Fire behavior is controlled by three interacting components: fuels, weather, and topography.

Fuels provide the energy source for fire. Fuel availability, which depends on both fuel arrangement and fuel moisture, determines if fires will burn as ground, surface, or crown fires. Weather elements, such as temperature, relative humidity, wind, precipitation, and atmospheric stability, also combine to influence fire behavior by regulating fuel moisture and rate of spread. Topography can influence fire indirectly, by mediating wind patterns, or directly- fires burning upslope spread faster than fire burning on flat land. The variety of fuel, weather, and topographical conditions that exist in the South create fires that vary in the amount of fuels that burn, the rate at which these fuels burn, the depth of burns, and whether living plants become fuel. This variation in fire behavior, in turn, influences the effects of fire on natural communities and people. This section of the encyclopedia provides a background on how fuels, weather, and topography influence fire behavior. Fire behavior describes how a fire burns- where it burns, how fast it travels, how much heat it releases, and how much fuel it consumes. It is important to understand what controls fire behavior and how to predict it. This knowledge will help predict fire effects, conduct prescribed burns, predict wildfire risk, and control wildfires. The following sections provide a basic understanding of what controls fire behavior, how to describe fire behavior, and how to predict fire behavior 1

Combustion and Heat Transfer

Fire releases heat through combustion. Combustion is a physical and chemical process that unleashes the solar energy stored in chemical form in fuels as heat. Oxygen, heat, and fuel often called the fire triangle must be present in the proper combination for a fire to ignite and initiate combustion. Sufficient oxygen is found in our atmosphere, fuel accumulates in forested ecosystems so when it is dry enough all that is required is the heat or ignition source, which can be either from a natural or anthropogenic source. A common sequence of physical processes occurs in all fuels before the energy contained in them can be released and transferred during combustion. The changes a fire goes through are traditionally organized into five phases of combustion: pre-ignition, flaming combustion, smoldering combustion, glowing combustion, and extinction. Although flames are the most recognizable and significant phase of

the combustion process, these other phases have important impacts on ecosystem resources as well. For a fire to grow and spread, heat must be transferred to surrounding fuel. Heat produced during combustion is transferred to other fuels, the soil, and the atmosphere primarily by convection, radiation, and conduction. As wildland fires spread, radiation and convection are the primary methods of heat transfer from one fuel to another, while conduction transfers heat within large pieces of fuel. Mass transport by spotting or fuels rolling downslope can also be an important means of heat transfer during intense fires. When water is present, heat transfer can also occur by vaporization. Fire intensity is an important measure of the rate of heat released by a fire.

2 .fire spread Ground Fires

Authored By: A. Long Ground fires are restricted to the layer of duff, roots, and buried or partially buried dead and decaying logs and burn very slowly with little if any flame (see Ground Fuels). As compared to surfacecrown fires, there has been little research on rate of spread in ground fires. Fire spread through ground fire is usually slow because of the compactness of ground fuels, with burning by smoldering combustion. Ground fires in dry organic matter in swamps will often burn out much larger areas beneath the surface than is visible from above ground, creating potentially hazardous situations for people walking through the areas after a fire. Due to these hazards, fire practitioners are often wary of burning wetlands with organic soils. It is important to recognize, however, that ground fires are a natural and necessary disturbance in the maintenance of certain wetland communities in the Southeast (see: Fire Regimes of Pocosins and Large Shrub Bogs and Fire Regimes in the Okeefenokee Swamp

