TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/TCP-IP

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the basic communication language or protocol of the Internet. It can also be used as a communications protocol in a private network (either an intranet or an extranet). When you are set up with direct access to the Internet, your computer is provided with a copy of the TCP/IP program just as every other computer that you may send messages to or get information from also has a copy of TCP/IP. TCP/IP is a two-layer program. The higher layer, Transmission Control Protocol, manages the assembling of a message or file into smaller packets that are transmitted over the Internet and received by a TCP layer that reassembles the packets into the original message. The lower layer, Internet Protocol, handles the address part of each packet so that it gets to the right destination. Each gateway computer on the network checks this address to see where to forward the message. Even though some packets from the same message are routed differently than others, they'll be reassembled at the destination. TCP/IP uses the client/server model of communication in which a computer user (a client) requests and is provided a service (such as sending a Web page) by another computer (a server) in the network. TCP/IP communication is primarily point-to-point, meaning each communication is from one point (or host computer) in the network to another point or host computer. TCP/IP and the higher-level applications that use it are collectively said to be "stateless" because each client request is considered a new request unrelated to any previous one (unlike ordinary phone conversations that require a dedicated connection for the call duration). Being stateless frees network paths so that everyone can use them continuously. (Note that the TCP layer itself is not stateless as far as any one message is concerned. Its connection remains in place until all packets in a message have been received.) Many Internet users are familiar with the even higher layer application protocols that use TCP/IP to get to the Internet. These include the World Wide Web's Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), the File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Telnet (Telnet) which lets you logon to remote computers, and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). These and other protocols are often packaged together with TCP/IP as a "suite." Personal computer users with an analog phone modem connection to the Internet usually get to the Internet through the Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) or the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). These protocols encapsulate the IP packets so that they can be sent over the dial-up phone connection to an access provider's modem. Protocols related to TCP/IP include the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is used instead of TCP for special purposes. Other protocols are used by network host computers for exchanging router information. These include the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), the Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP), the Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP), and the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).

computerizing the activities of business organization are as follows: Advantages:

1. Speed: Computerisation helps in processing the data placed in several data files in no time. This is possible due to the high speed of computers for processing data and CPU of the computer works at the speed of electricity which is the highest ever attainable speed. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Accuracy: The data processed by the computer are highly accurate. The programs written on the system checks and controls data before and during processing. It detects invalid data and ensures high degree of accuracy and reliability of output reports. Flexibility: The modern digital computers can be used for a variety of purposes. E.g. online processing, multiprogramming etc. Choice of Configuration: Wide ranges of peripherals are available for many computer systems, which allow business organization to select those which most suit its processing requirements. Storage capacity: Large volumes of data can be conveniently stored, accessed and altered. Management information: They can be used to provide useful information of management for control and decision making. Data Processing: Computer has lifted the heavy data processing constraint with the manual system and has opened up new avenues for planning, control and data experimentation. Volume: Computers can store volumes of data and can retrieve the desired information quickly. This is very useful in the areas like insurance, bank accounts etc where large number of documents is handled every day. Database: Computer facilities the establishment of database. Such a database integrates data records and reduces data redundancy. 10. Reduction in paper work: The use of computers for data processing has helped the management of business organizations to cope with increasing problem of paper handling. The computers have speeded up the process and have eliminated the paper needs through the storage of data in elaborately constructed data bases and files. 11. Reduced cost: Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, but it substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction. Cost reduction occurs due to processing of huge data and record keeping. 12. Facilitates report preparation: Computer facilitates the preparation of various types of reports required by organizational executives for the purpose of decision making and control. 13. Reduce the space requirements: The use of computer for office activities reduces the requirements of office space which otherwise is required. 14. Reduces the manpower requirement: The number of persons required for performing various organizational activities will be reduced by using a computer system. 15. Increased ability to perform computations: Computers perform computations with a very high speed. Diligence: Being a machine, it does not suffer from boredom, tiredness or lack of concentration, even if millions of computations are to be performed by a computer. It performs the calculations with same accuracy and speed. Disadvantages: 1. 2. Installing the computer requires a grueling and expensive task of system analysis and design. There is a scarcity of computer professionals to do this. Management tends to treat computer like ordinary equipment Viz., air conditioning equipment, and keep themselves aloof from the system development effort. Computer pervades the working of the entire organization and unless managements involve themselves fully during the system development effort and the employees, the customers, the vendors etc. are willing to accept the computerized system and its outputs the system is bound to prove a failure. 3. 4. 5. The initial investment can be very high though this can be mitigated to some extent by the rental and tax concessions. Since the lead-time of installing is long and the hardware technology is a rapidly advancing field, some of the peripherals/components may be rendered obsolete before even they are installed. The need to obtain stand by facilities in the event of breakdown of any computerized systems. Manual systems, though slow, are vastly flexible. If the format of a report, for example has to be changed, it can be readily done by communicating the necessary instruction to the concerned staff whereas in a computerized system, this would have to go through all the stages of systems analysis and design before it is effected. 6.

