A Primer on Climate Change Adaptation in the Philippines

P.A. Jaranilla-Sanchez, R.D. Lasco, G.B. Villamor, R.V. Gerpacio , G.P. Nilo and K.L. Villegas

A PRIMER ON CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Patricia Ann A. Jaranilla-Sanchez Rodel D. Lasco Grace B. Villamor Roberta V. Gerpacio Gina P. Nilo Karl L. Villegas

World Agroforestry Centre 2007

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The designations employed and the presentation of materials in this publication do not imply expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Southeast Asian Ministers of Education OrganizationSoutheast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEAMEO-SEARCA) and the Bureau of Soils and Water Management (BSWM) but lie solely on the authors views, opinions and review of literature. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without permission of the copyright owner.
Correct Citation: Jaranilla-Sanchez, P.A., Lasco, R.D., Villamor, G.B., Gerpacio, R., Nilo, G.P. and K.L. Villegas. 2007. A Primer on Climate Change Adaptation in the Philippines. World Agroforestry Centre, Philippines. ISBN: 978-971-93153-6-0 Edition: 1st Language: English Copyright 2007 by World Agroforestry Centre Published by: World Agroforestry Centre 2/f College of Forestry and Natural Resources Administration Building P.O. Box 35024 University of the Philippines at Los Baos, College, Laguna 4031, Philippines. Tel. No. +63 495362925; +63 495362701 local 2860 Fax: +63 495364521 Email: ICRAF-Philippines@cgiar.org Website: www.worldagroforestrycentre.org Layout: Patricia Ann J. Sanchez Photos: Patricia Ann J. Sanchez, Grace Villamor, ICRAF-Database, BSWM-Database

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Table of Contents Table of Contents List of Figures List of Tables Preface Acknowledgements Funding Disclaimer Introduction What is climate change vs. climate variability vs. climate extremes? Adaptation vs. mitigationwhy adaptation? A changing climatewhat has happened in the Philippines so far? What are the projected impacts of climate change to different sectors? Basic ways and forms to adapt to climate change Adaptation strategies in the Philippines Farmers Initiatives & Indigenous Strategies in the Philippines What role does tropical forest and agroforestry systems have in climate change adaptation? What is the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) doing? Maladaptation: how can we avoid this? What are some knowledge gaps in climate change adaptation? How can we close this knowledge gap? Literature Cited Glossary of Terms Annex 1: Integrated Climate Risk Assessment Framework (ICRAF) for small farmers Annex 2: AIACCC results on some adaptation options for Forests and Agriculture Annex 3: Six-step approach for assessing vulnerability and identifying and implementing climate change adaptations (the V&A approach) Helpful Websites Further readings

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List of Figures Structure of the Primer Figure 1 Graphical interpretation of climate change, climate extremes and climate variability Changes in annual mean temperature and Figure 2 annual precipitation over the Philippines Relative annual-mean sea-level for Manila, Figure 3 South Harbour, (blue; 1901-1997; 14.58oN, 120.93oE) and (red; 1947-1997; 13.15oN, 123.75oE) in the Philippines Bufo periglenes - Its species' extinction has Figure 4 been attributed to climate Green Turtle hatchlings in the Pacific regions Figure 5 Establishing small water impounding system Figure 6 (SWIP) Farmer technologies to adapt during drought Figure 7 periods Relationship between adaptation to climate Figure 8 change and the environmental and social services of forest ecosystems Linking the science, the institutions, the Figure 9 environment and the communities Figure 10 Framework of ICRAF

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7 7 13 16 19 25 35

List of Tables Acronyms

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Preface

This primer is the second part of the LULUCF Climate Change Mitigation Projects in the Philippines A Primer. This is in response to a growing interest on climate change adaptation after our mitigation primer with emphasis on terrestrial ecosystems and upland communities. The primer intends to collate all the information on the different climate change related projects nationwide and make them available to a wider audience who might be interested in doing some research work or in implementing some adaptation strategies in the country. The status of climate change, climate variability and climate extremes are discussed in the beginning of the book. Some questions relevant to the topic are answered in the rest of the chapters. Case studies on adaptation strategies/measures in the Philippines or in other countries presented here can be implemented in the country at the community level or at the policy level. Adaptation strategies on some sectors of the country are included. Specifically, this primer focuses on adaptation strategies for agriculture and forestry, biodiversity conservation, soil and water technologies/strategies, farming practices and adaptation strategies that can improve the resilience of communities and various sectors in the Philippines are considered as well. Contingency plans and gaps are identified to improve existing strategies to enhance adaptation to climate change in the country. The content is based on the authors review of technical documents, synthesis of previous case studies, synthesis of meetings and personal involvement in international negotiation efforts related to climate change adaptation. The style and language of this document has been simplified to cater to a wide range of audiences. A list of helpful websites is also provided for those who would like supplementary readings on the topic. The reader is encouraged to use and share this document freely but judiciously.

Rodel D. Lasco Country Program Coordinator World Agroforestry Centre

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Acknowledgements We would like to thank the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAFPhilippines), Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization-Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEAMEO-SEARCA) and the Bureau of Soils and Water Management (BSWM) for all the technical contributions in coming up with this publication. We would also like to acknowledge the administrative staff of the ICRAF who painstakingly took care of all the printing and financial arrangements for this publication. Funding This Publication was generously funded by the European Commission through the Tropical Forest and Climate Change Adaptation project in the Philippines collaboratively conducted by the World Agroforestry Centre and the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). Disclaimer The statements in this publication reflect the views and opinions of the authors only and not of the World Agroforestry Center, the Center for International Forestry Research no the European Commission.

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Introduction

Climate Change Climate Extremes Climate Variability

Impacts and Vulnerability of the Philippines

Adaptation Strategies/Projects in the Philippines

Structure of the primer

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Acronyms
APF APN ACCCA AIACCC Adaptation Policy Framework Asia Pacific Network Advancing Capacity to support Climate Change Adaptation An Integrated Assessment of Climate Change Adaptation and Vulnerability Assessment in Southeast Asia Bureau of Soils and Water Management Conservation Agriculture Conventions on Biological Diversity Clean Development Mechanism Center for International Forestry Research Conference of Parties Department of Environment and Natural Resources Global Sea Level Observing System World Agroforestry Centre (formerly International Center for Research in Agroforestry) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change International Tropical Timber Organization Non-wood forest products Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration Department of Science and TechnologyPhilippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization-Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture Ugnayang Pang-Agham Tao Foundation, Inc. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau Department of Environment and Natural Resources

BSWM CA CBD CDM CIFOR COP DENR GLOSS ICRAF IPCC ITTO NWFP PAGASA PCARRD

SEAMEOSEARCA UGAT UNCCD UNFCCC PAWB DENR

Introduction
The Philippines is one of the developing countries expected to suffer most of the negative effects of climate change. It is already known to most of us that climate change is happening. As climate changes, developing countries like the Philippines are faced with urgent needs for sustainable development: These are: 1.) to improve food security, 2.) to reduce poverty, and 3.) to provide an adequate standard of living for growing populations (Verchot, et al., 2007). In the previous primer, mitigation strategies were discussed but these are only expected to cushion the effects of climate change. Adaptation efforts are needed to improve the resilience of the community to the impacts of climate change, climate variability or climate extremes.

What is Climate Change vs. climate variability vs. climate extremes?

Climate change is any change in climate over time (usually hundreds of years), whether due to natural variability or because of human activity. This is usually long term and requires decades or more of statistically significant changes in climate at the global level. Climate variability is the variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all temporal and spatial scales beyond that of individual weather events. Climate variability is generally short term and abrupt climate variations. Climate extremes are short-term extreme climatic conditions such as the occurrence of El Nio and La Nia in the country. Figure 1 shows a graphical representation of the difference between climate variability, climate extremes and climate change. This figure is similar to the graphical representation of Smit et al. (2000) as shown by Robledo and Fornier (2005) for climate change and climate variability. Evidences of climate change are shown in the LULUCF primer on climate change mitigation projects in the Philippines (see Section 2: Whats wrong with our climate?).