Surface fires propagate through fuels less than two meters high, which are commonly small trees, shrubs, herbaceous vegetation, fallen leaves, pine needles, and woody litter (see Surface Fuels; Pastor et al. 2003). Surface fires are by far the

most common type of fire in the fire regimes of most southeastern communities (see Fire Ecology). In surface and crown fires, the head is the most rapidly spreading portion of a fires perimeter and is usually on the upslope or downwind side of the fire. Fire intensities are higher in the head of a fire than elsewhere around the fire perimeter. Key factors that influence head formation are rate of spread and intensity, which in turn are influenced by wind speed, slope, and fuel type. Crown fires are defined as fires that advance through canopy fuels more or less independently of surface fires (DeBano et al. 1998). Crown fires are extremely dangerous, very difficult to fight and often require the use of indirect suppression methods (Fieldhouse and Dickinson 2003; Pastor et al. 2003). Van Wagner (1977) grouped crown fires into three broad classes: dependent, active, and independent based on the degree of dependence on the surface fire. Dependent crown fires are initiated and maintained by the heat produced by the consumption of surface fuels and may consume individual tree crowns or small clumps of trees. They do not spread from crown to crown except for adjacent trees in a clump. An active crown fire runs through both the surface and aerial strata at the same time, while an independent crown fire burns through crowns independent of the surface fire. Rothermel (1991) further classified fully developed crown fires into two categories: wind driven (strong surface winds) or plumedominated (massive convection column development creates strong local winds, firewhirls and firebrand ignitions outside the fire perimeter). The transition from a surface fire to a crown fire is dramatic. While dependent crown fires are common in the Southeast, active and independent crown fires are uncommon in the region. Particular exceptions are the standreplacing fires common in sand pine scrub forests in central Florida, in standreplacing fires in non-indigenous melaleuca forests in south Florida, and limitedly in Table mountain pine forests in the southern Appalachians. General exceptions to this pattern occur in fires with extreme fire behavior (caused by low moisture levels, erratic winds, or high fuel loadings). Beighley and Bishop (1990) list ideal conditions for the development of crown fires as: dry fuel, low humidity with high temperatures, heavy accumulations of

dead and downed litter, conifer regeneration and other ladder fuels, steep slopes, strong winds, unstable atmosphere, and a continuous cover of coniferous trees. In the South, dense shrub understories are often the main surface fuel that contributes to initiating and maintaining crown fires in dense pine stands. Propagation of a crown fire after ignition from below depends on the spread rate in, and mass density of, the foliar fuel in the crown layer (Van Wagner 1977). Therefore, if the crown fire does not spread fast enough it will burn itself out. For example, during extreme weather conditions when the wind speed is high and sustained, a crown fire may continue and spread for many hours, covering large areas and crossing barriers which would impede the spread of a fire under normal conditions (Pyne et al. 1996).

Spotting
Spotting occurs when firebrands (sparks, embers or larger burning pieces of vegetation) are transported naturally by wind, convection, or gravity beyond the main perimeter of the fire. Showers of burning embers that fall within to mile from the main fire can ignite large areas almost simultaneously creating a pseudo front (Brown and Davis 1973). This mode of spread is most often associated with large wildland fires (Pastor et al. 2003), but can occur anytime there are dry, windy conditions:
Short-range spotting from firebrands can occur in any fuel type and are

more likely to occur when the relative humidity is below 40% and are almost a certainty once the relative humidity reaches 25% or less (Weir 2003).
Air temperatures above 60F (Bunting and Wright 1974) and wind

speeds over 20 mph significantly increase the chance of firebrand ignitions (Wright and Bailey 1982). Fuel types also influence the development of firebrands. Light fuels such as palmetto fronds and Spanish moss, which are easily picked up by convection may be carried long distances before they drop and ignite fresh fuels. Long-range spotting indicators are large glowing firebrands, moderate winds and well developed convection columns. Convection columns form above a fire, with the height of the thermally-produced ascending column of gases, smoke, and debris dependent on air stability and heat released by the fire. As the column is

pushed beyond the fire front, it may significantly contribute to fire spread by greatly increasing the likelihood that firebrands will drop onto fresh fuels and new fires will ignite. When air movement in the convection column interacts with the fire, fire whirls may form.

