Fire Technology, 37, 235262, 2001

2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Manufactured in The United States.

Estimating Water Requirements
for Fireghting Operations
Using FIERAsystem
David Torvi,
1
George Hadjisophocleous,
2
Matthew B. Guenther, and
Gordon Thomas, Fire Risk Management Program, Institute for
Research in Construction, National Research Council,
Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6
Abstract. A new computer model for estimating water requirements for reghting pur-
poses has been developed by the Fire Risk Management Program of the National Research
Council of Canada. This work was done in partnership with the Canadian Department of
National Defence, as part of the development of a computer model to evaluate re protection
systems in light industrial buildings (FIERAsystem). The new model considers the geometry
of the building, possible re scenarios that may occur in the building, re detector locations
and characteristics, the effect of automatic suppression systems on the re, the locations of
adjacent buildings and the response and effectiveness of the re department. The program
calculates the required ow rates of water at the time of re department intervention for
suppression of the re and for exposure protection for each side of the building. These ow
rates can then be compared to the total capacity of the re engines available to determine
if existing resources are sufcient. The program has been designed to be interactive, so that
the user can immediately see the effects of various parameters on the required water ow
rate. Descriptions of case studies are also included to demonstrate the use of this model.
Key words: re, reghting, waterworks, planning, model
Introduction
A key part of re department planning is estimating the necessary reghting resources
for a community. Water, equipment and human resources must be selected based on
the possible re scenarios that a department may respond to. Equipment and human
resources are, to a large extent, dependent on the required water supply for reghting
operations.
Currently, several methods are commonly used in Canada and other countries to esti-
mate these water requirements. Some of these methods rely on scientic principles, while
others are based predominantly on empirical evidence. Some of the methods consider a
large number of factors, while others are based simply on the oor area of the building
in question.
The Fire Risk Management Program of the National Research Council of Canada
(NRC) has developed a computer model called FIERAsystem (Fire Evaluation and Risk
Assessment) to evaluate re protection systems in light industrial buildings, such as
236 Fire Technology Third Quarter 2001
warehouses and aircraft hangars. The model, which was developed in partnership with the
Canadian Department of National Defence (DND), uses time-dependent, deterministic
and probabilistic models to evaluate the impact of selected re scenarios on life, property
and business interruption. As part of this work, NRC has developed a computer model
to estimate water requirements for reghting purposes for DND bases.
In this paper, commonly used methods to estimate reghting water requirements are
briey reviewed, along with some case studies, which demonstrate the need for a new
water requirements model. The theoretical basis for the new NRC water requirements
model is then described, as well as the use of the results of this model to estimate re
department equipment and human resources. The previous case studies are then used to
demonstrate how this new model can be used to estimate required water ow rates for
residential, ofce and warehouse buildings. Future work and applications of the model
are also discussed.
Current Water Requirements Methods
Several methods are commonly used in Canada to estimate the required ow rate of
water to extinguish res in buildings. Five of the methods that are commonly used were
considered in this study:
Insurance Services Ofce (ISO) Method |1, 2],
Iowa State University Method [3],
Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute Method [2],
New Zealand Fire Engineering Design Guide Method [4], and
Fire Protection Water Supply Guideline for Part 3 in the Ontario Building Code
Method [5].
While there are other methods that have been previously discussed in the literature, this
literature search was not meant to be exhaustive. Instead, methods were identied that
are commonly used by re departments, and described in handbooks (e.g., [2]) or design
guides (e.g., [4]). Another method, which is similar to the ISO and Ontario Building
Code methods, can be found in NFPA 1142 [6], which deals with rural and suburban
areas where water must be transported to the scene of the re from rivers, lakes, wells,
cisterns or similar bodies of water. However, the method described in NFPA 1142 is
outside the scope of this paper, which deals with methods to estimate water requirements
