfed by the nfuence of the Grantha. cursve varety of the Tam
aphabet s found n atteuttu (the round-hand , Burne) or Cera-Pandya ( utzsch)289,
whch s known through nscrptons from the western coast and the extreme south of the
Pennsua, and accordng to Burne [61| has faen nto dsuse ony n recent tmes 90.
Though these two aphabets come from a dfferent source, they have been ncuded n ths
chapter, because they occur n the same dstrcts as the other fve.
288. Cf. B. SlP. 1 . 289. l . xx, 286. 290. B. SlP. 8.
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99
28. 77e Western Scrpt and the Scrpt of Centra lnda : Pates ll and lll
. The Western Scrpt
The western varety of the southern aphabets s found n the nscrptons of the
lmpera Guptas and ther vassas snce the tme of Chandragupta ll291, of the kngs of
aabh292, of the Gur|aras of Broach298, of some of the Caukyas of Badam (Puake&n
ll and |ayabhattarka), and of ask and Gu|arat and ther vassas29 , of the
Trakutakas29 , of the makas ( ) of Khandesh290, and of the Pastrakutas of Gu|arat 9 ,
as we as n numerous votve nscrptons n the caves of Kanher, ask and |anta298.
0rdnary, ts characters no doubt were wrtten wth nk, |ust ke those of the northern
aphabets (see above, 21). Ths s made hghy probabe by the use of wedges on the tops
of the etters durng the Gupta perod (see pate ll, Cos. l-lll) and by the thck,
frequenty knob-ke, heads of the sgns of the aabh, Gur|ara and Pastrakuta grants
(pate ll, Cos. 1 -l , and pate lll, Co. l) both of whch ornaments can ony be drawn
wth nk. nother argument s furnshed by the fact that a the copper-pates from
Gu|arat have been cut accordng to the ordnary sze of the Bhur|a eaves (Burne), on
whch t s not possbe to wrte wth a stus.
The fnds of neary or qute contemporaneous nscrptons wth northern characters
n Pa|putana, the Centra-lndan gency2 9, and aabh, as we as agar sgnatures
of the Gur|ara prnces300, prove that northern scrpts were beng used smutaneousy wth
ths southern aphabet. nd ths crcumstance s no doubt the cause of ts showng traces
of northern pecuartes n the foowng etters : (1) n the kha wth a arge oop and a
sma hook (pate ll, 9,1-l ; lll, 12,1), nstead of whch the true southern form
appears ony very rarey 801 ; (2) n the ca, rounded off on the rght (pate ll, 13,1-l ;
291. Cf. the facsmes n F. Gl (Cll. 3), os. 5,1 , and 62, pates 3 B, 8, 38 B, and
Feet s remarks.
292. Cf. the facsmes n F. Gl (Cll 3), os. 38, 39, pates 2 ,25 ; l . , 17; v, 20 ff.;
v, 1 ff. ; v, 66 ff. ; v, 302 ; x, 238 ; xv, 328 ; . BBP S. x, 363 ; l. , 320.
293. Cf. the facsmes at . P S. 1865, 2 7 ; l . x, 78 ; (v, 62 ; x, 116 ; xv, 200 ;
dsputed) ; l. , 19ff.
29 . Cf. the facsmes at l. , 52 ; l . v, 16 ; v, 6 ; x, 12 ; . BBP S. xv, 1 ;
Seventh 0renta Congress, r. Secton, 238 ; l . xx, 310.
295. Cf. the facsmes at B. SPWl. o. 10, 58.
296. Cf. the facsme at l . xv, 98.
297. Cf. the facsmes at l . x, 158 ; . BBP S. xv. 105 ; l. , 56.
298. Cf. the facsmes at B. SPWl v, p. 55,9; p. 58, 5 and 9 ; pates 59, 60 ; v,
p. 51,69.
299. Cf. the facsmes n F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 6, 17, 61, pates , 10, 38 .
300. Cf. above 21 end. 301. Cf., for nstance khtam, facsme at l . v, 72.
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100
lll, 16,l) ; (3) n the ancent ta wthout a oop (pate ll, 22, l- ; lTl, 25,1) ; ( ) n
the narrow dha (pate ll, 25, l- ; lll, 28,1 ; compare pate l , 25, Ml) ; (5) n the
ooped na (pate ll, 26, l- ; lll, 29, l), whch agrees more exacty wth the northern
forms of pate l , 26, than wth the southern one of ll, 26, lll (compare beow, 29,
) ; (6) ln the Matras often paced above the ne n meda e (pate ll, 26, ), a (pate
ll, 10, l ) and o (pate lll, 35, l), whch atter, however, has a pecuar ooped form n
o (pate ll, 3 , lll, l ) ; (7) n the meda au, consstng of three strokes above the ne
( ll, 25, ; 36, lll) ; and compare pate (l , 7, l ) ; (8) n the subscrpt na, whch
occasonay, as n pate ll, 2, ll, shows the northern cursve form. The nscrptons
os. 17 and 62 of Feet s Gupta lnscrptons (Cll. 3), pates 10, 38, B, whch are not
represented n pate ll, show, [62| besdes, the northern and ka wthout the curve at the
foot. ka of ths descrpton occurs aso sometmes n the aabh nscrptons (pate
ll, 8, ).
lrrespectve of these northern pecuartes, whch throughout reman amost
unchanged, the characters of ths scrpt show three stages n ther deveopment, that of
the 5th century (pate ll, Cos. l-lll), that of the 6th and 7th centures (Cos. l - l, lll),
and that of the 8th (Co. l ) and 9th centures (pate l1 , Co. 1) whc. ast s very
markedy cursve.
mong the snge etters the foowng deserve speca remarks :
(1) The /(pate ll, 3, l , ff. ; lll, 3,l), whch here, as n most southern aphabets,
conssts of a curved ne wth a notch n the centre and of two dots beow, and whch
appears to be a modfcaton of a form ke that n pate l , 3, l .
(2) The /(pate ll, 3,1 ; lll, ,1), whch, ke that of the Bower MS. (pate l,
,1), has been deveoped by the transformaton of two dots nto a ne, but n addton
has the curved ta, characterstc of the southern aphabets.
(3) The , whch usuay conssts of a trange wth the apex at the top. and s
rreguary broadened on the eft (pate ll, 6, l ; and compare l n ll, 6, ll), and
whch from the end of the 6th century frequenty, especay n Gur|ara nscrptons, s
opened at the top (pate ll, 6, l) and fnay resembes a northern a (pate lll, 8,1).
( ) The da whch n ts odest form ( ll, 19, ll), as mosty n the southern aphabets,
s undstngushabe from da, but from the 6th century deveops a tte ta (pate ll, 19,
l -l ), or, n some nscrptons of the 8th and 9th centures, a oop at the end (pate ll,
3, ll ; pate lll, 22,1).
(5) The tha wth a rnget on the base-ne (pate ll, 23, lll, l , l ) nstead of the
cross-bar (pate ll, 23, l, ll), deveoped out of the ancent dot, or snce the end of the
6th century wth the southern notch n the base (pate ll, 23, ll-l ; pate lll, 26,l)802.
(6) The a wth the dmnutve man porton of the orgna sgn and the enormous
ta (pate ll, 3 , l, lll), whch atter snce the 7th century frequenty becomes the soe
representatve of the etter (pate ll, 3 , l, l ).
302. Transtona forms occur n the Caukya nscrptons.
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101
t ) The d,whch shows reguary n the Gur|ara nscrptons (pate lll. 39, l)
and the ask Cauukya nscrpton 808, and occasonay n the aabh nscrptons 30 ,
a cursve combnaton of the cross-bar wth the vertca on the rght, whch occurs aso n
the north 805.
(8) The sa, whch occasonay shows (pate l, 38, ) a cursve combnaton of
the eft mb wth the Serf occurrng aso n southern scrpts (pate lll, 1, l).
(9) number of cursve forms n gatures, hus : (a) The prefxed no. whch often
oses the hook on the rght and ooks ke na (compare aso pate , 19, , ll). (b) The
prefxed na, whch especay before ta, tha, dha, and na (see the nta of anumantavyah,
pate l, 2, ) conssts of a horzonta or bent stroke and ooks ke ta 806. (c) The
subscrpt ka, whch occasonay, as n ska (pate ll, 6, ), s ooped on the eft
(compare l . x, 305). (d) The subscrpt ca of nca (pate ll, 1, lll, l ), whch
snce the 6th century remans open on the rght and bears the hook of na on ts base, (e) The
subscrpt na, whch aready snce eary tmes s merey ndcated by a oop (see rnna,
pate ll, 1, l ,. (f) The subscrpt tha, whch, as n other southern aphabets (compare,
e.g., pate ll, 5, ), s changed to a doube curve open on the rght (pate ll, 5, l ;
pate lll, 9, l).
B.. The scrpt of Centra lnda
The Centra-lndan scrpt s found fuy deveoped n the nscrptons of Samudragupta
at ran and of Candragupta ll at Udayagr 8 7, on the copper-pates of the kngs of
Sarabhapura 808, of the akatakas 80 , and af Tvara kng of Kosaa 3l0, and n two eary
Kadamba nscrptons311. ln a these documents, the heads of the etters bear sma
squares, whch are ether hoow (pate . Co. l) or fed n (p. ll, Co. ). These
squares, to whch on account of ther resembances to sma boxes the scrpt owes the
name box-headed , are, ke the wedges, artfca deveopments of the Serfs. The sod,
303. Cf. facsme at l . x, 12 . 30 . Cf. l . v, 10, and facsme at xv, 328
305. Cf. fd sme at . SC. lxv, l, pate 9, o. 2.
306. See aso my remarks n l . v, 110, and beow, 28, B.
307. F. Gl (C1l. 3), os. 2, 3, p. 2, , B. 308. c/ . ct., os. 0, 1, pates 26, 27.
309. op. ct., os. 53-56, pates 33, , to 35 ; l . x, 239 ; B. SPWl. v, p. 56, o.
; p. 57, o. 3 ; l. , 260; the earest of them beong n Bhagvana lndra| s and my
opnon to the 5th., accordng to Feet to the 7th., century.
310. F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 81, p. 5 ; accordng to Feet from the 8th. or 9th. century ;
accordng to Kehorn, l. v, 258, undoubtedy from the 8th.
311. See Feet, l . xx, 93 ; of the same type s, accordng to an mpresson presented to
me by L. Pce, the Tagund (Sthanakundura) Prasast of Kub|a from the regn of Santvar-
man, p. Cam. v, Sk. 176 (and L v).
1
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102
fed n, squares probaby have been nvented by wrters who [63| used nk, and the hoow
ones by persons wrtng wth a stus, who feared to tear ther pam-eaves. Both varetes
of box-heads occur occasonay or constanty n other dstrcts and n connecton wth
other aphabets (see, e.g., the aabh nscrpton of pate ll, Co. , the archac Kadamba
nscrpton of pate ll, Co. ll, the Paava nscrpton of pate ll, Co. ), and even
n os. 21 and 21, , of the Campa nscrptons from Further lnda312. But the very
pecuar appearance of the Centra-lndan nscrptons of ths cass s due to the more or
ess rgorous modfcaton of the etters by the contracton of ther breadth and the
converson of a curves nto anguar strokes. Ths s best vsbe n the grants, fgured n
l., 260, and n Feet s Gupta lnscrptons (Cll. 3), os. 0, 1, 56, 81, pates 26, 27,
35, 5, among whch o. 56, s represented n Co. l of our pate ll, whe Co.
offers the ess carefuy modfed characters of F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 55, pate 3 . Both
these nscrptons were ssued n the same year from the dharmadhkarana of the akataka
kng Pravarasena ll.
Traces of the nfuence of the northern aphabets are vsbe n ths scrpt |ust as n
the western varety, and partcuary n the etters a, dha, na, and n the Matras of meda
e, a and o, whch n F.Gl (Cll. 3), o. 81, pate 5 (not n our pate), shew the pecuar
taed northern form of the 7th and 8th centures. But n the gatures (see, for nstance,
nta, pate ll, 3, ), we meet repeatedy wth the ooped /a and wth the na wthout
the oop, and even ndependent ooped ta appears exceptonay 313n the word snatanam
( o. 55, n 7.; o. 56, ne 6). Meda au has the trpartte western and northern
form n F.Gl (Cll. 3), os. 2, 3, 0, 81, pates 2, , B, 26, 5, but the southern
bpartte form (see dau, pate ll, 2 , l) n the akataka nscrptons. The kha,
whch has a bg hook and sma oop, and the obong ca wth the vertca on the rght,
kewse agree wth the southern forms. But F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 2, ne 17, offers
once, n suka, the northern ka wthout the curve at the foot.
The other etters of ths scrpt frequenty show greater or smaer varatons.
0ur pate offers a few n the case of , |a. tha, ba, and a. More have been ponted
out by Feet and Kehorn n ther edtons of the nscrptons n F. Gl (Cll. 3) and
n l. . l may add to Feet s remarks, that hs os. 0, 1 and 81 have the anguar
form of ma of the the ater Kanarese-Teugu aphabet (see beow, 29, B, 6).
29. The Kanarese and Teugu phabet: Pates ll and lll
. The archac vare.y
[6 | The archac varety of ths scrpt s found : (a) ln the west, n the nscrptons
of the Kadambas of a|ayant or Banavas (pate ll, Cos. ll, lll), and of the
312. Bergagne-Barth, lnscrptons Sanskrt du Campa et du Cambodge, , 23 ; the
Campa nscrptons show the northern ka and ra wthout curves at the end.
313. Feet and Kehorn assume that the wrters by mstake put na for ta and vce versa.
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103
eary Cauukyas of Stp or Badam, e.g. of Krtvarman l, and Mangaes a (pate ll,
Co. l ), PuakeSn ll, and kramadtya l (sometmes), (b) ln the east, on the
Saankayana pates, and on those of the frst two Cauukyas of eng, snuvardhan.
and ayasmha l (pate ll, Col. ll31 ). The date of the Saankayana pates, whch
used to be assgned to the th century81B, s uncertan 81 . The Kadamba grants probaby
beong party to Sth and party to the the 6th centures ; for Kakutsthavarman, who ssued
the odest known record, was the contemporary of one of the lmpera -Guptas,
probaby of Samudragupta S17, and hs descendants a rued before the overthrow of
the Kadamba kngdom by Krtvarman l, between . D. 566-67 and 596-97, The archac
Cauukya nscrptons fa between . D. 578 and about 660 S18.
Durng ths perod, the characters of the western and eastern documents do not dffer
much. The aphabet of the Saankayana pates319 agrees very cosey wth that of pate
ll, Co. lll; and n the frst haf of the 7th century the etters ot the Cauukya nscrptons
from atap and from eng show an amost perfect resembance820. But the more
consderabe dfferences between Cos. ll and lll, whch both are derved from grants
of the Kadamba Mrgesavarman ssued wthn a perod of ony fve years, have to be
expaned by the assumpton that the etters of Co. lll, wth whch neary a the other
Kadamba nscrptons agree, mtate wrtng wth nk, and those of Coh ll, wrtng wth
the stus. Ths expanaton s suggested by the thnness of the sgns of Co. ll, and by the
much greater thckness of those n Co. lll, and by the wedges and sod squares at ther
heads (compare above, 28, B).
The etters of the oder documents of ths perod reman very smar to those of the
ndhra nscrptons of pate lll, the so-caed cave-characters. ln the Saankayana
grant, and n those of the Kadambas Kakutsthavarman, Santvarman, Mrgesavarman and
Pavvarman, we fnd ony few, and by no means constant, traces of the deveopment of
the ater characterstc round forms. Thus, Co. ll no doubt offers rather far advanced
sgns for and ra, but at the same tme a more archac , and the facsme frequenty
shows even an anguar ra wth a not very ong upward stroke. ln the grants of the ast
Kadamba kng arvarman and n those of the Cauukyas between .D. 578 and 660, the ,
, ka and ra, characterstc of the next stage of deveopment, occur not rarey, but never
constanty. Thus Co l, derved from the Badam nscrpton of Krtvarman l and
Mangaesa, has the ka cosed on the eft. But ths form s the ony one used there, and t
31 . Cf. facsmes of Saankayana nscrptons at B. SlP. p. 2 ; l . v, 176 ; l. v,
1 ; at Kadamba nscrptons at l . v, 23ff. ; v, 38ff. ; . BBP S. x, 300 ; of Western
Cauukya nscrptons at l . v, 72, 75 ; v, , 237 ; x, 100 ; x, 58 ; xx, 58; and of astern
Cauukya nscrptons at B. SlP. p. 27.
315. B. SlP. xv, p. 1. 316. Ftaet, l . xx, 9 . 317. cademy, 1895, 229.
318. See Feet s dates of the Cauukyas, , tabe at p. 2 ; l . xx, 95 ff.
319. B. SlP. p. 1. 320. Cf. aso the facsme at l . v, 72, and B. SlP. p. 27.
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10
never appears on Mangesa s copper-pate, nor on the adarabScT pates of hs successor
Puaken ll821. Further, ths ka, as we as the cosed ra of 33, Co. , occur on the
erur pates of Puakesn lls92. Fnay, the hoe stone nscrpton of the tme of
Puakesn ll32s, has excusvey the oder ka and ra, but occasonay the ater of Co.
. Ths vacaton ndcates that between .D. 578 and 660, and perhaps even earer,
the roundhand forms of the mdde Kanarese aphabet exsted, but that they ether had
not competey dspaced the oder ones, or that they were not yet consdered as reay
sutabe for nscrptons, though the cerks occasonay ntroduced them by mstake nto
the offca documents (compare above, 3, page 20 f.).
mong the other sgns, the foowng may be noted especay :
(1) The na (pate ll, 21, ll- ll) whch s never ooped, but ooks as f t were
cursvey deveoped from a ooped form smar to that of Co. l, ff.
(2) The ta, whch keeps the od form of the western nscrptons wthout a oop n 22,
lll, but shows n Cos. ll, l , ll, a cursve deveopment from the ooped ta of Cos.
- ll1, whch kewse s not rare n Kadamba and Cauukya nscrptons of ths perod.
(3) The taed da (2 , l , ll) agreeng exacty wth western form [t 5| of da
(19, l -l ).
( ) The na, whch sometmes has the ooped form (26, lll), and more frequenty
that wthout the oop (26, ll, l - ll) ; the atter beng however, apparenty derved
from the ooped one.
(5) The very exceptonay ooped ya (n ya, 5, l ), whch thus s dentca wth
the much oder northern form.
(6) The meda vowes : (a) u n fU (27, lll), a cursve substtute for the u of yu (32,
l), CM (13, l ), &c.; (b) the subscrpt r of kr (8, ll, ll ; 1, l ), somewhat
resembng a northern r (whch atter actuay occurs once on the sea fgured n l . v, 2
n Mrgesa), but probaby ndependenty derved from a not uncommon r n the shape of
an unconnected semcrce before ka ; (c) the exceedngy rare / of k ( 2, l ), whch,
dfferng from the northern subscrpt / (pate l, 35, ll), but agreeng wth the northern
nta sgn of the Cambrdge MS., conssts merey of a cursve a ; (d) the Matra of e (n
ne, 21, t), of a (n ca, 13, ll ; and va, 35, lll), and of o and au (n thau, 23, ll),
whch, except n connecton wth e (see e, 3 , ll, and o, 3 , lll, ll), frequenty
stands at the foot of the consonant ; (e) the au (n pau, 27, ll, l ), the rght-hand
porton of whch nvaraby and n a southern aphabets conssts of a hoc k, formed by a
cursve combnaton cf the second Matra wth the 5-stroke (compare yau, pate lll, 31, l).
B. The mdde varety
Ths second varety s found from about .D. 650 to about .D. 950 : (a) ln the
321. l . v, 72. 322. l . v, . 323. See the pates at l . v, 2 1 ; . v, 6.
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West n th e nscrptons of the Caauk as of atap or BSdarm, of ther successors the
Pastrakutas of Manyakheta (n cases when they dd not use the agar, see above, 23),
of the Gangas-of Masur, and of some smaer dynastes ; (b) n the east, on the copper
pates of the Caukyas of eng and of ther vassas. Durng ths perod, some marked
dfferences are observabe n the ductus between the severa casses of documents.
