Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Project Culture
The Project Culture
SECTION 8
THE PROJECT CULTURE
8.1
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THE PROJECT CULTURE
Source: David I. Cleland, Strategic Management of Teams (John Wiley and Sons, New
York, NY, 1996), p. l06
Source: David I. Cleland, Strategic Management of Teams (New York, NY: John Wiley
and Sons, 1996), pp. 107–109.
8.1.4 Summary
In this section, a culture was defined as the set of refined behaviors that
people have in the society to which they belong, be it a nation, a family,
an organization, or a team. More specifically, a team culture is the envi-
ronment of beliefs, customs, knowledge, protocols, and behavior patterns
in a team. It was suggested in the section that the culture of the organi-
zation and of the teams should be mutually supportive.
In this section, both the positive and negative results of using teams will
be presented. In Table 8.3 the positive results are shown:
• Productivity increases
• Quality improvements
• Cost reductions
• Earlier commercialization
• Improved supplier relationships
• Enhanced customer satisfaction
• Employee satisfaction
• Greater creativity and innovation
• Improved stakeholder image
• After-sales service improvements
• Development of leadership / management potential
• Improved product, service, and process development
• Ability of teams to make and execute management decisions
The positive results are basically of two types: (1) specific and mea-
surable direct accomplishments such as improvements in productivity,
quality, reduction in cost, and so forth; and (2) indirect results such as
increased employee satisfaction, enhanced culture, and emergence of in-
novation and creative behavior. Overall, the positive results of using teams
provide clear evidence of the wisdom of using teams as a primary organ-
izational design alternative to support operational and strategic purposes
in the enterprise. However, teams can have their problems.
Project teams and alternative teams are not a panacea. There is no question
that teams can produce positive and beneficial results for the organization,
but there is a cost associated with the use of teams. Most of the negatives
that are associated with teams can be identified and credited to ‘‘failures’’
on the part of responsible people in the organization, such as:
• Managers take a hands-off approach, ‘‘order’’ the use of teams, and then
leave the teams to their own destinies. This will result in a waste of
everyone’s time.
• Managers do not hold the teams responsible and accountable, and they
avoid regular reviews of the team’s progress. If team deadlines are
missed, or if their work is not of high quality, managers do nothing.
• Management fails to devise a strategy for handling conflicts among team
members.
• Management tells the teams that they have all of the authority needed
to do their job, but fail to designate the specificity of that authority
through appropriate documentation.
• Management fails to make the objectives and goals of the team clear,
or fails to instruct the team to study probable and possible objectives
and goals, clarify them, and seek management review of these.
• Management withholds or provides resources as a means of rewarding
or punishing the team.
Using teams is not without its cost. Some of the costs that are incurred
include the following:
1. Have both the benefits and costs of using teams been considered in the
decision to use alternative teams as key elements of organizational de-
sign?
2. In planning for the use of teams, has care been taken to avoid some
planning failures that can occur in preparing for the use of teams?
3. Has consideration been given to how the merit evaluation and pay
issues will be handled?
4. Are the team members loyal and committed to each other?
5. What are the major issues in the organization that might militate against
the successful use of teams?
8.2.6 Summary
In considering the use of teams, managers should remember that the fol-
lowing considerations and conditions are present:
• Teams usually fail because of poor preparation of the people and culture
for the use of teams.
• Each organization is different, as is each organization’s culture. Careful
analysis of the culture of the organization can provide insight into some
of the likely negatives and the problems to be encountered in the use of
teams.
• Teams are not the end; rather, they are a means for focusing the use of
resources to deliver value to the oganization and its stakeholders. There
are obvious as well as subtle costs to using teams. Appreciating these
costs can be useful in developing and executing a meaningful and suc-
cessful strategy for the use of teams.
8.3.1 Maslow
Fifth
Self-realization,
Fourth fulfillment
Esteem,
Third Status
Belonging,
Social
Second Activity
Safety, Maslow’s
Security Priority of Human Needs
First
Basic
Physiological
Needs
FIGURE 8.1 Maslow’s order of priority of human needs. (Adapted with permission
from Keith Davis, Human Relations at Work, 3rd ed. (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill,
1967)
Safety and Security needs include protection from the elements and
harmful environments, from threats to one’s life and well-being, and
freedom from arbitrary and capricious management actions.
