Teodor Dumitrache, gr.

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The Alps
The Alps are a small segment of a discontinuous mountain chain that stretches from the Atlas Mountains of North Africa across southern Europe and Asia to beyond the Himalayas. The Alps extend north from the subtropical Mediterranean coast near Nice, Fr., to Lake Geneva before trending eastnortheast to Vienna (at the Vienna Woods). There they touch the Danube River and meld with the adjacent plain. The Alps form part of France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and Albania. Only Switzerland and Austria can be considered true Alpine countries, however. Some 750 miles (1,200 kilometres) long and more than 125 miles wide at their broadest point between Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Ger., and Verona, Italy, the Alps cover more than 80,000 square miles (207,000 square kilometres). They are the most prominent of western Europes physiographic regions. Though they are not as high and extensive as other mountain systems uplifted during the Paleogene and Neogene periods (i.e., about 65 to 2.6 million years ago)such as the Himalayas and the Andes and Rocky mountainsthey are responsible for major geographic phenomena. The Alpine crests isolate one European region from another and are the source of many of Europes major rivers, such as the Rhne, Rhine, Po, and numerous tributaries of the Danube. Thus, waters from the Alps ultimately reach the North, Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Black seas. Because of their arclike shape, the Alps separate the marine west-coast climates of Europe from the Mediterranean areas of France, Italy, and the Balkan region. Moreover, they create their own unique climate based on both the local differences in elevation and relief and the location of the mountains in relation to the frontal systems that cross Europe from west to east. Apart from tropical conditions, most of the other climates found on the Earth may be identified somewhere in the Alps, and contrasts are sharp. A distinctive Alpine pastoral economy that evolved through the centuries has been modified since the 19th century by industry based on indigenous raw materials, such as the industries in the Mur and Mrz valleys of southern Austria that used iron ore from deposits near Eisenerz. Hydroelectric power development at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, often involving many different watersheds, led to the establishment in the lower valleys of electricity-dependent industries, manufacturing such products as aluminum, chemicals, and specialty steels. Tourism, which began in the 19th century in amodest way, became, after World War II, a mass phenomenon. Thus, the Alps are a summer and winter playground for millions of European urban dwellers and annually attract tourists from around the world. Because of this enormous human impact on a fragile physical and ecological environment, the Alps are likely the most threatened mountain system in the world. The Alps present a great variety of elevations and shapes, ranging from the folded sediments forming the lowlying pre-Alps that border the main range everywhere except in northwestern Italy to the crystalline massifs of the inner Alps that include the Belledonne and Mont Blanc in France, the Aare and Gotthard in Switzerland, and the Tauern in Austria. From the Mediterranean to Vienna, the Alps are divided into Western, Central, and Eastern segments, each of which consists of several distinct ranges. The Western Alps trend north from the coast through southeastern France and northwestern Italy to Lake Geneva and the Rhne valley in Switzerland. Their forms include the low-lying arid limestones of the Maritime Alps near the Mediterranean, the deep cleft of the Verdon Canyon in France, the crystalline peaks of the Mercantour Massif, and the glacier-covered dome of Mont Blanc, which at 15,771 feet (4,807 metres) is the highest peak in the Alps. Rivers from these ranges flow west into the Rhne and east into the Po. The Central Alps occupy an area from the Great St. Bernard Pass east of Mont Blanc on the Swiss-Italian border to the region of the Splgen Pass north of Lake Como. Within this territory are such distinctive peaks as the Dufourspitze, Weisshorn, Matterhorn, and Finsteraarhorn, all 14,000 feet high. In addition, the great glacial lakesComo and Maggiore in the south, part of the drainage system of the Po; and Thun, Brienz, and Lucerne (Vierwaldstttersee) in the northfall within this zone. The Eastern Alps, consisting in part of the Rtische range in Switzerland, the Dolomite Alps in Italy, the BavarianAlps of southern Germany and western Austria, the Tauern Mountains in Austria, the Julian Alps in northeastern Italy and northern Slovenia, and the Dinaric Alps along the western edge of the Balkan Peninsula, generally have a northerly and southeasterly drainage pattern. The Inn, Lech, and Isar rivers in Germany and the Salzach and Enns in Austria flow into the Danube north of the Alps, while the Mur and Drau (Austria) and Sava (Balkan region) rivers discharge into the Danube east and southeast of theAlps. Within the Eastern Alps in Italy, Lake Garda drains into the Po, whereas the Adige, Piave, Tagliamento, and Isonzo pour into the Gulf of Venice.