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Climate 36 variability
temp eratu re, Celsiu s 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 0 100 200

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Climate extreme

Climate change
300 years 400 500 600 700

Figure 1. Graphical interpretation of climate change, climate extremes and climate variability.
*Legend: trendline (climate change); points (climate extremes); zigzag line including the points (climate variability)

Adaptation vs. mitigation Why adaptation?

Mitigation strategies are usually measures added to a project or activity to reduce, prevent or correct the impact of climate change. These are anthropogenic interventions to reduce the emission or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases (GHG). Adaptation on the other hand, is a process by which strategies and actions to avoid, moderate, cope with and/or take advantage of the consequences of climate events are developed, enhanced and implemented. Both mitigation and adaptation are urgently needed if we want to reduce climate change and its impacts over the coming decades. Although there are quite a number of mitigation projects implemented in the country, we can only do so much to reduce the impact of climate change, variability and extremes. Limited focus is given to mutually supportive adaptation strategies necessary to increase the resilience of local communities vulnerable to these climate changes, variability and extremes. This can be done side-by-side with mitigation strategies to

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minimize further impact on the most vulnerable populations and ecosystems. Adaptation strategies are very cost effective compared to mitigation and can be done from the policy level down to the grassroots level. There are plenty of adaptation measures both natural and human-induced. This publication will focus on human-induced adaptation measures.

A changing climate what has happened in the

Philippines so far? The IPCC (2001) projects under various scenarios that in the next 100 years, global mean surface temperatures will increase by 1.4-5.8oC and the global mean sea level will rise by 0.090.88m. The Philippines all in all has not only become warmer in the last few decades but it has also become drier (6% decline in rainfall for the past century). Data from 1961-1999 shows that the Philippines experience an average of 2325 mm of rainfall and 25.7oC of annual mean temperature (Figure 2). The Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS), which routinely monitors in several hundreds of locations including Manila and Legaspi shows how the sea levels have been rapidly rising throughout the years (Figure 3). This is very alarming because there are a lot of coastal towns with livelihoods dependent on the surrounding water bodies. Submergence of small islands located just a little above sea level might occur if this sea level rise continues.

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Figure 2. Changes in annual-mean temperature, 1901-1998, and annual precipitation, 1901-1998 (bottom), over the Philippines. (Changes from the average 1961-1990 climate values of 25.7oC and 2325 mm) (Hulme and Sheard, 1999).

Figure 3. Relative annual-mean sea-level for Manila, South Harbour, (blue; 1901-1997; 14.58oN, 120.93oE) and (red; 19471997; 13.15oN, 123.75oE) in the Philippines. (Hulme and Sheard,
1999)

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What are the projected impacts of climate change to different sectors?

Agriculture The increasing extreme weather events brought about by climate change have huge impacts on agriculture. a) Crops IPCC (2001) reports that climatic variability and change will affect scheduling of cropping season, as well as the duration of the growing period of the crop. Crop yield are expected to decline. Acute water shortages combined with thermal stress should adversely affect rice productivity despite the positive effects of elevated CO2 in the future. Crop diseases such as rice blast, and sheath and culm blight of rice also could become more widespread. The increased incidence of pests and diseases such as the Black rice bug (Scotinophara lurida), Waya-waya (Stenocranus Pacificus Kirakldy) for corn, the incidence of Abaca Bunchy top (Babuvirus Nanoviridae) usually in Abaca (Musa textilis) but now found to be affecting corn also), Caragumoy bleaching of their primary crop for basket weaving (as a result of increasing surface temperature) were noted by the Provincial Agriculture Office of Albay. (Personal Communication with the provincial agricultural specialist: Jojo Elvira, 2007). Massive agricultural losses were also experienced in major rice and corn-producing regions in the Philippines (e.g. Cagayan Valley) resulting from extreme drought and weather disturbances such as storms and typhoons. Immediate impacts from prolonged drought and excessive flooding in agriculture production areas threaten the livelihood and resiliency of poor farmers in the region. b) Livestock The IPCC WGII (2007) identifies some increase in incidence of diseases due to global warming that will affect livestock in the mid-latitude areas like the Philippines. For example, the blue-

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tongue disease that mostly affects sheep, goat and deer is projected to spread from the tropical countries to the mid-latitude areas (Anon, 2006, van Wuijickhuise et al., 2006). Studies are still lacking on the impacts of CO2 and climate change on the pest-plant dynamics or impacts on livestock health. (IPCC WGII, 2007) c) Fisheries/coastal According to the IPCC (2001), the coastal ecosystems are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change in Southeast Asia. Many wild stocks are under stress as a result of over exploitation, trawling on sea-bottom habitats, coastal development, and pollution from land-based activities. Marine productivity is greatly affected by plankton shift in response to temperature changes induced by ENSO. The coastline is routinely lashed by storm surges and cyclones so sediment load is added to the coastal waters. Forestry Vulnerability analysis of forest ecosystems in the Philippines Initial National Communications (1999) explains how both the quantity and quality of forest goods and services can significantly be affected by climate. Forest clearing for conversion to cropland and pasture are the primary reason for forest loss. This can be aggravated with increased flood and droughts brought about by climate change. All these will have severe effects to the environment such as increased soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, loss of genetic variability in crops, and depletion of water resources. (IPCC, 2001) Impacts on forests such as changes in the flowering of trees, production of seeds, palatability to herbivores, etc. as a result of climate change can severely be affected. Moreover, IPCC predicts that climate change is likely to worsen pest, disease and weed management problems particularly in plantation and production forest. Forests such as pine forest are vulnerable to fire and climate change induced increases in fire risk.

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Biodiversity Biodiversity is a term used for a The impacts of climate variety of life on earth, provides change on biodiversity are through its expression as increasing at an alarming ecosystems, goods and services rate. Climate change together that sustain our lives (CBD, 2007). with land use change and the spread of exotic/alien species will most likely limit the capacity of species to migrate promoting loss of some species. At the species level, climate change affects biodiversity by: 1.) changing species distribution; 2.) increasing extinction rates; 3.) changing reproduction timings and; 4.) changing the length of growing seasons for plants. (CBD, 2007)

Figure 4. Bufo periglenes - Its species' extinction has been attributed to climate. change. ( Charles Smith, US Fish
and Wildlife Service) (http://www.unepwcmc.org/Climate/, 2007)

Figure 5. Green Turtle hatchlings in the Pacific regions.( WWF-Canon / Martin

Harvey) (http://www.unep-wcmc.org/Climate/, 2007)

The first case of climate change impact on biodiversity is the species extinction was noted on the golden toad of Monteverde harlequin frog (has not been seen since 1989; believed to be extinct Figure 4). This species has already been tagged as the first victims of climate change. The reason for this is that since frogs rely on water to breed, any reduction or change in rainfall could reduce frog reproduction. Moreover, rising temperatures are closely linked to outbreaks of a fungal disease that

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contributes to the decline of amphibian populations, especially frogs in Latin America. A second case of climate change impact is much closer to home. The case of the green sea turtle in the Pacific regions (Figure 5). We have plenty of sea turtles around the Philippine coast. Warmer temperatures could reduce the number of male sea turtle offspring and threaten turtle populations. This is because the sex of sea turtle hatchlings is dependent on temperature (warmer temperatures increase the number of female sea turtles). (UNEP-WCMC Species Sheet (February,2002)http://www.unepwcmc.org/species/factsheets/toad/sheet.htm; CBD, 2007) Loss of biodiversity is increasing as climate change accelerates. The climate change already has affected biodiversity in the Philippines causing disturbance in the functional interactions between species and ecosystem processes. Projected impacts would eventually lead to a shift in species distribution and biomes as well as vulnerable species likely to become extinct. This would affect the current protected area system of the country.