for DND bases, which are serviced by municipal water supplies. Therefore, only the rst
ve methods are briey described in the sections immediately below.
Insurance Services Ofce (ISO) Method
Current DND water requirements calculations are based on the Insurance Services Ofce
(ISO) method, which calculates the needed re ow (NFF) [1, 2]. The ISO method for
estimating the required water ow rate for a building uses an equation that contains
factors that consider the building construction (C) and occupancy (O), adjacent exposed
buildings (X), and communication paths (P) within buildings:
NFF
i
=(C
i
)(O
i
)(X+P)
i
(1)
Estimating Water Requirements 237
The ISO method outlines how each of the above factors are to be calculated (or looked
up in tables). The subscripts in the above formula indicate that, when different parts
of a building have different characteristics, a factor can be calculated for each section
and weighted according to the relative size of each section. This method also allows
the required water ow rate to be reduced if the building is equipped with automatic
sprinklers.
The ISO method is widely used and considers many important factors in its predic-
tion of the required reghting water ow for a building. Information is available on
how ISO arrived at the procedures used to determine some of the factors, such as the
construction factor [7], however, this information is not available for some of the other
factors. Also, the procedures to determine many of the factors require a considerable
amount of experience and judgement.
Iowa State University Method
The Iowa State University method [3] is based on the amount of water which must be
used to extinguish the re by absorbing the energy of the re and by displacing oxygen.
Based on their research, Iowa State University determined that the volume of water, in
litres, required to extinguish a re is equal to the volume of air in the building (V), in
cubic metres, divided by 1.5. They also concluded that it is best if the total volume of
water required to extinguish a re is introduced into the burning area within 30 seconds,
hence the required ow rate can be calculated using the following equation:
Flow Rate (L,min) =
V
0.75
(2)
This method is based on both empirical results and scientic principles. It assumes
that 80% of the water applied to the re will be converted into steam, which may be too
high for some scenarios. Some experts feel that, due to inefciencies in the application
of water, the actual water ow rate should be two to four times greater than that given
by Equation (2) [2]. Equation (2) is based on normal fuels (presumably cellulosic) and
therefore may not be appropriate for res in industrial settings involving fuels that release
more energy than cellulosic fuels. Therefore, some variations of this method change the
value of the denominator based on the hazard associated with the occupancy [2]. As the
model only takes into account the volume of the building, it may produce inaccurate
results when applied to buildings with unusual geometry (e.g., high ceilings) or unusual
fuel congurations. The model may also predict unrealistically high water ow rates for
large res, as it assumes that the total required volume of water is applied in 30 seconds.
Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute Method
The formulae developed by the Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute [2] are
based on a regression analysis of a survey of 134 res in the Chicago area. The required
water ow rate for residential occupancies is given by the following equation:
Flow Rate (L,min) =0.0395A
2
+20.38A (3)
238 Fire Technology Third Quarter 2001
where A = the area of the re (m
2
). The required water ow rate for non-residential
occupancies is given by the following equation:
Flow Rate (L/min) =5.710
3
A
2
+17.12A (4)
This method is based entirely on empirical data. Unfortunately, the details of the res
in the survey are not known, and so it is difcult to comment on this method. How well
the results of the regression analysis of the 134 res t the actual data from the res,
and the method used to measure the water ow rates used to control these res, are also
unknown.
New Zealand Fire Engineering Design Guide Method
This method [4] is based on the premise that the required ow rate of water is that which
will be sufcient to absorb the energy of the re. The required water ow rate is given
by the following equation:
Flow Rate (L/s) =
Q
f
q
ab
Q
w
(5)
where
Q
f
=the heat release rate of the re (MW),
q
ab
=the cooling efciency, i.e., the efciency of the water in absorbing the
energy from the re (0 q 1), and
Q
W
=the rate at which energy can theoretically be absorbed by the water
(2.605 MW/L/s).
The cooling efciency is a factor used to account for the fact that not all of the water
applied to a re will be converted to steam. The value of Q
W
is based on the fact that
one litre of water will absorb 2.605 MJ of energy when it is heated from 0