What is system software and application software

Software is a set of instructions, programs which enable the computer to perform specified task. In other words, software is nothing but binary code instructions which control the hardware. In most of the organizations the computer is a valuable resource. Among the resources that a computer has are processing time, storage space, printers, terminals and information. The management of these resources is performed largely by a type of system software called an operating system. When users interact with the computer the interaction is with system software. There are two broad categories of software, system software and application software. System software is a set of programs that manage the resources of a computer system, so that they are used in an optimal fashion, provide routine services such as copying data from one file to another and assist in the development of applications programs. System software consists of programs that assist the computer in the efficient control, support, development and execution of application programs. Application software on the other hand, performs specific tasks for the computer user. System software: They can be broadly classified in to three types. 1. 2. 3. System control programs control the execution of programs, manage the storage and processing resources of the computer and perform other management and monitoring functions. Other examples are DBMS and communication monitors. System support programs provide routine service functions to the other computer programs and computer users. Ex. Libraries, utilities, job accounting etc. System development programs assist in the creation of application programs. System programs are developed and sold by both computer companies and specialized software firms. Application Software: It is a program written for, or by, a user to perform a specific job. General purpose application software such as electronic spreadsheet has a wide application. Specific purpose application software, such as payroll and sales analysis is used only for the application for which it is designed. The system software controls the execution of the application software and provides other support functions such as data storage.

Software Piracy As a licensed user, you purchased the right to use the software on one computer, at one location or as otherwise stipulated by the conditions and restrictions of the software license. Whether software piracy is deliberate or not, it is illegal and punishable by law. Software piracy puts the user and organization at great financial and legal risk. However, piracy detection and enforcement varies greatly in different industries and countries. To protect their intellectual property and revenue, software vendors apply protection and activation procedures to their commercial products.

copying of software. Most retail programs are licensed for use at just one computer site or for use by only one user at any time. By buying the software, you become a licensed user rather than an owner (seeEULA). You are allowed to make copies of the program for backup purposes, but it is against the law to give copies to friends and colleagues.
The unauthorized Software piracy is all but impossible to stop, although software companies are launching more and more lawsuits against major infractors. Originally, software companies tried to stop software piracy by

copy-protecting their software. This strategy failed,

however, because it was inconvenient for users and was not 100 percent foolproof. Most software now requires some sort of registration, which may discourage would-be pirates, but doesn't really stop software piracy. Some common types of software piracy include counterfeit software, OEM unbundling, softlifting, hard disk loading, corporate software piracy, andInternet software piracy.

An entirely different approach to software piracy, called shareware, acknowledges the futility of trying to stop people from copying software and instead relies on people's honesty. Shareware publishers encourage users to give copies of programs to friends and colleagues but ask everyone who uses a program regularly to pay a registration fee to the program's author directly. Commercial programs that are made available to the public illegally are often called warez.