The copper-pates of the Western Cauukyas pate ll, Co. l;32 mosty
show careessy drawn cursve sgns sopng towards the rght, and ther stone nscrptons
(pate ll, Co. ) uprght, carefuy made, etters, whch especay n the gatures
are abnormay arge. Wth the characters of the atter agree those of the nscrptons of the
Pastrakutas (pate lll, Cos. ll, lll)325 wth the excepton of the sgn-manua on the
Baroda copper-pate of Dhruva ll.820 ln ths roya sgnature and n the nscrptons of the
Cauukyas of eng (pate lll, Cos l , ), the etters are broader and shorter, and n
ths respect resembe very cosey the 0d-Kanarese.8 27
ln addton to the above mentoned rounded forms of , , ka and ra, whch become
constant durng ths perod, foowng etters deserve speca remarks :
(1) The very rare P (pate ll, 5, l ; compare aso the earer etter n the facs
me at l . v, 23, end), whch seems to be a modfcaton of the northern form of pate
l, 7, l, ll.
(2) The strongy cursve kha (pate lll, 12, lll- ), whch s dentca wth the 0d-
Kanarese etter, and whch accordng to Feet328 never occurs before about .D. 800, but
actuay appears n the cognate Paava nscrptons (pate ll, 9, lll ; compare beow,
31, B, ) aready snce the 7th century.
(3) The ca. whch from the 9th century begns to open n nca (pate ll, 1, l ;
pate lll, 19, lll, l ).
( ) The da (pate lll, 27, ll, l , ) the ta of whch begns to turn upwards snce
the 9th century.
(5) The ba, opened above (pate lll, 32, ), whch accordng to Feet 829 frst
occurs about . D. 850.
(6) The ma (pate ll, 31, ll ; lll, 3 , ll- ), the upper part of whch s drawn
towards the rght and paced neary on the same eve as the ower one, and whch thus
becomes the precursor of the 0d-Kanarese ma.
(7) The abnorma cursve a (pate ll, 3 , l), whch esewhere appears ony as
the second part of gatures (as n so, pate ll, , lll).
(8) The Matras, whch occasonay stand beow the consonant (as n dhe pate
lll, 28, ).
32 . Cf. the facsmes at l . v, 86, 88 ; v, 300 ; . BBP S. xv, 223 ff.
325. Cf. the facsmes at l . x, 61 ff., 0 , 166, 170 ; x, 126 ; xx, 70 ; p. Cam. ,
,80, 87, 92 (for the ast of these see aso l. v, 5 )/
326. See the facsme at l . xv, 200.
327. Cf. the facsmes at l . x, 92 ; x, 21 , 2 8 ; l. , 19 .
328. l. , 162 f. 329. l. , 163.
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(9) The vertca rSma, above fna m (pate ll, 1, lll; pate lll, 6, )
and fna n (pate lll, 5, ).
(10) The Dravdan ra (pate ll, 5, , lll ; 6, l ; pate lll, 7, ll, lll)
[66| and a (pate ll, 6, , lll; pate lll, 9, ll, ), whch frst appear n the 7th
century. The frst of them, ra, may possby represent two round ra, and a may be a
modfcaton of a a ke that n pate ll, 0, l , l. The occurrence of these sgns
proves that the Kanarese anguage had a terature aready n the 7th century.
C. The 0d-Kanarese aphabet
The thrd and ast varety of the Kanarese-Teugu aphabet, whch Burne cas the
transtona and Feet more appropratey 0d-Kanarese , does not dffer, much from the
modern Kanarese and Teugu scrpts. ln the east, t frst appears n the eng nscrp.
tons of the th century ; n the west, a tte earer, n a Ganga nscrpton of . D.
978 and n a not much ater Cauukya nscrpton 830. Some of ts characterstcs, ke the
openng of the oop of ma and of the head of va, appear however n the sgn-manua of
Dhruva ll, on the Baroda pates, mentoned above under B. The specmens of ths
scrpt331 n pate lll, among whch Cos. l, and ll date from the th century, Co.
lll, from the 12th, and Co. l (accordng to atzsch, Teugu) from the 1 th. show the
gradua progress very dstncty.
0ne of the most characterstc marks of 0d-Kanarese conssts n the anges over
a Matrkas whch do not bear superscrbed vowe-sgns. These anges, whch n Co. l
resembe those of the modern Teugu and n Cos. ll, lll, those of the modern Kanarese
probaby are cursve representatves of wedges, and have been nvented because the atter
dd not sut the wrtng wth the . /// . . Snce the 6th century, they occur more or ess
frequenty n snge nscrptons from other dstrcts, such as Guhasena s grant of .D.
559-60 (pate ll, Co. l ) and Pavkrt s hoe Prasast882, sometmes together wth
wedges. But t s ony n ths aphabet that they become a constant dstnctve feature.
The most mportant among the changes n the severa sgns are :
(1) The openng of the heads of (pate lll, 8, l, lll), of ca (16, l-l ), of bha
(33, l-l , whch n Co. l becomes dentca wth ba by the connecton of the two
base-strokes), and of va (38, ll-l ), as we as of the oop of ma (3 , l, lll) and of
the rght mb of cha (17, l-l ; compare aso Co. ).
330. Burgess and Feet, Pa, Sanskrt, and 0d-Canarese nscrptons, os. 211,21 ;
see aso for the Ganga record, l . v, 102.
331. Cf. aso the facsmes at l . x, 7 ; xv, 56 ; l. . 26, 88, 19 , 228 ; p. Cam.
, 116, 121 ;B. SPWl. o. 10, 103; and . P S. 1891, 135 (the orgna of Prosep s
Kstna aphabet, whch s archac and retrograde : , ka, ra, a).
332. l . v, 2 1 ; l. v, 6.
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(2) The cursve ooped forms of , (1, 2, lM ), and of /, 7 (3, , l-l ;
compare ther precursors n 3, ll, and , lll, ), and of sa (39, ll-l ), the centra cross
bar of whch s connected wth the curved end of the rght sde.
(3) The converson of the ong drawn oops of ka (11, l-l ) and of ra (36, l-l ),
nto much smaer crces.
( ) The cursve roundng off of the anges of na (2 , l-l ), na (29, l-l ), and sa
( 1, l-l ).
(5) The deveopment of new oops or rngets to the rght of the top of P (7, l ), na
(15, lll, l ) and ./a (18, l-l ; compare Co. ).
(6) The excusve empoyment of the meda u turnng upwards on the rght (see,
for nstance, pu, 30, l ), whch n earer tmes s restrcted to gu, tu, bhu and su, but ater
appears aso n su (pate lll, 1, ll, lll).
(7) Fnay, the appearance of the nusvara on the ne (see ram, 36, v), whch cannot
be a survva from ancent tmes, but must be an nnovaton ntended to make the nes more
equa (compare above, 26, , 5,)338.
30 The ater K nga Scrpt: Pates ll and lll
[67| Ths scrpt has been found htherto ony on the copper-pates of the Ganga
kngs of Kanganagara, the modern Kangapattanam n Gan|am, whch n oden tmes
was the resdence of the Ceta kng Kharavea and hs successors (see 18, above). The
dates of these documents run from the year 87 of the Gangeya era. Though ts exact
begnnng has not yet been determned, Feet has shown that the odest Ganga grants
probaby beong to the 7th century33 .
The sgns of these documents resembe, up to the Gangeya year 183, party the
etters of the Centra-lndan scrpt ( above, 28, B) and party those of the western varety,
whch exhbts the meda au, of the |anta nscrptons (above, 28, ), and they show
ony a few pecuar forms. specmen of the Kanga scrpt of the atter knd has been
gven n pate ll, Co. l , from the Ccacoe grant of the Gangeya year 1 8, n whch
ony the Grantha-ke (2, l ), and the ga (10, l ) and sa (36, l ) wth curves on
the eft, dffer greaty from the correspondng aabh etters. The aphabet of the
cyutapuram pates885 of the Gangya year 87, whch exhbts anguar forms wth sod
box-heads, cosey resembes the Centra-lndan wrtng ; but ts na s dentca wth that
of the modern agar. The Ccacoe pates336 of the Gangeya year 128 show n genera
the same type ; but they offer the ordnary ooped na of the north and west, and the ooped
ta of the archac Grantha (22, ff.). Fnay, the Ccacoe pates3 of Gangeya year 183
333. Cf. ths paragraph B. SlP. 15 ff. 33 . l . x, 27 ; xv, 133.
335. . , 128. 236. l . x, 120 ; Cf. xv, 131 f. 337. l. , 132.
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108
come cose to the scrpt of pate ll, Co. ; but ther na s agan tha t of the atef agar,
and ther meda a mosty stand above the ne, as n varous northern and aso Grantha
documents of the 7th and 8th centures.
ln the grants of the 3rd and th centures of the Gahgeya era, and n a ate undated
nscrpton, the mxture of the characters s much greater, and the same etter s often
expressed by greaty dfferng sgns. ln pate lll, Co. , from the Ccacoe pates
of the Gangeya year 51, that s 251 38e, and n Col. l, from the zagapatam pates
of the year 25 , and n Co. ll, from the amanda pates of the year 30 , we fnd
a northern ,- (1, 2, - ll), / (3, l), U (5, ), ka ( , l, ll), kha (12, l), hga (15,
), nka (15, ll), |a (18, ll), na (n |na, 19, ), da (22, ll), na (2 , l, ll), dha (28,
5, l), na ( 8, ), and pra ( 7, ll). The oher etters are of southen orgn, and beong
party to the mdde Kanarese, party to the mdde Grantha, or are pecuar deveopments.
The restrcted space avaabe n pate lll has made t mpossbe to enter a the varants
for each etter. But the three dfferent forms of|a (18, 6, and 7, ) show how very great
the varatons are.
St stronger are the mxture and varatons n the Ccacoe pates of the Gangeya
year 351 839 and n the undated grant of a|rahasta from the th century (Kehorn)8 0,
nether of whch s represented n our pate. ln the frst-named document each etter
has, accordng to Feet, at east two, but sometmes three or four forms. The ma|orty
of the sgns beong to the southern agar. But 0d-Kanarese and ate Grantha sgns kewse
occur. ln a|rahasta s grant there are, accordng to Kehorn s cacuaton, 320 agar
etters and 10 southern ones of dfferent types, and each etter agan has at east two and
sometmes [68| four or more forms. Kehorn ponts out that the wrter has shown a certan
art n the groupng of the varants; and he s no doubt rght n hntng that the mxture
s due to the vanty of roya scrbes, who wshed to show that they were acquanted wth
a number of aphabets. For the same reason, the wrter of the Ccacoe pates of the
Gangeya year 183 has used three dfferent systems of numera notaton n expressng the
date (see beow, 3 ). The kngdom of the Gangas of Kanga ay between the dstrcts
n whch the agar and the Kanarese-Teugu scrpts were used, and t was not far from
the terrtory of the Grantha. lts popuaton was probaby mxed, and used a these
scrpts 3 1, as we as, n earer tmes, those empoyed n the oder western and Centra-
338. The words sta-dvaya probaby have been eft out by mstake after samvatsara.
339. l . xv, 10 f. ; utzsch s undoubtedy correct readng of the date has been
adopted by Feet n hs Dynastes of the Kanarese Dstrcts, Bombay Gazetteer, o. l,
Part ll, p. 297, note 8, the prnted sheets of whch l owe to the author s courtesy. Feet
decares ths nscrpton, as we as those represented n pate lll, Co. , ll to be
suspcous, n my opnon wthout suffcent reasons.
3 0. l. ,220.
3 1. The use of northern characters s proved by the Buguda pates, L , 1 ; cf.
aso B. SlP. 53, and pate 22 b.
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109
lndan nscrptons. The professona cerks and wrters of course had to master a
the aphabets.
31. The Grantha phabet : Pates ll and lll
. The archac varety
For the hstory of the Sanskrt aphabets n the Tam dstrcts durng the perod
after . D. 350, we have ony the Sanskrt nscrptons of the Paavas, Coas and Pandyas
from the eastern coast, among whch ony those of the frst-named dynasty can ay cam
to a hgher antquty. Correspondng nscrptons from the western coast are htherto
wantng. For ths reason, and because ony a sma number of eastern documents have
been pubshed wth good facsmes, t s as yet mpossbe to gve a compete vew of
the gradua deveopment of the etters.
The most archac forms of the Sanskrt scrpts of the Tam dstrcts, whch usuay
are cassed as Grantha , are found on the copper-pates of the Paava kngs of Paakkada
and ( or) Dasanapura (pate ll, Cos. , l) from the 5th or the 6th century ( ),
wth whch the ancent nscrptons, os. 1 to 16, of the Dharmara|aratha (pate ll, Co.
ll)3 S cosey agree. These nscrptons, together wth a few others 3 , exhbt what
may be caed the archac Grantha, the atest exampe of whch occurs n the Bfuam nscrp
ton, ncsed, accordng to Feet s newest researches :1K, by the paava arasmha l, durng
bs expedton aganst the Cauukya Puakesn ll ( . D. 609 and about 6 2) n the second
quarter of the 7th century : and t seems to have gone out soon after, as the Kuram pates
of arsmha s son Paramesvara l show etters of a much more advanced type. lt s met
wth aso n the stone nscrpton from amhu n ava ; see l . v, 356.
The characters of the archac Grantha n genera agree wth those of the archac
Kanarese-Teugu (see above, 29, ), but shew a few pecuartes whch reman constant
n the ater varetes, thus :
(1) The tha thc centra dot of whch s converted nto a oop,, attached to the rght
sde (pate ll, 23, l); compare the tha of Co , where the straght stroke of
the Kanarese-Teugu scrpt appears.
(2) The sa wth the cross-bar converted nto a curve or oop and attached to the
rght sde (pate ll, 36, - 1l, 5, ll); compare aso the cursve sa of the
western scrpt, mentoned above, 28, , 7.
3 2. l . v, 50, 15 ; cf. B. SlP. 36, note 2.
3 3. l owe the facsmes of ths nscrpton and of those used for p. ll, Co. l ,
and p. lll, Co ll to utzsch s kndness ; see now hs Sll, , part 3.
3 . l . x, 100, o. 82, 102, o. 85 ; x, 8 ; . , 397.
3 5. Dynastes of the Kanarese Dstrcts, Bombay Gazetteer, o. l Part ll, p. 328.
15
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110
(3) Thfe sa wfhthe cross-bar treated smary (pate , 37, ) ; compare the sa
of Co. l, whch shows the oder form.
The characters pf pate ll, C,o . ,,, l, show ,no coser connecton wth those
of the Prakrt nscrptons of the Paavas, dscussed above n 20, D.
: t , ... . v
l lT CT: -; r - ..
, B. The mdde varety
The .earest nscrpton of .the much more advanced forms of the second varety or
the mdde Grantha, s found oh the Kuram copperpate (pate ll, Co. l ) of the
regn ofParamesvara l, the ad ensar| ofhe Western- Cauukya kramadtya l ( .D. 655-
680) w . [69|- Compared -wth ths document, whch appears to offer a rea cerk s scrpt,
the monumenta nscpton of the Kaasanatha tempe (pate f, Co. lll, but
accord|ng.to Fee,t 8 7,by Sarasm,ha, ll, the son of Paramesvua l, s retrograde, and shows
more .archac forms fp| . severa , paeographcay mportant etters. 0n the other hand,
the Kasakud copper-pates (pate lll, Co.- lll), ncsed n the tme of andvarman
who succeeded Mahendra lll, the second son of arasmha ll, and warred wth the
Western Cauukya kram d|t| t ( . D. 733-7 9) s 8, agree more cosey wth the Kuram
pates, and offer,, besdes sone. archac forms, aso n.ueh more advanced ones.
The most mportant nnovatons, ether constanty or occasonay observabe n
ths second varety of the Grantha, are :
(1) The deveopment of a second vertca n , , ka and ra (pate ll, 1,2, 8, 33,
lll, l ; pate lll, 1, 2, 11, 36, lll), as we as n meda u and u (pate l, 31, 38,
l ; pate lll, 3 , 0, lll), out of the ancent hook, compare the transtona forms
n the facsmes at l . x, 100 ; 102.
(2) The connecton of one of the dots of 7 wth the upper curved ne (pate ll, 3,
lll, l ; pate lll, 3, lll, a, b).
(3) The openng of the top of (pate ll, 5, l ), whch however shows cosed
up-forms n Co. lll, and n pate lll, 8, lll.
( ) The deveopment of a oop to the eft of the foot of kha, and the openng up of
the rght sde of the etter (pate ll, 9, lll), as n the Kanarese-Teugu scrpt (see
above, 29, B, 2).
(5) The upward turn of the Serf at the eft-hand nes of ga and sa (pate ll, 10,
36, l ; pate lll, 13, 39, lll ; not n pate ll, Co. lll).
(6) The openng up of the oops of cha (pate lll, 17, lll), and perhaps aso n
the ndstnct cha of the Kuram pates, , ne 5.
3 6. utzsch, S1l. , 1 S. ; Feet op. ct., (precedng note), 322 f.
3 7. Feet, op. ct., 329 f. 3 8. Feet, op. ct., 323 ff.
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(7) The transposton of the vertca of |a to the rght end of the top-bar, and the
converson of the centra bar nto a oop connected wth the owest bar, (pate ll, lS,
l ; pate lll, 15, l ; pate lll, 18, lll ; not n pate ll, Co. lll).
(8) The ncpent openng up of the tops of dha and tha (pate ll, 23, 25, lll,
l ; pate lll, 26, 28, lll).
(9) The openng up of the top of ha, and the transposton of the orgna top-ne
to the eft of the eft-hand vertca (pate ll, 29, l ; pate lll, 32, lll ; not n
pate ll, Co. lll).
(10) The adopton of the ater northern bha (see above, 2 , , 2 ), or the deveop
ment of an exacty smar sgn (pate ll, 30, l ; pate lll, 33, lll; not n pate
ll. Co. lll).
(11) The combnaton of the eft-hand vertca of sa wth the eft end of the od
sde-mb, and of the rght end of the sde-mb wth the base-stroke (pate ll, 38, l ;
a transtona form n Co. ll, and a dfferent cursve form n pate lll, 1, lll).
(12) The frequent separaton of meda a, e, a, o, au, from the Matrka (consonant
n pate lll, Co. lll), as we as the use of the a standng above the ne, as n the
northern aphabet of ths perod and n the Centra-lndan scrpt (compare pate ll, 17,
19, 21, 31-33, lll ; 8, 2 , l ).
(13) The expresson of the rama (as n the Kanarese-Teugu scrpt) by a vertca
stroke above, or n the Kasakud pate aso to the rght of, the fna consonant (pate ll,
1, lll ; pate lll, 7, ; ; and compare the facsmes).
(1 ) The transposton of the nusvara to the rght of the Matrka (pate ll, 38,
l ) beow the eve of the top-ne, as n the Kanarese-Teugu scrpt
(15) The occasona deveopment of sma anges, open above, at the tops of the
vertcas, for the eft part of whch a dot usuay appears n pate lll, Co. lll.
The fuy-deveoped and very constant characterstcs of the aphabet of the Kuram
pates make t probabe that they have not arsen wthn the perod of twenty to thrty
years, whch es between the ssue of the Kuram grant and the ncson of the much more
archac Badara nscrpton of arasmha l (see above, under ). ery key the Kuram
aphabet had a onger hstory.
C. The Transtona Grantha
The seres of the pubshed databe Paava nscrptons of the 8th century ends for
the present wth the Kasakud pates ; and facsmes of document of the next foowng
centures [ 70 | are not accessbe to me. l am, therefore, unabe to exacty fx the tme
when the thrd or transtona varety of the Grantha, Burne s Coa or mdde Grantha,
came nto use, whch s found n the nscrptons from the regn of the Bana kng
kramadtya8 9 about .D. 1150 (pate lll, Co. l ) and of Sundara-Pandya,8 .D.
3 9. l. , 75. 350. l. , 8.
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1250 (pate l l, Co. ). as we as n other documents. 851 lt woud however appear,
both from the Grantha sgns occurrng n the Ganga nscrptons (pate lll, Cos. l, ll
and from ftrnd s Co a-Grantha aphabet.of .D. 08 852, that the new deveopments
orgnated-party towards the end of the 8th century.and party,n the 9th and 10th, about
the same tme when the 0d-Kanarese scrpt (above, 29, C;) was formed.
The -most mportant changes, whch the transtona Grantha sh ws, are as foows:
)(() tre suppresson of th ast remanng dot 6T/ 0pate lll, 3, l , ;
compare 3, lll, a).
(pate ll, 6, l ).
() the formaton of a st more cursve /8, l ) out of the Kuram etter
. ... r , , . r - -)( ,.:
b p) The formaton of a st more cursve /a .(pate lll, 12, l , ), cosey
resembng the ater, Kanarese-Teugu sgn (pate lll, 12, lll ff.), out of the etter of
pate ll, 9, lll.; ,. , m , y ,
( ) The deveopment of a snge or doube, curve to the eft of gha (pate lll, 1 ,
l , ), ., ._,
(5) The openng up of the top of ca, and the converson of ts eft sde nto an
acute ange (pate lll, 16, l , ).