Basic ways and forms to adapt to climate change

The Philippine Initial National Communication on Climate Change (1999) notes that adaptation measures to climate change can be screened by the following: 1.) addressing high priority issues involving irreversible catastrophic consequences of climate change, long term decisions and unfavorable trends; 2.) determining its effectivity; 3.) low cost (inexpensive); 4.) feasibility and must not have significant barriers to overcome (institutional/legal, social and cultural, market and technological). There are some fundamental forms of adaptation given by McCarl (2007) that can be applicable in the Philippines setting. Crop, forage, and tree species/varieties - adaptation by altering the mix of crop, forage grasses or trees species employed. For example: growing crops, grasses or trees which are more heat tolerant. More generally this involves replacing some proportion of the crop,

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forage and tree species populating the land with alternative species that perform more suitably in the face of altered climatic regime. Typically this involves adopting practices from areas that have historically exhibited comparable climates. Adaptation can also involve adoption of alternative varieties of the same crops or trees that are more suitable in the face of the altered climate due to for example lower water needs, increased resistance to pests and diseases etc. Crop and tree management - Modifying cropping schedules by planting or harvesting earlier to adjust to altered soil warm-up rates, soil moisture conditions, earlier maturity dates, altered water availability regimes. Trees and crops can be managed by increasing inputs, altering rotation ages, thinning (to mitigate fire risk), replanting, or altered pest management among other possibilities. Producers may also use seasonal climate forecasting to reduce production risk. Water management - Adaptation may be through the provision of irrigation water including investing in facilities, changing drainage management regimes, altering tillage practices to conserve water, modifying farm schedules (time of planting/harvesting) to better match water availability, changing crop species to more drought tolerant plants/trees etc. Pest and disease management Adaptation can occur through wider use of integrated pest and pathogen management or preventive veterinary care, development and use of varieties and species resistant to pests and diseases, maintaining or improving quarantine capabilities, outbreak monitoring programs; prescribed burning and adjusting harvesting schedules. Management of natural areas - Some forestry production occurs relies on passively managed, natural ecosystems which may require more active management under climate change to migrate in new

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better adapted species or deal with climate change enhanced pest, disease or fire risks. Fire management - Forests, grasslands and to some extent croplands are vulnerable to fire and climate change induced increases in fire risk. Such risks may stimulate adaptive actions like salvaging dead timber, landscape planning to minimize fire damage, and adjusting fire management systems. Land use or enterprise choice change - Climate change may alter the suitability of land or a region to such an extent that certain enterprises are no longer sustainable and that it may be desirable to adapt by changing the land use from crops to pasture or trees, trees to grazing land.

For the climate change adaptation practitioners, the USAID has devised a 6-step approach for assessing vulnerability and identifying and implementing climate change adaptations. (See Annex 3)

Adaptation strategies in the Philippines:

Recommendations from the Philippine Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) Sub-global Assessment (Lasco, et al., 2005) recommends a variety of adaptation options to the perceived impacts of climate change on Philippine agriculture. Development of stress-tolerant varieties through plant breeding and biotechnology Development of new farm management techniques that will respond to the management of crops under stressful conditions and the management of plant pests and diseases; Adaptive design and development of efficient farm tools and implements; and Improvement of post harvest technologies which include among others the utilization and processing of farm products, by products and agricultural wastes Further recommended is the design and installation of a management information system (MIS) for agriculture which

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would provide timely and accurate information on climate hazards and their likely impacts to agricultural activities. MIS must be able to provide the following: o Nature of climate variability particularly rainfall o Effects of climate change on other physical processes (e.g. soil erosion, pests, etc.; o Effects of crop yields from farm production, food pricing and supply, farm income and o Effective policy response to changes in land use, plant breeding, etc. Water resources There are many water resources adaptation measures currently available in the country that enable it to respond to climate change impacts on water supply and demand. Some limitations to the adoption of the adaptation measures include financial and socio-cultural factors (social and cultural behavior or traditions). Some possible adaptation measures in both short term and long term for the countrys water sector are identified as follows: Adaptation measures on the supply side: 1.) Comprehensive watershed management (Jose and Cruz, 1999); 2.) Water allocation system and procedures (Jose and Cruz, 1999); 3.) Construction of new infrastructures (Philippines Initial National Communication to Climate Change, 1999); 4.) Modification of existing physical infrastructure (Philippines Initial National Communication to Climate Change, 1999); 5.) Alternative management of the existing water supply systems (Philippines Initial National Communication to Climate Change, 1999); 6.) Planned and coordinated use of water basin/groundwater resources (Philippines Initial National Communication to Climate Change, 1999); 7.) Improved monitoring and forecasting systems for flood and drought and water quality (Philippines Initial National Communication to Climate Change, 1999)

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Adaptation measures on the demand side: 1.) Enhancement of irrigation efficiency (Jose and Cruz, 1999); 2.) Introduction of low water use crops and efficient farming practices (Jose and Cruz, 1999); 3.) Recycling (reuse) of water (Jose and Cruz, 1999); 4.) Improvement of monitoring and forecasting systems for floods and droughts (Jose and Cruz, 1999); 5.) Use of water pricing policies and structures; policies and long-term development plans to incorporate potential impacts to climate change (Jose and Cruz, 1999); 6.) Conservation and improved efficiency (Philippines Initial National Communication to Climate Change, 1999); 7.) Technological Change (Philippines Initial National Communication to Climate Change, 1999); 8.) Treated and Untreated water supply/pricing (Philippines Initial National Communication to Climate Change, 1999); 9.) Water treatment and recycling for major users (Philippines Initial National Communication to Climate Change, 1999); 10.) Introduce low water use crops and farming practices (Philippines Initial National Communication to Climate Change, 1999) Agriculture Currently, there are flood control and drainage programs by the government. For example, the BSWM has been training farmers to operate and maintain the Small Water Impounding Management (SWIM) projects that will be turned over to them. There are about 25 sub-projects covered by this arrangement. (MTPDP, 2001) The BSWM is spearheading a very pro-active program on Combating desertification, land degradation, drought and poverty. The emerging climate phenomenon attributed to the increasing recurrence cycle of El Nio, seasonal aridity or seasonal extreme dryness in the Philippines was accepted in the Convention in Combating Desertification (CCD) and was

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considered as the primary basis for the acknowledgement of desertification in the tropical countries. Current National Programs: Agri-Kalikasan Department of Agricultures (DA) strategic program in preventing loss of soil fertility and restoring soil quality. Component activities include: Modified Rapid Composting (MRC) and Tipid Abono Program. Establishment of Small Water Impounding Systems (SWIS) such as small water impounding project (SWIP), diversion dam, shallow tube well (STW), small farm reservoir (SFR). Promotion of Soil and Water Conservation Promotion of modified technologies to enhance local farmers participation in organic farming International Collaborative Project such as: 1. Community-based Watershed Management Project 2. Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) - Bohol project 3. ACIAR - Ilocos Project

Figure 6. Establishing small water impounding system (SWIP). Forestry For watershed management, a case study by AIACCC in the Pantabangan-Caranglan watershed listed some adaptation practices commonly done by rice farmers in the area during droughts and during floods. Annex 2 lists some adaptation

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options for forests and agriculture, its effects on water resources, institutions and local communities. This also shows some impacts, degrees of vulnerability and adaptation measures for the different ecosystems: grassland, tree plantations, natural forests, upland farms and lowland farms. For drought, the use of shallow tube wells, planting of new varieties, rotation method of irrigation, direct seeding method (this requires less water), use alternative sources of water (from rivers), are some of the common responses of the farmers. For flood, switching to crops that can sustain floods and heavy rainfall, livelihood diversification (swine production, vegetable farming, canton making, fruit juice making), use of solar dryers and of course, attending seminars and trainings on new technologies and farming techniques (increasing community adaptation capacity) (Cruz, et al., 2005). Biodiversity The Department of Environment and Natural resources Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (DENR-PAWB) in cooperation with the United Nations Development Programme Global Environment Facility (UNDP) is implementing projects in response to the Philippines commitment to the Convention on Biological Diversity. In a positive example, the restoration of mangrove forests to increase coastal protection and provides a habitat for aquatic and arboreal species. Drought resistant tree species could also alleviate the impacts of severe water shortage. On the other end, it is also recognized that biodiversity protection in watershed areas could reduce the impacts of flooding and landslides. The Integrated Watershed Program in Manupali Watershed in Bukidnon serves as a good model of biodiversity protection for watershed management. Biodiversity could also strengthen ecosystem resilience to provide environmental services in the event of any climatic pressure.