Belonging and Social Activity means that most people cannot live by
bread alone. There is satisfaction of social belonging, affection, mem-
bership, or affiliation. Accepted and full membership in a family unit
is important. Membership and being accepted on a project team are
important as well.
Esteem and Status needs motivate people to not only seek affiliation
but to become active in influencing the culture in the organization to
which they belong. They enjoy belonging to a group because of the
acceptance they feel, and the satisfaction they gain by contributing to
that group.
Self-realization and Fulfillment needs, at the top of the hierarchy of
needs, explains an individual’s drive for achievement, creativity, and
• The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid
it if he can—PEOPLE ARE LAZY
• Because of this human characteristic of dislike of work, most people
must be coerced, controlled, directed, threatened with punishment to get
them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organiza-
tional objectives—MOTIVATION IS ACCOMPLISHED THROUGH
FEAR OF PUNISHMENT.
• The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid re-
sponsibility, has relatively little ambition, wants security above all—
PEOPLE ARE NO GOOD.
On the other hand, Theory Y sees human nature in the place of work, in
a more positive light. It assumes:
• The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to
accept but to seek responsibility—PEOPLE ARE BASICALLY RESPON-
SIBLE.
• The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, inge-
nuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely,
not narrowly, distributed in the population—EVERYONE HAS THE CA-
PACITY TO BE CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE.
• Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentials
of the average human being are only partially utilized—CHALLENGE
YOUR PEOPLE.
• Implications of Theory X and Y
People respond as they are treated.
Managers are responsible for the conduct of their people.
Participation and cooperation are critical.
Managers must be sensitive to needs of people.
Work can be a source of personal satisfaction.
State of human relations depends on quality of the leadership,
and the management philosophies that are used.
Importance of interpersonal skills in the success of management.
Please indicate the five items from the list which you believe are the most
important in motivating you to do your best work.
1. Steady employment
2. Respect for me as a person
3. Adequate rest periods or coffee breaks
4. Good pay
5. Good physical working conditions
6. Chance to turn out quality work
7. Getting along well with others on the job
8. Having a local house organ, employee paper, bulletin
9. Chances for promotion
10. Opportunity to do interesting work
11. Pensions and other security benefits
12. Having employee services such as office, recreational and social activities
13. Not having to work too hard
14. Knowing what is going on in the organization
15. Feeling my job is important
16. Having an employee council
17. Having a written description of the duties in my job
18. Being told by my boss when I do a good job
19. Getting a performance rating, so I know how I stand
20. Attending staff meetings
21. Agreement with agency’s objectives
22. Large amount of freedom on the job
23. Opportunity for self-development and improvement
24. Chance to work not under direct or close supervision
25. Having an efficient supervisor
26. Fair vacation arrangements
27. Unique contributions
28. Recognition by peers
29. Personal satisfaction
Source: Adapted from David I. Cleland and William R. King, Management: A Systems
Approach (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1972), p. 370
People are motivated for many reasons in their place of work. A few of
the principal ideas behind such motivation have been put forth in this
section:
• The assumptions that you hold about people, as put forth by McGregor,
are reflected in the attitudes you display when working with people, and
the way that you treat them.
• The notions about the behaviors of people hold true for all of the stake-
holders with which the project manager must deal.
• Most of us are as logical in our work as our emotions allow us to be.
• Most of us have a need for ‘‘belonging’’. A project team that is properly
led can do much for satisfying our need for belonging.
There are many factors that influence our job performance. These in-
clude our physiological condition, our psychological attitudes, our political
beliefs, and moral standards. In addition, our professional standards, our
prejudices, and our habits also impinge on our job performance.
1. Do the team leaders and members of the team have a basic understand-
ing of the characteristics and forces that serve to motivate people?
2. Has everything been done by the team leader, and other leaders of the
enterprise, that could be done to create a cultural ambience that helps
to motivate team members to do their best work?
3. Do the reward systems of the organization serve to motivate the project
team members? If not, why not?