Differences in relief within the Alps are considerable. The highest mountains, composed of autochthonous crystalline rocks, are found in the west in the Mont Blanc massif and also in the massif centring on Finsteraarhorn (14,022 feet) that divides the cantons of Valais and Bern. Other high chains include the crystalline rocks of the Mount Blanche nappewhich includes the Weisshorn (14,780 feet)and the nappe of Monte Rosa Massif, sections of which mark the frontier between Switzerland and Italy. Farther to the east, Bernina Peak is the last of the giants over 13,120 feet (4,000 metres). In Austria the highest peak, the Grossglockner, reaches only 12,460 feet; Germanys highest point, the Zugspitze in the Bavarian Alps, only 9,718 feet; and the highest point of Slovenia and the Julian Alps, Triglav, only 9,396 feet. Some of the lowest areas within the Western Alps are found at the delta of the Rhne River where the river enters Lake Geneva, 1,220 feet. In the valleys of the Eastern Alps north of Venice, elevations of only about 300 feet are common.

Climate The location of the Alps, as well as the great variations in their elevations and exposure, give rise to extreme differences in climate, not only among separate ranges but also within a particular range itself. Because of their central location in Europe, the Alps are affected by four main climatic influences: from the west flows the relatively mild, moist air of the Atlantic; cool or cold polar air descends from northern Europe; continental air masses, cold and dry in winter and hot in summer, dominate in the east; and, to the south, warm Mediterranean air flows northward. Daily weather is influenced by the location and passage of cyclonic storms and the direction of the accompanying winds as they pass over the mountains. Temperature extremes and annual precipitation are related to the physiography of the Alps. The valley bottoms clearly stand out because generally they are warmer and drier than the surrounding heights. In winter nearly all precipitation above 5,000 feet is in the form of snow, and depths from 10 to 33 feet or more are common. Snow cover lasts from approximately mid-November to the end of May at the 6,600-foot level, blocking the high mountain passes; nevertheless, relatively snowless winters can occur. Mean January temperatures on the valley floors range from 23 to 39 F (5 to 4 C) to as high as 46 F (8 C) in the mountains bordering the Mediterranean, whereas mean July temperatures range between 59 and 75 F (15 and 24 C). Temperature inversions are frequent, especially during autumn and winter, and the valleys often fill with fog and stagnant air for days at a time. At those times the levels above 3,300 feet can be warmer and sunnier than the low-lying valley bottoms. Winds can play a prominent role in daily weather and microclimatic conditions. A foehn wind can last from two to three days and blows either southnorth or northsouth, depending on the tracking of cyclonic storms. The air mass of such a wind is cooled adiabatically as it passes upward to the mountain crests, which precipitates either rain or snow and retards the rate of cooling. When this drier air descends on the lee side, it is adiabatically warmed by compression at a constant rate and therefore has a higher temperature at the same altitude than when it began its upward flow. Snow in the affected areas disappears rapidly. Avalanches, one of the great destructive forces of nature, are an ever-present danger during the period from late November to early June. Most follow well-defined paths, but much of the fear of avalanches is related to the difficulty of predicting where and when they will strike. Avalanches are a greater threat to human life and property in the Alps than in other mountain ranges because of the regions relatively high population density and the tens of millions of tourists who visit each year. The development of ski resorts also has depleted many forests, which serve as natural barriers against avalanches.

Plant and animal life Several vegetation zones that occur in the Alps reflect differences in elevation and climate. While these zones generally have remained intact, global warming has caused an upward migration of plants since the early 1900s. Austrian researchers have estimated that the upper limits of Alpine plant species rose approximately three feet during each decade of the 20th century. On the valley floors and lower slopes grow a variety of species of deciduous trees; these include linden, oak, beech, poplar, elm, chestnut, mountain ash, birch, and Norway maple. At higher elevations, however, the largest extent of forest is coniferous; spruce, larch, and a variety of pine are the main species. For the most part, spruce dominance reaches its upper limit at approximately 7,200 feet in the Western Alps. Better