C to steam
at 100

C.
The accuracy of this method is dependent on the accuracy of the heat release rate
data and cooling efciency value used. This method considers only the heat absorbing
properties of water and not the smothering effect of the steam produced when the water
is vaporized. This may result in a conservative estimate of the required water ow rate.
Fire Protection Water Supply Guideline for Part 3 in the
Ontario Building Code Method
The Ontario Building Code Method [5] was developed to provide a guideline for sat-
isfying Code requirements for an adequate water supply for reghting. The primary
purpose of the guideline is to provide an estimate of the amount of water required
to support occupant evacuation and re department search and rescue operations, and
prevent exposure re spread. The secondary purpose of the guideline is to provide an
estimate of the amount of water required to provide a good measure of property pro-
tection during the early stages of a re. The method describes criteria to determine if a
Estimating Water Requirements 239
building requires an on-site supply of water for re protection. In cases where an on-site
supply of water is required for re protection, the required amount of water, (W, in
litres), is calculated using a formula that includes the volume of the building (V) and
factors that consider the building occupancy and construction (K) and spatial separation
(S
tot
):
W =KVS
tot
(6)
The required water ow rate is determined by comparing this total required amount of
water and the building area with various criteria. Flow rates calculated using this method
are between 1800 and 9000 L/min.
The Ontario Building Code method, like the ISO method, considers many important
factors. However, as with the ISO method, information is not available on how the values
of some of the coefcients and factors used in the method were obtained. Limitations of
this method are clearly stated in its documentation [5]. When the building in question is
not sprinklered, and property protection is a primary concern or signicant environmental
contamination from a re is possible, it is recommended that another method, such as
the ISO method, be used. The guideline is also not intended to address domestic service
water needs, such as those in new development areas. Larger, more complex buildings,
and buildings in rural areas may require larger amounts of water. In addition, once the
calculated value of the required water supply is greater than 270,000 L, the specied
minimum ow rate is 9000 L/min, regardless of how large the building is. This method
may therefore not be appropriate for very large buildings.
Discussion of Current Water Requirements Models
As discussed above, there are several methods that are commonly used to estimate the
required ow rate of water to extinguish res in buildings. Of the ve methods dis-
cussed in the previous section, two methods (the Iowa State University method and the
New Zealand Fire Engineering Design Guide method) are based on rst principles. The
other three methods (ISO method, Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute
method, and Ontario Building Code method) are based predominantly on empirical evi-
dence. The ISO and Ontario Building Code methods are the most complete in terms
of factors considered; however, the theory behind these methods is not completely clear.
The Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute method is an empirical correlation
based solely on 134 res in the Chicago area. In order for such a method to be suitable,
it needs to be based on a larger number of res and be comprised of more than the
two divisions (residential and non-residential buildings) present in the Illinois Institute
of Technology Research Institute method. The Iowa State University method does not
take into account many of the characteristics of different buildings and res and the New
Zealand Fire Engineering Design Guide method does not take into account all of the
mechanisms by which res are extinguished. An important issue that is not considered
by any of the methods is that of re control. The existing methods only consider the
amount of water required for extinguishment. This produces unrealistic results for very
large res where re extinguishment is impossible and the objective is to control the re.
240 Fire Technology Third Quarter 2001
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
100 200
Floor Area (m
2
)
W
a
t
e
r

F
l
o
w

R
a
t
e

(
L
/
m
i
n
)
I
S
T
N
O
I
S
T
N
O
Figure 1. Comparison of current water requirements models
residential buildings. (I = Insurance Services Ofce, S = Iowa State
University, T = Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute,
N = New Zealand Fire Engineering Design Guide, and O = Ontario
Building Code.)
The ve methods were used to estimate the reghting water requirements for several
residential, ofce and warehouse buildings of different sizes (Figures 13). It was found
that there are large differences between the results using the different methodsin some
cases, an order of magnitude difference in the predicted water ow rates. Estimates made
using the New Zealand Fire Engineering Design Guide method were always larger than
those made using the other methods, especially for the larger buildings. Some of the
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
500 2000 3000
Floor Area (m
2
)
W
a
t
e
r

F
l
o
w

R
a
t
e

(
L
/
m
i
n
)
I
S
T
T
O
S
N
O
I
S
T
N
O
I
N
Figure 2. Comparison of current water requirements models ofce
buildings. (I = Insurance Services Ofce, S = Iowa State University,
T = Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute, N = New Zealand
Fire Engineering Design Guide, and O = Ontario Building Code.)
Estimating Water Requirements 241
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
160000
500 2000 3000
Floor Area (m
2
)
W
a
t
e
r