3 The growth of fire follows a similar cycle regardless of fire type, size or intensity. Under perfectly uniform conditions wildland fire will move from ignition through an initiation stage, during which rate-of-spread accelerates to a steady state, explained below. Under real-life conditions the fires shape and rate of spread will continually change. Fuel, weather, and topography combine to influence a fires rate of spread and overall behavior. In the case of prescribed fires, ignition patterns can affect fire growth and intensity. Rarely, a fire can continue to increase its rate-ofspread and intensity, resulting in extreme fire behavior.

Initiation
The initiation stage of a fire is the period of time after ignition until a fire reaches a steady rate-of-spread. Wildland fire generally starts from a single ignition point (lightning strike, match, spark). During the initiation phase there is a buildup of heat and the fuel present at the point of origin is consumed. As radiant heat dries the adjacent fuels the fire will begin to expand its perimeter outward. The rate of spread accelerates initially, with the rate dependent on fuel type, load, compactness, continuity, and depth. Weather factors also affect initial rates of spread and the rate at which fire perimeter spread accelerates. In general, the characteristics that lead to the highest rates of spread include continuous, fine fuels, loosely packed, with low fuel moisture contents on windy days in late spring with high temperatures and low relative humidity.

Steady state
If all fuel conditions remain constant, the fire perimeter will expand at an accelerating rate for 10 to 30 minutes (depending on fuel type), at which point the rate of spread reaches a steady state. In a steady state, under uniform conditions, the flaming zone moves at a nearly constant rate with the same intensity, simply increasing the area that has been burned. The time required to reach steady state is

independent of weather, while the actual rate of spread is a function of weather and fuel types. The steady state rate of spread is maintained as long as fuel, weather, and topographical conditions remain stable. Stable conditions are unlikely to occur in wildland fires. 4

Characteristics of extreme fire behavior include:

very high to extreme rates of spread; prolific crowning and torching; fire whirls; tall, well-developed convection columns; long flame lengths; and excessive spotting (National Wildfire Coordinating Group 1981).

5Flame Characteristics
Wildland fire displays some remarkable characteristics and behavior. Flames are one of the visible manifestations of the combustion process and are the main source of heat from a fire. Measuring or estimating flame height, length, depth, angle, and char height can help to understand fire intensity and predict fire effects (Johnson and Miyanishi 2001).

Flame Height
Authored By: A. Long Flame height is used to estimate radiation intensities of flames, which are directly related to hazards to fire crews and a fires rate of spread (Johnson and Miyanishi 2001). It can also be an important predictor of the spread of firebrands from a fire and the potential for development of a crown fire. Two theoretical definitions of flame height are: the height where flames reach the maximum temperature, which is difficult to measure in wildland fires because of varying flame heights; and the vertical distance from the flame base or ground to

the time-averaged yellow flame tip as shown in the figure (Johnson and Miyanishi 2001).

Flame characteristics

Measurements of the visible flame tip require height markers positioned in the fire and either ocular observation or videotaping a moving fire (Adkins 1995, Hamins et al. 1996). A motor-driven 35mm still camera or a video camera can be used to record the fire for measuring characteristics such as flame angle and height (Johnson and Miyanishi 2001). For a smoke-covered flame, an infrared camera can be used to penetrate the smoke and measure the maximum flame temperature and visible flame tip (Johnson and Miyanishi 2001).

Flame Length
Authored By: A. Long Flame length is another estimator of fire intensity. Flame length estimates have been made for many experimental fires, wildfires and prescribed burns. In the South, flame lengths may vary from less than 1 ft in slow moving backfires in leaves and short grass to over 100 ft in extreme wildfire conditions in dense shrubs and pines. Flame length is measured from ground level from the mid-point of the base of the flame to the tip of the flame, whether the flame is vertical or slanted.