4. Are there any forces or conditions in the organization or in the project
team that serve to ‘‘demotivate’’ individuals or team members?
5. Are the project teams sufficiently motivated?
8.3.5 Summary
In this section, a very brief explanation was offered that describes some
of the basic factors that motivate people to do their best work. It was
recognized that human motivation is a large field of study in the area of
human behavior. Presented in this section were a few practical tools and
techniques that could be used to gain a basic understanding of the moti-
vational environment of a project team.
Team building and development are the act and process of forming, grow-
ing, and improving the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of individuals from
different needs, organizational units, and professional backgrounds, into a
cohesive, motivated, dedicated high-performance team. Team building
should be an ongoing ‘‘way of life’’ in the leadership / management of a
team. If a team is well managed, an effective PTBD is likely underway
on a continuing basis. Basic assumptions about the typical behavior of
people which facilitate their becoming a contributing team member in-
clude:
• Members of the team feel that their needs for participating in meaningful
activities in the organization have been satisfied through active membership on
a team.
• Team members contribute to the team’s culture of shared work, interests,
results, and rewards.
• People on the team feel a strong sense of belonging to a worthwhile activity,
take pride in the team activity, and enjoy it.
• Team members are committed to the team, its activities, and achievement of its
objectives and goals.
• People trust each other, are loyal to the team’s purposes, enjoy the controversy
and disagreements that come out of the team’s operation, and are comfortable
with the interdependence of working on the team.
• There is a high degree of interaction and synergy in the team’s work.
• The team’s culture is results-oriented and expects high individual and team
performance.
(Paraphrased from David I. Cleland, Strategic Management of Teams (New York, NY: John
Wiley and Sons, 1996), p. 80)
PTBD requires that the project leader and the members of the team
work on a continuing basis to assess their effectiveness.
PTBD begins during the early forming of the team. The culture of a
team when it is being formed includes:
• What questions do the team members have about the team, its purpose,
and how it will operate?
• What questions do the team members have about their individual and
collective roles on the team?
• What are the likely objectives and goals of the team and the expectations
of team members for their role in meeting those objectives?
• What do team members expect of each other?
• How will a team member’s shortcomings or nonparticipation be han-
dled? What do team members expect of the team leader? The team
members?
• How will decisions be made on the team? How will checks for consent
and consensus be carried out?
• What can the team, its leader, and its members do to build and maintain
a cultural ambience of trust, loyalty, respect, candor, and commitment?
• How will conflict be handled on the team?
A process that can help to resolve conflict on a project team includes the
following:
• Gather and have a full understanding of the facts around which the
conflict has occurred.
• Effort should be made to reach agreement on what the real issue(s) are
at the base of the conflict.
• Potential impact on the project’s work or the project team members
should be determined.
• Careful identification of the alternatives, and their relative costs and
benefits, should be considered.
• The team should come up with appropriate recommendations, identify-
ing majority and minority opinions if required.
If the team is unavailable to resolve the conflict on its own, then a
resolution should be sought from higher level managers. If the above pro-
tocol is followed, the chances are increased that the conflict resolution can
be realized without appeal to higher level managers for resolution.
If the team leader is able to assume effective responsibility for the matters
listed in Table 8.9, the cohesiveness of the team will be enhanced.
• The final decision regarding who will perform which work assignments on the
team, including deadlines and performance standards.
• The final decision regarding who serves on the team, and the right to request
reassignment of a team member who is not performing adequately in spite of
continuing counseling.
• The right to comment in writing to the team members’ immediate supervisors
about performance evaluations of team members. This right should include
recommending people for special recognition, bonuses, or exceptional merit
increases.
• The right to set the tone for reviewing individuals’ and the team’s ability to
produce results. Schedules, deadlines, reporting protocol, finances, and daily
oversight of the team’s operation are key responsibilities of the team leader.
1. Has the project team leader facilitated a cultural ambience that sets the
tone for an ongoing development of an effective program of PTBD?
2. In maintaining an effective team, has the team leader drawn on the
guidance that is suggested in this section?