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Biodiversity losses are minimized through proper application of natural forest management regimes and by integrating biodiversity conservation. Conservation in the planning formulation and implementation of forest management plans. (PAWB,1998) The ITTO project on Conservation and Maintenance of biological diversity in Surigao Province demonstrated that biodiversity can be conserved and maintained at a renewable level in tropical forests managed primarily for timber production. Ex-situ Conservation measures This conservation efforts are programs and projects aimed at conserving species not of its original location or habitat such as seed storage, tissue culture, collection for plants and captive breeding for animals (PAWB, 1998). Examples are: Botanical gardens, gene banks, seed banks, zoological gardens, wildlife sanctuary, rescue centers and captive breeding programs. Improving plant cultivars to resist the effects of drought can do adaptation at genetic level. More dynamic approaches to biodiversity management will be required with a changing climate modeled using future scenarios. This may include ecosystem management for enhanced resilience to climate change. Good governance, new research on combined approaches on protected areas, ecological networks, and landscape management is needed for adaptation and mitigation against climate change using biodiversity management, ecosystem management and good governance.

Farmers initiatives and indigenous strategies in the Philippines

The IPCC recommends adaptation measures to reduce the negative effects of climatic variability by changing cropping

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calendar to take advantage of the wet period and to avoid extreme weather events (typhoons and strong winds) during the growing season. Application of farmers appropriate technologies and indigenous knowledge enabling them to adapt during drought incidences: Use of herbal pesticide/botanical spray to control droughtinduced diseases and pests thriving in trees/plants; Weeding is not done during El Nio to conserve water; Muyung of Ifugao, which combines the under planting of annual and perennial crops in a secondary forest; and Irrigation is done when there is no wind to preserve moisture (water easily evaporates in the presence of wind during dry season). Figure 7. Farmer technologies to adapt during drought periods (BSWM database).

Indigenous disaster management practices or disaster countermeasures were compiled in different projects funded by PCARRD and collaborated by PHIVOLCS, PAGASA and UGAT (1998) in the Natural Disaster Management Among Filipino Cultural Communities. Typhoon and flood forecasting techniques of: o the Ivatans and Cordillerans based on sky and cloud appearance, plant manifestations, and unusual animal behavior, o the Manobo and Subanen methods of using the stars and constellations to forecast heavy rains and droughts Drought forecasting techniques of the Bagobos and Mandayas Monitoring of precursory signs of volcanic unrest by the Tbolis and identification of escape routes in case of eruption

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The construction of emergency shelters such as the ayob or kubol of the Mangyan, the kurob of the Mamanua, the ayungan of the Manobo, and the tambubong of the Mandaya Preservation and stockpiling of food, fuel and indigenous medicine in preparation for typhoons and floods Early warning systems using indigenous devices such as: o the taguyods of the Yakans o the agong, gimbae, kuratong and budiong of the Manobos o the color-coded flag signals of the Aetas. Custom of collective self-help or bayanihan in responding to disasters and in carrying out recovery activities (common in all the groups studied) though called by many names: o yaru among the Ivatans o ugbu among the Cordillerans o tawang-tawang among the Tausug, Samal and Yakan. The drought coping mechanisms of the Bagobo and Tboli The Aetas community and agricultural rehabilitation after the Pinatubo Volcano 1991 eruption and ensuing lahars. The clever way of selecting safe sites for settlements and houses to ensure that these are protected from strong winds, above the reach of floodwaters and away from landslide prone areas. Notable among the Ivatans, Cordillerans, Mangyans and Manobos. To prevent/minimize landslide and soil erosion: o the rice terraces of the cordillerans o the hedgerows planted by Ivatans along hillsides Tree belts to protect crops and houses of Ivatans from strong winds The adaptive agricultural cycle and cropping systems of the Ivatan, Cordilleran, and Subanen Typhoon- and earthquake- resistant houses o the jinjins of the Ivatans o the binangiyan of the Cordilleran Riprap: o the riprap built by Igorots and Ivatans along river banks are used to prevent water from overflowing to their farms and settlements, and on the slopes to prevent erosion.

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The Tausugs living on the seashore also have ripraps along their property line for protection against soil erosion due to wave action.

Some more adaptation measures for El Nio and La Nia are listed in the PCARRD (2001) publication on mitigating measures for community-based, technology and infrastructure development strategies.

What role does tropical forest and agroforestry systems have in climate change adaptation?
Tropical forest adaptation Vulnerability analysis of forest ecosystems in the Philippines Initial National Communications (1999) explains how both the quantity and quality of forest goods and services can significantly be affected by climate. Because of this, some environmental services of forest ecosystems such as water cycle regulation or soil stability can directly contribute to increasing resilience. Adaptation strategies should include forest goods (e.g. timber, fuelwood, and NWFPs), agroforestry, forest services and governance. Figure 8 shows the relationship of adaptation to climate change and the environmental and social services of forest ecosystems. Agroforestry as an adaptation measure Agroforestry has a very important role in climate change adaptation especially in smallholder farming communities. Farmer management can play a large role in adaptation, although, different agroforestry systems vary in the way they sustain the farmers agility to respond to external pressures, stresses and fluctuations (this is the concept of sustainagility) (Verchot, et al., 2007). The increased inter-annual variability in rainfall and temperature will greatly affect farmers. Agroforestry offers a means for diversifying production systems and increasing the sustainagility of small-holder farming systems against climate change (wetter and drier years) because tree based systems have the following:

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a.) b.) c.) d.)

deep root systems are able to explore larger soil volume for water and nutrients (helpful during droughts); increased soil porosity, reduced runoff and increased soil cover lead to increased water infiltration and retention in the soil profile that reduces moisture stress during low rainfall years; higher evapotranspiration rates than row crops or pastures; can maintain aerated soil conditions by pumping excess water out of the soil profile more rapidly than other production systems; and often produce crops of higher value than row crops.

Diversifying the production system to include a significant tree component may buffer against income risks associated with climate variability. In addition to all these advantages, agroforestry management systems offer opportunities for creating synergies between mitigation and adaptation strategies. The sustainagility framework for national planning aims to reduce vulnerability of the agriculture sector to climate change. This will aid in mainstreaming adaptation into the planning processes.
(Verchot, et al., 2007)
Changes in climate system Impacts and vulnerability Adaptation alternative Components in a proposal

Changes in temperature and rainfall regimes

On the ecosystem: -Change in ecosystem structure Habitat loss for some species Loss of species -Genetic pool loss -Epidemics On the social system: -Reduction of food availability and of ecosystem products and services -Increment illnesses as a consequence of low quality of drinking water housing loss -Damage to infrastructure

Promotion of environmental services: -Water cycle regulation -Micro-climate regulation -Carbon Fixation and storage -Soil protection -Biodiversity conservation Promotion of social services: -Cultural habitat conservation -Scenic beauty

Institutional: Legal framework and improvement in governance Financial: Payment instruments for social and environmental services Technical: Sustainable management of natural resources Social: Participation, training and improvement in

Increase in frequency and intensity of extreme events

Figure 8. Relationship between adaptation to climate change and the environmental and social services of forest ecosystems (Robledo and Fornier 2005)

What is the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) doing?

