Miller Sakmar A.P U.S.

History Chapter One: A Continent Of Villages

8/26/07

I. Settling the Continent A) Who Are The Indian People? 1. The Indian Peoples are a diverse group with more than 2000 different groups, each with its own set of traditions and beliefs. 2. When Europeans first realized the continent they landed on was not Asia, but North America, they began formulating ideas on how Indians had immigrated to this land from Europe and Asia a) Although they could not decide where they came from, all the early theories were similar in that they believed the Indians only immigrated a few thousand years before. 3. In the late 16th and 17th century, some began to hypothesize the ideas that became the basis of the modern theories on Indian beginnings. a) Joseph de Acosta reasoned that since European animals were present in America, the Indian peoples must have crossed a land bridge. b) Enrico Martin furthered Joseph de Acosta's idea saying that since no land bridges existed over the Pacific, they must have crossed form Asia into the Americas c) Bernabe Cobo argued that due to the variety in the Native American languages, the people that originally came to the continent must have came three a long time ago, but, due to the overall similarities in their physical appearance, they came from one common group of people 4. The main ideas of Indian migration, Indian peoples were descendants of Asians, they crossed a land bridge in the north-west corner of the continent, and had existed there form quite sometime. B) Migration From Asia 1. The most prominent theory about the origin of the Native American peoples is that they came to this continent form Asia 25,000 to 30,000 years ago. Some examples of evidence are: a) Most Native Americans have type O blood, with some having A, and almost none with B. Type B evolved in Asia around 30,000 years ago, so the Native Americans must have left the continent before then. b) Through studies in genetics, we know that it would take at least 20,000 years to evolve traits as diverse as those exhibited in Native Americans today. c) Linguists believe it would take 25,000 years for 500 separate languages to develop form one common language. 2. During the time of their migration, the geological era known as the Pleistocene was going on, which was defined by the Ice Age. a) Cold temperatures created glaciers, which, in turn, held huge amounts of water, thus creating sea levels 300 feet lower than today. b) These features lead a massive land bridge being created between Asia and North America. 3. This land bridge between the tow continents attracted many large mammals, which, in turn, attracted the hunter-gatherers that hunted these animals. a) The Hunters were fueled by their need for food and clothing, which the animals provided with the3ir hides and flesh, but also by their ever-expanding numbers, which drove them to new lands. 4. Scientists previously believed that the migration had taken place 15,000 years ago but

recent archaeological finds are contradicting this theory. a) Fossilized bones have been found in the Yukon, dating approximately 27,000 years old. Upon further investigated this area, dog bones were found dating 30,000 years old. b) Because signs of human tool making, house making, and cave painting are evident in Chile, and date 12,000 years old, we know the ancestors of these people must have crossed the Bering Strait long before. 5. Clovis: The First American Technology a) About 12,000 years ago, more advanced methods of tool making developed. This style, Clovis, is named for the area of its discovery, Clovis, New Mexico. This technology was much more advanced than anything that was used at this time. (1) All the sites where Clovis technology have been found all date to within a period of one thousand years, even though they are spread throughout North America. This implies that the technology spread quickly (1) This also implies that the continent was well populated, as the technology would be easily spread between neighboring peoples. (2) Scientists formulate that Clovis users were hunters that traveled in groups of 30 to 50, and migrated between multiple hunting grounds. II. The Beginning of Regional Cultures Around 15,000 years ago the world's climate underwent a climate change characterized by increasingly warmer temperatures. This melted the glaciers which flooded the Bering Strait and created the rivers that we are familiar with today. These huge and life altering changes created unique climates across the continent. These climates, in turn, helped to shape the cultures and lifestyles of the people that inhabited them. A) Hunting Traditions of the Plains and Forests 1. Due to increasing temperatures and increased hunting, many of the large mammals that once were plentiful across North America began to decline in numbers. a) The hunters of Great Plains concentrated their hunting efforts on buffalo, which lead to the invention of Folsom technology. Folsom technology was an upgrade of Clovis, with smaller and lighter tips that could be thrown a very large distance accurately. b) By 7000 b.c.e Plano technology was developed from Folsom, and because Plano technology was often found with tools for grinding plant matter, it suggested people of the Great Plains had a varied diet. 2. With climate changes, Indian communities became more sophisticated a) Scientists have found evidence that Great Plains hunters stampeded hers of buffalo off cliffs. (1) This would have needed the involvement of multiple groups or communities (2) They also would have had some knowledge of food preservation techniques, because the large amounts of food would have spoiled if they did not. 3. The passing of the Pleistocene and the flooding of the Bering Strait caused a second group of natives to move southward. a) The Nadene people migrated south into Northwest, where they settled 7000 to 4000 years ago. (1) Although they had similar tools and weapons as their neighbors, they had a different culture and language. b) The Inupiat, otherwise known as Eskimos, migrated form Asia along with the Aleuts about 5000 years ago. They traveled by boat, and the Eskimos settled in the Arctic and southern Alaska, while the Aleuts settled the Aleutian islands.