The project deals with software piracy and measures for prevention of piracy. The project deals with questions such as what is software, what is software piracy, what is the need to protect software against piracy here the researcher has discussed the concept of copyright and copy left , how can the software be protected and what is the preferred method of protecting software and why, what international instruments and other bodies that protect software and how, what are the other methods of protecting software, what are the enforcement mechanisms for protection of software. There are certain defences to infringing copyright in case of software, however for the purpose of this project, the defences shall be out of the scope of the project. Also the topic of source code and object code will be touched upon and not explained in detail. For the purpose of this paper, it shall be assumed that the software is already copyrighted and hence the tests for obtaining software copyright shall not be discussed. Softwares can be protected by Patents or Copyright, for the purpose of this project, the researcher has only considered copyright as a mode of protection. The danger to the software sector is from unauthorized production or piracy. The protection has become increasingly important because everyday the economy loses out on staggering amount of money.[1] Apart from statutory protection, there is need for protection through other methods as mere statutory protection has proven to be ineffective in curbing software piracy. The reasons and other methods to curb piracy will be dealt later in the project. Piracy is an increasing menace. A study conducted last year showed that by reducing piracy by 10 % over four years will lead to 4, 35,000 new jobs, over US$40 billion in economic growth, and over US$5 billion in tax revenues.[2] Defining Software/ Computer Programme: It is generally accepted to be any set of instructions made into a program, or a set of instructions, which can be installed or removed from a computer by the operator. The term used in The Copyright Act 1957 (hereinafter called the Act) is computer programme.[3] Computer software includes computer programs[4], databases, computer files, preparatory design materials, all material of works stored digitally to be accessed by computer[5] and associated printed documentations such as manuals for users.[6] It may also cover computer databases and documents, drawings and other works stored or transmitted electronically. Sometimes printed documentation and user manuals accompanying a computer program are also included in the definition of software.[7] Computer programme has been held to be included in literal work. Literary work in common parlance means any work written or printed in any language. The meaning given to the term in the Act is not limited to such works but is much wider in scope and hence would not hamper the further growth of computer industry.[8] The definition of the term under the Act includes computer programme, tables and compilations including computer databases[9]. The Indian definition is based on the definition of the WIPO, Draft Model Provision for Legislation in the field of Copyright.[10] The words schemes or in any other form indicate that source code[11] and object code[12] of a computer programme are entitled to copyright protection.[13] S. 14 of the Act defines copyright to include literary work.[14] However, for computer programmes, not only does copyright mean whatever is listed under S. 14 (a), it also extends the protection by inserting S.14 (a) (ii).[15] Copyright subsists in a computer programme provided sufficient effort or skill has been expended to give it a new and original character. Software Piracy The term piracy is not defined under the Act. Software piracy is a term which means that the software is used without the licensors permission.[16] Software piracy is the unauthorized copying or distribution of