Up until recently, climate change has been viewed as an environmental problem separate from the concerns of development policy-makers. In the same manner, development

29

approaches have been given little attention by the climate change community who prefer natural sciences approaches (e.g. CDM) in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change will affect national development especially in poor countries like the Philippines therefore; alternative development pathways will determine the future greenhouse gas emissions and influence the capacity of communities and countries to adapt to climate change. (Huq, et al., 2006) Adaptation to climate needs to be mainstreamed into policy development. Climate change awareness is very high among government institutions. There are several adaptation efforts in different institutions that are either planned or ongoing in the country. At the policy level, there are a few policies that aim to mainstream climate change adaptation into the government programs. The Philippine government has adopted the Philippine Agenda 21 and the Millennium Development Goal for environmental sustainability; has created the Philippine Council for Sustainable Development (PCSD), the Inter-Agency Committee on Climate Change (IACCC) under AO 220, the Advisory Council on Climate Change (ACCC), and the Presidential Task Force on Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation (PTFCC) under AO 171, and the President has made a Green Philippines as one of the 8 in 8 priorities. Indeed there is a very strong national government support on climate change activities. And now, with the Albay declaration and local initiatives from the provincial government of Albay to mainstream adaptation to climate change into local and national policies, the Philippines is indeed on its way to mainstreaming climate change in government policies. Among the various on-going researches adaptation, the World Agroforestry Centre with some small projects on climate TroFCCA (Tropical Forest and Climate on climate change (ICRAF) has started change adaptation. Change Adaptation

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project) a four-year project of the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and the Tropical Agriculture Center for Research and Higher Education (CATIE) supported by the European Union. The main objective is to contribute to national processes of adaptation to climate change, in particular, and create efforts to mainstream adaptation into development policies. Specifically, the project aims to identify regional development issues related to climate change impacts over forest that can increase the vulnerability of the society; to develop specific methodologies to assess vulnerability; to contribute to current national and regional adaptation processes; to develop criteria and indicators for adaptive forest management; to develop policy-oriented adaptation strategies; and to facilitate a science-policy dialogue on adaptation. Mainstreaming climate change adaptation in watershed management and upland farming in the Philippines (ACCCA project) is a new project in collaboration with the University of the Philippines and the World Agroforestry Centre that aims to: (1) assess the impacts of climate variability and extremes and climate change to crop yield of 50 Landcare farmers in Lantapan, Bukidnon and water yield of Manupali watershed, Bukidnon; (2) develop adaptation strategies for Landcare farmers and concerned Manupali watershed managers/concerned institutions to minimize risks and maximize opportunities associated with climate change; (3) promote a multi-stakeholder approach in the formulation of climate risk adaptation through participatory approaches and capacity building of Landcare farmers and watershed managers; (4) develop risk communication products targeted for the watershed planners and Landcare farmers; and (5) contribute to the preparation of the Philippines Second National Communication by providing case materials. Climate change and sustainable development project is a 2-year project supported by the Asia Pacific Network (APN), an intergovernmental body based in Japan. The general objective of the project is to clarify the links between climate change adaptation and sustainable development. Specifically, the project aims to: (1) synthesize research on adaptation strategies for climate change and climate variability in Southeast Asian

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countries; (2) analyze the links of adaptation strategies to the sustainable development goals of the respective countries; (3) hold a science-policy workshop to disseminate results and solicit recommendations; and (4) publish the results of the study in a format that is useful to policy makers and other stakeholders. In the country, majority of the upland areas are inhabited by farming communities who are among the poorest of the poor. These communities often benefit least from assistance coming from government and private institutions whose aim is to alleviate poverty among the upland communities. With minimal outside assistance, these upland communities are prone to climate-induced risks such as landslides (soil erosion), droughts, heavy rains, typhoons (tropical cyclones) and other calamities. Insufficient/lacking adaptive capacity is a major obstruction in mainstreaming climate change and sustainable development especially in developing countries like the Philippines. Capacity building and proper implementation of policies and agreements (both national and international) will enable the country to develop strategies from the farmer level up to the policy level. One of the flagship projects of ICRAF for agroforestry in the Philippines is the Landcare program. This has already started with the education of upland communities on how to combat some natural disasters in the areas of Lantapan Bukidnon, Claveria, Misamis Oriental, Bohol, Cebu and some portions of Davao del Sur. Not only can appropriate agroforestry technologies increase the resilience of these farming communities against climate-induced hazards by utilizing proper soil and water conservation practices and agroforestry technologies, but also protect the means of livelihoods of these farmers. Annex 1 shows the Integrated Climate Risk Assessment Framework (ICRAF) for small farmers that will allow adaptation planning, adaptation deficit analysis and implementation/ mainstreaming of climate risks at the grassroots level/farmer level.

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Maladaptation: how can we avoid this?

Most of the environmental policies that have been, or are being, implemented in the country are all geared towards environmental protection against climate extremes and climate variability that will in the long run be towards protecting us all against climate change. We must admit that these policies still need to be mainstreamed or given direction to cover more long term activities that will help the country adapt to and mitigate climate change. However, there have been some apprehensions as to possible policies that may in fact have negative adaptation (maladaptation), reduce resilience and increase vulnerability among the different communities in the country. The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law This law was enacted to promote a more equitable distribution and ownership of agricultural lands, also with due regard to the countrys ecological needs. An independent policy review however concluded that lands under the reform sector of CARP, potentially around 4 million ha, will be marginal, low-quality lands with limited access to effective demand and production and marketing infrastructure (Adriano, 1991). The eventual cultivation of these marginal, low-quality lands often by resource-poor farmers puts the natural ecosystem as well as the local community at risk, or makes them more vulnerable, to the detrimental impacts of climate vulnerability and extremes. The common inadequacy or absence of government support in terms of information and extension services, especially about resource management, conservation agriculture and climate hazards, compounds the risk.
Source: Lasco, et al 2007 (In press).

Aside from the policy cited as an example above, most of the policies directly related to the environment are actually towards reducing environmental risks. Maladaptation is actually just part of the problem; the real problem related to policies is malimplementation. Government policies, programs and activities on natural resource and ecosystems management can positively or negatively impact vulnerability and adaptation to climate change, mainly depending on how they are implemented or put

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into action, and on how the respective manners of implementation were monitored and/or regulated, if at all. Needless to say, problems arise when the policies are not properly implemented. The socio-economic aspects of climate change can be gleaned both at the latters cause and effect sides. The worlds leading climate scientists recently reported that climate change is very likely (more than 90 percent certain) caused by man, mainly through changes in the atmospheric composition due to fossil fuel burning, and changes in land use, interfering with the balance of GHGs. Lastly, at a more macro level, the socio-economic aspects of climate change can refer to the overall policy and governance environment, whose impact in turn trickle down to the other components already being affected by climate change, variability and risks.

What are some of the knowledge gaps in climate change adaptation? How can we close this knowledge gap?
There is still so much to do when it comes to knowledge gaps in climate change adaptation. The main challenge is to systematically bridge the communities, local and international institutions, and the environment with the adaptation process. Effective communication through information dissemination is needed to bridge the knowledge gaps in climate change adaptation.