(6) The addton of a curve to, the rght end of da (pate lll, 22, l , ).
(7) The deveopment of an addtona oop n na (pate lll, 2 , l , ), n
accordance wth the practce of the Tam aphabet (see beow, 32, ).
(8) The compete openng up of the tops of tfm and dm (pate lll, 26, 28. l , )
(9) The deveopment of a curve at eft sde of pa (pate lll, 30, l , ).
(10) The cosng upofthetop of ma (pate lll, 3 , l , ), found aready n
the Ganga nscrpton of about . D. 775 (pate lll, 6, l).
(11) The suppresson of the crce or oop on the rght sde of ya (pate lll, 35,
l , ), whereby the etter obtans a very archac appearance.
(12) The openng up of the top of va, and the addton of a curve to ts eft sde
(pate lll, 38, l , ).
(13) The compete separaton of meda a,e,a, o, from the Matrkas, and the
formaton of a separate sgn for the second haf of au, consstng of two sma curves wth
a vertca on the rght.
lt s worthy of note that the ater aphabet of Co. has some more archac sgns
than the earer one of Col. l . The reason no doubt s that the atter mtates the hand
of the cerks of the roya offce, whe the former shows the monumenta forms, suted for
a pubc budng. the Grantha nscrptons mtate characters wrtten wth a stus.
351. Cf. facsmes at l . v, 1 2 ; v, 27 ; x, 6 ( l. , 79 f.) ; l. , 228 ; p.
Cam. , 166 ; ll. 2. p. 2 ; the ast nscrpton and the ast but two are oder than the
th century.
352. B. SlP. p. 13.
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113
32. The Tam and atteuttu phabets : Pate lll
. The Tam
The Tam, as we as ts southern and western cursve varety, the atteuttu or
round-hand , dffers from the Sanskrt aphabet by the absence not ony of the gatures,
but aso of the sgns for the asprates, for the medae (expressed by the correspondng
tenues), for the sbants (among whch the paata one s expressed by ca), for the sprant
ha, for the nusvara and for the sarga, as we as by the deveopment of new etters for
fna n, and for ra, a and a, whch atter three characters do not resembe those for the
correspondng sounds n the Kanarese-Teugu scrpt Tht great smpcty of the aph; bet
fuy agrees wth the theores of the Tam grammarans, and s expaned by the pecuar
phonetcs of the Tam anguage. Lke a the oder Dravdan daects, the Tam possesses
no asprates and no sprant. Further, t has noy o, and ony one sbant, whch, accordng
to Cadwe, es between sa, sa and ca, and whch, f doubed, becomes a dstnct cca.
[71| The use of separate sgns for the tenues and medae was unnecessary on account of
ther mutua convertbty. The Tam uses n the begnnng of words ony tenues, and n
the mdde ony doube tenues or snge medae. ence, a words and affxes begnnng wth
gutturas, nguas, dentas and abas, have doube forms853. knowedge of these smpe
rues makes mstakes, regardng the rea phonetc vaue of ka, ta, a and pa, mpossbe.
The use of gatures probaby has been dscarded because the Tam aows even n oan
words no other combnatons of consonants but repettons of the same sound, and because
t seemed more convenent to use n these cases the rama85 .
The occurrence of sgns for the Dravdan quds, whch, though the sounds corres
pond wth those of the oder Kanarese and Teugu, dffer from the characters of the
Kanarese-Teugu scrpt, ndcates th-t the Tam aphabet s ndependent of the atter and
has been derved from a dfferent source. utzsch s mportant dscovey of the Kuram
pates355, wth a arge secton n the Tam scrpt and anguage of the 7th century, confrms
ths nference. The Tam aphabet of these pates agrees ony n part wth ther Grantha,
and many of ts etters offer characterstcs of the northern aphabets.
Specfc Grantha forms occur n U (pate lll, 5, l ; compare pate ll, . l );
n 0 (pate lll, 9, l ; compare Co. ) ; n ta (pate lll, 25-28, l ; compare
353. Cadwe, Comparatve Grammar of the Dravdan Languages, 21-27.
35 . Dfferenty Burne, SlP. , 7 ff., who consders the atteuttu as ndependent
of the Brahm, but kewse of Semtc orgn, and decares the Tam aphabet to be the
resut of a Brahmanca adaptaton of the Grantha etters to the phonetca system of the
atteuttu. Ths vew has aready been charactersed as hardy n accordance wth the
facts . Cadwe), op. ct., 9.
355. Sll. , 1 7 ; cf. , p. 12; the characters of the aamCave nscrpton, op. ct.,
2, p. 10, fuy agree.
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11
pate ll, 22, l ) ; n na (pate lll, 29, l ; compare pate ll, 26, l ) ; n ya
(pate lll, 35, l ; compare pate ll, 32, l ); n meda u n ku (pae lll, 1 ,
l; compare , lll) ; n meda e (n te, pate lll, 28, l ; compare khe, pate ll,
9, l ) ; and n the vertca rama, whch mosty stands above the voweess conso
nant but to the rght of n andr (compare , pate lll, 15, l ; m, 3 ; /, 3 ; n, 9).
The Tam a (for nstance, na, pate lll, 29, l) appears to be a pecuar dervatve
from the Grantha a, the two Matras havng been paced, not one above the other, but
one behnd the other.
Unmodfed or ony sghty modfed northern forms appear n , and (pate lll,
1, 2, l), wth the snge vertca wthout a curve at the end (compare pate l , 1, 2,
l S.), and wth the oop on the eft, whch s found n recenty dscovered nscrptons from
Swat as we as n the Grantha ; n ka (pate lll, 11-1 , l ; compare pate l , 7,1 ff.)
n ca (pate lll, 16-18, l; compare pate lll, 11, lll) ; n ta (pate lll, 20-22, l;
compare pate l , 17, ll, lll) ; n pa (pate lll, 30-33, l; compare pate l , 27,
l ff.) ; n ra (pate lll, 36, l ; compare pate l , 33, l ff.); n a (pate lll, 37, l ;
compare pate l , 3 , ll ff.) ; n the meda u ofpu, mu, yu, vu (pate lll, 32, 0, l;
compare pate l , 27, ll) ; and of ru (pate lll, 36, l; compare pate l , 33, lll) ;
and n the meda u of u and; u (pate lll, , 6, l ; comparers, pate l , 27, l ).
The (pate lll, 15, l) s more strongy modfed, as t has been formed out of
the anguar northern na (pate l , 11,1 ff.) by the addton of a stroke rsng upwards on
the rght ; and the ma (pate lll, 3 , l) s probaby a cursve dervatve from the so-
caed Gupta ma (pate l , 31,1 ff.).
The sgns for the Dravdan quds, too, may be consdered as deveopments of
northern sgns. The upper porton of the [a (pate lll, 3, , l) ooks ke a sma
cursve northern a, to whch a ong vertca, descendng downwards, has been added on
the rght. The ra (pate lll 7, 8, l) may consst of a sma santng northern ra and a
hook added to the top. nd the a (pate lll, 5, 6, l) s perhaps derved from a
northern a (pate l , 0, ll), the end of the horzonta ne beng ooped and connected
wth the tte pendent stroke beow ; compare aso the ooped a (read erroneousy dha)
n the maravat nscrpton, . P S. 1891, pate at p. 1 2.
The orgn of the remanng sgns s doubtfu. Some, such as va (pate lll, 38- 0,
l) and meda a (see ka, pate lll, 12, l), occur both n northern and n southern
scrpts. 0thers are modfcatons of etters common to the north and the south. The fna
n (pate lll, 9, l) s evdenty the resut of a sght transformaton of both the northern
and the southern na wth two hooks [72| (pate lll, 20, , ; pate l , 21, ll f. ; pate
ll, 21,1 ff.) ; and from ths comes the Tam na (r ate lll, 2 , l) by the addton
of another curve. The parent of the pecuar (pate lll, 8, l) may be ether that of
pate l , 5, ff.. or that of pate ll, 5, lll. Smary, the anguar meda u n tu
(pate lll, 27, l) and n ru (pate lll, 8, l) s due to a pecuar modfcaton of
the curve, rsng upwards on the rght, whch s found n connecton both wth northern
and wth southern etters (see su, pate l , 36, 11l, ll and pate ll, 36, ll, l ). Fnay,
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115
the gre atycursve /(pate lll, 3, l) appears to be the resut of a pecuar combnaton
of three curves, whch repaced the ancent dots. But an/ of ths knd has htherto not
been traced.
Ths anayss of the Tam aphabet of the 7th century makes t probabe that t s
derved from a northern aphabet of the th qr 5th century, whch n the course of tme
r , .. r . t
was strongy nfuenced by the Grantha, used n the same dstrcts for wrtng Sanskrt.
. |
The next odest specmen of the .Tam, scrpt, whch s found n the Kasakud
pate856 of about .D. 7 0 (not represented n pate lll), shows no essenta change
except n the adopton of the ater Tam ma. ,. ,,
But the nscrptons of the 10th, Uh and ater centures 7 (pate lll, Cos. ll-
) offer a new varety | whch s more strongy modfed through the nfuence of the
Grantha. The ta, pa and va have now the pecuar Grantha forms. Besdes, n the th
century begns the deveopment ef the tte strokes, hangng down on the eft of the tops
of ka, na, ca, ta and na. ln the 15th century (pate l, Cos. l , ) these pendants
are fuy formed, and -a shows a oop on the eft: lt-s worthy of note that n the ater
Tam nscrptons the use of the rama. (Pu ) frst becomes-rarer-and fnay ceases, 858
whe n the qute modern wr.ng the rama s agan marked by a dot.
; B. The ateuttu (
.
mong the atteuttu nscrptons, t h SsLsanas of. Bhaskara-Pavvarman n favour
of the ews (p. lll, Cos. l, ll) and of- the Syrans of Kocn, as we as the
Trune copper-pates of the same kngSao, have been pubshed wth facsmes. Trustng
to rather weak arguments, Burne ascrbes .the frst-named two documents to the 8th
/
century.8 1 But the Grantha etters occurrng n the Sasana of the ews beong to the
thrd and atest varety of that aphabet, and the agar sa or (probaby for xr h) at the
end of the document, to whch utzsch has caed attenton,862 resembes the northern
forms of the 10th and th centures (fcomp are pate , 3 9, 7, lll; 8, ).
From a paeographca pont of vew, the atteuttu may be descrbed as a cursve
scrpt, whch bears the same reaton to the Tam as the modern northern aphabets of
356. Sll , ps. 1 , 15.
357. Cf. the facsmes of 10th. and th. centures at l. , 28 ; Sll. , ps. 2- ; of
the 15th. century at Sll. .p. 5; uncertan at Sll. , p. 8; l . v, 1 2 ; aphabet, B.
SlP. ps. 18, 19.
358. Cf. enkayya, l. , 278 ff.
359. Madras ourn. Lt. Soc. x, 2, 1 ; l . , 333 ; B. SlP. p. 32 a ; . , 72 ;
aphabet, l . , 229 ; B. SlP. p. 17.
360. l . xx, 292. 361. l . , 229 ; B. SlP 9 ; dsputed by utzsch, l . xx, 289.
362. l. , 67.
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116
the cerks and merchants to ther orgnas, e.g., the Mod of the Marathas to the Babodh
and the Takar of, the Dpgras to the Sarada.86 Wth the excepton of the 7, probaby
borrowed from the Grantha, a ts etters are made wth a snge stroke from the eft to
the rght, and are mosty nc|ned towards the eft. Severa among them, such as the na
(pate lll, 15, l) wth the curve and hook on the eft, the va wth the open top and
the hook on the eft (pate lll, 38, l, ll ; compare Cos. ll-. ) and the round
ra (pate lll, 5, 6, l, ll ; compare 7, ll- ), show the characterstcs of the
second varety of the Tam of the th and ater centures. nd wth the usage of the
ater Tam nscrptons agrees the constant omsspn of the r ma. Some other
characters, such as the round ta (pate l l, 20-23, l, ll; compare Co. l),
the ma wth the curve on the rght -(pate l, 3 , l, ll ; compare Co. l), and
the ya wth the oop on the eft (pate U , 35, l, ll ; compare Co. l), seem ta
go back to the forms of the earer Tam- nd three, the rounded U (pate lll, 5,
l), the ponted (pate lll, 8, l and t,he na wth a snge notch (pate ll, 26, l,
ll), possby show characterstcs datng from a st earer perod. Perhaps t may be
assumed that the round-hand arose aready before the 7th century, but was modfed n,
the course of tme by the further deveopment of the Tam and the Grantha scrpts.
0wngng to the sma [73|, number, of the accessbe nscrptons, t.s con|ecture s
however by no means certan.
The transformaton of the attekttu ha (pate lll, 11-1 , l, ll , whch seems,
to be derved from a ooped form, s anaogous to that of the fgure n the decma
system of numera notaton (compare pate l , B, , 1l, and l ). The curous ta
(pate lll, 25-28, l, ll) has been deveoped by the change of the oop, of the Tam
etter (compare Cos. ll, lLl),nto a notch and the proongaton of the ta up to the
head. The st more extraordnary na (pate lll, 29, l) may be expaned as a cursve
dervatve of the ater Tam na wth the stroke hangng down from the top.
l. UM P L 0T Tl0
33: The umeras of the Kharost : Pate
t
ln the Kharosth nscrptons of the Sakas, of Gondopherres, and qf the Kusanas,
from the 1st century B.C. and the 1st and 2nd centures .l)., as we as n other probaby
363. Cf. above, 25, note 270.
36 . Cf. . C. Bayey, The Geneaogy of the Modern umeras, . SB (n. s.), xv,
335 ff. ; xv, 1 ff.
365. The sgns of Co. l have been drawn accordng to S. l, 3, p. 1 ( . 1890,
l, p. 15) ; . SB. lv, p. 10 ; Feet s photograph of the Taxa copperpate ( l. v, 56);
and a geatne copy of the Wardak vase, kndy presented by 0denberg.
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ater documents, we fnd a system of numera notaton (pate l, Co. l )8 5 whch
Dowson frst expaned wth the hep of the Taxa copper-pate866.
lts fundamenta sgns are : (a) 0ne, two and three vertca strokes for 1, 2, 3.
(b) n ncned cross for . (c) sgn, smar to the Kharostb , for 10. (d) doube
curve, ookng ke a cursve combnaton of two 10 (B L ), for 20. (e) sgn,
resembng a Brahm ta or tra, for 100, to the rght of whch stands a vertca stroke,
whereby the whoe becomes equvaent to 1C.
The numbers yng between these eements are expressed by groups, n whch the
addtona ones nvaraby are paced on the eft. Thus, for 5 we have ( ) 1 ; for 6,
( )2; for 8, ( ) ; for 50, 20( )20( ) 10; for 60, 20 ( ) 20 ( ) 20 ; 70,20( )
20( )20 ( ) 10. Groups formed of the sgns for 10 ( ) 1 to 10 ( ) 9, and 20 ( ) 1 to
20 ( ) 9, and so forth, are used to express the numeras 11 to 19, and 21 to 29, &c.
The hgher numeras yng beyond 100 are expressed accordng to the same prncpe;
thus, 103 s 100 ( ) 3 or 1C l. The sgn for 200 conssts of 100, preceded on the rght by
two vertca strokes. nd the hghest known number s llC l , whch
means 27 8 .
The few numera sgns n soka edcts of Shahbazgarh and Mansehra (pate l,
Co. lll) 808 show that n the 3rd century B.C. the Kharosth system of numera notaton
dffered from the ater one at east n one mportant pont. Both n Shahbazgarh, where
the sgns for 1, 2, , 5 occur, and n Mansehra, whch offers 1, 2, 5, the ncned cross for
s absent, and s expresssed by four parae vertca strokes and 5, by fve. lt s as yet
not ascertanabe, how the other sgns ooked n the 3rd century B.C.
Burne and others 309 have stated ong ago that the Kharosth numeras are of
Semtc orgn. nd t may now be added that probaby they have been borrowed from
the ramaeans, and that, wth the excepton of the cross-shaped , they have been
ntroduced together wth the ramac etters. ccordng to [7 | utng s tabe of the
ancent ramac numeras, 1 to 10 are marked870, as n the soka edcts, by vertca
strokes, whch however, contrary to the lndan practce, are dvded nto groups of three.
365. The sgns of Co. l have been drawn accordng to S. l, , p. 1 ( . 1890,
l, p. 15) ; . SB. lv, p. 10 ; Feet s photograph of the Taxa copper-pate ( l. v,
56) ; and a geatne copy of the Wardak vase, kndy presented by 0denberg.
366. . P S. xx, 228.
367. Thus Cunnngham, Senart, op. ct., 17, reads 8 , doubtng the exstence of 200
(whch, however, s pan n the autotype of- . SB. lv, p. 10), whe Barth reads 28 .
There s at east one unpubshed nscrpton wth 200, and, accordng to a communca
ton from Boch, aso one wth 300.
368. Drawn accordng to Burgess mpresson of Shahbazgarh edcts l-lll, lll.
369. B. SlP. 6 ; . SBxxx, 150. 370. abatasche lnschrften, 96 f.
16
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The Kharosth 10 comes cose to that of the Tema nscrpton, , and the 20
resembes the sgn of the Satrap cons, , whch s aso found n the papyrus Bacas371
(5th century B.C.), and somewhat modfed n the papyrus atcanus. Both the ramaeans
and the Phoencans used the sgns for 10 and 20 n the same manner as the ndus, n
order to express 30, 0, and so forth.
For the Kharosth 100, utng s tabe offers no correspondng ramac sgn, and
that gven n hs edton of the Saqqarah nscrpton372 s, as he nforms me, not certan.
ence, there reman ony the Phoencan symbos, 9| t, w hch are sutabe for
comparson. But the cose reatonshp of Phoencan and ramac wrtng makes t not
mprobabe that the atter, too, possessed n earer tmes a 100, standng uprght.
The Kharosth practce of prefxng the sgns for 1 and 2 to the 100 s found n a the
Semtc systems of numera notaton.
The ncned cross, used to express the n the ater Kharosth nscrptons, s found
ony n abataean nscrptons ncsed after the begnnng of our era, and s used there
ony rarey for the expresson of the hgher unts. The ate occurrence of the sgn both
n lndan and n Semtc nscrptons makes t probabe that both the ndus and the
Semtes ndependenty nvented ths cursve combnaton of the orgna four strokes.
3 . The umeras of the Brahm : Pate l
. The ancent etter-numeras 1
ln the Brahm nscrptons and con-egends we fnd a pecuar system of numera
notaton, the expanaton of whch s chefy due to . Stevenson, . Thomas, .
Cunnngham, Bhau Da| and Bhagvana lndra|37 . Up to the year .D. 59 -95 t s
used excusvey, and ater together wth the decma system375. lt appears aso excusvey
n the Bower MS and n the other MSS from Kashgar370, as we as together wth the
Decma system, chefy n the pagnaton, n the od MSS of the anas of Western
371. Corp. lnscr.Sem.P. ram., 1 5 (ponted out by utng).
373. Cf. Bhagvana, l . v, 2 ff. ; B. SlP. 59 ft, and p. 23 ; . C. Bayey, 0n the
Geneaogy of the Modern umeras, . SB (n. s.), xv, 335 ff. ; xv, 1 ff.
372. Paaeographca Socety, 0r. Ser., p. 63.
375. Cf. beow, 2 , B. The atest epgraphc date n etter-numeras s probaby
the evar year 259 n Benda s ourney n epa, 81, o. 6 ; cf. aso F. Gl (Cll.3),
37 . . BBP S. v, 35, and p. 18 ; P. l . , 80 ff. ; C. SP. , Lll, and . SB.
xxxt, 38 ; . BBP S. v, 225 ff. ; the resuts of the ast artce beong chefy to Bhagv
ana lndra|, though hs name s not mentoned.
209,notel. .
376. See oerne, The Bower MS ; W KM. v, 260 ff. The Bower MS occ asonay
has the decma 3.
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lnda and of the Bauddhas of epa as ate as the 16th century377. nd the Maayaam
MSS have preserved t to the present day378.
ln ths system, 1 to 3 are expressed by horzonta strokes or cursve combnatons of
such ; to 9, 10 to 90, 100, and 1000, each by a separate sgn (usuay a Matrka or a
gature); the ntermedate and the hgher numbers by groups or gatures of the
fundamenta sgns. ln order to express fgures consstng of tens and unts, or of hundreds,
tens and unts, and so forth, the symbos for the smaer numbers are paced ether
unconnected to the rght of, or vertcay beow, the hgher ones. The frst prncpe s
foowed n a nscrptons and on most cons, the second on a few cons879 and n the
pagnaton of a manuscrpts. ln order to express 200 and 2000, one short stroke s
added to the rght of 100 and 1000. Smary, 300 and 3000 are formed by the addton
of two strokes to the same eements. [75| Lgatures of 100 and 1000 wth the sgns for
to 9 and o 70, stood for 00 to 900 and 000 to 70000 (the hghest known fgure),
and the smaer fgures are connected wth the rght sde of the arger ones.