3. Was a PTBD initiative started when the team was being formed—and
does it continue throughout the life of the project?
4. Are the team members comfortable with bringing bad news to the at-
tention of the team leader? If not, why not?
5. If professional assistance is required in PTBD, has the assistance of a
specialist in the Human Resources department been involved?
8.4.9 Summary
PTBD is an important process to be carried out in leading a project team.
While both formal and informal means can be used to help a team out in
this regard, much can be done through informal means and working with
the team during its life cycle along the lines recommended in this section.
8.5.1 Introduction
Defining the roles and responsibilities of the project team is critical to
each person understanding their duties and obligations for performance.
These roles and responsibilities may also include the obligations to other
teammates as well as stakeholders. Defining the duties and obligations
also provides a means for selecting resources for the project work.
Undefined roles and responsibilities lead to possible gaps in coverage
of vital project elements and possible overlap. Identifying roles and re-
sponsibilities for each individual in the project team provides assurance
that all areas are covered. It also saves time and effort in recovery of
various missed functions.
Because different projects use titles that equate to the industry being
served, all project titles are not appropriate here. There are common po-
sitions within projects that can be described and roles identified. These
roles and responsibilities for the business areas are addressed here.
Titles of project team members may include the following: project man-
ager or leader, project planner, and project controller. These titles vary
among industries, but they include only the business functions of a project.
The technical functions may be accomplished by a project engineer or
technical specialist for the industry being served.
The expertise employed in each position is bounded by the skill, knowl-
edge, and ability of the person performing the work. Generally, the posi-
tions require the items displayed in Table 8.10.
The project manager or leader is the single point of authority to direct
the project’s work to a point of technical convergence and delivery of the
products or services. This person is appointed to plan, organize, direct,
and control the efforts of all persons working on the project, as well as
overall responsibility for the internal project work, coordination of inter-
faces with own organization’s entities, and customer interface.
A project manager or leader would typically have the roles and re-
sponsibilities detailed in Table 8.11.
The project controller is the one who maintains the status and progress
of the work through tracking and collecting information. This position is
critical to the completion of the project on time and reporting the progress
to senior management and the customer. Typically, this person assembles
the information for the project manager or leader.
The project controller must collect the information, conduct some anal-
ysis to determine the validity of information, and format information into
Key positions within the project require specific skills and knowledge,
which impact the project success when they are not fully developed. Any
weakness in these areas will negatively impact the project and reduce the
effectiveness of the project team in getting its work done.
Table 8.12 includes the basic requirements for each position and iden-
tifies areas for training or other methods of raising the proficiency of
individuals selected for these project positions. The ‘‘X’’ indicates some
degree of proficiency is required without specifying the scope of knowl-
edge or skill.
Different organizations will have unique requirements for the level of
skills and knowledge in each item. For example, the project leader is not
1. Defining roles and responsibilities for key project positions has several
advantages for the project and organization. Name three advantages.
2. The roles of the project planner and project controller differ in the skill
sets. What is the difference between the two roles?
3. The project leader is not required to possess skills with automated
project scheduling software. Why is this true?
4. The role of the project planner includes oral presentation communi-
cations. Why does the project planner need this skill?
5. What other business roles in your organization should have defined
skills requirements? Why?
8.5.5 Summary
Selected project team members require knowledge, skills, and abilities that
are supportive of the planning and execution processes of the project.
These critical areas will be reflected in the project’s documentation, com-
munication of requirements, and progress assessments. Weak knowledge
and skills will result in weak plans; strong knowledge and skills will result
in solid plans.
The identification of roles and responsibilities for key members of the
project team establishes boundaries for work and communication without
overlap or gaps in the work. Defining roles and responsibilities provides
a means for rapid startup of projects and consistent application of the
resources on the right functions within the project. Weak or non-existent
roles and responsibilities allow selection of work that is pleasing and
avoiding work that is onerous.
The non-technical members of the project team, such as the project
leader, project controller, and project planner, must possess the critical
skills for the business area of the project. These critical skills should be
criteria for selecting and appointing people to these positions. Other skills
may be desirable, but these knowledge and skill areas will enhance the
team’s capability.