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Communities

Institutions

Science

Environment Figure 9. Linking the science, the institutions, the environment and the communities. Information availability and dissemination is very important to improve the scientific capacity of the scientific community (research institutions, government agencies and policy makers); enhance monitoring systems and develop early warning systems; and promote a mechanism or tools to translate available information for policy makers to decide on policies/strategies that will enable the Philippines to adapt better to a changing climate. With or without climate change, different sectors in the Philippines are quite vulnerable to environmental disasters. In the Philippines, adaptation to climate variability and extremes are already somewhat in place. However, some necessary adjustments to changing conditions still need to be made in the infrastructure, management practices, institutional arrangements

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and policies. Climate change is generally not considered in the planning of adaptation strategies. Enhancements in the policy framework are needed to include steps to reduce this vulnerability and enhance adaptive capacity of the country. The water resources policy framework in the country can help in adapting to climate change but it can still be improved to accommodate adaptation strategies for long-term planning to include climate change. There is a need to document adaptation strategies on the ground and how it has affected the communities affected by changes in climate. When we talk of climate change, sustainable development, adaptation, mitigation and biodiversity, several issues crop up. These issues should be communicated to all sectors of society with these 3 simple messages: 1.) climate change is happening; 2.) adaptation is necessary for the communities to cope with climate changes 3.) mitigation is essential to avoid the dangers of climate change.

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Literature Cited
Adriano, L.S. (1991) A General Assessment of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program. Working Paper Series No. 91-13. Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS), Makati City, Philippines. August. Anon (2006) Bluetongue confirmed in France. News and Reports, Vet. Rec., 159,331. CBD (2007) Convention on Biological Diversity. http://www.cbd.int/default.shtml Cruz, R.V.O., Lasco, R.D., Pulhin, J.M., Pulhin, F.B., and K.B. Garcia. (2005) An Integrated Assessment of Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability of Watershed Areas and Communities in Southeast Asia (AS21): Assessment of Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation: Water Resources of Pantabangan-caranglan Watershed. AIACC-AS21 Working Paper Number 9. June 2005. Easterling, W.E., P.K. Aggarwal, P. Batima, K.M. Brander, L. Erda, S.M. Howden, A. Kirilenko, J. Morton, J.-F. Soussana, J. Schmidhuber and F.N. Tubiello (2007) Food, fibre and forest products. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 273-313. Elvira, J. (2007) Personal Communications. October 22, 2007. Legaspi, Albay. Hulme, M. and N. Sheard (1999) Climate Change Scenarios for the Philippines. Climatic Research Unit, , Norwich, UK, 6pp. http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/~mikeh/research/philippines.pdf Huq, S. Reid, H. and L.A. Murray (2006) Climate Change and Development Links. Gatekeeper Series 123. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). Jose, A.M. and N.A. Cruz, (1999) Climate change impacts and responses in the Philippines: water resources. Climate Research, 12, 7784. Lasco, R.D., Pulhin, F.B., Roshetko, J.M., and M.R.N. Banaticla (2004) LULUCF Climate Change Mitigation Projects: A Primer, World Agroforestry Centre. Southeast Asia Regional Research Programme. Lasco, R.D., Gerpacio,R.V., Banaticla, M.R.N., and A.G. Garcia (2007) (in press). Vulnerability of Natural Ecosystems and Rural Communities to Climate Change: An Assessment of Philippine Policies and their Impacts Submitted Report to SEARCA, Los Baos, Laguna Philippines. August 2007.

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McCarl, B.A. (2007) Adaptation Options for Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. A Report to the UNFCCC Secretariat Financial and Technical Support Division. Texas A & M University. College Station, TX 77854-2124. MTPDP (2001) The Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan 2001-2004. National Economic and Development Authority. ISSN 0119-3880. PAWB (1998) The First Philippine National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Protectyed Areas and Wildlife Bureau. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (2001) El Nio southern Oscillation: mitigating measures. Los Baos, Laguna: PCARRD. 296p. PHIVOLCS, PAGASA, UGAT, PCARRD (1998) Natural Disaster Management Among Filipino Cultural Communities June 1996-1998. PHIVOLCS (Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology), PAGASA (Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration) UGAT (Ugnayang PangAghamtao Foundation, Inc.) , funded by PCARRD (Department of Science and Technology-Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development). The Philippines Initial National Communication on Climate Change (1999) DENR. December 1999. IPCC (2007) Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parrt, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 7-22. IPCC International Panel on Climate Change (2001) Third Assessment Report. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. Robledo, C. and C. Fornier (2005) Forests and Climate Change Working Paper 2. Adaptation of Forest ecosystems and the forest sector to Climate Change. FAO, Rome. Smit, B., Burton, I., Klein, R., and J. Wandel (2000) An anatomy of adaptation to climate change and variability. Climatic Change 45, 223251. Turner, B.L.II, Kasperson, R.E., Matson, P.A., McCarthy, J.A. Corell, R.W., Christensen, L., Eckley, N., Kasperson, J.X., Luers, A., Martello, M.L., Polsky, C., Pulsipher, A. and A. Schiller (2003) A framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. PNAS. Vol 100:14. July 8, 2003.

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The First Philippine National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. (1998) Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau. Department of Environment and Natural Resources. The National Action Plan. To Combat Desertification, Land Degradation, Drought, and Poverty. FY 2004-2010 (2004) Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Soils and Water Management, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Department of Science and Technology, Department of Agrarian Reform. USAID (2007) Adapting to Climate Variability and Change: A Guidance Manual for Development Planning. August 2007. www.crid.or.cr/digitalizacion/pdf/eng/doc16706/doc16706-b.pdf van Wuijckhuise, L., D. Dercksen, J. Muskens, J. de Bruyn, M. Scheepers and R. Vrouenraets (2006) Bluetongue in the Netherlands; description of the first clinical cases and differential diagnosis; Common symptoms just a little different and in too many herds. Tijdschr. Diergeneesk., 131, 649-654. Verchot, L.V., Van Noordwijk, M., Kanji, S., Tomich, T., Ong, C., Albrecht A., Mackensen, J., Bantilan, C., Anupama, K.V. and C. Palm (2007) Mitig Adapt Strat Glob Change. DOI 10.1007/s11027-007-9105-6. Springer.

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Glossary of Terms
* from UNFCCC definition of terms Adaptation A process where strategies and actions to avoid, moderate, cope with and/or take advantage of the consequences of climate events are developed, enhanced and implemented.* Adaptation baseline Includes a description of existing adaptations to the current climate change.* Adaptation Strategy A broad plan of action that is implemented through policies and measures and whose objective is to reduce the vulnerability of society. Strategies can be comprehensive (i.e. focusing on national, cross-sectorial scales) or targeted (i.e. focusing on specific sectors, regions or measures). * Adaptation Action A planned activity developed and implemented on the ground with the objective of moderating, coping or taking advantage of a specific climate change impact. Adaptation actions include those designed to cope with an impact, share or compensate any loss, modify the circumstances of the system to prevent an impact, search for alternatives, change the location of a given system/activity, or research, educate and create awareness.* Adaptation Policy The explicit intention of a government to enhance the capacity of society to respond to climate change by, interalia, setting national objectives, identifying and delegating responsibilities, enabling the building of capacity and identifying and distributing resources for the assessment of vulnerability and the design and implementation of adaptation actions. Policies typically refer to instruments that government can use to change economic and other behaviors. Policies are usually composed of taxes, command-and-control regulations (e.g. performance specifications for technologies), market mechanisms such as trading schemes, incentives such as subsidies for new management techniques, and information gathering (e.g. on the likely impacts of climate change) or dissemination (e.g. on the merits of new technologies or behavior changes). Adaptation Policy Framework (APF) A structured process for developing adaptation strategies, developing adaptation strategies, policies and measures to enhance and ensure human development in the face of climate change, including climate variability. APF is designed to link climate change adaptation to sustainable development and other global environmental issues. It consists of five basic components: project scope and design, assessing current vulnerability, characterizing future climate risks, developing an adaptation strategy, and continuing the adaptation process.* Adaptive Capacity The potential or capability of a system to adjust, via changes in its characteristics or behavior, in order to cope better with existing climate variability and change. It

