Vibrations & Waves

Learning outcomes:

Oscillations and types of oscillators Related definitions and terms Free oscillations, forced & damped oscillations & resonant frequency Simple harmonic motion Kinematics and graphs of shm Types of waves Properties of waves Principle of superposition

Oscillations & types of oscillatory motions

Vibrations and oscillations occur all the time and are everywhere. Vibrationsarephysicalevidenceofwaves,suchasaloud stereoshakingatable,soundwavescausevibrations Oscillations are a repetitive vibrations, typically in time. Oscillation occurs when a system is a disturbed from positionofstableequilibrium. Onecompletemovementfromthestartingpointandback tothestartingpointisknownasanoscillation

The displacement of oscillation from equilibrium changes periodically over time.

For a system to be oscillating, the shape of displacement - time graph does not matter. The only property that matters is that the motion is periodic.

Basic properties of Oscillating Systems

The first of these properties we must understand is the Amplitude of the oscillation. The amplitude of the oscillation is the parameter that varies with time and this resides on the y-axis of the oscillation graphs.

Another important property of an oscillation system is the Time Period (T) of the oscillation. The time period of the oscillation is simply the time taken for the oscillation to repeat itself. That is, it is the time between successive oscillations of the system.
The other basic property of an oscillating system is the frequency, which is closely related to the time period. As we know, one complete oscillation of the system is defined by the time period, T and is known as 1 cycle. The frequency of the oscillating system is simply the amount of cycles that happen in 1 second.

Examples of oscillatory motion

beatingofaheart asimplependulum avibratingguitarstring vibratingtuningfork atomsinsolids air molecules oscillate when sound waves travel through air. oscillations in electromagnetic waves such as light and radiowaves oscillationsinalternatingcurrentandvoltage.

A free oscillation is one where an object or system oscillates in the absence of any damping forces, and it is said to oscillating in its natural frequency When one object vibrates at the same frequency as another it is said to be in resonance The swing of a frictionless pendulum is an example of a free oscillation. The displacement-time graph of a free oscillation is sinusoidal in nature and the amplitude is constant with time

Amplitude, Period, Frequency, and Phase Shift

The maximum displacement is called amplitude, A. The time interval for the block to complete a full cycle is called the period, T. The inverse of the period which represents the number of oscillations per unit time is called its frequency, f.

Damped Oscillations

A damped oscillation is one where frictional forces present gradually slow down the oscillation and the amplitude decreases with time ie decreasing energy Damped oscillations are divided into under-damped, critically damped and over-damped oscillations.

Under-damped oscillations

Anunderdampedoscillationisonewherethe amplitudeofoscillationordisplacement decreaseswithtime Example:oscillationofasimplependulumwith thedampingordissipativeforceasair resistance.

Critically-damped oscillations

Inacriticallydampedsystem,oscillationsare reducedtonaughtintheshortestpossibletime examples:movingcoilammeterorvoltmeter, shockabsorber,doorcloser.

Over-damped oscillations

Inanoverdampedsystem,adisplacement fromitsequilibriumpositiontakesalongtime forthedisplacementtobereducedtozero.

Resonance & effects

Intheabsenceofexternalforcestoanoscillatingsystem,the systemoscillatesatitsnaturalfrequencyf0. Whenanexternalforceisappliedtoanoscillatingsystem,the systemisunderforcedoscillations Resonanceoccurswhenasystemisforcetooscillateatits naturalfrequency Whenresonanceoccurs,thesystemoscillateswithmaximum amplitudeasmaximumenergyistransferredfromtheforcing system

EgBarton'spendulumonlythependulumwiththesamelengthas theoriginalwilloscillatewiththebiggestamplitude Applicationswindinstruments,excessivenoisefromamoving bus,radio&tvtuning TheTacomaNarrowssuspensionbridgeinUSAin1940collapsed duetoamoderategale(ofsamefrequencyasnaturalfrequencyof bridge)settingthebridgeintoresonanceuntilthemainspanbroke up

Simple Harmonic Motion

A simple harmonic motion (S.H.M.) is the motion exhibited by an object or a system such that the force F acting on it is directly proportional to the displacement yfrom a fixed point of equilibrium and is always directed towards that point