F
l
o
w

R
a
t
e

(
L
/
m
i
n
)
I
S T
N
O
I
S
T
N
O I
S
T
N
O
Figure 3. Comparison of current water requirements models
warehouse buildings. (I =Insurance Services Ofce, S = Iowa State
University, T = Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute,
N = New Zealand Fire Engineering Design Guide, and O = Ontario
Building Code.)
methods appear to be valid only for certain types and sizes of buildings. For example,
the Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute method appears to be invalid for
larger buildings, as the required water ow rates predicted by the model actually decrease
as the oor area gets large. Floor areas greater than approximately 1200 m
2
appear to
be out of the useable range for this method.
It should also be noted that, as mentioned in the section describing the Iowa State
University method, some have suggested that the estimates from this method should be
doubled or quadrupled. If this is done for the smaller buildings, the estimates made
using the Iowa State University method will be considerably closer to estimates made
using most of the other methods (e.g., Figure 1). For the larger buildings, estimates
made using the Iowa State University method are already similar to the estimates made
using most of the other methods, with the exception of the estimates made using the
New Zealand Fire Engineering Design Guide method (e.g., the 2000 and 3000 m
2
ofce
buildings in Figure 2). Multiplying the estimates made using the Iowa State University
method by two or four will therefore bring these estimates into closer agreement with
those made using the New Zealand Fire Engineering Design Guide method.
Methodology for New Water Requirements Model
As a result of the literature search and case studies described in this paper, the Fire Risk
Management Program of NRC has developed a new model for estimating water require-
ments for reghting purposes. This work was done in partnership with the Canadian
Department of National Defence (DND), as part of the development of a computer model
to evaluate re protection systems in light industrial buildings (FIERAsystem) [8]. The
new model considers the geometry of the building, possible re scenarios that may occur
242 Fire Technology Third Quarter 2001
in the building, re detector locations and characteristics, the effect of automatic sup-
pression systems on the re, the locations of adjacent buildings, and the response and
effectiveness of the re department.
The program calculates the required ow rates of water at the time of re department
intervention for suppression of the re and for exposure protection for each side of the
building. These ow rates can then be compared with the total capacity of the re engines
available to determine if existing resources are sufcient. The program has been designed
to be interactive, so that the user can immediately see the effects of various parameters
on the required water ow rate. For example, as the water requirement calculations
are dependent on re department intervention time, the user can quickly determine the
effects of factors such as the location of re halls, weather and trafc delays on water
requirements.
The water requirements model is based on the following procedure:
1. determine the overall heat release rate curve for the building,
2. determine re detection and suppression system activation times,
3. determine the effect of automatic suppression systems on the re,
4. determine the re department intervention time,
5. estimate the re department effectiveness,
6. calculate the thermal radiation heat uxes to adjacent buildings,
7. calculate the required ow rate of water for suppression of the re,
8. calculate the required ow rate of water for exposure protection, and
9. calculate the total required ow rate of water for reghting operations.
More details on the FIERAsystem submodels used in this program can be found in
Reference [8].
At each step, the user is given two options. The rst option is to run a submodel to
determine the information needed by the main water requirements model. These sub-
models are stand-alone pieces of software that are also used in FIERAsystem to evaluate
individual components of a re protection system or to conduct hazard and risk analyses
of buildings. The second option is to input the required data directly into the main water
requirements model. For example, the user can run the detection submodel to determine
the time of sprinkler activation, or they can enter the activation time directly. In some
steps, there is also the option of using a datale containing the results from other com-
puter re models or data from re tests. This could be useful in analyzing a large number
of buildings in an area. For example, the heat release rate curve for a design re could be
used in place of running the re development submodel for each building when planning
an entire new community.
This methodology has been developed for implementation in a computer model that
uses FIERAsystem submodels to do water requirements calculations automatically. How-
ever, the methodology can also be used with hand calculations and other models to
determine water requirements.
Determine Heat Release Rate Curve for Building
First, the user inputs information on the heat release rate curve (Q
f
(t)) for the expected
re scenarios in the building under consideration. This data can be entered directly or
Estimating Water Requirements 243
imported from a datale. The user also has the option of running FIERAsystem re
development submodels, which will calculate the heat release rate curve based on the
building geometry, the fuels present in the building, and the selected re scenarios.
Models are currently available in FIERAsystem for the following re scenarios:
liquid pool res,
storage rack res, and
t
2
res (i.e., the heat release rate is assumed to be proportional to the square of the
elapsed time, which is often used to simulate res).
The equations presently used in the re development submodels are common re protec-
tion engineering correlations, such as t
2
res and other equations found in re protection
engineering handbooks (e.g., [9]). Development of additional submodels that can be used
to simulate other re scenarios of interest is ongoing.
Determine Fire Detection and Suppression System Activation Times