The ana MSS offer, however, an excepton n the case of 00. ln the pagnaton
of ther MSS, both the anas and the Bauddhas use mosty the decma fgures for 1 to 3
(pate l , , Cos. l - l), more rarey the ksaras (eka), dv, tr, or sva (1), st
(2), sr (3)380, the three syabes of the we-known Mangaa, wth whch wrtten
documents frequenty begn. 0ccasonay the same documents combne the nought and
other fgures of the decma system381 wth the ancent numera symbos. Smar mxtures
occur aso n some ate nscrptons. Thus, the year 183 of Devendravarman s Ccacoe
pates s gven frst n words and next expressed by the symbo for 100, the decma 8, and
the syabe o, .e., oka 3 (see beow, 35, ), whe the day of the month, 20, s gven
ony n decma fgures882.
377. Cf. BhagvanaPs tabe, l . v, 2 f. ; Kehorn, Peport on the Search for Sanskrt
MSS, 1880-81, lll. ff. ; Peterson, Frst Peport, 57 f., and Thrd Peport, pp. l, passm ;
Leumann, S nka s Commentary on the sesavasyaka (especay tabe 35) ; Cowe and
ggeng, Cat. Sanskr. Buddhst MSS, 52 ( . P S. 1875) ; Benda, Cat. Cambrdge
Sanskrt Buddhst MSS, Lll. ff., and tabe of numeras. ln Benda s os. 10 9 and 1161,
the etter-numeras are aso used for dates. The atest date n etter-numeras from
epa (Bend| s tabe of numeras) s . D. 1583. Letter-numeras are usuay ony
found n ana pam-eaf MSS up to about . D. 1 50; but the Bern paper MS. o.
1709 (Weber erzechns d. Skt. undPrak. dschrft., , 1, 268 ; cf. D. W . xxxv, 250)
shows some traces of them.
378. Benda, . P S. 1896, 789, ff. 379. Cf. . P S. 1889,128.
380. l . v, ; Kehorn, Peport for 1880-81, ; Peterson, Frst Peport, 57.
381. Kehorn, oc. ct. ; Benda, Cataogue, L1ll.
382. Cf. facsme n l. . 133 and see the ddtons and Correctons of that voume;
the sgns have been gven n p. l , Co. , under 2, 3, 8 b, 100 a. For other cases of
mxtures, see F. Gl (Cll.3), 292, and l . xv, 351, where the date s, however, 800 9 8 9.
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ln the MSS, the sgns of ths system are aways dstnct etters or syaabes of that
aphabet n whch the manuscrpt s wrtten. They are however not aways the same.
ery frequenty they are sghty dfferentated, probaby n order to dstngush the sgns
wth numera vaues from those wth etter vaues. ln other cases there are very
consderabe varants, whch appear to have been caused by msreadngs of oder sgns or
daectc dfferences n pronuncaton. The fact that these symbos reay are etters s
aso acknowedged by the name aksarapa, whch the anas occasonay gve to ths
system, n order to dstngush t from the decma notaton, the ankapa 3. remark
ofthe ana commentator Maayagr38 (12th century), who cas the sgn for the
nkasabda, the word nka , ndcates that he reay pronounced, not catuh, but nka.
The phonetca vaues of the symbos n pate l , , Cos. l - l385, and of
some others, gven by Benda (B.), Bhagvana lndra| (Bh.), Kehorn (K.), Leumann (L.),
and Peterson (P., see note 377 above), are :
nka ( l ; compare L., p. 1) ; wth ntentona dfferentaton, rnka (L., p. 1) and
rnka ( ) ; wth na for ha and addtons, nka ( l; B., Bh.), rnka ( l ; compare
K.), or pka ( , l), or hka ( lll ; B.).
5 tr ( l , l, , l ; B., Bh., K.); wth ntentona dfferentaton, rtr
(Bh., K.) ; wth a mstaken nterpretaton of the top-stroke as a, rtra ( l ) ; wth a
msnterpretaton of the curved ta (compare the sgn of B. s o. 1 6 ), aso hr (compare
thesgnofB. s o. 16 5 ff.) or hva ( lll).
6 phra ( l , l, l & ; B., Bh.) or phu (K.) ; and wth ntentona dfferen
taton, rphu or rphru ( l ; K.); wth a msnterpretaton of an od pha, aso ghra
( ll) ; and wth daectc softenng of the tenus, bhra ( lll ; compare B., p. Ll ).
7 gra ( l , l, l ; Bh.) or gra ( ; B., Bh., K.) ; wth ntentona
dfferentaton and msnterpretaton of the ra-stroke, rgga ( l ; P.) ; wth msnter
pretaton of ga, bhra ( ; compare B., p. Ll ) or na ( lll ; compare B., p. Ll ).
8 /zra ( l , l, lll, l ; B., Bh. ; party wth rreguar addton of the
ra-stroke to the hook of ha) or hra ( ; B., Bh., K ) ; and wth ntentona dfferen
taton, rhra (K.) or rhra ( l ; K.).
9 0 ( l , l, lll, l , l; B., Bh.) or 0m ( ; K.).
383. 0ra nformaton. 38 . l . v, 7.
385. Preparaton of Pate l , . Cos. l - l :
Co. l from facsmes n oerne s The Bower MS.
Cos. - lll, and l : cuttngs from Benda s Tabe of umeras, os. 10 9,
1702, 866,16 3, 1683.
Co. l : drawn accordng to the tabes of Bhagvana, Kehorn, and Leumann.
Co. : drawn from the same sources ; but 8, 9, 100 are cuttngs from acharae s
photograph of the Sahasankacarta of the Poya satc Socety.
386. For ths pha, cf. pate l, 36, .
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10 /r ( l ), formed out of the ancent thu (Cos. l - l) through the openng of
the crce of tha ; or da ( , lll ; B , Bh), the epaese representatve of oder a
(Cos . , l; compare l . v, 7), whch kewse s a dervatve from thu ; or especay n
agar MSS, / ( l, , l; Bh., K.), through a msnterpretaton of a ; and wth
ntentona dfferentaton, r ( l ; K. .
2 tha 8 or tha ( l - l, lll, l , l ; B., Bh., K.) ; or wth nten
tona dfferentaton, rtha and rtha ( ; K.).
30 /a or/5 l - l, lll, l , l; B., Bh., K., P.) ;or wth ntentona
[76| dfferentaton, ra and ra ( ; K.).
pta and pta ( , l, lll, l , l ; B., Bh., K ; or wth ntentona
dfferentaton, rpta and rpta ( ; K.).
50 nunaska ( Bhagvana), but correspondng ony n Co. l , to an actuay
traceabe form of ths nasa (l . v, 7) ; occasonay turned round ( ; B. : lll ; K.).
60 o/, frequent n epaese MSS ( , l, lll), or thu, reguar n agar MSS
( , l ; Bh., K.) ; and wth ntentona dfferentaton, rthu sss ( l ; K.).
70 cu, frequent n epaese MSS. ( , l, lll: B., Bh.) or thu, reguar n
agar MSS ( , l); and wth ntentona dfferentaton, rthu ( l ; K.).
80 Upadhman a wth one centra bar ( lll, l ; B., Bh. : compare pate l ,
6, lll), or ater modfed forms of that sgn ( l, l ; Bh., K.), whch appear aso n
MSS (K.) and n nscrptons (pate l , 6, lll).
90 Upadhmanya, wth two cross-shaped bars ( l, lll), l ; compare
pate ll, 6, , l), and cursve forms of that sgn ( l ), or perhaps hvamuya
( ; Bh.), derved from the ma-ke sgn of pate ll, 6, lll, lll.
100- n agar MSS ( l , ; Bh., K.) ; or n epaese MSS, owng to
a msnterpretaton of su ( , lll, B., Bh.,); or u n epaese and Benga MSS,
the resut of another msnterpretaton ( l, l ; B., Bh.).
200 w n Sgar MSS ( l , ; Bh., K.), or n epaese MSS ( , lll;
B., Bh.), or /wn epaese and Benga MSS ( l ; Bh., B.).
303 su-a n agar MSS ( l , ; Bh. : read sta by K.), or -a n epaese
MSS ( ).
00 -0 ( ; read sto by K.) n agar MSS.
ln the nscrptons, the phonetca vaues of the sgns often dffer from those n the
MSS and vary very consderaby, and amost every one of the vertca and horzonta
387. Common aso n the Bower MS. Peterson s gha s due to a msreadng of the
od tha.
388. Peterson s rghu s a msreadng.
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coumns (pate l , , l- lll)888 shows at east some, occasonay a great many, cursve
or ntentonay modfed forms, whch possess hardy any resembance to etters :
ka (l), k (lll, n 00, 000 ; l , ; , ; l, B), kr ( , B ; l , ), pka
(lll, ; l, ; v, ; l , B), nka ( , ), lka (facsme l . v, 15 ), yka.
5 tra, mosty wth rreguar addton of the ra-stroke to the vertca of ta ( , ;
lll, , B ; l , B ; , ; , ), tra ( ll, ), tu (l , ), nu (l , B), na, ra ( l, , B),
tr ( lll, ), hr ( lll, B ; l , ; ll, ) hra ( l, ), together wth two cursve
sgns wthout phonetc vaue n , , B.
6 |a, |awo (l, ll; compare pate ll, 15, lll ; 39, ll), phra (lll, n 6000 ; l , ),
phra (l , l), pha ( lll), pha ( l ), together wth four cursve sgns ( l- lll, ), among
whch the frst s probaby derved from |a, the second from sa, and the other two from phra.
7 graogu (lll- l, l - l, lll, ), ga ( ll) wth a cursve sgn ( ll) derved
from a gra ke that n lll.
8 hra wth rreguar addton of the ra-stroke to the end of ha (l , , B ; l, ), ha
( l, B), ha ( ll, ; ), hra ( l, ll, lll) or n eastern nscrptons pu ( lll, B ;
, ; l) probaby a cursve dervatve from hra, together wth fve cursve sgns
389. Preparaton of Pate l , , Cos. l- lll :
Co. l : the , cuttng from Burgess facsme of the Kas edct lll, l. , 65 ; the
6, 50,200 drawn accordng to facsmes of the Sahsaram and Pupnath edcts, l . v, 155 ff.
Co. ll : cuttngs from facsme of the Sddapura edct, l. , 138.
Col. lll : cuttngs from facsmes of anaghat nscrptons, B. SPWl. v, p. 51.
Co. l : cuttngs from facsmes of ask nscrptons, B. SPWl. v, p. 52, os. 5, 9,
18, 19 ; p. 53, os. 12-1 : the 70 drawn accordng to the Grnar Prasast, B. SPWl.
, p. 1 .
Co. : drawn accordng to the facsmes of Ksatrapa cons, . P S. 1890, p. at 639.
Cos. l, ll : cuttngs from facsmes at l. , 381 ff. ; , 201 ff.
Co. lll : cuttngs from facsm s at B. SPSl. , p. 62, and l. , 2 ff.
Cos. l , : cuttngs from facsmes at F. Gl (Cll. 3), os. 2, 3, 5, 7, 9,11, 19, 23,
26,59,63,70,71.
Co. l: cuttngs from facsmes at F. Gl (Cll. 3), os. 38, 39 ; l . v, 9 ff., and other
aabh nscrptons.
Co. ll : drawn accordng to facsme at . BBP S. xv, 108.
Cos. lll, l : drawn accordng to facsmes at l . x, 16 ff.
Co. : drawn accordng to facsmes at l . x, 120 ff. ; l. , 127 ff.
Co. l : cuttngs from facsmes at F. Gl (Cll. 3), os. 0, 1, 55, 56, 81.
Co. ll : cuttngs from facsmes at . xv, 112, 1 1.
Co. lll : drawn accordng to facsme at . SB. x, p. 2.
Cuttngs reduced by one-thrd.
390. Probaby to be read thus ; not as a modfcaton of phra or phu.
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wthout phonetc vaue ( , ; lll, ; l , , B ; , B), among whch the second and
the ffth are derved from pu, the frst from hra, the thrd from hra, and the fourth from ha.
9 0 ; reay occurng etter-forms n Co. (compare pate l , 6, l ), n Col. l
(compare U, pate ll, 7, ), n Co. l (compare pate l, 13,1), n Cos. l, ll
(compare pate , 7, l ), n Co. l (compare pate , 9, ), n Co. ll (compare
pate l, 13, , ff.), dfferent from the most ancent form (lll, l ), n Cos. ll, and lll,
cursve n Cos. and l.
10 //m391 (lll, n 10000 ; l , , B ; , ; l, ), hence a cursve sgn, derved by
the openng of the crce of tha ( , B ; l, B ; ll, ; lll, l ), whch ater s converted
nto a ( , l, , B), or nto rya ( l, ), or as n the MSS, nto / ( lll, , B ; ll, ),
or nto kha and ce ( , , B).
2 ha (lll, n 20000 ; ), or as n the MSS , tha, tha, of the type of the perod.
30 a, as n the MSS ; occasonay wth sma modfcaton.
0 p/a, as n the MSS, for whch occasonay a cursve cross ( , ) or a sa through
a transposton of the ta ( , B ; l, B ; ).
[77| 50 nunaska ( Bhagvana), as n the MSS, facng ether the rght or the
eft, occasonay wth sma modfcaton.
60 -pu, (l ), together wth four dfferent cursve sgns wthout phonetc vaue.
10 pu (l - l ; l - l, ), or pra ( ll), together wth a cursve cross ( ll) and
another cursve sgn ( l, B), both possby derved from pu.
80 Upadhmanya wth a dagona bar, and cursve forms of the Upadhmanya
exacty as n the MSS.
90 Upadhmanya wth the centra cross, as n the MSS.
100 ether su (l, n 200 ; lll ; l , , B ; ; lll, n 300 ; lll, n 00 ; l , n
00), for whch, through a msreadng, appears n the epa nscrptons of the 7th and
8h centures ( ll1, , B ; l , n 300), and u n eastern nscrptons892 of the 6th and
ater centures ( , n 200 ; lll, n 200), or su (probaby owng to the daectc permu
taton of sa and sa) n the western393 and Kanga nscrptons (l ; ; l; ll n 00 ;
, , B) for whch, through a msreadng, 0, ( ll, , B) appears n ate
northern nscrptons.
391. Thus Bayey doubtfuy ; for the t of the sgn n l , B, cf. ru, p. lll, 25, 6.
392. arest nstance n the nscrpton of Mahanaman, F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 71 ; 200
n Co. .
393. Cf. aso the date of the Gu|arat Cauukya nscrpton, Seventh 0renta Congress,
ryan Secton, 211 fT ; and the facsme at . BBP S. xv, 1 ff. and the aabh form at
l. , 320, 1, 1 , where a sa of the perod mutated on the eft s used ; and the date of
the Kota nscrpton l . xv, 351, wth a dstnct saofthe 9th century. The form su
occurs n a Western nscrpton atey found at Udepur by G. . 0|ha, n the numera
su-u or S-5, 300.
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200 and 300 are formed by the addton of respectvey one and two horzonta bars
to the rght of aksara for 100 ; but n the Pupnath sgn (l) by the proongaton of the
vertca of sa. dstnctw, as n the MSS, appears ony n the 200 of Co. lll.
00 su-k (lll), or su-pka ( ; lll ; l ), but su-pka ( l). 5W) su-tra ( ).
6 0 su-phra( l). 700 su-gra (lll).
1000 ro (lll), or cu (probabe n l , dstnct n , n 8000), or dhu (l , n 2000; l ,
n 70000). 2000 and 3000 dftw wth one or two horzonta strokes (l ).
000 ro-to (lll), or dhu-k (l ). 6000 ro-phara (lll). B000 dhu-hra (l ), or
cu-pu ( l).
10030 r0-r/M (lll). 20000 fo-tha (lll). 70000 fw wth the cursve sgn for 70.
The above detas show : (1) That the nscrptons of a perods, even the soka
edcts n the case of 100, dffer from the MSS by offerng, sde by sde wth dstnct etters,
numerous cursve or ntentonay modfed forms, and that, n the case of 50 and 60,
|ust the oder nscrptons show no rea ksaras.
(2) That, exceptng 7, 9, 30, 0, 80, 90, the phonetca vaue of the etters vares
aready snce the earest tmes, and that n many cases, as n those of 6, 10, 60, 70, 100,
1000, the varatons are very consderabe.
(3) That occasonay, as n the case of 10, 60, 70, the dstnct etters, used n
the ater nscrptons and the MSS, are derved n varous ways from cursve sgns
wthout a phonetca vaue.
These facts, as we as the ncompeteness of our knowedge of the most ancent
forms, make an expanaton of the orgn of the system for the present very dffcut.
Bhagvana lndra|, who frst attempted the souton of the probem, con|ectured that the
numera symbos of the Brahm are of lndan orgn, and due to a pecuar use of the
Matrkas and certan gatures for numera notaton. But he decared hmsef unabe to
fnd the key of the system. ln 1877, l agreed wth hm, and Kern39 kewse concurred,
but expaned the and 5 as combnatons of four and fve strokes, arranged n the form
of etters. But Burne dffered entrey. e dened that the oder cave-numeras ,
wth the excepton of rare cases, resembe etters, and dwet strongy on the mpossbty
of fndng a prncpe, accordng to whch the ksaras of the MSS have been converted
nto numeras. e further ponted out the genera agreement of the prncpes of the
lndan system wth those of the Demotc notaton of the gyptans. From ths fact, as
we as from the resembance [78| of the Demotc sgns for 1 to 9 to the correspondng
lndan symbos, he nferred that the cave-numeras have been borrowed from gypt,
aud after further modfcatons have been converted nto ksaras. Fnay, . C. Bayey
tred to show n hs engthy essay, quoted above, that, though the prncpes of the lndan
system have been derved from the herogyphc notaton of the gyptans, the ma|orty
of the lndan symbos have been borrowed from Phoencan, Bactran, and kkadan
fgures or etters, whe for a few a foregn orgn s not demonstrabe.
39 . l . v, 1 3.
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Bayey s expanaton offers great dffcutes, nter aa by the assumpton that the
ndus borrowed from four or fve dfferent, party very ancent and party more modern,
sources. But the comparatve tabe of the gyptan and lndan sgns gven n hs paper,
and hs remarks about the agreement of ther methods n markng the hundreds, nduce me
to gve up BhagvanaTs hypothess, and to adopt, wth certan modfcatons, the vew of
Burne, wth whom aso Barth concurs3 - 5. lt seems to me probabe that the Brahma
numera symbos are derved from the gyptan eratc fgures, and that the ndus
effected ther transformaton nto ksaras, because they were aready accustomed to
express numeras by words (compare beow, 35, ).
Ths dervaton, the detas of whch, however, st present dffcutes and cannot
be caed certan, has been gven n ppendx to the 2nd edton of my lndan Studes
o. lll. But two other mportant ponts may be consdered as certan : (1) That the
varyng forms n the soka edcts show these numeras to have had a onger hstory n the
3rd century B.C. ; and (2) that the sgns have been deveoped by Brahmanca schoomen,
snce they ncude two forms of the Upadhmanya, whch wthout doubt has been nvented
by the teachers of the Sksa.
B. Thz Decma otaton
For the decma notaton, now occasonay caed ankapa, the ndus used
orgnay the ankas or the unts of the ancent system, together wth the cpher or nought396,
whch orgnay conssted of the sunyabndu, the dot (narkng a bank, see beow, 35, ),
caed by abbrevated names s y and bndu (see BW.). ery key ths system s an
nventon of the ndu mathematcans and astronomers, made wth the hep of the bacus
(Burne, Bayey). lf oerne s very probabe estmate of the antquty of the arthmetca
treatse, contaned n the Bakhsha MS, s correct s97, ts nventon dates from the
begnnng of our era or even earer. For, n that work the decma notaton s used
throughout. t a events, t was known to arahamhra (6th century .D.), who
empoys the word anka, the decma fgures , n order to express the numera 9
(Pancasddhantka, 18. 33 ; compare beow, 35, ). lts most mportant eement, the
cpher or nought, s mentoned n Subandhu s asavadatta, whch ana (about .D. 620)
prases as a famous book. Subandhu compares the stars wth cphers (sunyabndavah)
whch the Creator, whe cacuatng (the vaue of) the unverse, on account of the absoute
worthessness of the Samsara marked wth hs chak, the crescent of the moon, a over the
frmament whch the darkness made smar to a skn backened wth nk. 898 The cpher,
395. P. SlP. 65, ote 1.
396. Cf. oerne s expanaton, Seventh 0renta Congrees, ryan Secton, 132; l .
xv, 35.