B) Desert Culture in Western America 1. At the end of the Pleistocene, people began to find new ways of find food. a) 10,000 to 25,000 years ago, desert foraging started in the Great Basin, fishing on the Northwest coast, and hunting and gathering the rest of the continent. b) In the Great Basin, Desert Culture developed, which was a culture based on hunting of small game and foraging off plants. (1) Small communities lived within a small area and migrated within it. They collected some types of food during one season, migrated to another area and began collecting a different type during the next season. (2) They lived in small caves and shelters made form rocks. (3) Community was a very prominent theme among practitioners of Desert Culture. Sharing and gift giving were practiced widely, harding was frowned upon, and a nomadic lifestyle prevented excessive wealth. Leadership was not an elected office, but was spread throughout the adults of the community. c) Desert Culture spread from the Great Basin to other areas of the continent slowly. About 6000 years ago, colonists from the Great Basin carried Desert Culture to California. The addition of Desert Culture, and abundance of resources in California helped to support the first permanent Indian communities. C) Forest Efficiency 1. Communities of Indians living east of the Mississippi developed their own system of survival, which we now call Forest Efficiency. a) They hunted small game, collected seeds, nuts, and roots for food b) They practiced the burning of land which resulted in increased growth of edible berries, roots, etc. (1) This new open land attracted animals, which could be hunted. III.The Development of Farming With the increased utilization of a wider range of foods, many Indian cultures began to practice farming. The development of farming began in Mexico, then spread North then East. A) Mexico 1. Farming began in Mexico about 5000 years ago, with Maize being the primary crop. a) By cultivating crops that grew larger amounts of food in proportion to the amount of space it grew in, Ancient Mexicans could benefit from spending time specifically on farming. b) As farming became fore prominent, it quickly changed the social aspects of people's lives. (1) More densely populated areas sprung up, because farming supported much more people per square mile than hunting or gathering ever could, and because people needed to stay near their crops year round to manage the growth. (2) People's responsibilities within the community also changed, as someone would have to store crops during winter months and others would have to distribute it. (1) Also, craftsman and other specialized workers became available. (2) Although these people could not directly contribute to the communities need of food, farming supported them well enough so that they could have worker specialization. 2. By 1000 b.c.e urban communities with permanent government had taken shape, and by the end of the first millennium c.e. Complex urban civilizations existed throughout much of Mexico, civilizations with social classes, impressive buildings and temples, mathematics and astronomy, and systems of writing