Flame characteristics

In theory, flame length has been defined as the distance from the fuel surface to the point on the flame axis where the CO concentration is 5000 ppm. In wildland fires, it is difficult to determine these theoretical parameters and measurements are generally based on video or time-lapse photography. Flame length also provides an estimate of the difficulty in fighting fires. For instance, flame lengths less than four feet can be attacked at the head of the fire, while fires with flame lengths over eleven feet should not be controlled from the head and often lead to crowning and long range spotting. See also: Relationship between fire length and fireline intensity. Encyclopedia ID: p467

Flame Depth
Authored By: A. Long

Flame depth

Flame depth is the distance from the front to the rear of the flame zone at the fuel surface. Flame depth is dependent on the spread rate of fire, the length of time flames remain over any particular point in the fuel bed (residence time), and the type and quantity of fuel being burned. Encyclopedia ID: p468

Flame Angle or Tilt

Authored By: A. Long

Tilt or flame angle

Tilt or flame angle is the angle between the unburned terrain whether flat or sloped and the leading surface of the flame. Flame angle is highly influenced by wind. For a wind-driven flame the angle is less than 90o and for a flame backing into the wind it is greater than 90o.

Bark Char Height

Authored By: D. Kennard Bark char height is the height from ground level to the highest point on the bole where bark char is evident (outer bark blackened by fire). Char height on individual trees is measured halfway between the upper and lower char heights on opposite sides of the tree. Bark char height is used to approximate flame height or flame length, particularly when measuring these variables during the course of a fire is impractical or impossible. Flame length estimated from bark char height can then be used to reconstruct fireline intensity using Byrams equation (e.g., Waldrop and Van Lear 1984). However, evidence suggests bark char height is not a reliable estimate of flame height, flame length, or indirectly, fireline intensity. For example, Cain (1984) found that for both back fires and head fires in a 9-year-old loblollyshortleaf pine stand, bark char height underestimated flame length by 50 percent and fireline intensity by 75 percent during prescribed burns. Cain noted, however, that bark char height may provide adequate post-burn measures of relative, but not absolute, fire intensity where better measurements are not possible. In fact, Cain found that crown scorch height estimated fire intensity no better than bark char height. Bark char height has also been use to predict fire damage. For example, Waldrop and Van Lear (1984) found a direct relationship between bark char height and crown scorch above a threshold value of 3 feet in a loblolly pine plantation. However, since bark char is not a very reliable indicator, it should only be used in cases where attempts are made to reconstruct fire behavior months after the scorched foliage has fallen (Wade and Johansen 1986). The accuracy of bark char height is particularly questionable in previously burned stands because sloughing of charred bark sometimes requires several years (Cain 1984).

Fuel Categories
Authored By: D. Kennard Fuels can be classified into four broad categories based on their vertical distribution:
Ground fuels: organic soils, forest floor duff, stumps, dead roots, and

buried fuels
Surface fuels: litter layer, downed woody materials, and dead and live

plants to 2 m (6 ft.) height

Ladder fuels: vine or liana fuels and draped foliage fuels Canopy fuels: tree crowns

These fuel categories are not to be confused with the fuel types used in fuel models (such as grasses, brush, timber litter, and logging slash). Fuel models are more specific classes of fuels used in fire behavior modeling.

Ground Fuels
Authored By: M. Varner Ground fuels are those forest fuels that lie below the litter layer or within the soil, including organic soils, forest floor duff, stumps and dead roots, and buried fuels. Ground fuels can ignite and smolder for days to months following flaming front passage. Ground fires produce persistent and harmful smoke and can re-ignite surface fuels making them a bane for fire managers. The forest floor is the layer of organic matter overlying the mineral soil and has both surface and ground fuel components. The forest floor fuel complex contains distinct horizons, each with different moisture relationships, particle sizes, chemical composition, densities, and depths. The surface fuel component of the forest floor is the litter (Oi) horizon. The ground fuel component, duff, is beneath the litter horizon. It is comprised of the fermentation (Oe) and humic (Oa) horizons. In longfire interval ecosystems the duff layer can become well-developed, however in