397. l . xv, 36. 398. asavadatta (ed F. . a), p. 182.
17
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126
known to Subandhu, of course conssted of a dot, ke that of the Bakhsha MS (pate
l , B, Co. l ).
The earest epgraphc nstance of the use of the decma notaton occurs n the
Gur|ara nscrpton of the Ced year 3 6, or .D. 5958S9, where the sgns (pate l , B,
Co. l) are dentca wth the numera symbos of the country and of the perod (compare
the aabh coumn of pate l , ) 00. The same remark appes to the 2 n the date of
the month of the Ccacoe pate mentoned on page 119 above, n whch document we fnd
aso the ater crcuar cpher and [79| a decma 8 n the shape of a cursve sgn derved
from pu. nother nscrpton of the 8th century, the Samangad pates of Sakasamvat 675,
or .D. 75 , offers ony strongy modfed cursve sgns (pate l , B, Co. ll).
ln the specmens 01 (pate l , B, Cos. lll- lll, ll) from nscrptons of the 9th
and ater centures, when the use of the decma fgures s the rue, we have kewse ony
cursve sgns, whch n the th and 12th centures (compare Cos. ll, lll, and lll)
show oca dfferences n the west, east and south. But a ther fgures have been derved
ether drecty from the etter-numeras of the oder system, or from etters wth the same
phonetc vaue. The ast remark appes to the 9 of Cos. ll, , l ff., whch s dentca
wth the sgns for 0 used n ater nscrptons n the word 0m (compare, e.g. l .
v, 19 ff., os. 3-6).
mong the specmens from MSS (pate l , B, Cos. 1 - ll), the decma fgures of
the Bakhsha MS, show the ancent etter-numeras for and 9.
The Tam numeras, whch greaty dffer from the usua ones and preserve the od
sgns for 10, 100 and 1000, have been gven by Burne, SlP. pate 23 (compare b. page
68). Those from Kabu are contaned n the tabe accompanyng . C. Bayey s paper,
umsmatc Chronce, 3rd Seres, , 128 ff.
399. Cf. facsmes at l. , 19 ff. ; and see F. Gl (Cll. 3), 209, note 1.
00. The apparent dfference n 6 s due to a faut of the mpresson.
01. Preparaton of Pate l , B, Cos, 11l- 1ll (for Cos. l, ll, see the text above) ;
a hand-drawn :
Co. lll : from facsmes of Pastrakuta nscrptons at Kanher, os. 15, 3 , B.
Co. l : from facsmes of Pastrakuta copper-pate from Torkhede, , , 56.
Co. : the 3 and 6 from an mpresson of the addaa copper-pate (l , x, 190) ;
the , 7, 9,0 from facsme of the sn nscrpton, l . xv, 17 ; the 5 and 8 from facsme
of the Morb copper-pate, l . , 257.
Co. l : from facsme of the Savantvad copper-pate, l . x, 266.
Co. ll : from facsme of the Cauukya copper-pate, 1 . x, 202.
Co. lll: the 1,3, 8, from the .Gaya nscrpton, l . x, 3 2 ; the 5 from CMG pates
28, .
Cos. l , : oerne s Bakhsha fgures.
Cos. l, ll: from Benda s tabe of numera n Cat. Cambrdge Sanskr. Buddhst MSS.
Co. lll : from B. SlP. p. 23, Teugu and Kanarese numeras, th. century.
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35. umera otaton by Words and Letters
. The word-numeras
80| ln many manuas of astronomy, mathematcs and metrcs, as we as n the
dates of nscrptons and of MSS, the numeras are expressed by the names ofthngs,
bengs or deas, whch, naturay or n accordance wth the teachng of the Sastras, con
note numbers. The earest traces of ths custom have been dscovered by . Weber n the
Srautasutras of Katyayana and Latyayana 02. few exampes are found n the edc
yotsa and n the arthmetc of the Bakhsha MS. More numerous nstances occur n
Pngaa s manua of metrcs, and from about . D. 500 we fnd, frst n arahamhra s
Pancasddhantka, a system of ths descrpton, whch, graduay becomng more and more
perfect, extends to the cpher or nought, and to neary a the numbers between 1 and 9.
Durng ths atter perod any synonym may be used for the words expressng numbers,
and n some cases the same word may be used for dfferent numbers. lf the words
are compounds, they may be represented by ther frst or second part.
Ths system of numera notaton, of course, has been nvented n order to factate
the composton of metrca handbooks of astronomy and so forth. The most mportant
words, used to express numbers, are as foows 08 :
The cpher, 0, s expressed by (a) sunya ( ar., Ber.), a vad 0 ; (b) ambara,
akasa. &:., the (empty) space of heaven ( ar., Bcr , Bro.), ananta (Bro.).
1 s expressed by (a) rupa ( yo., Bakh., Png., ar.) one pece ; (b) ndu, sasn,
starasm, &c. ( ar,, Ber., Bro.), or abbrevated nto rasm (Ber.), the moon ; (c) bu,
mah &c. ( ar., Bro., Bur.) the earth ; (d) ad (Ber.), begnnng ; (e) ptamaha (Ber.),
Brahman ; (f) naynka (Bro.), the hero (of a pay); (g) tanu (Bro.), the body .
2 s expressed by a) yama, yamaa ( ar., Ber.), twns ; (b) asvn, dasra ( ar.,
Ber.), the two svns ; (c) paksa ( ar., Ber.), the two wngs, or the haves of the
02. W. lS. v, 166 f.
03. The abbrevatons mark the sources from whch the words have been coected
as foows :
Bakh. the Bakhsha MS., oerne, 130. Ber. Berun s lnda, Sachau, . 178.
Bro. C. P. Brown s st, as quoted by Burne, SlP, 77 f.
Bur. Burne s addtons, SlP. 77 f. yo. The yotsa, Weber s edton, 6.
Png. Pngaa, Weber, lndsche Studen, v, 167f.
ar. arahamhra s PaKcasddhantka, Thbaut s edton.
few other nstances are gven from manuscrpts and nscrptons.
The numerous synonyms, beng unnecessary for Sanskrtsts, have been mosty
omtted ; but such omssons have been ndcated by an &c .
0 . Sunya may ether mean the empty pace on the bacus , or be an abbrevaton
of sunyabndu (see above 3 , B).
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body ; (d) kara, &c. ( ar., Bur.), the hands , (e) nayana, &c. ( ar., Ber., Bur.), the
eyes ; (f) bahu (Bro.), the arms ; (g) karna (Bro.), the ears ; (h) kutumba (Bro.),
the famy , e., husband and wfe ; () ravcandrau (Ber.), sun and moon .
3 s expressed by (a) agn, hotr 05, &c. ( ar., Ber., Bro., Bur.), the sacrfca
fres ; (b) ramah ( ar., Bro.), the three Pamas (of epc poetry) ; (c) guna ( ar.),
trguna (Ber.), the quates of matter ; (d) tr|agat, oka (Ber.), the three words ;
(e) trkaa (Ber.), the three tmes ; (/) trgata 06 (Ber.), sounds, &c., wth three
meanngs ; (g) sahodarah (Bro.), the three uterne brothers ; 07 (h) trnetra, &c. (Bro.),
the three eyes of Sva .
s expressed by (a) aya, aya ( yo.), krta 08 ( ar., Ber.), the (four) dce ; (b) veda,
srut(Png , ar., Ber.), the edas ; (c) abdh|aadh, &c. ( ng , ar., Ber., Bur.) abbrev
ated |aa ( ar.), dadh (Ber.), the oceans ; (d) ds (Ber.) the cardna ponts ; (e) yuga
(Bro.), the (four) ages of the word ; (/) bandhu (Bro.), the (four) brothers ; 9
(g) kostha (Bro.), ( ); (h) varna (manuscrpt), the (four) prncpa castes .
5 s expressed by (a) ndrya, &c., (Png., ar., Bur.), the organs of sense ; [81|
(b) artha, vsaya, &c. ( ar., Ber.), the ob|ects of the senses ; (c) bhuta (Png., ar., Ber.),
the eements ; (d) su, &c. ( ar., Ber., Bur,), the arrows of Kama ; (e) Pandava
(Ber.), abbrevated (pandu) suta, putra (Bro.), the (fve) Pandu sons ; (/) prana (Bro.),
the vta ars ; (g) ratna 0 (Ber.) the (fve) |ewes .
6 s expressed by (a) rasa (Bakh., Png., ar., Ber.), the (sx) favours ; (b) rtu
(Png., ar., Ber.), the seasons ; (c) ahga (Ber.), the auxary scences of edc studes ;
(d) masardha (Ber.), one haf of the (tweve) months ; (e) darsana, &c. (Bro.), the
(sx) phosophca systems ;(/) raga (Bro.), the (sx) prncpa tunes ; (g) ar (Bro.),
the (nterna) foes (of men) ; (h) kaya 11 (nscrpton), the bodes ( )
7 s expressed by (a) rs, mun (Png., ar.), the (seven) seers ; or by atr, the frst
among them (Bro.); (b) svara (Png, ar., Bro.), the notes (of the octave);
(c) asm ( ar., Bro.), the horses (of the sun) ; (d) aga, &c. ( ar., Ber., Bur.), the
(prmeva) mountans ; (e) dhatu (Bro.), the eements (of the body) ; (/) chandas
(Bro.), the (casses o the) metres ; (g) dh (Ber.), ( ) ; (h) kaatra (Bro.), (1)
8 s expressed by (a) amstubh (Prg. , a metre wth octosyabc Padas or nes;
(b) vasu (Png., ar.), the asu gods ; (c) ah, &c. (Ber., Bur.), the (eght casses of)
snakes ; (d) ga|a, &c. (Ber., Bur.), the eephants (guardng the eght ponts of the
horzon) ; (e) mangaa, bhut f Ber., Bro.), the (eght knds of) auspcous thngs ;
(/) sddh (manuscrpt), the supernatura powers ,
05. See Pancasddhantka, 8. 6. Ths s equvaent to agn, because gn s the
otr-prest of the gods.
06. See BPW. sub hac voce. 07. u.hsthra, Bhma and r|una (Carteer.)
08. Thus BPW. sub hac voce ; possby krta may stand for krtadyuga.
09. Pama, Laksmana, &c. 10. See pte, Sanskrt-Dctonary, sub hac voce.
11. Cf. l. , 32 , ne 8. 12. Cf. astamangaa.
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129
9 s expressed by (a) anka ( ar., Bro.), the decma fgures ; (b) warn/a ( ar.,
Ber.), the (nne) andas ; (c) chdra, &c. (Ber.), the cavtes of the body ; (d) go,
graha (Ber., Bro., Bur.), the panets ; (e) ndh (Bur.), the treasures (of Kubera) ;
(f) pavanaCBsr.), (1).
10 s expressed by (a) dsah, &c. (Png., ar., Ber.). the (ten) ponts of the
horzon ; (b) ravanasras (Ber.), the heads of Pavana ; (c) avatara (Bro.), the
ncarnatons (of snu) ; (d) karman fBer.), the (ten Grhya)-ceremones ; (e) khendu
(Ber.), cpher (0) and moon (1), .e. 10. 3
11 s expressed by (a) rudra (Png., ar., Ber.), the (eeven) Pudras , or by
Ma, sva, &c. ( ar., Ber.), the frst of the eeven Pudras ; (b, c) aksauhn, abha (Bro.), ( ).
12 s expressed by (a) adtya, arka, &c. (Png., ar., Ber.), the (tweve) sun-gods ,
or suns ; (b) vyaya (Bro.), ( ).
13 s expressed by (a) vsvedevah, abbrevated vsva ( ar., Ber.), the (thrteen)
a-gods 1 ; or by kama, the most famous among them (Bro.) ; (b) at|agat ( ar.),
a metre wth thrteen syabes n each Pada; (c) aghoxa ( agaducarta), 15 the surd
consonants .
1 s expressed by (a) manu ( ar., Ber.), the (fourteen) Manus ; (b) ndra ( ar.,
Ber.), the (fourteen) lndras ; (c) oka (Bro.), the (fourteen) words
13 s expressed by (a) tth ( ar., Ber.), the unar days (of a haf-month) ; (b) ahan
(Bro.), the soar days (of a haf-month) ; (c) paksa (Bro.), haf a month (ffteen days) .
16 s expressed by (a) ast ( ar., Ber.), a metre wth sxteen syabes n the Pada ;
(b) bhupa, &c. ( ar., Ber.), the (famous sxteen) kngs, 6 (c) kM (Bro.), the dgts
ofthe moon .
17 to 19 are expressed by atyast (Ber.), dhrt, atdhrt ( ar., Ber.), metres wth
seventeen to nneteen syabes n the Pada.
20 s expressed by (a) krt ( ar., Ber.), a metre wth twenty syabes n the Pada ;
(b) nakha ( ar.. Ber.), the nas (ofthe hands and feet).
21 s expressed by (a) utkrt (Ber.,) 7 ; (b) svarga (Bro.), heaven.
22 s expressed by |at (Bro.), ( ).
2 s expressed by |na ar., Ber.), the (twenty-four Trthamkaras ofthe anas.
25 s expressed by tattva (Ber.), prncpes ofthe Samkhya phosophy.
26 s expressed by utkrt ( ar.), a metre wth twenty-sx syabes n the Pada.
27 s expressed by bhasamuha ( yo.), naksatra (Bro.), the unar mansons .
32 s expressed by danta, &c. ( ar., Bro.), the teeth .
33 s expressed by sura, &:. ( ar., Bro.) the gods .
0 s expressed by naraka ( ar., Pancasddhantka, . 6), the hes .
9 s expressed by tana (Bro.), the notes .
13. Sen Konow, Deutsche Lt. lnt., 1897.
1 . Cf. F. . a, snupurana, n, 192. 15. SB. W . cxxv, 5, 58.
16. Descrbed n the soasara|akya-parvan ofthe Mahabharata, v, 65-71 (Carteer).
17. Probaby a mstake for prakrt, a metre wth twenty-one syabes n the Pada.
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130
[82| ln the yotsa and n the arthmetc of the Bakhsha MS, ony snge words
are used to ndcate numbers.
ln Pngaa s and other metrca manuas, the words wth numera meanngs often
form (sometmes together wth ordnary numeras) Dvandva compounds, whch must be
dssoved by or . Thus, vedarttsamdah, means or 6 or .
ln the works of arahamhra and other astronomers, we fnd, n addton, onger
Dvandva compounds, consstng of such word-numeras (be t aone, or assocated wth
ordnary numeras), whch have to be dssoved by and , and then yed ong rows of
fgures to be read from the rght to the eft 18. Thus, n the Pancasddhantka, . ,
we have :
0 1
kha kha veda samudra starasmayah 1 00;
and n 9. 9 of the same work, we have :
.0 0 16 2
kha kh ast yamah 21600
Such Dvandva compounds, whch presuppose the exstence of the decma notaton,
are used aso for the dates of nscrptons. Dates expressed n ths manner, are found n
the Kambo|a and Campa nscrptons of the 7th century 19. ln ava they occur n the 8th
century 20. nd about the same tme appears the frst trace of such a notaton n an
lndan document, the Ccacoe copper-pate nscrpton mentoned on page 119 above,
where o 3, s an abbrevaton of hka. ext foow the dates of the Kadab pates of .D.
813 21, and of the Dhopur scon; nscrpton of .D. 8 2 22, whch are expressed n word-
numeras ; and, n the next century, the pates ssued by the astern Cauukya mma ll
n .D. 9 5 23. ln ater tmes the epgraphc nstances become more frequent, and the
ancent pam-eaf MSSofthe anas 2 , as we as the ater paper MSS, offer a good
many. The notatons of ths knd have been caused sometmes by he vanty of the cerks
and copysts, who wshed to prove ther acquantance wth the methods of the astronomers,
and perhaps st more frequenty by metrca reasons n the case of dates gven n verse.
18. ccordng to Burne, n some modern nscrptons the word-numeras are
paced n the usua order of the decma fgures.
19. . arth, lnscrs., Sansk. du Camboge, o. 5 ff. ; Bergagne-Barth. lnscrs.
Sansk, de Campa et du Cambodge, o. 22 ff.
20. l . xx, 8, o. 2.
21. l . x, 11 ; decared to be suspcous by Feet, Kanarese, Dynastes, Bombay
Gazetteer, l, , 399, note 7.
22. DMG. x, 2, verse 23 ; ponted out by Kehorn. 23. l . v, 18.
2 . Kehorn, Peport, 1830-81, o. 58 ; Peterson, Thrd Peport, pp. l, os. 187. 6,
251, 253, 256, 270, &c.
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B. umera notaton by etters
Two systems of numera notaton, accordng to Burne orgnay South-lndan,
whch both empoy the phonetcay arranged characters of the aphabet, have st to be
descrbed, as they are not wthout nterest for paeography. ln the frst system 25, ony
the voweess consonants have any mportance, and ther numera vaues are :
k kh g gh ft c ch | |h n 1 23 567890
t th d dh n t th d dh n l 23 567890
p ph b bh m . 1 2 3 5
y r l v s s s h l .. -123 56789
The consonants are, however, not used by themseves, but for the formaton of
chronograms, contanng any vowes and aso compound consonants, of whch the ast
eement aone has numerca vaue. ln the fgures, resutng from those chronograms,
the unts nvaraby stand on the eft, and the whoe sum has to be turned round. n
nterestng nstance of ths notaton, probaby the most ancent htherto dscovered,
occurs at the end of Sadgurussya s commentary on the Sarvanukraman (Macdone,
page 168), where the chronogram, accordng to Kehorn s undoubtedy correct emenda
ton, s 26 :
23 1 565 1
khago ntyan mesam apa.
s the author hmsef adds, ths has the vaue of 1565132. nd ths fgure corres
ponds, as the author kewse says, to the number of the days eapsed snce the begnnng
of the Kayuga, and yeds the verna equnox, 2 th March, . D. 118 , as the date of
the competon of the work. The equnox s ndcated aso by the verba meanng of
the chronogram : (Comng) from the ast (sgn of the odac), the sun reached res .
The second system to be consdered 27, whch s st used n Ceyon, Sam and
Burma for the pagnaton of MSS, and accordng to Burne formery aso [83| occurred
n Southern lnda, utses the Brahmanca Barakhad (see page 19 above). ccordng
to Burne, the ksaras ka to a are equvaent to 1 to 3 ; ka to /a 35 to 68 ; k to // 69
to 102 ; and so on. But n the Pa MSS of the ennese Court Lbrary from Burma,
l fnd ka to kah to 12 ; kha to khah 3 to 2 ; and so on : and n those from Ceyon,
where the Barakhad ncudes the vowes r, / , / and T, ka to kah 1 to 16, and kha to khah 17
to 32, whereby a somewhat dfferent empoyment of the ksaras resuts 28. Fausbb
has kndy nformed me that the ast two methods aone (not that mentoned by Burne)
are used n the Pa MSS known to hm. nd he adds that, after the exhauston of the
whoe Barakhad, the Ceyonese MSS begn agan wth 2 ka, 2 ka, and so on, and further
that the pagnaton of Samese MSS agrees exacty wth those from Burma.
25. Cf. B. Sl P. 79 ; W. lS. v, 160 ; l . v, 207. 26. l . xx, 9 f., o. .
27. B. S1P. 80. 28. Cf. Gurupu|akaumud, 110.
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ll. T T P L PP G M T 0F l SCPlPTl0 S
D M USCPlPTS
36. The nes, Groupng of words, lnterpunctuaton. and other detas
. The nes
ready n the earest nscrptons ncsed on smoothed stones, the ndus have
tred to form reguar straght nes and to make the upper ends of the Matrkas of equa
heght. oka s masons, however, have rarey succeded, even n the par edcts and n
the rock edcts of Grnar, Dhau and augada, to keep the ne n more than a few
consecutve words, mosty those of one group (see beow, under B). But n other
documents of the same perod, as n the Ghasund stone nscrpton (see page 58 above),
the ater 29 and st vad prncpe has been more carefuy observed, accordng to whch
ony the vowe-sgns, the superscrbed ra and smar addtons may protrude above the
upper ne. Ths reguarty probaby has been attaned by markng the upper ne wth
chak, as s st done, or by other mechanca appances.