40

is possible to differentiate between adaptive potential, which is a theoretical upper boundary of responses based on global expertise and anticipated developments within the planning horizon of the assessment, and adaptive capacity, which is constrained by the existing information, technology and resources of the system under consideration.* Adaptive Management The act, manner, or practice of managing, handling, or controlling a specific system in a way in which its adaptive capacity is increased. Adaptive management is achieved by the implementation of adaptation actions.* Baseline (also called project baseline) A description of current conditions, including existing or needed information on socio-economic conditions, climate risks and hazards, and known system vulnerabilities and adaptations. See also Vulnerability baseline and Adaptation baseline.* Biodiversity Biodiversity is a contraction of biological diversity. Biodiversity reflects the number, variety and variability of living organisms. It includes diversity within species (genetic diversity), between species (species diversity), and between ecosystems (ecosystem diversity).* Climate The average condition experienced across a specific set of variables like temperature, salinity, precipitation, ocean currents and wind.* Climate Change Any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or because of human activity.* Climate Change Vulnerability The degree to which a system is susceptible to or unable to cope with the adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes. See also vulnerability.* Climate Variability Variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all temporal and spatial scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may result from natural internal processes within the climate system (internal variability) or from variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing (external variability).* Climate-related Risk The result of the interaction of physically defined hazards with the properties of the exposed systems i.e. the systems sensitivity or (social) vulnerability. Risk can also be considered as the combination of an event, its likelihood and its consequences i.e. risk equals the probability of climate hazard multiplied by a given systems vulnerability.*

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Convention In legal terms, a convention is a group of contracts, treaties, pacts or agreements parties. Conventions arise from the recognition that a problem exists and that there is a need to unify the efforts to solve it. They specify the tasks and commitments that are required to achieve a specific objective. Examples of conventions related to environmental issues include the Basel Convention on Toxic Waste, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).* Coping range The range of climate where outcomes are beneficial or negative but tolerable; damages or losses beyond the coping range are no longer tolerable, and a society is said to be vulnerable.* Desertification The (UNCCD) defines desertification as land degradation in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.* Drivers (of ecosystem change) Any natural or human-induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem.* Ecosystem(s) An ecological unit made up of a complex system of interactions between living communities (plants, animal, fungi, and microorganisms) and the environment they live in. Ecosystems have no fixed boundaries; a single lake, a watershed, or an entire region could be considered an ecosystem.* Ecosystem services The benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as flood and disease control; cultural services such as spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits; and supporting services such as nutrient cycling that maintain the conditions for life on Earth.* Evaluation A process for determining systematically and objectively the relevance, efficiency, effectiveness and impact of adaptation strategies in the light of their objectives.* Habitat change Change in the local environmental conditions in which a particular organism lives. Habitat change can occur naturally through droughts, disease, fire, hurricanes, mudslides, volcanoes, earthquakes, slight increases or decreases in seasonal temperature or precipitation, etc. However, it is generally induced by human activities such as land use change and physical modification of rivers or water withdrawal from rivers.*

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Hazard A physically defined climate event with the potential to cause harm, such as heavy rainfall events, drought, floods, storms, and long-term changes in mean climate variables such as temperature.* Hybrid A physically defined climate event with the potential to cause harm, such as heavy rainfall events, droughts, floods storms and long-term changes in mean climate variable such as temperature.* Land cover The physical coverage of land, usually expressed in terms of vegetation cover or lack of it. The human use of a piece of land for a certain purpose (such as irrigated agriculture or recreation) influences land cover.* Policy Oriented Strategies A broad plan for adaptation which focuses primarily on institutional development. Policy oriented strategies include elements of capacity building, finance, technical assistance, dissemination of information, cooperation and others.* Probability Defines the likelihood of an event or outcome occurring. Probability can range from being qualitative, using descriptions such as likely or highly confident, to quantified ranges and single estimates, depending on the level of understanding of the causes of events, historical time series and future conditions. * Impacts Changes induced in a system (physical ecological or social) resulting from climate change or climate variability which have significant deleterious effects for its composition, resilience and/or productivity.* Land Degradation As defined by UNCCD, is the reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or large, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as: Soil erosion caused by wind and/or water Deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and Long-term loss of natural vegetation GEF definition: any form of deterioration of the natural potential of land that affects ecosystem integrity either in terms of reducing its sustainable ecological productivity or in terms of its native biological richness and maintenance of resilience Summary Definition: A reduction in land productivity that affects the integrity of an ecosystem through erosion, salinization, loss of soil fertility and the like. Prevention and control of land degradation, especially desertification and deforestation, are critical to

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achieving sustainable development at the national and global environmental levels. Mitigation Measures added to a project or activity to reduce, prevent or correct its impact; Anthropogenic intervention to reduce the emission or enhance the sinks of GHGs. * Policies and Measures Usually addressed together, these address the need for climate adaptation in distinct, but sometimes overlapping ways. Policies typically refer to instruments that government can use to change economic and other behaviors. Policies are usually composed of taxes, command-and-control regulations (e.g. performance specifications for technologies), market mechanisms such as trading schemes, incentives such as subsidies for new management techniques, and information gathering (e.g. on the likely impacts of climate change) or dissemination (e.g. on the merits of new technologies or behavior changes). Measures are usually specific actions that are amenable to implementation, such as re-engineering irrigation systems, planting different crops, or initiating a new industry. Many projects could also be termed measures.* Stakeholders Those with interests in a particular decision, either as individuals or as representatives of a group. Include people who influence a decision, or can influence it as well as those affected by it. * Strategy A broad plan of action that is implemented through policies and measures. Strategies can be comprehensive (i.e. focusing on national, cross-sectoral scales) or targeted (i.e. focusing on specific sectors, regions or measures).* Sustainagility Allowing the farmers agility to continue. This concept may capture the dynamic complements to the sustainability assessment of whether or not current systems can survive. (Coined by Verchot, et al., 2007) Uncertainty An expression of the degree to which a value (.g. the future state of the climate system) is unknown. * Vulnerability The degree to which a system is likely to be affected by climate change or climate variability; this degree is expressed as diminishing values for specified indicators linked to a probability. (Turner et al., 2003) Weather The atmospheric conditions at a particular place in terms of air temperature, pressure, humidity, wind speed and precipitation. *

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Annex 1: Integrated Climate Risk Assessment Framework (ICRAF) for small farmers
Small farmers in developing countries are among the most vulnerable groups to climate change. But even now, they are very vulnerable to current climate risks (ENSO, drought, typhoons) ie they have very low adaptive capacity to climate risks. Indeed an adaptation deficit exists where adaptation strategies available now are not being taken advantage of (Leary et al, 2007). This is evidenced by the high loss of property and life in recent climate- related hazards around the world. ICRAF is a participatory, iterative, interdisciplinary, bottom-up and multistakeholder approach that allows gradual, creeping change based on tipping points, large scale (more frequent ENSO, stronger/more frequent typhoons) to trigger higher Adaptive Capacity and may need intervention (although these interventions may not exactly be regular).