This means that in shm, acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement/distance from the fixed point and is always directed to that point Acceleration is always opposite to the displacement since the force is also opposite to the displacement

Comparisons

In linear motion acceleration is constant in magnitude and direction In circular motion acceleration is constant in magnitude but not direction In shm the acceleration changes periodically in magnitude and direction

Examplesofsimpleharmonic motion
.To-and-fro movement of a swinging pendulum bob
. Prongs of a sounding tuning fork . A mass on a spiral spring . Air columns of musical instruments when producing a note . Atoms in a solid about fixed positions in their lattice

Any system which obeys Hooke's Law exhibits shm The force exerted by a spring is given by Hooke's Law,
F = - kx where k is the spring constant and x is the distance from the equilibrium position

and since F = ma, ma = - kx hence a = -(k/m)x = dv/dt = d2x/dt2

Radians

Angles can be measured in radians as well as in degrees The angle in radians = s/r where s = length of arc and r = radius of circle If s = r, then = 1rad, ie 1 radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius When s = 2r (circumference of a circle), then = 2 radians = 3600

Therefore 1 radian = 3600/2 = 570 Therefore s = r

Angular velocity

Thespeedofabodymovinginacirclecanbespecified eitherbyitsspeedalongthetangentatanyinstantiebyits linearspeed,orbyitsangularvelocitymeasuredinradians Henceangularvelocity=/t Butv=s/t,andsinces=r,v=r/t,hencev=r Sincea=v2/r,thereforea=2r

Example

Ifr=3mand=1revpersecond=2rads1 ,thelinear speedv=6ms1

Waves
.Wavesareeverywhereinnature. .Awaveisadisturbancethattransfersenergybetween2 pointsthroughvibrationsinamedium,withouttransfering matterbetweenthe2points .2mostcommontypesofwavessoundwavesandlight waves.

A wave transports energy and not matter

When a wave is present in a medium (that is, when there is a disturbance moving through a medium), the individual particles of the medium are only temporarily displaced from their rest position. There is always a force acting upon the particles which restores them to their original position

Equation for Displacement

The general equation is

x= A cost

y= A sin 2 f t

Where x is the displacement at time, t and A is the amplitude of the motion. The angle (t + )is known as the phase angle and is a constant known as the initial phase determined by the initial condition of x when t=0.
f= 1 T

y0 phase angle ,=180 sin A

1

The work done on the system is stored as the potential energy of the system. Thus we may deduce that
1 2 2 U = m x 2

1 or U = m 2 A 2 cos 2 t 2

While in motion, the system must also have a kinetic energy which is given by
K= K= 1 2 v m

1 2 2 2 A sin t m

1 2 2 2 = m A x 2

Therefore the total energy of the system is

E=U K 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 that is E= m A cos t A sin t 2 m 1 = m 2 A 2 2

This result shows that the total energy of the system is always a constant.

Behaviour and characteristics

In a slinky spring, a person does work by moving his hand and hence transfering kinetic energy to the first coil. The first coil receives a large amount of energy which it subsequently transfers to the second coil. When the first coil returns to its original position, it possesses the same amount of energy as it had before it was displaced. The first coil transferred its energy to the second coil. The second coil then has a large amount of energy which it subsequently transfers to the third coil. In this manner, energy is transported from one end of the slinky to the other, from its source to another location

Categories of Waves

Waves come in many shapes and forms One way to categorize waves is on the basis of the direction of movement of the individual particles of the medium relative to the direction which the waves travel. Categorizing waves on this basis leads to three notable categories: transverse waves, longitudinal waves, and surface waves.

Transverse waves

A transverse wave is a wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction perpendicular to the direction of travel of the wave Examples are water waves, light waves, X-rays

Longitudinal waves

A longitudinal wave is a wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to the direction in which the wave moves. Example is a sound wave which vibrates forwards and backwards

Compression maximum density Rarefaction - minimum density

Surface waves

While waves which travel within the depths of the ocean are longitudinal waves, the waves which travel along the surface of the oceans are referred to as surface waves. A surface wave is a wave in which particles of the medium undergo a circular motion. Surface waves are neither longitudinal nor transverse. In a surface wave, it is only the particles at the surface of the medium which undergo the circular motion

Electromagnetic versus Mechanical Waves

Another way to categorize waves is on the basis of their ability or inability to transmit energy through a vacuum (i.e., empty space). Categorizing waves on this basis leads to two notable categories: electromagnetic waves and mechanical waves.