able to resist conditions of cold, lack of moisture, and high winds, larch can grow as high as 8,200 feet and are found interspersed with spruce at lower elevations. At the upper limits of the forests are hardy species such as the Arolla pine that generally do not grow below the 5,000-foot level; this slow-growing tree can live for 350 400 years and in exceptional cases up to 800 years. Its wood, strongly impregnated with resin, decays very slowly and was formerly prized for use in the construction of chalets. The areas of Arolla pine have been so reduced that cutting the trees is strictly controlled. Above the tree line and below the permanent snow line, a distance of about 3,000 feet, are areas eroded by glaciation that in places are covered with lush Alpine meadows. There sheep and cows are grazed during the short summer, a factor that has helped lower the upper limits of the natural forest. These distinctive mountain pasturescalled alpages, from which both the names of the mountain system and the vegetational zone are derivedare found above the main and lateral valleys; the spread of invasive weeds, pollution from animal wastes, and erosion from ski-related development limit their carrying capacity. In the southern reaches of the Maritime Alps and the southern Italian Alps, Mediterranean vegetation dominates, with maritime pine, palm, sparse woodland, and agave and prickly pear evident. Several species of animals have adapted well to the Alpine region. The ibex, a wild goat, and the goatlike chamois both are endowed with an extraordinary nimbleness suited to the craggy landscape. Marmots hibernate in underground galleries. The mountain hare and the ptarmigan, a grouse, assume white coats for winter. Several national parks amid the ranges protect the native fauna. Although increasing population pressure in the Alpine regions has led to the disappearance of a number of species, some prized animals, including the lynx, the brown bear, and the bearded vulture (lammergeier), have been successfully reintroduced. Human impact on the Alpine environment The early travelers to the Alps were greatly inspired by the pristine beauty of what they saw, and from their inspiration sprang the modern popularity of the Alpine region. With popularity, however, came growth; and the impact of so many people caused a steady degradation of the Alpine environment beginning in the mid-20th century. This has resulted in air of poorer quality; water pollution in rivers and lakes; a rise in noise pollution; slope erosion caused by the construction of ski slopes and roads; dumping of solid and organic waste; erosion from the quarrying of rock, sand, and gravel for construction; and forests weakened by acid rain. Slowly, the unique landscape and flora of the Alps that so inspired the early travelers is being irrevocably altered. Most conspicuous, perhaps, is the obvious transformation of the landscape. The main river valleys have been converted into linear conurbations of concrete and asphalt; and, in order to accommodate the expanding tourist trade, many villages in the higher lateral valleys have taken on the character of lowland suburbs. A highly visible result of this growth is the serious decline in air quality. Pollution from factories adds to that from home heating and motor vehicle exhausts, the situation aggravated by temperature inversions and weather conditions that often produce little wind. Many of the larger Alpine cities experience severe local air pollution, and some of the valleys can be filled with impure air for weeks at a time. The economy Agriculture Before the mid-19th century the economic basis of the Alps was predominantly agricultural and pastoral. Though since then there has been widespread abandonment of farms, especially in the high valleys of France and Italy and in western Austria, agriculture still survives in favoured locations both in the main and lateral valleys. The hot and dry Rhne valley in Switzerland, between Sierre and Martigny, is an intensive area of irrigated fruit and vegetable cultivation, and both the valley floor and slopes of the mountains have extensive vineyards from which excellent wines are made. Above Visp are some of the highest vineyards in the world, reaching more than 4,250 feet. Other regions of viticulture include the Alto Adige region in northern Italy, Ticino, and the southern regions of the Alps. Villagers in such locations as Chandolin in the Swiss Anniviers Valleywhich at 6,561 feet is the highest settlement inhabited year-round in the Alpscut grass for feeding dairy cows, but most of the agriculture and pastoralism in the high valleys exists as hobby farming or secondincome enterprises.