Next, the user can manually input the times from ignition until the re is detected
and automatic suppression systems are activated. Alternatively, the user can run the
re detection submodel to determine the detection and activation times using the heat
release rate curve entered or calculated in the previous step, the physical size of the
re and the location of the detector relative to the re. Common re protection engi-
neering correlations are used to predict the temperatures and velocities at different loca-
tions within the re plume, ceiling jet and smoke layer (e.g., [9]). This information is
then used to calculate the time-dependent temperatures of all detection elements in the
space, based on their location relative to the re. The time-dependent temperature of
each detection element (or rate of temperature increase, for rate of rise detectors) can
be used to determine the activation time of each heat detector and sprinkler head in
the space.
Determine Effect of Automatic Suppression Systems on the Fire
Once, the activation time of the automatic suppression system has been entered or cal-
culated, the effect of this system on the re is determined. A suppression effectiveness
value, q
as
, from 0 to 1.0, is entered, based on the ability of the automatic suppression
system to extinguish the re scenario being considered. This effectiveness value is then
used to produce a modied heat release rate curve (Q
m
(t)) (Figure 4). It is assumed that
if the suppression system effectiveness is 1.0, the re is controlled so that the heat release
rate of the re remains at the heat release rate at the time of automatic suppression sys-
tem activation (i.e., Q
m
= Q
act
). This assumption is conservative, as the sprinkler may
in fact extinguish the re. If the effectiveness is 0, the heat release rate curve calculated
by the re development model is not modied (i.e., Q
m
= Q
0
). If the effectiveness is
between 0 and 1.0, the modied heat release rate is calculated at each time step using
the following equation.
Q
m
=(1.0q
as
) (Q
0
Q
act
) +Q
act
(7)
244 Fire Technology Third Quarter 2001
0
100
200
300
400
500
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
H
e
a
t
R
e
l
e
a
s
e
R
a
t
e
(
k
W
)
Time (s)
Activation Time
= 0.0
= 0.5
= 1.0
Figure 4. Correction of heat release rate using suppression
effectiveness value, .
Determine Fire Department Intervention Time
Next, the re department intervention time is needed. This is the total time from the
beginning of the re to the commencement of suppression by the re department
(Figure 5). The re department intervention time is either entered by the user directly,
or is calculated using the re department response submodel. This submodel takes
into account the time required for detection (as calculated by the re detection model
described earlier or input by the user), notication, dispatch and preparation, travel and
setup. Calculations are based on factors such as the presence of re alarms in the build-
ing (and whether these are connected directly to the re department), occupant response
Fire starts Fire is reported
FD unit is
notified
FD unit leaves
fire house
FD unit arrives
at scene of fire
Unit begins
firefighting
activities
Fire is
extinguished
Notification
Time
Dispatch
Time
Preparation
Time
Travel
Time
Firefighting
Time
Setup
Time
Intervention Time
Time
Response Time
Figure 5. Quantities used to calculate re department (FD)
intervention time.
Estimating Water Requirements 245
to re cues or other warning signals, the location of the building relative to the re
department, and preplanning.
Estimate Fire Department Effectiveness
The effectiveness of the re department in suppressing the original re and preventing
ignition of adjacent buildings is considered next. Two values are needed: q
ab
, an effec-
tiveness of suppressing the re, and q
e
, an effectiveness for exposure protection. The
values selected should be based on the specic techniques and equipment that reght-
ers use. For example, Srdqvist [10] lists values of q
ab
between 0.1 and 0.4 depending
on equipment and reghting techniques used. The values selected should also take
into account re development at the time suppression commences, the nature of the re
department (professional, volunteer, or a combination of the two), and the amount of
reghter training and experience. Access to the re in the building and access to the
adjacent buildings for exposure protection should also be considered. At this time, values
for the effectiveness are input directly by the user. In the future the user will be able
to calculate these values using the re department effectiveness submodel, as will be
discussed in the Future Work section.
Calculate Thermal Radiation to Adjacent Buildings
Thermal radiation heat uxes from each side of the building to adjacent buildings are
then input. These can also be calculated by the radiation to adjacent buildings submodel.
This submodel calculates thermal radiation heat uxes with time, based on the occupancy
of the building being considered and the re resistance ratings of the exterior walls on
each side of the building. Thermal radiation heat uxes to surrounding buildings also
include the contributions of ames from combustible roofs.
The following method is used by the FIERAsystem radiation to adjacent buildings
submodel to calculate incident heat uxes to adjacent buildings. It should be noted that
this method only considers thermal radiation heat transfer between the buildings. Absorp-
tion and scattering of thermal radiation by the smoke and air between the burning and
adjacent buildings is neglected. Convection heat transfer between the two buildings is
neglected, which should be minor, especially at larger distances. Ignition of adjacent
buildings due to ying brands is also neglected.
The user supplies the following information to the model:
the width (n) and height (h) of each of the exterior walls of the burning building
the number of oors above ground of the burning building,
the distance to the adjacent building (J
a
) on each of the four sides,
the fraction of unprotected openings (u) on each of the four sides of the burning
building,
the time of failure of each of the four exterior walls of the burning building,
the critical heat ux (q