frequently burned systems it may be intermittent or nonexistent. Duff is created by litter decomposition, so many volatile compounds are lost, particle sizes are reduced, and it is shaded by the overlying litter horizon. Similar to 1,000-hour timelag fuels, duff is slow to absorb moisture. Therefore, when duff moisture is low, smoldering phase combustion often consumes this horizon, resulting in high fire severity and copious amounts of smoke. Organic soils are important forest fuels in several southeastern ecosystems. Organic soils contain the duff layer overlying a variety of soils (see earlier discussion) and true histosol organic soils. Histosols are dark-colored soils consisting of large amounts of organic peat and muck, underlying poorly-drained forested and nonforested wetlands (e.g., cypress domes, pitcher plant bogs, and bay swamps). Available fuel in organic soils is defined by three factors: moisture, packing, and mineral soil content (Frandsen 1987). Increases in any of these factors decreases flammability and retards combustion. However, following extended droughts, organic soils can ignite and burn for days to months, often smoldering beneath the surface (so called muck fires). Organic soil fires are serious concerns in many southeastern wetland communities; they are difficult to control, and have serious ecosystem effects (see: Prescribed Burning in Organic Soils).

Surface Fuels
Authored By: M. Varner Surface fuels are the primary fuel of interest for fire behavior in most southeastern ecosystems (Wade et al. 2000). Surface fuels include understory plants < 2 m (6 ft.) tall (dead and alive), the litter layer, downed woody materials, and often midstory tree and shrub fuels. Surface fuel availability for consumption is determined by moisture content, particle size, horizontal continuity, compactness, and fuel type (particularly fuels with high volatile compounds). Under most burning conditions in most southeastern ecosystems these fuels carry surface fires. The understory is the layer of living and dead vegetation from the soil surface to 2 m (6 ft.) tall. Many southeastern ecosystems (e.g., open pine savannas and forests, freshwater marshes, pitcher plant bogs, prairies) contain a dominant understory with abundant grass, forb, small woody shrub and litter fuels. Both grasses and their allies (sedges and rushes) and forbs have high surface area-to-volume ratio,

low fuel moisture, are within the flaming zone of most surface fires, and retain abundant dead leaves making them ignite and combust rapidly (exceptions to this are succulents and large-leaved species). Understory fuel availability in southeastern ecosystems is controlled by fuel moisture, horizontal fuel continuity, and fuel loading. Small woody shrubs can be important understory surface fuels (Blackmarr and Flanner 1975, Hough and Albini 1978). Pocosins, flatwoods, sand pine scrubs, and bogs contain large loadings of shrubby fuels. Many southeastern shrubs have high surface area-to-volume (e.g., saw-palmetto, Serenoa repens), high volatile contents (e.g., gallberry, Ilex glabra), grow within the flaming zone of surface fires, and are highly flammable. In some ecosystems, shrubs and small trees grow into the midstory (between 2 and 5 m; 6 and 16 ft.) and carry surface fires into lower canopy fuels. Midstory fuel availability is regulated by vertical fuel continuity, fuel moisture, and fire behavior. Low-intensity fires with low flame lengths often dont ignite midstory shrub fuels. The forest floor is the layer of organic matter overlying the mineral soil and has both surface and ground fuel components. The surface fuel component of the forest floor is the litter (Oi) horizon. The ground fuel component of the forest floor is the duff layer. Litter horizons are fuels in almost all forested southeastern ecosystems, and are therefore somewhat diverse in their composition and structure. Most litter horizons contain recently deposited litter, small woody fuels (10-, 100-, and few 1,000 hour timelag fuels), cones, and other dead plant parts. Litter fuels have reduced volatile content, low fuel moisture content (often 5 to 15%), and are usually loosely packed. Surface fires can be carried solely by litter fuels. Litter fuels may also ignite live understory fuels, pre-heat larger woody fuels, and initiate smoldering of underlying ground fuels, if present. Forest floor fuel availability is determined primarily by fuel moisture content and fuelbed bulk density. Separation of available and unavailable fuel is made on depth to moisture, with all dry fuel included as surface fuel and the remaining wet included as ground fuel. Understory and shrub fuels are measured using quadrat, point-quarter center, and line transect sampling methods (see Measuring Fuel Loads). Loads (measured in dry kg/m2 or lb/acre) are calculated and extrapolated to larger areas or can be input into fire behavior models (e.g., BEHAVE). Forest floor surface fuels are measured