Mining and manufacturing The mainstay of the modern Alpine economy is a combination of mining and quarrying, manufacturing, industries, and tourism. Mining has been carried out since Neolithic times and is still significant in the Erzberg of Austria, where iron has been extracted from the mountain since the Middle Ages. Near Cluse, in the pre-

Alps of Haute-Savoie not far from Geneva, a region of watchmaking, screw cutting, component manufacturing, and related industries emerged in the first quarter of the 19th century and evolved into one of the most concentrated industrial locations of its type in the world. Large steel mills were located in Aosta and in the Mur and Mrz valleys because of local supplies of iron and coal. In addition, pulp and paper plants that utilized the Alpine forests were established in the Eastern Alps of Austria. With the development of hydroelectricity in the late 19th and 20th centuries, heavy metallurgical and chemical industries were attracted to the major transverse valleys of France, southern Switzerland, and western Austria. Later, factories producing such consumer products as textiles (in the Rhine valley of Austria) and sporting goods (the Annecy area in France) were established. One result of this industrialization was the depopulation of the small villages in the lateral valleys, an occurrence that was partially stemmed by the emergence of the tourism boom after 1960. Many of the early industrial enterprises are no longer viable because of obsolescence, foreign competition, the high cost of transporting raw materials from coastal ports to interior valley locations, oras is the case with the steel plant in Aostabecause indigenous raw materials have been exhausted. The remaining plants have had to modernize, rationalize, restructure, and develop new products in order to remain competitive in world markets. Tourism The most significant economic change for the Alps has been the development of mass tourism since World War II. Tourism in the Alps is a risky business: capital investment can be considerable, whereas the season in which to recoup expenditure is short and can be disrupted by economic difficulties in neighbouring countries or by a lack of snow in winter and cool, rainy weather in summer. Furthermore, there is fierce competition to attract tourists, not only among the different Alpine countries but also among the resorts within each country. There are some 600 ski resorts in the Alps, with more than 270 in Austria alone. Nevertheless, winter and summer tourism have injected enormous sums of money into the economies of the Alpine nations, a development that has been especially beneficial to the remote villages of the high lateral valleys. Employment opportunities in the service sector have increased substantially, taking up the slack caused by a decline in agricultural and industrial employment. Transportation The rugged and steep terrain of the Alps long was a barrier to transportation. Beginning in Celtic times, however, and continuing into the present, mountain passes have served as communication links between otherwise isolated valleys; the passes have evolved from simple paths to paved, multilane highways. Such settlements as Chur in eastern Switzerland, a focal point for the numerous passes in the region, have been inhabited for more than 5,000 years. Andermatt, in south central Switzerland, grew in a similar manner. The advent of rail and later road transportation and the accompanying improvements in road-building techniques have ended the isolation of most areas of the Alps. Tunnelsand road tunnels in particularwhich allow huge numbers of people to pass under the great Alpine massifs at all times of the year, have had the greatest impact: by facilitating such a steady onslaught of motor vehicles and people, they not only made possible the tremendous growth in tourism in the 20th century but also became a major contributing factor in the degradation of the Alpine environment. Study and exploration Records of ascents of various peaks in the Alps date from at least as early as the 14th century, and, in the late 18th and the 19th centuries, the interest in this activity created a vogue for serious mountaineering that began in the Alps and spread throughout the world. Horace Bndict de Saussure, a professor at the University of Geneva, made ascents of the peaks and encouraged others to do so in the 1780s, when he made the earliest scientific observations of the mountains. With the systematization of geology as a science in the second half of the 19th century, Alpine investigation made great advances. The first geologic maps indicated the main structural outlines of the mountain system, which revealed unusually complicated geologic phenomena that seemed to be the result of something more than a massive upheaval within the Earth. One explanation was the theory of nappesenormous masses of rock apparently squeezed and thrust across long distances by internal pressures in the Earth, eventually overlying strata of more recent age and different origin. This theory has been reinforced by the hypothesis of continental drift, which posited the realignment of entire land and water areas during vast geologic eras. Today, however, the tendency is to suppose a vertical uplift of the crystalline rock and a sliding down (under the effects of both gravity and the relatively plastic nature of the layers of schists and marls) of the sedimentary cover, and a somewhat more complicated origin for the nappes. Simultaneous with this conjecture on geologic regions, the subjects of Alpine relief, climatology, and vegetable, animal, and human geography also came in for observation and analysis. The Alps are probably

the most thoroughly studied mountain system on Earth, particularly at such institutions as the universities of Grenoble, Fr., and Innsbruck, Austria, and the Swiss Federal Institute of Snow and Avalanche Research near Davos; yet they continue to present hosts of complex and evolving scientific problems.