cr
) for each of the exposed walls of the adjacent buildings,
whether or not the building has a combustible roof and the failure time of the roof,
and
an assumed ame projection distance from the unprotected openings of the building
(J
f
).
246 Fire Technology Third Quarter 2001
The user rst selects the equivalent heat uxes at any unprotected openings in the
burning building, q

o
. While the user can input any equivalent heat ux value, one of two
suggested values can also be selected:
180 kW/m
2
for an occupancy of normal hazard, or
360 kW/m
2
for an occupancy with a severe hazard.
These values form the basis for the tables for spatial separation and exposure protection
in the 1995 National Building Code of Canada (NBC) [11]. McGuire [12], examining
data from the St. Lawrence Burns, noted that these heat ux levels were not exceeded
for at least 16 minutes after any of these re tests began. Sixteen minutes was thought
to be greater than the length of time it normally takes a re department to reach a
burning building. However, heat uxes up to ve times these values were recorded after
16 minutes in these tests. Therefore, for buildings where re departments may take a
longer time to respond, it may be appropriate to specify a larger equivalent heat ux
value when using this submodel.
Once the equivalent heat ux value is selected, the program calculates the radiation
view factor between the unprotected openings and a point on the face of the adjacent
building based on the information provided by the user. Several assumptions are implicit
in the formulae used here.
Signicant thermal radiation is only emitted from unprotected openings. A time-
dependent fraction of unprotected openings is calculated for each of the four exterior
walls, based on the time of failure of each of the walls and any combustible roof.
The grey radiator concept is used to treat the unprotected openings |13, 14]. This tech-
nique assumes that the unprotected openings can be treated as one large unprotected
opening with the same area as the total of all the unprotected openings. The emissiv-
ity for the burning building is then assumed to be the fraction of the exposing facade
that is unprotected openings. While this assumption is generally valid and produces
conservative results, it is not always correct for buildings that have a low percentage
of unprotected openings; in these cases different techniques can be used [14].
The view factor, E , for the unprotected openings, is calculated using the following
formula [13]
E =
2u
r

C,S
C,S +4
arctan

CS
C,S +4
+

CS
C,S +4
arctan

C,S
CS +4

(8)
where
u = the fraction of unprotected openings (0 u 1),
C =
hn
J
2
(9)
h = the height of the face of the burning building (m),
Estimating Water Requirements 247
n= the width of the face of the burning building (m),
J = is the effective distance (see below) between the burning and adjacent
buildings (m), and
S =
h
n

or
n
h
if n >h

(S >1) (10)
The effective distance, J, is the actual distance between the buildings (J
a
in Figure 6)
minus the assumed distance that ames may project horizontally outside of the windows
of the burning building, J
f
:
J =J
a
J
f
(11)
a) Side View
b) Front View of Burning Building
h
roof
= Nh
h
w
u
o

Assumed Location
of Flames on Roof
Burning Building
d
Unprotected
openings
h
Adjacent building
Burning
building
width= w
d
f