by harvesting small quadrats (in kg/m2 or lb/acre, and drying for moisture content) and by determining fuelbed bulk density (in kg/cm2 or lb/ ft3).

Ladder Fuels
Authored By: M. Varner Ladder fuels are those that provide vertical continuity between understory or midstory surface fuels and canopy fuels. Ladder fuels consist of vine or liana fuels, draped foliage fuels, and hanging broken branches. Most surface fires in southeastern ecosystems involve isolated ladder fuels, though in particular circumstances ladder fuels can accumulate and lead to high severity fires. Vine fuels include several southeastern species that are important in surface fires, such as yellow jessamine (Gelsemium sempervirens), greenbriers (Smilax spp.) and wild grape (Vitus spp.). Vines ascend trees and shrubs creating vertically continuous fuels. Dead and live foliage, stems, and flower structures have low fuel moisture, are bathed in convective heat, and contain volatile compoundscrown fires. Vine fuel availability is governed by fuel moisture, flame height, windspeed, and the live-to-dead ratio. Vine fuels are usually measured as presence/absence, height in canopy, vine loads, and live to dead ratios. making them burn rapidly. Most ladder fuels grow on isolated trees, causing individual tree torching. In extreme examples, ladder fuels ignite canopy fuels and initiate Draped dead foliage (especially pine needle litter) on vines and living or dead shrubs is another important ladder fuel type. Draped fuels have very low fuel moisture (wind, sun, and humidity effects are increased) and are highly flammable. Draped fuels increase the height of the combustion zone, linking understory and midstory fuels to canopy fuels. Southeastern pine plantations and long-unburned forested ecosystems with well-developed vine and/or shrub layers are especially prone to draping. Hanging broken branches become important ladder fuels in forests following hurricanes, tornadoes, ice storms, and other disturbances.

Encyclopedia ID: Encyclopedia ID: p537. Last Modified: 2008-11-14

Canopy Fuels
Authored By: D. Kennard, A. Long Canopy fuels are the crowns of trees that form the overstory. The receptivity of the canopy fuels to crown fire is based primarily on three factors: canopy base height, canopy bulk density, and, to a lesser degree, foliar moisture content (Fieldhouse and Dickinson 2003). Canopy base height relates the bottom of the overstory tree crowns to the top of the understory fuel bed and ladder fuels. Canopy bulk density is a measure of the amount of fuel contained in a unit volume of the canopy. High bulk densities present large fuel loads for a fire. Canopy or crown fuels are typically not consumed during fires in the southeastern US except in isolated cases of "torching" which affect individual trees. Crown foliage is commonly scorched, but rarely is it consumed (i.e., combusted) in crown fires. Particular exceptions are the stand-replacing fires common in sand pine scrub forests in central Florida, in stand-replacing fires in non-indigenous melaleuca forests in south Florida, and limitedly in Table mountain pine forests in the southern Appalachians. General exceptions to this statement occur in fires, either prescribed or wildfire, with extreme fire behavior (caused by low moisture levels, erratic winds, or high fuel loadings).