• Respect for all of the project stakeholders who are involved on the proj-
ect.
• A perception of people as suggested in McGregor’s ‘‘Theory Y’’ de-
scribed in Section 8.3 of the handbook.
• The need to provide the intellectual and emotional criteria that project
stakeholders will accept and emulate.
• Being responsible to the professional and personal needs of the project
stakeholders as they support the project team members.
• Recognition that the use of a ‘‘matrix’’ organizational design is simply
‘‘the way that we do things around here.’’
Taking the above brief explanation of the knowledge, skills, and atti-
tudes that are found in competent project managers, the project manager’s
success is dependent on a combined set of demonstrated personal capa-
bilities. Figure 8.2 depicts these capabilities.
A presentation and discussion of these capabilities follow:
• Understand Technology
• Decision Context
• Produce Results
FIGURE 8.2 Project manager competencies.
8.6.3 Summary
8.7.1 Introduction
Politics play an important role in projects because of the meaning of pol-
itics: ‘‘serving self-interest.’’ Self-interest is not in itself a pejorative term,
but it can be used to the detriment of the interests which we are obligated
to serve. Self-interest can also confuse those who have only the interest
of the organization in mind when performing on the project.
Politics can mean several things. It can mean that we support some
projects and not others. We may put more emphasis and energy to sup-
porting the projects of our personal choice and little effort into projects
that we do not believe are worthwhile. It can also mean that we withhold
support from projects that do not serve our personal interests.
Politics also plays an important role in interpersonal relationships. This
may include whether or not a person is liked or respected. Differences
among people and how they respond to different situations can create
perceived likes or dislikes.
Individuals sometime fail in projects because they do not understand
the politics and who has the most influence. Influence does not necessarily
come from a position, but it may be derived more from the relationships
between individuals. It is obvious that all managers in an organization do
not have equal influence.
Projects are often started based on subjective criteria, i.e., whether senior
management likes or dislikes the person championing the project. The
likes or dislikes of the champion may be for any number of reasons.
Typically, senior management will believe and trust a person who has
similar traits and style as they. Figure 8.3 summarizes the selection of
projects because for political reasons.
Interpersonal
relationships & trust in
project champion
Sponsorship of an
individual with known
capabilities
Senior management does not have a lot of time to select projects and
personally perform all the checks to determine the feasibility of the pro-
jects. Therefore, they place their trust in the project champion and follow
that person’s recommendations. This interpersonal relationship is the
driver for many solutions.
Senior management sponsorship of an individual will cause the spon-
sored person to be given more latitude than an unknown individual. Spon-
sorship is not a bad concept; it is used to nurture a junior into a position
that will benefit the organization. The sponsored individual is known for
what he / she can do and also known for who is the sponsor.
Take, for example, the senior manager who has a staff member that
has been serving him / her for several years. The staff member has the trust
and confidence of the senior manager. This same concept is extended to
project managers who have worked with the senior manager over several
years to build trust and confidence in his / her ability.
• A major project was considered the best managed project in the nearly
50 projects in the organization. Everyone in the organization knew the
project manager and senior managers had openly identified this individ-
ual as one of the organization’s promising leaders. It was clear that this
individual could do no wrong and that all measures of his success fol-
lowed the words of his sponsorship.
After 12 months, a new project manager was appointed. Six weeks
after the new project manager assumed the job, a review of the project
indicated that it was the worst of the nearly 50 projects. The best proj-
ect became the worst project with the same people except for the
project manager. New measures of success were applied to the new
project manager.
An interview with the original project manager’s college room mate
gave some insight. This person’s personality and interpersonal skills
were very high, and the college room mate stated that everyone liked
the project manager. In the 15 years since college, the project manager
had earned the trust of senior managers and had been able to please
them with his performance.
The new project manager did not have the confidence of senior man-
agers and was not well known in the organization. The major difference
between the two was how they were perceived. The new project manager
was every bit as competent as the first project manager, but didn’t have
the sponsorship.
• In 1989, a project manager was friendly with the president of the com-
pany. This relationship gave the president confidence in the project man-
ager’s capability. Accidentally, this project manager was found to be
manipulating project funds, i.e., taking funds from another project.