Flame
projection
d
a

h
roof
= Nh
Figure 6. Quantities used for calculating view factor to
adjacent building.
248 Fire Technology Third Quarter 2001
TABLE 1
Values of N Used in Equation (12)
to Estimate the Heights of Flames
on a Roof
Number of Floors Above
Ground in Burning Building N
1 1.4
2 0.9
3 0.73
4 0.65
5 0.58
6 0.52
The user can select an appropriate ame projection distance. For example, observations
made during the St. Lawrence Burns indicated that values of J
f
of 1.5 and 2.1 m may
be used for normal and severe hazards, respectively [12].
The fraction of unprotected openings for each exterior wall is calculated considering
the time of failure of the wall and the time of failure of any combustible roof. When the
exterior wall fails, it is assumed that the entire wall will act as an unprotected opening. If
the burning building has a combustible roof, then the ames on the burning roof will also
act as an additional unprotected opening, once the roof fails, and will emit signicant
amounts of thermal radiation to adjacent buildings. In the preparation of NFPA 80A
[15], photographs from thousands of res were analyzed in order to see how high ames
projected above the roofs of burning buildings. Using the information in NFPA 80A, this
method assumes that any burning roof becomes an additional unprotected opening of area
equal to the width of the exterior wall of the building, n, multiplied by an estimated
ame height on the roof, h
roof
.
h
roof
=Nh (12)
where N is given in Table 1.
The methods used to calculate the fraction of unprotected openings, u, and height,
h, for use in Equations (8)(10) are listed in Table 2, and depend on whether the
exterior wall or combustible roof fails rst. These quantities are also illustrated in
Figure 6.
Once the view factors, E has been calculated, the incident heat ux at the face of the
exposed building, q

in
can be found using
q

in
=Eq

o
. (13)
Calculate the Required Flow Rate of Water for Suppression of
the Fire
Based on the information entered in the steps outlined above, the amount of water
needed to extinguish the re is calculated based on the assumption that water can absorb
Estimating Water Requirements 249
TABLE 2
Techniques Used to Calculate the Fraction of Unprotected
Openings and Height for Use in Equations (1)(3)
(u
o
= actual fraction of unprotected openings)
Combustible Roof Fails Prior to Exterior Wall Fails Prior to
Exterior Wall Combustible Roof
Fraction of Fraction of
Unprotected Openings Height Unprotected Openings Height
Time (u) (h) (u) (h)
Prior to any failure u =u
o
h u =u
o
h
After rst building element
failure u =
u
o
+N
1+N
h(1+N) u =u
0
h
After both building elements
have failed u =1.0 h(1+N) u =1.0 h(1+N)
2.6 MW/L/s of ow, as discussed earlier in the section describing the New Zealand Fire
Engineering Guide. The required water ow rate to extinguish the re is calculated using
the formula given in the New Zealand Fire Engineering Guide [4]:
RFR
ab
=
Q
m
q
ab
Q
w
(14)
where
RER
ab
=the required ow rate of water to absorb the energy from the re (L/s),
Q
m
=the heat release rate of the re, modied to account for the
effectiveness of the suppression system (MW),
Q
w
=the rate at which energy can theoretically be absorbed by
the water (2.6 MW/L/s), and
q
ab
=the efciency of the re department in suppressing the re (0 q
ab
1).
The required ow rate of water is calculated as a function of time for the entire time
period for which heat release rate data is available. The value of the required ow rate
at the time at which the re department begins suppression will also be highlighted and
used in subsequent calculations.
Calculate the Required Flow Rate of Water for Exposure Protection
The program also calculates water requirements for exposure protection using informa-
tion on the heat uxes to adjacent buildings entered by the user or calculated using the
radiation to adjacent buildings submodel. The following equation is used to calculate the
required ow rate of water to prevent ignition of adjacent buildings.
(RFR
e
)
i
=
(q

ini
q

min
)A
ai
q
ei
Q
w
(15)
250 Fire Technology Third Quarter 2001
where
(RFR
e
)
i
=the required ow rate of water to prevent ignition of the adjacent
building on side i of the building being designed (L/s);
q