The nes of the MSS are aways very reguar, even n the odest specmens, such as
the Dhammapada from Khotan, and probaby have been made wth the hep of a ruer
(see beow, 37, .) ln the ancent pam-eaf MSS and n many ater ones on paper, the
ends of the nes are marked by vertca doube strokes, runnng across the whoe breadth
of the eaves. ln the MSS, the nes aways run horzontay, and from the top to the
bottom; and ths s aso the case n most nscrptons. But there are a few nscrptons
whch have to be read from beow 30.
ertca nes sometmes occur on cons, especay on those of the Kusanas and
the Guptas 1. The cause of the atter arrangement of the etters was probaby the
want of space.
B. The Groupng o| Words
[8 | ln addton to the st usua method of wrtng the words contnuousy wthout
a break, up to the end of a ne, of a verse, haf-verse or other dvson, we fnd aready
n some of the odest documents, such as certan soka edcts 82, nstances of the
separaton of snge words, or of groups of words whch beong together, ether accordng
29. Thus aready n most of the nscrptons from the western caves, and at mar-
avat, Mathura, &c. ; cf. the facsmes n B. SPWl. vos. v, and v ; B. SPSl. vo. l; l.
, 195ff.; and others.
30. W KM. v, 230 f. ; add a atey dscovered Kharosth nscrpton from Swat.
31. . P S. 1889, p. 1 ; um. Chron, 1893, ps. 8-10.
32. Thus n the par-edcts (exceptng ahabad) and n Kas edcts l- l (see
facsmes l. , 52 ) and n gva and Padera.
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133
to ther sense or accordng to the cerk s manner of readng. smar groupng of the
words occurs aso n some prose nscrptons of the ndhras and the Western Ksatrapas at
ask ; compare os. 5, 11 , B, and 13. ln the carefuy wrtten metrca nscrptons
of the ater tmes, the Padas or the haf-verses occasonay are separated by bank
spaces 98, and each ne contans a haf-verse or a verse 3 .
Smary, n the Kharosth Dhammapada from Khotan, each ne contans one
Gatha, and the Padas are dvded off by banks. ln other od MSS, as the Bower MS,
snge words and groups of words are often wrtten separatey, apparenty wthout any
certan prncpe.
ln nscrptons, the Mangaa, especay when t s the word sddham, often stands by
tsef on the margn 35.
C. lnterpunctuaton
Sgns of nterpunctuaton are not found n the Kharosth nscrptons. But the
Dhammapada from Khotan offers at the end of each verse a crcuar mark, often made
neggenty, but resembng the modern cpher 87. t the end of a agga appears a sgn,
whch s found at the end of varous nscrptons, e.g., F.Gl (Cll. 3), o. 71, pate 1 ,
and whch probaby s ntended to represent a otus.
ln connecton wth the Brahm, sgns of nterpunctuaton occur snce the earest
tmes, and the sgns empoyed are the foowng :
(1) snge vertca stroke (danda) s used (rreguary and sometmes wrongy) n
some soka edcts 88 for the separaton of snge words or of groups. ln ater tmes t
serves to separate prose from verse 39, or occurs at the end of portons of sentences 0,
of sentences 1, of haf-verses 2 or verses 8, and occasonay even marks the end of
documents . ln the nscrptons of the astern Cauukyas 5 the danda has occasonay
a sma horzonta top-bar ; thus, T .
33. Cf, e.g., facsmes, F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 50, p. 31 B ; |anta o. ; Ghatotkaca
nscrpton ; &c.
3 . Cf., e.g., facsmes, F. Gl (Cll. 3), os. 1, 2, 6, p. , and 10 p. 5.
35. Cf., e.g., facsmes, F. Gl (Cll 3). os. 6, p. , and 15, p. 9 .
36. Cf. B. SlP, 82, 3.
37. Cf. facsmes n 0denberg s Predvartena zam|etkao Buddhsko rukops,
napsanno psmenam Kharosth, St. Petersburg, 1897.
38. Kah edcts ll, lll, 1 ; Sahsaram.
39. See, e.g., facsme, F. Gl(Cll. 3), o. 21, ne 16.
0. S-e, e.g., facsme, F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 80, p. . 1. See the same facsme.
2. See, e.g., facsme, F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 2, p. 28.
3. See, e.g., facsme, F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 38, p. 2 , ne 35.
. See, e.g., facsme, F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 19, p. 12 .
5. See, e.g., facsme n l . x, 92 ; x, 213.
18
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(2) doube vertca stroke, appears n the unnar nscrptons os. 2 -29
after numeras, and once after the name of the donor. Later t occurs at the end of
sentences 6, haf-verses 7, verses 8, arger prose sectons and documents . From
the Sth century, a hook s often added to the top of the frst stroke ; thus l 50. 0r
both strokes receve such addtons; thus, Curves and hooks are added aso to
the foot of one of the strokes or of both 5 . From the end of the 8th century, a bar s
attached on the eft, to the mdde of the frst stroke ; thus, 1 58. ln the nscrptons
of the astern Cauukyas, bars stand at the top of the strokes ; thus, y - ; and a Kanga
nscrpton has smary | 5 .
(3) trpe vertca stroke marks occasonay the end of nscrptons 55.
( ) snge short horzonta stroke, paced en the eft beow the frst sgn of the
ast ne, marks n the oka edcts of Dhau and augada the end of an edct. From
the 2nd century B.C. 56 to the 7th century .D., ths sgn, whch s often curved or bears
a hook at ons of ts ends, serves the same purposes as the snge vertca stroke 57.
(5) doube horzonta stroke, often bent, appears from the 1st to the Sth century
.D. n the pace of the doube vertca 58. The Kusana nscrptons and some ater ones
offer n ts stead a doube dot 59, whck ooks exacty ke a sarga.
(6) doube vertca, foowed by a horzonta stroke, occasonay marks the
end of nscrptons 60.
6. See, e.g., facsmes, maravat, o. 28; l . v, 23, 1. 9 (Kakutsthavarman s
copper-pate).
7. See, e.g., facsme, F. Gl (GlL 3), o. 17, p. 10.
8. See, e.g., facsmes F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 17, p. 10, and 18, p. 11.
9. See, e.g., facsmes F. Gl (Cll. 3), o..26, p. 16, 1. 2 ; o. 33, p. 21B, 1, 9.
50 See, e.g., facsme F. Gl (Cll. ) , c. 17, p. 10. 1. 32, 1. 38 ; o. 35, p. 22,
ast ne ; Bower MSS, passm.
51. See, e.g., facsme, epa nscrpton, o. , l . x, 168, ast ne.
52. See, e.g., facsme, l . x, 100, ast ne.
53. See, e.g., facsmes, l , x, 202, l, 1 ff. ; x, 68.
5 . See facsme, l. , 128, ast ne. 55. See, e g., facsme, 1 . v, 79.
56. ln the anaghat nscrpton, B. SPWl. 5, p 51, ne 6, after vano.
57. See, e.g., facsmes ask, o. 11 , B, after sdham and sdctha ; F. Gl (Cll. 3),
o. 1 (end); os. 3, p. 2 B, 9, p. D, and 10, p. 5.
58. See, e.g., facsmes. . , 389, o. 1 ; F. Gl (Cll. 3), os. 3, p. 2 B, 0, p. 26,
1, p. 27, and 55, p. 3 ; l . v, 17 (after adad ta).
59. l. , 395, os. 28, 29 (after danam) ; F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 38, p. 2 , 1.35 ; o.
55, p. 3 (end) ; l . v, 209 (end) ; n these and other cases the sgn has been wrongy
read as a sarga.
60. See, e.g., facsmes, 1 . v, 76 ; l. , 260.
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135
(7) crescent-ke stroke, , marks the ends of the soka edcts at Kas,
os; l- l.
(8) crescent-ke stroke wth a bar n the mdde- 3 , stands twce n Kusana
nscrptons after the Mangaa sddham 61.
Besdes, numera fgures aone occasonay mark the ends of verses, see, e.g.,
F,Gl (C1l, 3), os, 1, 2, and smary Mangaa-symbos (see beow, under D) stand at
the end of nscrptons or of sectons of the text, especay n ancent MSS, such as
the Bower MS.
Fnay, t s necessary to ca attenton to the frames surroundng the soka edcts
n the Grnar verson, the augada separate edcts, and the Dhau separate edct o. l.
What the nscrptons teach us regardng the hstory of the lndan nterpunctuaton
may be brefy summed up, as foows. Durng the earest perod up to the begnnng of
our era, ony snge strokes, ether straght or curved, are used, and ther use s rare.
fter the begnnng of our era, we fnd more compcated sgns. [85| But up to the 5th
century ther use remans rreguar. From that tme onwards, we have, especay n
the Prasasts on stone, more reguar systems of nterpunctuaton. nd the Mandasor
Prasast of . l). 73-7 , F.Gl (Cll, 3), o, 18, pate 11, frst proves the exstence of the
st vad prncpe, whch requres one stroke after a haf-verse and two strokes at the
end of a verse. But up to the 8th century there are varous copper-pates and stone
nscrptons, especay from Southern lnda, wthout any nterpunctuaton 82. lts
methodca deveopment s due to the Brahmanca schoomen. ln the offces, nterpunc
tuaton apparenty never became a favourte. s a comparson of the documents of one
and the same dynasty easy shows, the degree of reguarty wth whch the sgns are used,
depends not upon the age of the SSsanas, but onr ndvdua quates of the wrters, ther
earnng and th r carefuness.
D. Mangaas and ornamentaton
ln accordance wth the ancent Brahmanca maxm, whch requres a Mangaa,
a benedcton or an auspcous word, at the begnnng, n the mdde and at the end of a
composton n order to nsure ts competon and preservaton, sacred symbos of
auspcous mport are found at the begnnng and the end of two soka edcts 08 and of
many nscrptons of the next four centures 6 . The most common Mangaa-symbos,
61. l. , 212, o. 2, and note.
62. See, e.g., facsmes, l . v, 88 ; v, 163 ; v, 23 ; x, 62-6 , 16 -171.
63. See the facsme of the separate edcts of augada.
6 . See, e.g., facsmes of the Sohgaura pate ; of Bha|a os. 2, 3, 7 ; of Kuda os.
1, 6, 11, 15, 16, 20, 22, 2 , 25 ; of Mahad ; of Bed.sa o. 3 ; of Kare os. 1-3, 5, 20 ; of
unnar os. 2-15, 17, 19 ;of Ssk os. 1, 11, , B, 1 , 21, 2 ; of Kanher os. 2, 12,
13 ; l. , 368, Stupa l, o. 358 ; and Bhagvana, Sxth 0renta Congress, , 2, 136 ff.
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136
empoyed n ths way, are the we-known Svastka, the trdent or the so-caed Trratna
symbo restng on the Dharmacakra, and the conventona representaton of a Catya
tree 85. But there are aso others, the names of whch are as yet unknown. 0nce 89 the
Svastka appears after the word sddham.
ln ater tmes, we fnd aso Mangaa-symbos wth greaty modfed forms, party n
the texts at the end of arger sectons and party at the end of documents or terary works.
very common sgn of ths descrpton s a arge crce wth a smaer one, or wth one or
severa dots n the mdde 67. Ths may be a conventona representaton ether of the
Dharmacakra whch s st dstncty vsbe n front of F.Gl (Cll.3), o. 63, pate 39,
, or of the otus, whch kewse occurs. s a crce wth a dot, , corresponds to the
ancent tha, other sgns, cosey resembng or dentca wth ater forms of a, are used as
substtutes 8 . nd the modern MSS fnay offer the we-known 3, whch corresponds
to one of the medeva forms of tha, but t s now read cha.
Snce the Sth century, we fnd aso new symbos, consstng of hghy ornamenta
forms of the ancent 0 of the word 0m (pate l , 6, lll ; pate , 7, l ), whch atter
s a great Mangaa. They are used both at the begnnng and at the end of nscrptons
and occasonay even on the margn of copper.pates 09.
Many of the scuptures, found n connecton wth stone nscrptons, appear to have
the same meanng as the Mangaa-symbos |ust mentoned. 0f ths knd are, e.g, severa
of the reevos above Bhagvana s epa nscrptons 70, such as the Sankhas ( o. 3), the
otuses ( os. 5, 15), the bu and ( os. 7, 12), the fsh ( o. 9), the sun-whee and the
stars ( o. 10). lt s however possbe that the o .us of o. 15 may refer aso to the
donaton of a sver otus, the dedcaton of whch the nscrpton records. gan, the
sun-whee and the stars of o. 10 may aso be ntended to ndcate the wsh, often
expressed expcty n words, that the donaton, to whch the nscrpton refers, may ast
as ong as sun and stars endure.
65. 0n the non-sectaran natona character of these symbos, See Bhagvan, oc.
ct. ; and l. , 312 ff.
66. ask o. 6.
67. See, e.g., The Bower MS, pt. 1, ps, , 5 ; pt. 2, p. 1 ff. ; facsmes, l . v, 17 ;
x, 168, o. ; xv, 310 ; xx, 58 ; l. , 10 ff. ln the Syadon nscrpton, l. , 173 ff.,
snu s Kaustubha seems to be used repeatedy ; cf l. , 12 .
68. Cf., e.g., facsmes, F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 71 (end); l . v, 67, p. 2, ne (wrongy
read as 20) ; l . v, 192, p. 2, ne 10 ; l. , 77 (end) ; . 273, ne 39 ; , 306, erawa
mage nscrpton (end).
69. See. e.g., facsmes, F. Gl (Cll. 3), os. 11, p. 6 (aso note 197), 20, p. 12 B,
26, p. 16, &c ; l . v, 32 (fve tmes) ; l. , 52 (end) ; The Bower MS, pt. 1, p. 1 ; cf.
aso Berun, lnda, , 173 (Sachau).
70. .x, l63..ff.
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137
Smar ustratons of the contents of the nscrptons and symboca representons
of the wshes 71 and of other matters expressed n them, are not rare. Correspondng
engravngs on the copper-pates are ess common. But on these the roya coat of arms s
sometmes engraved beow or by the sde of the text, nstead of on a separate sea, and the
stone nscrptons, too, occasonay exhbt such devces 72. mong the MSS, those of
the epaese Buddhsts and of the anas of Gu|arat are often rchy ornamented and
perfecty ustrated 73. Specmens of umnated Brahmanca MSS are, however,
not wantng.
. Correctons, 0mssons and bbrevatons
ln the earest nscrptons, as n the soka edcts (see, e.g., Kas edct ll, ne 31)
erroneous passages [86| are smpy scored out. Later, dots or short strokes above or
beow the ne are used to ndcate cerca errors. The same sgns occur n MSS, where,
however, n ater tmes the deenda are covered wth turmerc or a yeow paste. 0n the
copper-pates, they are frequenty beaten out wth a hammer, and the correctons are
then engraved on the smoothed spot. We possess even entre pampsests of ths knd 75.
ln the soka edcts and other eary nscrptons, etters and words, eft out by
mstake, are added above or beow the ne wthout any ndcaton of the pace to whch
they beong 76, or they are aso entered n the nterstces between the etters. ln the ater
nscrptons and the MSS, the spot of the omsson s ndcated by a sma uprght or
ncned cross, the so-caed kakapada or hamsapada, and the addenda are gven ether n
the margn 77 or between the nes.
Svastka s sometmes put nstead of the cross 78. ln South-lndan MSS, the cross
s used aso to ndcate ntentona omssons, made n Sutras wth commentares 79. se
where, ntentona omssons, or such as have been caused by defects n the orgna of the
71. Thus, the wsh for the duraton of the grant s expressed by representatons of
of sun and the moon.
72. See, e.g., B. SPWl. Mo. 10. Cave-tempe nscrptons , facsme at p. 101,
and Kehorn s remarks, l. . 307 ; coats of arms are found n facsmes at l . v, 9 ff.,
192 ; l. , 1 .
73. See, e.g., Weber, erzechn. d. Bern Sansk. nd Prak. dschrften. , 3, p. 2 ;
Ffth 0renta Congress, , 2, 189 ff., p. 2 ; Pa. Sec., 0r. Sen. ps, 18, 31 ; Pa|endraa
Mtra, otces of Sansk. MSS, , p. 1 ; cf. aso B. SlP. 82, .
7 . Cf. B. Sl.P. 83, 5.
75. l . v, 251 ( o. 7) ; x, 8 , note 23 ; l. , 1, note 6.
76. See, e.g., Kas edct lll, 2, ne 11 ; thus aso ater, see, e.g., facsme at l. ,
31 , ne 5.
77. See, e.g., facsmes, l. , 52, p. 2, ne 1 ; l. , 276, ne 11.
78. Facsme, l . v, 32. p. 3. 79. pastamba Dharmasuta, 2. 2 (10).
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copy, are marked by dots on the ne or by short strokes above the ne 80. The modern
sgn for the eson of an nta , the so-caed vagraha, has been traced frst on the
Baroda copper-pate of the Pastrakuta kng Dhruva, dated . D. 83 -35 81. kundaa,
rng , or a Svastka, served to mark unntegbe passages ; see Kashmr Peport, 71 and
Kehorn, Mahabhasya, 2, 10, note.
ln Western lnda, abbrevatons are found frst n an nscrpton of the ndhra kng
Sr-Puumay ( ask, o. 15) of about . D. 150, and n the neary contemporaneous one
of Srsena or Sakasena-Madharputa (Kanher, o. 1 ). ln the north-west, they are very
common n the nscrptons of the Kusana perod. The commonest nstances are:
samva, sava, sam and sa for samvatsara ; gr, gr or g for grsmah or gmhanam ; va for
varsah ; he for hemantah ; pa for pakhe ; and dva or d for dvasa ; and they are ony found
when the dates are expressed by fgures. ln ths connecton, they are used reguary n the
ater nscrptons and even n our days. But n these ater tmes we fnd usuay samvat,
whch sometmes even s nfected 82, before the dates of the years ; but, before the dates of
the month fang n the brght haf, su or su d for suddha or suka-paksa-dna, or n Kashmr
su or su t (tth), and before those fang n the dark haf, ba or va d for bahua or vahua-
paksa-dna, or n Kashmr ba t.
From the 6th century, the nscrptons of Western lnda offer here and there
abbrevatons of other words, such as du for dutaka, dv for dvtya 83.
Later, especay snce the th century, abbrevatons of ttes and the names of
trbes, castes and so forth become very common. ln the MSS they are notceabe snce
the earest tmes. Thus, the Khotan Dhammapada (Pars fragment) has, at the end
ofa agga, ga 30 for gatha 30; and n the Bower MS, pate ll, so for soka and
pa pada often occur n connecton wth fgures at the end cf a secton. ln the nscrptons
and MSS of the 12th century we fnd wth names, not wth dates, the sma crce or
bndu 8 , whch s st used to ndcate abbrevatons ; e. g., //z0 for thakkara. The same
sgn s used n Prakrt MSS to ndcate the omsson of one or severa etters that can be
easy supped ;e.g., a0tabhavam, for attabhavam, dntha for dttha 85.
F. Pagnaton
The ndus number ony the eaves (pattra), not the pages (prstha), of ther MSS ;
and n the Dravdan dstrcts the fgure stands on the frst page of each eaf, n a other
80. Cf., e.g., l . v, 19, note, ne 33 ; 20, note, ne 11 ; very common n Kashmr MSS.
81. l . xv, 196 ; cf. Feet l. , 329 ; and Kehorn, l. v, 2 , note 7.
82. ccordng to a etter from Kehorn.
83. l . v, 73, p. 2, ne 20 ; x, 8 , ne 37, 0 ; xv, 3 0, ne 57.
8 . See, e.g., l . v, 19 ff ; o. f; L , 317, ne 9.
85. Cf. S. P. Pandt, Maavkagnmtra, , 5, who, as aso Burne, makes d0 tha
stand for dththa ; see aso Psche, achr. Gott. Ge Ges., 1873, 206.
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139
parts of lnda on the second (sankaprstha) 8. The same rue hods good n the case of
copper-pates, the sheets of whch sometmes (but rarey are) numbered 87.
G. Seas
ccordng to the aw-books 88, a Sasanas [87| must bear the roya sea. Conse
quenty, seas, weded to the pates or to the rngs connectng the pates, or attacrud to
them by pns, are found wth the ma|orty of the grants. They show the roya coafof arms
(mosty the representaton of an anma or of a dety), or, n addton to such embems, a
shorter or onger nscrpton, gvng the name of the kng or of the founder of the dynasty,
or the whoe pedgree, and sometmes merey an nscrpton 89.
lll. WPlTl G M T Pl LS, LlBP Pl S D WPlT PS
37. Wrtng Materas 90
. Brch-bark
[88| The nner bark of the Bhur|a-tree (Baetua Bho|pattr), whch the maaya
produces n great quantty, probaby s auded to aready by . Curtus (see above,
page 23) as a wrtng matera used by the ndus at the tme of exander s nvason, and
ater t s frequenty named as such n orthern Buddhst and Brahmanca Sanskrt
works 91. lt s even caed ekhana, the wrtng matera , and wrtten documents go by
the name of bhur|a. ccordng to Berun 92, peces, one e n ength and one span n
breadth, were prepared for use by rubbng them wth o and poshng them. The art
of the preparaton has however been ost n Kashmr, when the ntroducton of paper
durng the Mogha perod furnshed a more convenent matera 83. But a not nconsderabe
number of od brch-bark MSS st exst n the brares of the Kashmr Pandts.
ccordng to a statement made to me by Bhau Da|, brch-bark MSS occur aso n 0rssa,
and amuets, wrtten on Bhur|a, are st used throughout a the ryan dstrcts of lnda
The use of the bhur|apatra of course began n the ncrth-west ; but t seems to have
86. 0n an apparent excepton, see W KM. v, 261.