When reported, the president refused to believe the manipulation of
funds although the situation was documented.
The project manager whose funds were short reported the matter and
was criticized for being distrustful of the president’s friend. This project
manager resigned to take another position because of the conflict caused
by reporting the manipulation of funds.
Subsequently, the president’s friend was promoted to vice president.
However, his employment was terminated within a month. He was found
to be using company information to build a business for himself. This
did not correct the incident that occurred several months prior, but did
work to the detriment of the organization.
• In 1998, two project managers were working in an organization on sim-
ilar projects. One project manager was an employee and the other was
a contract consultant. Both were equally competent and effective. How-
ever, when resources were assigned under a matrix organization, the
employee received priority.
The consultant project manager did not know the resource allocator
well and was not familiar with the procedures for requesting resources.
The second project suffered when the employee project manager would
receive adequate resources and the consultant would always be short of
resources.
Known people in an organization will typically receive preferential
treatment in the allocation of resources or other considerations. It is
important for outside personnel to become known and for them to un-
derstand the organization’s procedures and practices.
There is an old saying that refers to the ‘‘three ships to success.’’ The best
ship is kinship. With kinship, such as a father-in-law owning the business,
one just needs to nurture that family relationship. The second ship is spon-
sorship. Sponsorship is having a senior manager take a personal interest
in your career and spreading the word that you are being mentored for
high positions. The third ship is showmanship. Showmanship is the ability
to dazzle superiors, peers, and subordinates with your presence.
The story continues that it is better to have kinship and then sponsor-
ship. If you have neither of these, you need to have showmanship. It is
true that one must be known for his / her abilities and competencies.
Spreading the word may be by others or through demonstrated perform-
ance.
By recognizing that there may be kinship and sponsorship, one can
excel in an organization by being viewed as more competent and pos-
sessing more ability that the sponsored person. This places the burden on
the individual to first recognize the situation and to be better than the
sponsored person without commenting on any weaknesses of that person.
Some guides to working in a highly political environment are as fol-
lows:
• Focus on your efforts and not the efforts of the sponsored person.
• Always present yourself in the best light without comparison to the
sponsored person.
• Do not use perceived difference in treatment as an excuse.
• Do not look upon the sponsored person or the sponsor as an enemy.
• Never criticize the sponsored person or the sponsor.
• Use facts and figures when requesting support, and never exaggerate the
requirement or need.
• Remember that the sponsored person’s weakness is not necessarily your
strength.
• Treat others with respect and understand the political process.
• If new to the organization, learn the practices and procedures rapidly.
Understand that all the rules will not be enforced or used.
• If an outsider, such as a consultant, demonstrate your unique knowledge
and skills through work. Don’t try to sell yourself with words or refer-
ences to past accomplishments.
• Be responsible, be respectful, and be reasonable.
Other rules may be appropriate to supplement this list based on expe-
riences in organizations. Each organization will have its unique environ-
ment that can be defined by such areas as:
8.7.8 Summary
Politics in organizations occur and different relationships develop based
on sponsorship or kinship. The self-interests of politics may be detrimental
to the organization and can create conflict. A person working in an or-
ganization must recognize and understand either wittingly or unwittingly,
that politics will always be present.
Relationships based on personal preference and personal style similar-
ities create the political environment. The person being sponsored will
most often be relied upon to have the best and most accurate information.
While this is not true, an unsponsored person must work to thrive in the
environment.
Following the basic precept that good work will be recognized, one
must always excel and have a presence that is acknowledged by senior
management. This requires setting a few personal rules of not degrading
1. Verma, Vijay K. and Hans J. Thamhain, Human Resource Skills for the
Project Manager: The Human Aspect of Project Management (Sylva,
NC: Project Management Institute Publications, 1996), 266 pp. This
book addresses the human aspects of project management and the po-
litical considerations in projects.
2. Pinto, Jeffrey K., Ph.D., Power and Politics in Project Management
(Sylva, NC: Project Management Institute Publications, 1996), 159 pp.
This book gives insight with regard for successful management of
projects in politically sensitive areas.