copyrighted software. This can be done by copying, downloading, sharing, selling, or installing multiple copies onto personal or work computers. It is a misconception that a software is bought, the transaction actually is in nature of a license.[17] Simply put, making or downloading unauthorized copies of software is breaking the law and committing copyright infringement, also known as software piracy. To establish copyright infringement by copying the following need to be established firstly, a copyright subsists in the plaintiffs program. This is easy to establish, the plaintiff needs to show that his programme is original and is recorded. Secondly, the defendant copied part of the plaintiffs program. Copying can be literal or non literal copying. Thirdly, the parts copied represent a substantial part of the plaintiffs programme. It is not necessary to establish that an exact copy has been made of the whole of a work. Copyright in a work is infringed by taking a substantial part of it. The determination of a substantial part depends more on the quality than the quantity of what has been taken. A small part of a computer programme may be substantial if it goes to the root of the problem.[18] If two software programmers write two identical softwares independently, there will be no infringement and both will get copyright[19] However, the court will draw inference that there has been copying if it is shown that one of the software programmers had access to the copyrighted work.[20] Protection of Software There are two schools of thought regarding the protection of software. Reasons for protecting software can be divided into economic reasons and moral reasons.[21] Economic reasons suggest that intellectual property must be protected so as to reward the person creating it. It will also encourage people to be more creative.[22] Investment will also be stimulated by the promise of legal protection bearing in mind that investment in the development of computer software can be substantial and, even with strong legal protection, resulting profit is not assured. The increase in creative work and investment will have the effect of benefitting the society by increasing and stimulating employment, technical development, commercial growth and wealth.[23] The moral reasons suggest that a person who has created computer software has a bond with the software and morally belongs to him. The creator has brought the object into existence, therefore he should be able to prevent other persons from exploiting the software without permission and be able to control its subsequent use.[24] There are arguments against giving legal protection because it stifles competition and allows the owner of the invention to charge exorbitant prices and to make a profit out of proportion to the investment and risks undertaken. The idea behind Copyleft is to ensure that an individual cannot take advantage of being able to modify a free software program and then sell the resulting modified program as a new work. In some cases, any modifications made to a Copyleft program must be made freely available to all parties interested in using them. Copyleft licensing evolved from the open source movement which is based on the idea that by making source code widely available and freely modifiable, higher quality software is developed and the resulting product is relatively inexpensive as compared with some commercially available software.[25] Copyleft licensing of open source software is based on principles of unencumbered redistribution,[26] self-perpetuating terms[27], right to create modifications and derivative works[28], lack of warranties,[29] source code,[30] distinguishable modifications,[31] It can be safely said that the copyright is needed to protect the interest of the owner however, it should be seen that it does not lead to unfair competition.[32] Form of Protection Two forms of IPR which could be used to protect software are patents and copyright. Protection by copyright is preferred in most countries as it is wider and the conditions to be fulfilled in order to be protected are not as onerous as in patent law.[33] Patent on the other hand is capable of providing protection to a relatively less number of items, as it imposes onerous conditions in order for a product or process to be qualified as patent.[34] Patent granted is for lesser number of years than copyright and is more expensive than acquiring a copyright. Also copyright only seeks to protect unauthorized use of expression of ideas and not a complete

ban on the use itself.[35] Also in case of copyright, most countries will give the right to prevent unauthorized use of work even if the work is not registered.[36] WIPO Copyright Treaty of 1996 was concluded as a special agreement to the Berne Convention[37] This treaty makes explicit that computer software are to be protected.[38] The Universal Copyright Convention[39] (Paris Act 1971) also gives a broad definition to encompass the software. However, these conventions do not have any binding mechanism for settlement of dispute or enforcement mechanism before national courts. TRIP provides for National Treatment and says that all nations will comply with Art. 1- 21. In doing so it expressly includes computer programmes within their ambit.[40] Method of Protection Enforcement is an essential part of the IP regime.[41] The civil[42] remedies available are more or less similar to the remedies available for the violation of any other form of property. Injunction[43] is usually sought for prohibiting threatened commission or continuance of wrongful acts.[44] Damages and accounts for profit, the normal aim for awarding damages[45] is to compensate the plaintiff for the harm done. It is not always easy to quantify the damage, but is left to the discretion of the court. The reason behind this to ensure that law cannot be broken with impunity. However, this is a laborious and expensive procedure[46] and is not usually sought. This remedy prevents the defendant from unjustly being enriched at the cost of the plaintiff. The Act provides for criminal liability[47] , however, question of criminal liability involves the determination of mens rea.[48] In the researchers opinion, these judicial remedy would only be useful if the person is aware of the perpetrator. Cross border movement of infringing goods is rampant in the Asian Continent[49] TRIPS has laid down the minimum standards to be followed in such cases.[50] India also initiated measures to satisfy the obligation[51] by empowering the Registrar of Copyrights to issue order to disallow import of infringing goods. Other Methods of Protection It is argued that encouraging open source softwares like Linux etc. Will help the software industry to grow as it gives more scope for experimentation, also promotion of this software will ensure that the consumers have a healthy choice as opposed to using pirated copy of other softwares like Windows. However the drawback of the open source software is that most people would not like to experiment with unknown software, especially when not everyone is techno savvy[52]. Secondly, as certain softwares like windows, have been used for a long time, most people are comfortable with its use and would not like to shift to open source. In cases of organisations, it would not only be time consuming[53], it would also be very expensive for them to shift to new software. Also since popular softwares have better follow up service as opposed to the open source softwares, it makes the open source software less popular amongst the people. Secondly, basic economics would say that increasing the scale of production would ensure that in the long run the price of the product would fall and hence people will prefer original software over pirated one.[54]