Fire Weather
Weather is the state of the atmosphere and is often described in terms of temperature, humidity, stability, pressure, wind speed and direction, clouds and precipitation. The interaction of these weather elements control many aspects of fire behavior. For example, atmospheric moisture directly effects fuel flammability, and, by its relationship to other weather factors has indirect effects on other aspects of fire behavior. General winds and local winds affects wildfire in many ways. Wind carries away moisture-laden air and hastens the drying of forest fuels. Light winds aid certain firebrands in igniting a fire. It aids fire spread by carrying heat and burning embers to new fuels, and by bending the flames closer to the unburned fuels ahead of the fire. The direction of fire spread is determined mostly by the wind direction. Atmospheric stability is closely related to fire

behavior. For example, winds tend to be turbulent and gusty when the atmosphere is unstable, and this type of airflow causes fires to behave erratically. Thunderstorms with strong updrafts and downdrafts develop when the atmosphere is unstable and contains sufficient moisture. Their lightning may set wildfires, and their distinctive winds can have adverse effects on fire behavior. Fire weather constitutes examining the current state of the atmosphere between the surface and 5 to 10 miles above the surface and how this state will change and impact fires. When knowledge of fire weather is combined with information on fuels and topography, assessments of fire danger and potential fire behavior are possible. Both the fire-control plan, in the case of wildfire, and the burning plan, in the case of prescribed fire, must be based on past and expected weather conditions.
Air Temperature: Temperature directly influences many other weather

elements, such as moisture, stability, and wind speed and direction. This section discusses temperature and heat; the role of solar radiation in creating diurnal and seasonal variations in air temperatures; how topography, water bodies, and vegetation influence air temperatures; and, vertical variations in temperatures (lapse rates and inversions).
Atmospheric Moisture: Atmospheric moisture has direct effects on the

flammability of forest fuels, and, by its relationship to other weather factors, it has indirect effects on other aspects of fire behavior. This section discusses sources of atmospheric moisture; evaporation, dew points, absolute humidity, and relative humidity; how temperature, wind, and other factors influence relative humidity horizontally and vertically; means of measuring relative humidity.
Atmospheric Stability: Atmospheric stability is the resistance of the

atmosphere to vertical motion. This section discusses methods for determining atmospheric stability; various processes that cause air to rise; how and why stability varies diurnally and seasonally; how cloud-types and other visual clues can be used as indicators of stability; and, what subsidence is and conditions that lead to its development.
General Winds: General winds are produced by the broadscale pressure

gradients but may be modified considerably by friction or other topographic effects. This section discusses laminar flow, eddy formation and the

conditions that create mechanical and thermal turbulence; winds created by frontal air-masses; effects of mountains on surface winds; and methods used to measure surface winds.
Convective Winds: Convective winds originate from small-scale pressure

gradients produced by local temperature differences and may be strengthened or weakened general winds. This section discusses land and sea breezes, slope and valley winds and their interaction with general winds; whirlwinds and thunderstorm winds.
Air Masses and Fronts: Air masses have characteristic weather in their

source regions. As they leave their source regions, air masses are modified according to the surface over which they travel. In frontal zones, where two or more air masses meet, considerable weather is concentrated. This section discusses the formation and modification of air masses and their associated weather, warm fronts, cold fronts, and stationary fronts.
Clouds and Precipitation: The amount of precipitation and its seasonal

distribution are important factors in controlling the beginning, ending, and severity of local fire seasons. This section discusses saturation, condensation, sublimation, and precipitation processes as well as types of precipitation and clouds.
Thunderstorms: The heat energy released in condensation provides the

energy for thunderstorms and the violent winds associated with them. Thunderstorms are important in fire control because they start fires by lightning, blow them out of control with the downdraft and outflow, or put them out with rain. This section discusses thunderstorm development, types of thunderstorms, lightning, and tornadoes.
Fire Climate Regions: This section discusses the general temperature,

precipitation, and pressure/circulation patterns in North America and how these climate factors are influenced by broad-scale topographical features and oceans. The general fire climate of the Southeastern United States and 14 other regions are summarized.