a) One of the greatest civilizations in history sprung up during this era, centered around the city Teotihuacan. It emerged in 100 b.c.e and had a population as great as 200,000 at the height of the civilization. (1) The city had a very complex division of labor, with artisans that created most of the tools that were used in the city, farmers that harvested crops surrounding the city, and a huge amount of workers that helped to erect monuments that stand to this day. b) After the decline of Teotihuacan, the Toltecs emerged as the new power in central Mexico until the 10th to 12th century, and by the 14th century, the Aztecs took control of the Valley of Mexico and soon expanded their grip over a large area. c) The Mayans of the Yucatan peninsula were one of the most advanced civilizations at this time, with the most advanced writing, calendar system, and knowledge of mathematics for Mexico at this time B) The Resisted Revolution 1. Historians used to believe that once some of the people in an area adopted farming and developed into an agricultural society, all the groups in that area would at least attempt to adopt the same system, and that those that didn't were just to primitive to change. a) We now know this to be false, as foragers had the knowledge needed to successfully domesticate and grow plants. b) Foragers had a more varied diet, opposed to the farmers diet of mainly grains, which is a reason to see the farming way of life as inferior c) Farmers were at the mercy of nature, as they had to do much more work, and were more vulnerable to fluctuations in weather. 2. Farming also had disadvantages depending on what type of climate you lived in. a) Fishing was a much more productive activity in the Northwest. b) Desert farming was nearly impossible at this time. C) Increasing Social Revolution 1. With farming came increased population, and with increased population came social divisions. a) Farming societies often grouped themselves into clans, which could be based on any defining feature that the members of that clan shared. (1) These clans were ruled by a tribal council, and punishments were often allocated against an entire clan for one members misdeed. 2. Greater gender divides popped up during the beginning of farming. a) Labor divisions were by gender. (1) Men would hunt, women would farm, and in areas where hunting was not important, everyone farmed. b) Men and women were divided socially as well. 3. The divisions of farming communities as well as the larger populations caused these communities to be less stable than hunting or gathering ones. D) The Religions of Foragers and Farmers 1. Hunting Tradition a) This system of beliefs, prominent in hunting communities, was based on the relationship of predator and prey. b) Those that practiced Hunting Tradition often went on a vision quest. (1) A vision quest was a spiritual journey where one would go into the forest, fast, and induce hallucinations. c) Their religious leaders were shamans, who were people in touch with spiritual forces.

E)

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2. Agrarian Tradition a) Practiced by those who farmed for maize, with a center around fertility of the earth and the change of the seasons. b) Due to the increased complexity of their societies, those who practiced of Agrarian Tradition had a priestly class or an organized cult as its leader. c) Incorporated war sacrifice, valued violence, and practiced public cannibalism. Earliest Farmers of the Southwest 1. Farming communities appeared in the Southwest between 1000 b.c.e and 0 b.c.e a) The first were the Mogollons (1) They lived on the southern part of the New Mexico-Arizona border from 250 b.c.e. to 1450 b.c.e b) The Hohokam lived from 300 c.e. to 1500 c.e. in southern Arizona along the Salt and Gila rivers. (1) Farmed a wide range of crops, including maize, beans, squash, tobacco, and cotton. (2) Created jewelry from shells The Anasazis 1. The most famous farming communities of the Southwest were the Anasazis, which originated in the Four Corners area around the first century c.e. a) They lived in large apartment-like complexes called pueblos. b) They grew a domesticated forms of maize on field that were irrigated by canals that came from mountain basins that collected rain water. c) They also hunted around their towns with bow and arrow. Farmers of the Eastern Woodland 1. Woodland culture was much different than the permanent settlements in other areas. a) Although they lived in permanent homes, they still migrated during parts of the year to take advantage of seasonal plants. 2. Woodland people had complex social order long before they domesticated maize, which was occurred in the first millennium c.e. a) The Poverty Point culture built mounds in patters over a square mile in the lower Mississippi around 1700 to 700 b.c.e b) The Adena culture lived in permanent villages and built large burial mounds from 1000 b.c.e to 250 c.e. 3. The Hopewell civilization lived in the Mississippi-Ohio Valley area form 200 b.c.e. to 5th century c.e. a) They had a complex systems of burial and they honored their dead highly b) They also had complex trade routs developed, which allowed them to get many rare materials. (1) Craftsmen then used these materials to create very advanced goods for this era. Mississippian Society 1. After the decline of the Hopewell society, societies in the Mississippi area deserted the fancy burial grounds and crafts of the Hopewell. 2. A few important advancements were made during this time. a) The bow and arrow became available in this area, increasing hunting production. b) Maize farming spread east of the Mississippi c) Hoes mad from flint replaced sticks for digging and foraging, increasing gathering production. 3. With the increased harvests that came from these innovations, the Mississippian culture came to power.