Behaviour and characteristics

An electromagnetic wave is a wave which is capable of transmitting its energy through a vacuum (i.e., empty space). Electromagnetic waves are produced by the vibration of charged particles A mechanical wave is a wave which is not capable of transmitting its energy through a vacuum. Mechanical waves require a medium in order to transport their energy from one location to another.

Anatomy of a wave

The peak or crest/compression of a wave is the point on the medium which exhibits the maximum amount of positive or upwards displacement from the rest position. Points C and J on the diagram represent the troughs of this wave. The trough/rarefaction of a wave is the point on the medium which exhibits the maximum amount of negative or downwards displacement from the rest position. Wavelength, , is the distance between 2 successive crests or troughs, eg AE or E-H A high energy wave is characterized by a high amplitude; a low energy wave is characterized by a low amplitude. Putting a lot of energy into a transverse pulse will not effect the wavelength, the frequency or the speed of the pulse. The energy imparted to a pulse will only effect the amplitude of that pulse.

Relateddefinitions&terms
For an object or system that oscillates:
The amplitude (r) is the maximum displacement from its equilibrium (or mean or rest or undisturbed) position. The period (T) is the time it takes to go through one complete cycle or oscillation or wave cycle. T = 2r/v or T = 2/ The frequency (f) is the number of complete cycles an oscillating object makes in one second. f = 1/T is in Hz The distance from the equilibrium position is known as the displacement The angular frequency () is the change in angle per unit time. = 2 /T and = 2 f. The phase difference is the difference in step of vibration for two points along the oscillating path The energy transported by a wave is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave. E = kA2

The wave equation and principle

Speed = distance/time Speed = wavelength/period and since frequency = 1/period Speed = wavelength x frequency, ie v = f the principle is that wave speed is dependent upon medium properties and independent of wave properties.

Boundary behaviour of waves

Waves exhibit reflection, refraction and diffraction at boundaries from one medium to another associated with the bending of the path of a wave. reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another; and diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening or around a barrier in their path

Reflection, refraction & diffraction

Reflection of waves off straight barriers follows the law of reflection. Reflection of waves off parabolic barriers results in the convergence of the waves at a focal point. Refraction is the change in direction of waves which occurs when waves travel from one medium to another. Refraction is always accompanied by a wavelength and speed change. Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles and openings. The amount of diffraction increases with increasing wavelength.

Echos and speed of sound

Echo phenomenon are commonly observed with waves eg Noah stands 170 meters away from a steep canyon wall. He shouts and hears the
echo of his voice one second later. What is the speed of the wave?

When there is a reflection, the wave doubles its distance. In other words, the distance travelled by the sound wave in 1 second is equivalent to the 170 meters down to the canyon wall plus the 170 meters back from the canyon wall. Sound waves travel at 340 meters in 1 second, so the speed of the wave is 340 m/s.

Wave interference

Wave interference is the phenomenon which occurs when two waves from 2 coherent sources meet while travelling along the same medium. 2 waves are said to be coherent if

They produce waves of the same frequency They produce waves of the same phase

The interference of waves causes the medium to take on a shape which results from the net effect of the two individual waves upon the particles of the medium When waves are produced on the surface of water, the wave crests will act like a convex lens while a trough will act like a concave lens causing bright and dark fringes Waves interference can be constructive or destructive A wave-front is a line that joins all the points vibrating inphase and is represented by the bright and dark fringes

Principle of Superposition

The task of determining the shape of the resultant demands that the principle of superposition is applied. The principle of superposition is sometimes stated as follows: When two waves interfere ie meet at the same point, the resulting displacement of the medium at any location is the algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual waves at that same location

Constructive Interference

This is the superposition of 2 waves which are in phase to produce a resultant wave of maximum amplitude

Destructive Interference

This is the superposition of 2 waves which are in antiphase to produce a resultant wave of zero amplitude