Adaptation deficit analysis

Figure 10. Framework of ICRAF

Small Farmers
Implementation /Mainstreaming Adaptation Planning

Steps in ICRAF: 1. Adaptation deficit analysis

a) Assess current climate risks faced by small farmers b) Analyze vulnerability of small farmers to climate risks b) Assess the strengths and weaknesses of current adaptation c) Determine if an adaptation deficit exists

2. Planning to build adaptive capacity

a) Determine strategies, measures, policies to enhance resilience of small farming systems b) Assess costs and benefits of adaptation options c) Assess future climate risks and what adaptation can be done now

3) Implementation and mainstreaming

a) Implement adaptation strategies and measure b) Mainstream adaptation policies c) Monitor and evaluate progress d) Study ways to further improve adaptive capacity e) Handling tipping points

Limitations of the Framework

-non-linear changes - not for long term crops, infrastructure - not for biological systems eg extinction of species

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Annex 2. AIACCC results on some adaptation options for Forests and Agriculture. (Cruz, et al., 2005)
Adaptation Strategy for Forests and Agriculture
Use of early maturing crops

Effect on Water Resources

+ Lower water demand 0

Effect on Institutions

Effect on Local Communities

+ Higher income

Use of drought-resistant crops Supplemental watering

+ Lower water demand

+ Higher income

Higher demand for water

Increase cost of developing alternative sources of water Increase cost for training, technical assistance, R&D Increase cost for training, technical assistance, R&D + Less expense for fire fighting

Greater labor demand + Higher income 0

Proper scheduling of planting Soil and water conservation measures Establishment of fire lines

+ Conservation of water

Cash expenses

+ More vegetative cover promotes good hydrology

More labor demand + Less damage to crops from fire; more income + Less soil erosion in the farm; greater yield 0

Construction of drainage structures Controlled burning

+ Better water quality (less sediment load) + Less damage to watershed cover + Better hydrology

Increase cost of implementation 0

Tree planting

Increase cost of implementation + Better participation in the political process Increase cost of enforcement and protection Increase cost of implementation

+ Steady supply of fuelwood Less area for farm + Better participation

Enhance community-based organizations Total logging ban

+ More forest cover

Less income Fewer sources of income Increase cost of implementation

Use of appropriate silvicultural practices

+/ Could promote or impair hydrology depending on the practice. + Promotes better watershed management +

Better coordination between LGUs Information campaign

+ Greater collaboration among LGUs + Increase awareness and competence Increase cost of implementation

+ Better delivery of services to farmers + Increase awareness and competence +/ Could adversely affect current livelihood of farmers that are deemed illegal

Better implementation of forest laws

+ Promotes better watershed management

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Grassland Ecosystems Impact Climate Variability Early or late onset of rainy season La Nina El Nino Degree of Vulnerability Adaptation Measures

Less fires Forest fires Indicator: number of fires; area burned Forest fires Indicator: number of fires, area burned Less fires Highly vulnerable Indicator: Frequency of fires Area burned Frequency of fires Area burned Fire brigade IEC Indicator: number of fire brigades, Fire lines Fire brigade

High Temperature/ Summer season Rainy season Tree Plantations Early or late onset of rainy season

High mortality of out planted seedlings (late) Indicator: % survival Higher survival? Forest fires Indicator: frequency; area burned Forest fires Higher survival?

High

Plant after xx days of rain; Mulching; Irrigation (not practical); choice of species Fires lines; fire brigades; IEC; choice of species

La Nina El Nino

High

High Temperature/ Summer season Rainy season Natural Forests Early or late onset of rainy season La Nia El Nio

More landslides Indicators: area; frequency Forest fires on edges; increase slash and burn farming Indicators: area, frequency Fires on edges More landslides Indicators: area, frequency Late: low yield Indicator: yield Damage to crops Indicator: yield Shortened planting season; lower yield; fires Indicator: yield; area and frequency of fires Fires Flooding of crops

Low Medium

High Temperature/ Summer season Rainy season Upland Farms Early or late onset of rainy season La Nina El Nino

Low

Choice of early maturing crops Choice of varieties Choice of varieties

High Temperature/ Summer season Rainy season Lowland Farms Early or late onset of rainy season La Nina El Nino High Temperature/ Summer season Rainy season

Choice of varieties

Flooding of crops Indicators: area flooded Lack of irrigation water Indicators: crop yield

High Medium

Choice of variety Choice of variety; mulching

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Annex 3: Six-step approach for assessing vulnerability and identifying and implementing climate change adaptations (the V&A approach) (USAID, 2007)
This approach is ideal for climate change adaptation practitioners. Although these steps are not hard fast rules to follow, these are valuable guides for integrating V&A elements into projects.

Step1: Screen for Vulnerability Vulnerability Screening is a primary assessment of whether climate variability or change could compromise the integrity, effectiveness, or longevity of a project within the planning horizon for the project. Step 2: Identify adaptations Work with stakeholders to identify alternative designs or management practices that may enable them to better cope with climate variability and change. The emphasis should be on finding measures that increase resilience to climate change but still make sense under the current climate Step 3: Conduct Analysis Examine the consequences of climate variability and change as well as the effectiveness, costs, and feasibility of adaptations that can reduce vulnerability to climate variability and change Step 4: Select course of action Meet with stakeholders to review results of the analysis. Determine if changes in a current project design are required or if a proposed project should feature new adaptations Step 5: Implement adaptations Prepare an implementation plan identifying next steps, responsible staff and organizations, timeline, and resource needs required to incorporate the climate change adaptations into the project. Step 6: Evaluate adaptations Evaluate the implementation of adaptations and their effectiveness. Since many adaptations may be due to infrequent, extreme events or long-term climate change, it may be difficult to evaluate effectiveness in a relatively hort time period following implementation. But at a minimum, an evaluation can be done to see if the adaptations were put in place and whether there were problems or excessive costs associated with them.

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Helpful Websites:
World Agroforestry Centre Website: ICRAF is the global leader in the generation, synthesis and dissemination of information related to agroforestry. We are actively involved in the development of a challenge program for climate change mitigation and adaptation for rural development in the uplands. A variety of tools, teaching materials, papers and links can be accessed from the website. Global: www.worldagroforestry.org Southeast Asia: www.worldagroforestry.org/sea Tropical Forest and Climate Change Adaptation (TroFCCA) Website: This is the website of the TroFCCA project, a four-year project (in Asia, Africa and South America) funded by the European Union; implemented by the Center for International Forestry (CIFOR) and CATIE and in collaboration with the World Agroforestry Centre-Philippines. Information on the project activities, country details, links and outputs are presented in this website. www.cifor.cgiar.org/trofcca IPCC Website: The IPCC is a scientific intergovernmental body set up by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Its constituency is made up of governments, scientists and the people. The IPCC reports and updates are available for download from this website. www.ipcc.ch/ UNFCCC website: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) treaty was formed to begin to consider what can be done to reduce global warming and to cope with whatever temperature increases are inevitable. Recently, a number of nations have approved an addition to the treaty: the Kyoto Protocol, which has more powerful (and legally binding) measures. The UNFCCC secretariat supports all institutions involved in the climate change process, particularly the COP, the subsidiary bodies and their Bureau. More information on the UNFCCC, publications, tools, links and activities can be found in this website. unfccc.int/2860.php Albay Declaration: Full details of the Albay declaration are listed in this website. www.albaydeclaration.we.bs/ National Conference on Climate Change Adaptation: The topics, presentations, outputs, conclusions and plans ahead after the recently concluded NCCCA conference held in Legaspi, Albay last October 2224, 2007 are listed in this website. www.nccca.we.bs

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UNEP-WCMC Website: The UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) is a collaboration between the United Nations Environment Programme and WCMC 2000, a UK-based charity. Their mission is to evaluate and highlight the many values of biodiversity and put authoritative biodiversity knowledge at the centre of decision-making. A variety of information (tools, publications, updates and links) are available on climate change and biodiversity from this website. www.unep-wcmc.org/Climate/

Further Readings:
For Climate Change Impacts on Sea Level Rise: Jabines, A. and J. Inventor (2007) The Philippines: A Climate Hotspot. Climate Change Impacts and the Philippines. GreenPeace Southeast Asia Climate and Energy Campaign. YC Publication Consultants. www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/seasia/en/press/reports/the-philippines-aclimate-hot.pdf Flood-Prone Areas in the Philippines (2007) http://baseportal.com/cgibin/baseportal.pl?htx=/miso/floodprone (Accessed July 2007). Profile of Philippine Agriculture (1999). http://www.da.gov.ph/about/profile.htm (Accessed Nov. 7, 2007). Mapping Philippine Vulnerability to Environmental Disasters (2004) http://www.klima.ph/adaptation-article.html http://www.observatory.ph/vm/

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