a) They created many densely populated urban cities, but the most important was Cahokia. (1) Housed a massive temple, residential area, and large amounts of farmland. (2) Cahokia was the mold for other Mississippian settlements. b) The Great Serpent Mound was created by the Mississippian. c) Mississippian city-states engaged in warfare, and the need to avoid these conflicts and the large scale of Mississippian cities created a requirement of good leadership in Mississippian society. d) Mississippian society peaked between 1000 c.e. and 1200 c.e. I) The Politics of Warfare and Violence 1. At the end of the thirteenth century a change in climate increased the difficulty of maize farming. a) This decreased the possibility of large communities, and put a strain on those that already existed. b) Some believe that these problems increase tensions in communities which lead to an increase in violence 2. Warfare did exist before this point, however. a) Hunting communities, or nonpermanent settlement for that matter, could not gather enough people to wage a successful war. b) Farming communities often wages war to gain control of more land on which to farm. c) The remains of Cahokia revealed a log stockade, probably used to keep out invaders. IV. North America On the Eve of Colonization A) The Indian Population of America 1. Most historians believe the population of America north of Mexico was between 7 and 10 million, and that Mexican highlands were home to 25 million other Indians. The total number of people in the Western Hemisphere was probably about 60 to 70 million at this point in time. 2. the density of population varied throughout the continent, however. a) The Northwest was very dense, but the Great Plains and Great Basin were not. b) The largest populations were in the Southwest, South, and Northeast B) The Southwest 1. The farmers of the Southwest, the Pimas and Papagos, had to irrigate small fields using water form the Colorado River 2. These farmers lived in rancherias, which were very far apart. a) This kept conflict to a minimum b) Rancherias had group leadership, and often held ceremonies of rain making. 3. The Pueblo people were different, as they had a greater focus on community a) They had a code of conduct that governed its people, and these rules were enforced by the local clans and religious societies of that area. b) They held public ceremonies that were meant to entertain the people of the settlement. 4. Athapascans lived in this area. a) They did not farm, they hunted and gathered. (1) They did overtime adopt farming, although some chose to remain nomads C) The South 1. Because of the ideal climate that was present in the South, Indian peoples flourished. a) They fished farmed, and took advantage of the plentiful resources in this area. 2. Records of these Indian peoples are hard to find because they were quickly killed by

European Settlers. a) An exception is the Natchez people. (1) They farmed on the Mississippi delta before being killed by the French. (2) Had a class based society. 3. Although the main civilizations of the Indian South were destroyed by the French, smaller groups were much more resistant and survived much longer. D) The Northeast 1. The Iroqois were some of the first Indian people in this land, and they were one of the earliest farming cultures. a) They hunted and gathered as a supplement to farming and lived in huge housed that made up villages which were in turn surrounded by large log walls. b) They had 5 separate nations, each based off of a different river. (1) Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayuga, and Seneca c) There was body to govern over all 5 kingdoms and it prevented violence among them. (1) Founded by Chief Deganawida 2. The other main tribes in the area spoke the language Algonquian, which was spoken by at least 50 separate groups. a) Those north of the Great lakes hunted, while others were farmers. (1) Those that hunted were some of the first to trade with Europeans.