87. Cf., e.g., B. LSlP. p. 2 ; facsmes at l. , 1 ff. ; , 156, 330.
88. oy, Pecht und Stte, Grundrss, ll, 8, 11 .
89. See, e.g., the coectons of seas n pates at B SlP. 106, and l. , 10 ; v, 2 ;
see aso F. Gl (C l. 3), ps. 30, 32, 33, 37, 3.
90. Cf. B. SlP. 8 -93; Pa|endraa Mtra, n Gough s Papers reatng to the Coec
ton and Preservaton of ncent Sanskrt MSS, p. 15 ff. ; Fhrer, etschrftf. Bbothe-
kswesen,, 19 ff., , t ff.
91. BP ., sub voce bhur|a.
92. lnda, , 777 (Sachau) ; the descpton seems to ft the Kharosth Dhammapada
from Khotan.
93. Kash.nr Peport, . BBP S. x, pp. 29 ff.
9 . Pa|endraa Mtra, Gough s Papers, 17 ; Kashmr Peport, 29, note 2.
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spread n eary tmes, as the copper-pates of Centra, astern and Western lnda appear
to have been cut accordng to the sze of the Bhur|a, whch n Kashmr mosty corresponds
to our quarto (Burne). s stated n many cassca Sanskrt works and by Berun, a
etters were wrtten on Bhur|a at east n orthern, Centra, astern and Western lnda.
The odest documents on Bhur|a, whch have been found, are the Kharosth
Dhammapada from Khotan, and the nscrbed twsts , ted up wth threads, whch
Masson dscovered n the Stupas of fghanstan (see above, page 39, and note 100). ext
come the fragments from the Godfrey Coecton and the Bower MS, the eaves of whch
have been cut accordng to the sze of pam-eaves, and, ke these, are perced n the
mdde n order to pass a strng through, ntended to hod them together 95. ext n age
s the Bakhsha MS, and then foow after a consderabe nterva the brch-bark MSS
from Kashmr n the brares of Poona, London, 0xford, enna, Bern, &c., none of
whch probaby dates earer than the 15th century.
B. Cotton coth
The use of we-beaten cotton coth, s mentoned by earchos (see above, page 23,
and some metrca Smrts, as we as some nscrptons of the ndhra perod state, that
offca and prvate documents were wrtten on pata, patka or karpaska pata 9&.
ccordng to Burne, and Pce (Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer, 1877, . 08), the Kanarese
traders st use for ther books of busness a knd of coth, caed kadatam, whch s covered
wth a paste of tamarnd-seed and afterwards backened wth charcoa. The etters are
wrtten wth chak or steatte pencs, and the wrtng s whte or back. ln the Brha||nan-
akosa at esamr, l found a sk band wth the st of the ana Sutras, wrtten wth nk.
Pecenty Peterson (Ffth Peport, 113) has dscovered at nhvad Patan a MS, dated
krama-Samvat 1 18 ( . D. 1361-62), whch s wrtten on coth.
C. Wooden Boards
The passage of the nayaptaka (see above, page 22), whch forbds the ncsng of
precepts for regous sucde, bears wtness to a very eary use of wooden boards or bamboo
chps as wrtng materas. quay, the atakas, and aso ater works, menton the wrtng
board, used n the eementary schoos. Chps of bamboo (saaka), wth the name of the
bearers served as passports for Buddhst monks (Burnouf, lntrod. a l hstoredu Bouddhsme,
259, note). n nscrpton from the tme of the Western Ksatrapa ahapana 97 speaks of
boards (phaaka) n the gudha, on whch agreements regardng oans were pacarded, and
Katyayana prescrbes that pants are to be entered on boards wth pandutkha, .e., wth
chak 98. Dandn narrates, n the Dasakumaracarta, that paharavarman wrote hs
95. . SB.xv, 225 ff.; facsmes n oerne s Bower MS ; W KM. v, 10 .
96. . oy, Peport und Stte, Grundrss, ll, 8, 11 ; ask nscrpton, o. 11, , B,
n B. SPWl. v, 10 f.
97. ask nscrpton o. 7, ne , n B. SPWl, v, 102.
98. B. SlP. 87, note 2.
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decaraton, addressed to the seepng prncess, on a varnshed board 99. MSS on varnshed
boards, whch are common n Burma, have htherto not been dscovered n lnda proper ;
but there are ndcatons that the ndus, too, used boards for terary purposes. Wnterntz
nforms me that the Bodean Lbrary possesses a MS on wooden boards, whch comes
from ssam. [89| nd Pa|endraa Mtra asserts, n Cough s Papers, p. 18, that n the
orth-West Provnces poor peope copy regous works wth chak on back boards.
D. Leaves
ccordng to the Canon of the Southern Buddhsts (see above, page 27), eaves (panna)
were n ancent tmes the most common wrtng matera. Though the texts500 do not
menton the pants whch furnshed these eaves, t s not doubtfu that they came then, as
n ater tmes, chefy from the arge-eaved pam-trees, the tada or taa (Borassus abe
forms) and the tat or ta (Corypha umbracufera, or C. taera), whch, orgnay
ndgenous n the Dekhan, are found at present even n the Pun|ab. The earest wtness501
for the genera use of pam-eaves throughout the whoe of lnda s uen Tsang (7th
century). But we possess cear proof that they Were used even n north-west lnda durng
much earer tmes. The oruz pam-eaf MS certany goes back to the 6th century, and
some fragments n the recenty dscovered Godfrey Coecton from Kashgar beong, as
oerne has shown on the paeographca evdence, at east to the th century, and are
oder than the Bower MS5 3. gan, the hur|upattra eaves of the Bower MS are cut
accordng to the sze of pam-eaves, and that s aso the case wth the Taxa copper-pate
(see above, page 8) whch certany s not ater than the 1st century .D. s the
coppersmth then chose a pam-eaf for hs mode, t foows that pam-eaves must have
been commony used for wrtng, even n the Pan|ab. Buddhst tradton, preserved n
the Lfe of uen Tsang 0 , asserts that the Canon was wrtten on pam-eaves at the frst
Counc hed mmedatey after Buddha s death. nd the story regardng Samghabhadra s
dotted MS of the naya , pubshed by Takakusu n .P S. 1896, 36 f., shows that
ths tradton s at east two centures oder ; one nference, whch may be drawn from t,
s, that about .D. 00 the Buddhsts beeved pam-eaves to have been used for wrtng
snce mmemora tmes.
ccordng to Pa|endraa Mtra 0 , the pam-eaves, to be used for wrtng, are frst
dred, next boed or soaked n water, then agan dred, and fnay poshed wth stones or
99. Dasakumaracarta, Ucchvasa , towards the end.
500. B. lS. lll. 2, 7 ff., 120. 501. Syuk, , 225 (Bea).
502. . SB. lxv. 225 f. 503. Lfe of uen Tsang, 117 (Bea).
50 . Sec Pa|endraa Mtra, n Gough s Papers, p. 17.
505. See Gough s Papers, 102, and the measurements n Kehorn s Peport for 1880-81,
and Peterson s Thrd Peport.
19
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conch-shes and cut to the proper sze. lt agrees wth ths statement, that the eaves of
the ancent MSS from epa and Western lnda frequenty show traces of an artfca
preparaton. Ther ength vares between one and three feet, and ther breadth between
one and a quarter and four nches505. ganst ths, Burne B0B asserts that the peope of
Southern lnda take no troube wth the preparaton, and mosty even negect to trm the
eaves propery. The ast asserton s not borne out by the appearance of the South-lndan
MSS known to me, though t s no doubt true of the eaves used by cerks and men of
busness n offces and for etters. t ,
The oruz MS, and the fragments n the Godfrey Coecton, as we as the numerous
pam-eaf MSS of the 9th and ater centures from epa, Benga, Pa|putana, Gu|arat and
the northern Dekhan prove that snce ancent tmes the pam-eaves were wrtten on wth
nk a over orthern, astern, Centra and Western lnda. Snce the ntroducton of
paper, they are no onger used n these dstrcts, except n Benga for MSS
of the Candpatha507.
ln the Dravdan dstrcts and n 0rssa, the etters were, and st are, ncsed wth
a stus and afterwards backened wth soot or charcoa. The odest MS, found n the
south, dates accordng to Burne508 from .D. 1 28.
pam-eaf MSS are perced ether wth one hoe, usuay n the mdde, more
rarey, n specmens from Kashgar, on the eft, or wth two hoes on the eft and the rght,
through whch strngs (sutra or sarayantraka)sog are passed n order to keep the
eaves together.
ln Southern lnda, raw pam-eaves were, and st are, commony used for etters,
for prvate and offca documents, as we as n the ndgenous schoos. For the atter
purpose they are aso empoyed n Benga510. ccordng to dams511, the pups of the
toh wrte aso wth amp-soot on the arge Banana and Sa eaves.
. nma Substances
D ws512 asserts that Buddhst works menton skns among the wrtng materas,
but negects to quote the passages. lt s possbe to nfer from the passage of the
asavadatta, quoted above ( 3 , B) that n Subandhu s tme skns were used for wrtng.
But the fact that eather s rtuay mpure makes the nference hazardous. nd htherto
506. B. Sl P. 86. 507. Pa|endraa Mtra, Gough s Papers, 102.
508. B. SlP. 87 ; further researches n Southern lnda w probaby show that oder
MSS exst.
509. asavadatta, 250 ( a).
510. B. SlP. 89, 93, Pa|endraa Mtra, Gough s Papers, 17.
511. Peports on ernacuar ducaton, 20, 93 (ed Long).
512. lntroducton to Kaccayana, . 513. /. Pa Text Soc., 1883, 135 f.
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no MS on eather has turned up n lnda, though peces of eather from Kashgar, nscrbed
wth lndan characters, are sad to exst n the Petersburg coectons. bank pece of
parchment [90| ay among the MSS of the esamr Brha||nanakosa.
Manuscrpts on thn pates of vory occur n Burma, and the Brtsh Museum
possesses two specmens B1S
F. Metas
The atakas 51 state repeatedy that the mportant famy records of rch merchants,
and verses and mora maxms, were engraved on god pates, and Burne51G mentons that
they were used for roya etters and for and-grants. god pate wth a votve nscrpton
n K barest h has been found n a Stupa at Gangu near the runs of Taxa 810. Specmens
of sma MSS and offca documents on sver kewse are preserved B17, and among them
s one from the ancent Stupa at Bhattprou. ln the Brtsh Museum there are aso MSS
on gt and sver pated pam-eaves.
lt s a matter of course that the precous metas were used ony n rare and excep
tona cases. But, as the exceedngy numerous fnds prove, copper-pates (tamrapata,
tamrapattra, tamrasasana, abbrevated tamra) were snce ancent tmes the favourte matera
for engravng varous knds of documents whch were ntended to ast, and especay and-
grants, to the donees of whch they served as tte-deeds.
ccordng to Fahan (about . D. 00), the Buddhst monasteres possessed grants
engraved on copper, the odest of whch dated from Buddha s tme518. Though ths
statement requres confrmaton, the Sohgaura pate (see above, page 58) teaches us that
durng the Maurya perod offca decrees were commtted to copper. nother Buddhst
tradton, preserved by uen Tsang S , asserts that Kanska caused the sacred books to
be engraved on sheets of copper. nd a smar story, whch Burne decares to be
untrustworthy, s tod regardng Sayana s commentares on the edas620. But t s
undenabe that copper has been used aso for the preservaton of terary works, as pates
wth such contents have been found at Trpatty, and specmens from Burma, and Ceyon
(some of whch are gt) are now n the Brtsh Museum 52. Photographs of qute modern
copper-pates wth sts of goods n Gurumukh and agar, sent from Kashgar to
St. Petersburg, have reached me through the kndness of S. von 0denberg.
s regards the technca preparaton, the odest tamrasasana known, the Sohgaura
copper-pate (see above, page 58), has been cast n a moud of sand, nto whch the etters
and the embems above them had been prevousy scratched wth a stus or a ponted
pece of wood. ence both the etters and the embems appear on the pate n reevo.
51 . B. lS. lll. 2, 10 f. 515. B. SlP. 90, 93. 516. C. SP. , 129, p. 59.
517. B. SlP. 87 ; Pea. rch. Survey of lnda, ew lmpera Seres, o. 15, p,13,
and p. 6, o. 22 ; /. Pa Text Soc., 1883, p. 13 ff.
518. Syuk (B a), l, xxxv. 519. See B. SlP. 86. 520. M. M. P , 17.
521. . Pa Text Soc., 1883, 136 ff.
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other copper-pates have been fashoned wth the hammer, and many among them
show dstnct traces of the bows. Ther thckness and sze vary very consderaby. Some
are very thn sheets, whch coud be bent doube and wegh ony a few ounces; others are
exceedngy massve and are eght or nne pounds n weght or even heaver 522. Ther sze
s party determned by the nature of the wrtng matera commony used n the dstrcts
where they were ssued, and party by the extent of the document to be engraved, the sze
of the cerk s wrtng, and so forth. The smths aways mtated the orgnas gven them.
lf these were wrtten on pam-eaves, the pates were made narrow and ong. lf the
matera was brch-bark, the pates became much broader, often amost square. 0f the
frst descrpton are a tne copper-pates from Southern lnda, wth the excepton of those
of the adavas of |ayanagara, whch mtate stone steae 3. To the second cass beong
a the Sasanas ssued further north, wth the excepton of the Taxa pate, whch, as
stated aready, s the sze of a pam-eaf. comparson of the numerous pates of the
aabh kngs shows very ceary how ther sze graduay grows wth the ncreasng ength
of thePrasast.
lf, as s mosty the case, severa pates were requred for one document, they were
usuay connected by copper rngs passed through round hoes n the pates. The snge
rng s usuay found n Sasanas from Southern lnda, and then the hoe s usuay made
n the eft sde of the pate. lf there are two rngs, the hoes go through the ower part
of the frst pate, the upper part of the second, and so on aternatey. The rngs
correspond to the threads whch keep the pam eaves together, and they make of many
tamrasasanas sma voumes5 , whch can be opened qute convenenty. The nes run
aways, except n the |ayanagara pates, [91| parae to the broadest sde of the pate.
The etters have mosty been ncsed wth a chse, rarey wth a graver (compare above,
page 0). ln order to protect the wrtng, the rms of the pates are usuay thckened, and
sghty rased525, and the frst sde of the frst pate, as we as the second sde of the
ldst, s eft bank. The copper seas attached to the pates seem to have been cast, and
ther nscrptons and embems are rased on a counter-sunk surface. ccordng to Bana526,
the state sea of kng arsa was made of god.
arous copper statues show votve nscrptons on ther bases. snge nscrpton
on ron, that on the ron par of Meharau, near Deh527, has become known. The
Brtsh Museum possesses a Buddhst MS on tn598.
522. The Taxa pate weghs 3 ounces and was found bent doube : the na pates
of Sadtya l. of aabh wegh together 17 pounds, 3 ounces, see F. Gl (Cll 3)., 172.
But there are st heaver pates, B. S1P. 92, where however the hstorca notes requre
correcton.
523. B. SlP. 92 ; cf, the facsmes at l. , 26, 38, &c.
52 . The Kasakud grant (8th. century) s wrtten on eeven pates, rahadaga grant
( th. century), l. , 1 ff., on eght.
525. See F. Gl (Cll. 3), 68, note 6. 526. arsacarta, 227 ( rnayasagar Press ed|.
527. F. Gl (Cll. 3), 139. 528. See the st, /. Pa Text Soc., 1883, 13 ff.
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G. Stone and Brck

Stones of the most varous knds, rough and artfcay smoothed bocks of basat or
trap, as we as artstcay carved coumns of standstone, or even prsms of crysta, have
been snce the most ancent tmes the most common materas for makng documents, as
soka expresses hmsef, crathtka, such as to endure for a ong tme . nd t s
ndfferent whether the documents are offca or prvate, whether they contan roya
procamatons, treates between kngs, or agreements between prvate ndvduas, grants
and donatons or poetca effusons. There are even some nstances of the ncson of arger
terary works ; arge fragments of pays by the Cahamana kng graha l , and by hs
poet-aureate Somadeva, have been found at |mr529, and a arge ana Sthaapurana n
a number of Sargas, mpressons of whch (unpubshed) l owe to Fhrer and G. . 0|ha,
exsts n B|ho (Pa|putana).
Brcks, showng snge or a few etters, have been known for some tme, as specmens
have been found by Cunnngham530, Fhrer and others n varous parts of lnda, and even
n Burma. But recenty a set has been dscovered n the orth-West Provnces by oey,
on whch Buddhst Sutras are nscrbed, the characters havng apparenty been scratched
on the most cay, before t was baked531.
. Paper
Durng the perod to whch ths work refers, paper was hardy known or at east
tte used n lnda, as ts ntroducton s ony due to the Muhammadans. Pa|endraa
Mtra532, however, asserts that a tte-wrter by kng Bho|a of Dhara proves ts use n
Mava durng the th century. The odest paper MS n Gu|arat s sad to date from .D.
l223-2 5ss. .
Paper MSS dated krama-Samvat 138 and 139 ( . D. 1327-28 and 1337-38). the
eaves of whch are cut accordng to the sze of pam-eaves, have been dscovered by
Peterson at nhvad Patan53 . lt s very doubtfu f any of the ancent MSS from Kashgar,
whch are wrtten on a pecuar paper covered wth a ayer of gypsum, are of lndan orgn;
oerne beeves that a of them were wrtten n Centra sa 585.
529. l . xx, 201 ff. ( ow edted by Kehorn n G ttnger Festschrft, 1901).
530. C. SP. , 97 ; v, 102. 531. Proc. SB. 1896, 99 ff.
532. Gough s Papers, 16.
533. See my Cataogue of MSS from Gu|arat, &c., , 238, o. 1 7.
53 . Ffth Peport, 123, 125. 535. W KM. v, 261 ; . SB. lxv, 215 ff., 258 f.
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l. lnk
The odest undoubtedy lndan term for nk s mas or mas frequenty spet mas or
mas . The word, whch occurs as a vara ecto aready n a Grhyasutra, s derved from the
verb mas (hmsayam), and means etymoogcay powder580. Further, t serves to denote
severa knds of puversed charcoa, whch were mxed wth water, gum, sugar and so
forth, and used for the preparaton of nk537. Burne s mstaken when he asserts that n
Cassca Sanskrt Lterature mas, nk occurs ony n the ate works; t was known to
Bana (about .D. 620) and to hs predecessor Subandhu588.
Benfey, ncks and Weber have derved mea, another word for nk , for the
Greek meas. But t s, no doubt, the femnne (vz., mas) of the common Prakrt
ad|ectve maa, drty, back whch cannot have been borrowed from the Greeks589.
Mea, kewse, was known to Subandhu, who uses the denomnatve meanandayate,
becomes an nkstand 5 0. The Kosas offer for nkstand aso meamanda, meandhu.
meandhuka and masman, and the Puranas maspatra, masbhanda and maskupka 1.
The statements of earchos and . Curtus (see above, page 23) accordng to whch
the ndus wrote on cotton coth and on the nner bark of trees, .e. Bhur|a, make t
very probabe that they used nk aready n the th century B.C. To the same concuson
ponts the fact that n some etters of the soka edcts dots are occasonay substtuted
for oops5 2. The odest specmen of wrtng wth nk, on the rec-vase of the Stupa [92|
of ndher (see above, page 23) s certany not ater than the 2nd century B.C. From
the frst centures .D dates the Kharosth Dhammapada from Khotan, as we as the
twsts of Bhur|a and the stone vesses wth Kharosth etters n nk from the Stupa of
fghanstan. Somewhat ater are the ancent Bhur|a and pam-eaf MSS wth Brahma
characters. Panted nscrptous occur st n the caves of |anta5 8.
Cooured nk, whch n ater tmes the anas especay have used extensvey for
ther MSS5 , s mentoned aso n Brahmanca works, e.g., n the sectons of the Puranas
on the donaton of MSS55. Besdes chak (see above, 3 , B), red ead or mnum
(hngua) was used, aready n ancent tmes, as a substtute for nk5 6.
536. BPW. and BW., sub voce mas.
537. lndan prescrptons for preparng nk are found n Pa|endraa Mtra s notes,
Gough s Papers, &c., 18 f; Kashmr Peport, 30.
538. See, e.g., asavadatta, 187 ( a) ; arsacarta, 95.
539. See now aso acharae, achrchten Gott. Ges. Wss., 1896, 265 f.
5 0. BPW. sub hac voce.
5 1. manda and nanda, water-vesse (cf aso nandka, nand , we , and nandpata,
cover of a we) are derved from nandayat, and mandayat, to cause to re|oce, to refresh .
5 2. B. lS. lll. 2,61 f., 69. 5 3. B. SPWl. v, p. 59.
5 . See, e.g., the facsmes n Pa|endraa Mtra s otces of Sanskrt MSS, 3, p. 1.
5 5. emadr, Danakhanda, 5 9 ff.
5 6. D ws, lntrod. to Kaccayana, ll ; ataka o. 509 (v, 89), ponted out by
0denberg.
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. Pens, pencs, c
The genera name of an nstrument for wrtng s ekhan, whch of course ncudes
the stus, pencs, brushes, reed and wooden pens, and s found aready n the epcs6 7.
The varnaka, mentoned n the Latavstara, no doubt refers to the tte stck wth
out a st wth whch the schoo-boys st draw the etters on the wrtng board (set above,
page 22). The Posas offer the varant varnka. The varnavartka, whch occurs n the
passage of the Dasakumaracarta referred to above (see note 99), must be a brush or
cooured penc, as, accordng to other passages, the vartka was used for drawng or
pantng 5 8. Ta or tuka probaby denoted orgnay a brush , though t s expaned
aso by the modern saa, graver , a stus. 5 9
The most usua name of the reed pen s the word kaama, kaamos, Caamus,
whch occurs n a eastern anguages ; the rarer ndgenous lndan name s ska or ska
teray reed 550. Peces of reed, bamboo or wood, cut after the manner of our pens,
are used n a parts of lnda where the use of nk prevas,551 and a the exstng ancent
MSS on pam-eaves and Bhur|a probaby have been wrtten wth such pens552. The
Sanskrt name of the stus used n Southern lnda s saaka, n Marath saa.
Pegardng the now very generay used ruer , a pece of wood or cardboard wth
strngs fxed at equa dstances, and regardng ts probabe predec|ssors, see necdota
,0xonensa, ryan Seres, , 3, 66, and nzeger d. W. kademe, 1897 o. lll, where
photographs of two specmens have been gven. ccordng to a etter from C. Kemm
( pr 21, 1897), the thnoogca Museum of Bern possesses two specmens, one from
Cacutta wth the nscrpton nvedanapattra and one from Madras caed kdugu.
38. The Preservaton of Manuscrpts and Copper-Pates, and the Treatment of Letters
. Manuscrpts and Lbrares
[93| Wooden covers, cut accordng to the sze of the sheets, were paced on the
Bhur|a and pam-eaves, whch had been drawn on strngs, and ths s st the custom
even wth the paper MSS558. ln Southern lnda the covers are mosty perced by hoes,
through whch the ong strngs are passed. The atter are wound round the covers and
knotted. Ths procedure was usua aready n eary tmes55 and was observed n the case
of the od pam-eaf MSS from Western and orthern lnda. But n epa the covers of
5 7. See BPW. and BW., sub hac voce. 5 8. See BPW. and BW., sub hac voce.
5 9. See Mahesvara on marakosa, p. 2 6, verse 33 (Bo. Gov. ed|.
550. See BPW. and BW., sub hac voce.
551. Ths s the case n a the parts of lnda known to me ; cf. aso Pa|endraa
Mtra n Gough s Papers, 18.
552. necdota 0xonensa, r. Seres, , 3, 66. 553. Berun, lnda, l, 171,(Sachau).
55 . Cf. arsacarta, 95, where the stravestanam of a MS s mentoned.
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1 8
partcuary vauabe MSS sometmes are made of embossed meta; the MSS (pustaka)
whch have been prepared n ths manner are usuay wrapped up n dyed or even
embrodered coth. 0ny n the ana brares the pam-eaf MSS sometmes are kept n
sma sacks of whte cotton coth, whch agan are ftted nto sma boxes of whte meta.
The coectons of MSS, whch, frequenty are cataogued, and occasonay, n monasteres
and n roya courts, are paced under brarans, generay are preserved n boxes of wood
or cardboard. 0ny n Kashmr, where n accordance wth Muhammadan usage the MSS
are bound n eather, they are put on sheves, ke our books.
The ancent lndan name of a brary, bharatbhandagara, treasury of the goddess
of speech , occurs frequenty n ana works ; more rarey the modern synonym, sarusvan-
bhandagara. Such Bhandagaras were, and st are, found n the tempes555, coege
(vdyamatha), monasteres (matha, upasraya, vhara, samgharama) 9, at the courts of
prnces and n the houses of many prvate ndvduas. The Puranas decare t to be the
sacred duty of the weathy to make donatons of books to tempes and so forth567. quay,
such donatons are obgatory on the ana and Buddha aymen, and the Pra asts of the
od MSS prove that the obgaton was fufed n the most bera manner. famous
roya brary of the mdde ages was that of kng Bho|a of Dhara (th century) ; on the
conquest of Mava, about . D. 11 0, Sddhara|a- ayasmha transferred t to nhvad558 ;
there t seems to have been amagamated wth the court brary of the Cauukyas whch
s repeatedy mentoned n Works of the 13th century. The bharatbhandagara of the
Cauukya saadeva or vamaa( .D. 12 2-1262) furnshed,accordng to an unpubshed
Prasast, the copy of the asadhya, on whch dyadhara wrote the frst commentary of
the poem, and the MS of the Kamasutra, accordng to whch asodhara composed hs
ayamangaatka 55f. 0ne of the manuscrpts of the Pamayana n the brary of the
Unversty of Bonn has been derved from a copy of saadeva s coecton &6 .
The search for Sanskrt MSS, nsttuted by the Government of lnda, has shown
that there are st a good many roya brares n lnda, and the cataogues of severa,
such as those of war, Bkaner, ammu, Mysore, and Tan|ore, has been pubshed. The
documents, pubshed n connecton wth the search, have brought to ght aso a
surprsngy arge number of prvate brares. nd varous notes n oder Sanskrt works
make t apparent that consderabe prvate brares exsted n eary tmes. Thus, Bana
(about . D. 620) tes us that he kept a partcuar reader (pustaka-vacaka), whose
555. Cf. the remarks on donatons of MSS n nscrptons ; e.g., lnscrptons du Cam-
bodge, 30, 31 ; utzsch, Sll. , 15
556. Cf. the remark n a aabh nscrpton of . D. 568 (1 . v, 67) regardng a
donaton n order to enabe the monks of the Bauddha monastery of Dudda to buy MSS
(pustakopakraya) of the Saddharma0.
558. Cf. D. Leben des /. M. emacandra D. W . 183, 231.
557. emadr, Danakhanda, 5 ff.
559. Kamasutra, 36 , note (ed. Durgaprasad).
560. Wrtz, de wast. Pec. des Pamayana, 17 f.
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manpuaton of the MS of the ayupurana he descrbes n hs arsacarta 561. Burnett s
remarks S62, regardng the bad treatment of the MSS by the Brahmans, do not hod good
for the whoe of lnda, perhaps not even for the whoe of Southern lnda. ln Gu|arat,
Pa|putana and the Maratha country, as we as n orthern and Centra lnda, l have
seen, besdes some -kept coectons, very carefuy preserved brares n the possesson
of Brahmans and ana monks. The treatment of the books usuay depends ony upon
the wordy crcumstances of the owner 5M.
B Copper-pates
The way n whch prvate ndvduas kept ther copper-pate grants, seems to.have
been very pecuar. ln many paces, e.g., n the runs of aabh, near the modern aa,
they have been found mmured n the was or even n the foundatons of the houses of the
owners. ln many other cases [9 | the grants have turned up n those feds to the
donaton of whch they refer, often hdden n sma caches constructed of brcks.
The fnders or poor owners often se or pedge pates to the anas, and ths custom
expans why they frequenty come nto the hands of uropean coectors at great dstances
from the paces of ssue. The orgnas of the grants, accordng to whch the pates were
prepared, probaby remaned n the roya Daftar, the keeper of whch, the aksapataka,
s frequenty mentoned56 .
C. The treatment of etters
The atakas aready menton the custom of wrappng up mportant etters n whte
coth and seang the packet505. t present, offca or ceremona etters often are sent
n bags of sk or brocade. ln the case of ordnary etters on pam-eaves, the proceedng
s smper ; the eaves are foded, ther ends are spt and |oned, and the whoe s ted up
wth a thread166. lt s probabe that etters on Bhur|a were treated smary. ccordng
to Bana507, the posta runner (drg.adhvaga, ekhaharaka) ted each separatey to a strp
of coth and wound ths round hs head.
39. Wrters, ngravers and Stone-Masons
Though the odest lndan aphabet s a creaton of the Brahamanca schoomen (see
above, page 37), and though the nstructon n wrtng has remaned even n recent tmes
chefy n the hands of Brahamans, there are yet ndcatons that professona wrters, and
perhaps even castes of professona wrters, exsted aready at an eary perod. The odest
name of these men s ekhaka, used n the Canon of the Southern Buddhsts and the epcs
(seeabove, page 21). ln the Sanc nscrpton, Stupa l, o. 1 3568,. t s ceary used to
desgnate the professon of the donor ; t may, however, be doubted f t means, as l have
transated t, copyst of MSS or wrter, cerk. ln varous ater nscrptons569, ekhaka
562. B. SlP.. 86 563. Cf. Pa|endraa Mtra, n Cough s Papers, 21.
561. rnayasagar ed., 95.
56 . Cf. Sten s transaton of the Pa|atarangn, , 2 9, 397, and notes.
569. Cf.. e.g., the Paava grant. . , 1 ff. (end) ; F. Gl (Cll. 3), o. 18 (end), 80
(end), and Feet s remarks n the lndex under ekhaka.
565. B. lS. lll. 2, 8 ; Fausbb, ataka, , 173 f. 566. B. SlP., 89.
567. arsacarta, 58, 167. 568. . , 369, 372.
20
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150
undoubtedy denotes the person who prepared the documents to be ncsed on copper or
stone. But n the present day a ekhak s aways a man who copes MSS. and ths professon
s usuay the resource of poor Brahamans, and sometmes of worn-out cerks (Kayasthas,
Karkuns). Such men were, and are, empoyed aso by the anas. But many ana MSS
have been coped, as ther Prasasts show, by monks or novces, and even by nuns. Smary,
we fnd, among the copysts of the Buddha MSS from epa, Bhksus, a|racaryas
and so forth570.
nother name of the professona wrters, whch was used aready n the th century
B.C., s the word pkara or bkara, dscussed above, ln the Kosas571 t s gven
as a synonym of ekhaka, and n the asavadatta t means wrter n genera. soka
uses t n the 1 th rock edct as a desgnaton of hs cerks. Smary, Pada, who coped
the SddSpura edcts, cas hmsef pkara, and n the Sanc nscrpton, Stupa l, o. 9578,
the donor Subahta-Gotputa takes the hgher tte ra|apkara, a wrter of the kng . ln
the earer tmes, pkara probaby was an equvaent for cerk .
ln a number of aabh nscrptons of the 7th and 8th centures, the wrter of the
documents, who s usuay the mnster for aances and war (sandhvgrahadhkrta),
receves the tte dvrapat or dvrapat, and the smpe word dvra occurs even earer n a
Centra-lndan nscrpton of .D. 521-2257 . Dvra or dvra s the Persan debr, wrter ,
whch probaby became domestcated n Western lnda durng the tme of the Sassanans,
when [95| the trade and ntercourse between Persa and lnda was greaty deveoped.
Dvra appears aso n the Pa|atarangn, and n other Kashmran works of the ll (hand
12th centures. Ksemendra s Lokaprakasa mentons even varous sub-dvsons, gan|advra,
bazar-wrters, grama-dvra, vage-wrters, nagara-dvra, town-wrters, and
khavasadvra ( ) .
The two works |ust mentoned, as we as other contemporaneous ones, desgnate the
wrters aso by the term kayastha, whch frst occurs n the a|navakya-Smrt , 335, and
even at present s common n orthern and astern lnda. The Kayasthas, however,
form a strcty separate caste, whch, though accordng to the Brahmanca account, t s
mxed wth Sudra bood, yet cams a hgh rank 16, and n reaty frequenty has possessed
a great potca nfuence. ln the nscrptons, the Kayast.as oc|ur snce t.e 8th century,
frst n the Kanasva nscrpton of .D. 738-39 from Pa|putana577.
570. Kashmr Peport, 33 Pa|endraa Mtra, n Cough s Papers, 22 ; Kehorn s and
Peterson s Peports on the Search for Sanskrt MSS, passm ; and Benda s Cataogue
of Sanskrt Buddhst MSS from epa, passm.
571. See, e.g., marakosa, 183, verse 15 ; Bo. Gov. ed. 572. a s ed., 239.
573. L , 102. 57 . F. Gl (Cl1. 3), 122, ne 7. 575. l . v, 10.
576. Coebrooke, ssays, , 161, 169 (Cowe) ; regardng the( Kayastha-prabhus n
Bombay, see Bombay Gazetteer, x, 1, 87 ft .
577. l . xx, 55 ; ater the Kayasthas occur very often n Gu|arat, l . v, 192, o. 1
ff., and n Kanga, l. , 22 .
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151
0ther desgnatons of the wrters n the nscrptons are karana5 6, karanka g or
more rarey karann 80, sasanka5 1 and dharmaekhn 8 . Karana s perhaps ony a synonym
of kayastha 83, as the aw-books menton the Karanas as one of the mxed castes. The
other terms, among whch karanka has to be rendered, accordng to Kehorn, by wrter
of ega documents (karana) , appear to be merey offca ttes wthout any reference to
caste. The deveopment of the lndan aphabets, and the nventon of new forms of the
etters, no doubt s due party to the Brahamans and the ana and Buddha monks, but
much more to the professona wrters and to the wrter castes. The opnon, accordng to
whch the modfcatons have been ntroduced by the stone-masons and the engravers of the
copper-pates, s ess probabe, because these persons were not suted for such work by
ther educaton and ther occupaton58 .
s the remarks at the end of many nscrptons show, t was customary to make
over a Prasast or Kavya, whch was to be ncsed on stone, to a professona wrter, who
prepared a far copy, and to set the mason (sutradhara, sakuta, rupakara, spn) to work
accordng to the atter5 5. Ths custom was observed aso n a case whch fe under my
persona observaton. The mason receved a sheet wth the far copy of the document
(the Prasast of a tempe) exacty of the sze of a stone on whch t was to be ncsed. e
frst drew the etters on the stone under the supervson of a Pandt, and then ncsed them.
ln some exceptona cases, the authors of the poems assert that they have done the work
of th; manson,583 and n others the masons say that they have made the far copes of
the nscrptons587.
/
The statements regardng the preparaton of copper-pate Sasanas are ess accurate
and expct. Usuay, the nscrptons menton ony the person who drew up or,
wrote the document. nd they mosty name as such ether a hgh offca (amatya
wndhvgrahka, rah.aska| or a genera (tenapat, baadhkrta). 0ccasonay, they assert that
the draftng was done by a stone-mason, a sutradhara 88 or tvasta 89, who, however, n
reaty merey engraved the grant. ccordng to Kahana590, the Kashran kngs kept a
578. a|navakya, , 72 ; a|ayant, lxx 17 ; cxxxv, 23 ; cf. BPW. under karana, 3 b.
579. Cf., e.g., l. , 81, 129, 166 ; l . xv, 175 ; xv, 12.
580. arsacarta, 227 ( rnayasagar ed.); l . x, 121. 581. l . xx, 315.
582. 1 . xv, 208.
583. Cf. the compound karanakayastha, l . xv, 13 ; Benda, Cat. Sansk. Buddh,
MSS, 70, o. 136 .
58 . B. SPWl. v, 79 f. ; B. lS. ll, 2, 0, note ; l . x, 190.
585. Cf., e.g., , 5, author Patnasmha ; copys. Ksatrya-Kumarapaa ; stone-mason,
rupakara Sampua : l. . 9 ; author Devagana ; wrter and mason as above : . , 81
author, eha ; copyst, Karanka Gauda Taksadtya ; mason, Somanatha, tankav|Sa-
nasan, expert n the art of ncsng (Lters/ : aso, anaogous remarks n l. , 129,
139, 211,279, etc.
586. Ths s stated by the poet Kub|a n Pce s unpubshed Tagund Prasast (now
edted by Pce, C. 7, Sk., 176, and by Kehorn, l. v, 31.) ; and by Dvakarapandta n
the n|aner nscrpton. l . x, 127.
589. l. , 158, 250, where t s sad that the tva|ta ranacarya wrote the grants of
cyutaraya and enkataraya, as we as that of Sadasvaraya dated . D. 1556.
587. Cf. l . x, 103, 107 ; xv, 1 0. 588. l . xx_, 2 8 ; . BBP S. x, .
590. Pa|atarangn, v. 397 f. (Sten).
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L52
speca offca for ths work ; he bore the tte pattopadhyaya, the teacher (charged
wth the preparaton) of tte-deeds , and beonged to the aksapataa offce, whch Sten
beeves to be the ccountant-Genera s 0ffce, whe l take t to be the Pecord-0ffce or
Court of Pos (Daftar).
The Sasanas name ony rarey, and n ate tmes, the person by whom the pates were
engraved (utkrna, unmUta). The engravers mentoned are varous artsans, a ptaakara,
ohakara or ayaskara 1, . e., the Kansar or coppetsmth of the present day, a s,utradharawz
stone-mason , a hemakara or sunara 9S (probaby equvaent to sonara), godsmth , a
spn6gtor v|nanka 595, an artsan . ln the Kanga Sasanas, we fnd n ther stead an
aksasan, aksasaka, akhasan, or akhasae590, whereby a member of the godsmth
caste, now caed ksae 597, s meant.
Fnay, the exstence of manuas for cerks and wrters must be mentoned. We
st possess severa works of ths knd, among whch the Lekhapancaska gves the rues
for draftng not ony prvate etters, but aso and-grants and the treates between kngs,
whe a secton of Ksemendra- yasadasa s Lokaprakasa shows how the varous knds of
bonds, bs of exchange (hund) and so forth ought to be done598.
C0 CLUDl G P M PKS
[96| Dr. W. Carteer, whose name appears at the bottom of the Pates, s
responsbe for the drawng and tracng of the etters for whch no cuttngs from facsmes
were avaabe, as we as for the arrangement and the retouche of the cuttngs, except n
the case of pates ll-l , whch were fnshed by a young thographer, Mr. Bohm. l have
aso to acknowedge Dr. Carter s assstance n the seecton of the sgns, whch n
a few cases he has made ndependenty, and n others has been nfuenced by a revson
of my proposas ; and l have to thank hm for varous ngenous remarks on the lndan
aphabets, as we as for a coecton of the varants n the soka edcts.
lf l have been abe to ustrate most of the lndan aphabets by cuttngs from
facsmes nsted of by hand-drawn sgns, l owe ths chefy to my frend Dr. . Burgess,
who durng many years has kndy furnshed me wth separate copes of hs exceent repro
ductons of lndan nscrptons. Some other donors of facsmes or photographers, Dr.
. utzsch, Professor . Leumann, and Dr. S. von 0denberg, have aready b;en msn-
toned n the notes.
591. l. v, 170 ; l . xv, 227, 230. 236.
595. l . xv, 208 ; the ohakara Kuke s kewse caed vnan, . e. v|nanka, l .
xv, 230.
592. l . xv, 360. 593. l. , 31 ; l . xv, 17. 59 . l . xv, 23 .
596. l . x, 123 ; xv, 1 5; l. , 19, 213, and the correcton of the transaton
(p. 21) at the end of the voume.
597. Banes, lmpera Census Peport, , 38, where the ksaes of Madras are men
toned. They are found, however, aso n the Kanarese dstrcts of the Bombay Presdency.
598. Bhandarkar, Peport on the Search for Sanskrt MSS, 1882-83, 38; Kashmr
Peport, 75 ; Pegardng etter-wrters see aso Pa|endraa Mtra, n Gough s Papers, xv,
133, and Burne, n SlP, 89.
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