ini
=the incident heat ux to the adjacent building on side i (MW/m
2
);
q

min i
=the minimum heat ux for ignition of the exposed building
(MW/m
2
);
A
ai
=the exposed surface area of the adjacent building on side i (m
2
);
Q
w
=the rate at which energy can theoretically be absorbed by the water
(2.6 MW/L/s); and
q
ei
=the efciency of the application of water by the re department in
preventing ignition of the adjacent building on side i (0 q
ei
1).
It should be noted that this calculation will be time-dependent, as the heat uxes to
adjacent buildings will increase once re resistance ratings are exceeded. The total value
of RFR
e
is the sum of the values of (RFR
e
)
i
for all of the sides of building being
evaluated.
Calculate the Total Required Flow Rate of Water for
Fireghting Operations
If there are any special operations that required additional water, then the total required
ow rate for these operations (RFR
sp
) can be input by the user. The total estimated
required ow rate (RFR
tot
) is then calculated using the following equation:
RFR
tot
=RFR
ab
+RFR
e
+RFR
sp
(16)
Case Studies to Demonstrate the New Method
In order to demonstrate this new method, the required water ow rates were calculated
for the residential, ofce and warehouse buildings discussed earlier. In all of the case
studies, it was assumed that the efciency of water in suppressing the re (q
ab
) is 0.1,
and that the efciency of water in preventing ignition of adjacent building on each side i
(q
ei
) is 0.3. These values are consistent with the estimates made by Srdqvist [10]. As
will be discussed later in the Future Work section, it is very difcult to determine the
exact values to use for these two parameters. As the model is inversely proportional to
the suppression and exposure protection effectiveness values (Equations (14) and (15)),
the choice of values has a large effect on the estimated water requirements.
Residential Buildings
The new model was used to estimate the water requirements for the residential buildings
used to compare the existing methods. The assumptions used in these case studies are
shown in Table 3, along with a brief justication for each assumption. The design re,
compartment sizes, heat release rate density and other parameters were all selected to be
Estimating Water Requirements 251
TABLE 3
Values of Parameters used in Residential Case Studies as Inputs to NRC
Model (single story residential building, 3 m high, no basement)
Property Value Reason for Assumed Value
Design re Fast t
2
re Representative of res in residential occupancies.
Size of room of 2550% of total oor Based on dimensions used in previous case studies.
re origin area
Size of 2550% of total oor Based on dimensions used in previous case studies.
compartments to area
which re spreads
Heat release 500 kW/m
2
oor area Recommended value for residential occupancies
rate density (NFPA 92B [16]).
Sprinklers None Worst-case scenario. Consistent with inputs used to
calculate water requirements using existing methods.
Fraction of 0.170.26 Consistent with inputs used to calculate water
unprotected requirements using existing methods.
openings
Time of re 15 minutes Representative of the failure time of interior walls in
spread to adjacent residential buildings during actual res.
compartment
Heat ux to 12.5 kW/m
2
prior to Maximum incident heat ux permitted in
adjacent building failure of exterior wall most building codes.
(q

in
) 150 kW/m
2
after failure Similar to values of equivalent heat uxes at
of exterior walls and boundaries of burning building for a normal hazard,
roof and representative of maximum heat uxes to
adjacent buildings after failure of exterior
walls and roof of burning buildings.
Time of failure of 20 minutes Selected in order to study water requirements
exterior walls for exposure protection.
Time of failure of 30 minutes Selected in order to study water requirements
roof for exposure protection.
Fire department 15 minutes Based on typical notication, response and setup
intervention time times in urban centers.
Size of exterior Same as exterior walls Typically building codes are based on information
walls of adjacent of burning building on burning building and not adjacent buildings.
buildings
consistent with the previous case studies and/or representative of residential occupancies.
These values were then used to calculate the time-dependent heat release rate and other
quantities necessary to calculate the required water ow rates for reghting operations.
The maximum fuel controlled heat release rate was also compared with the maximum
ventilation controlled heat release rate, based on the amount of ventilation openings, to
ensure that there was sufcient oxygen to support this size of re.
The individual times for the failure of interior walls, and the exterior walls and the
roof were selected to be indicative of residential occupancies, and to also allow water
requirements for exposure protection to be studied. In addition, as the location and dis-
252 Fire Technology Third Quarter 2001
tribution of windows were not specied in the earlier case studies, thermal radiation heat
uxes to adjacent buildings were not calculated explicitly. Instead, it was assumed that
the incident heat ux from the unprotected openings to the neighbouring buildings is
equal to 12.5 kW/m
2
. This is the generally accepted value of the minimum heat ux
necessary to ignite wood, and is the basis of spatial separation requirements in most
building codes. The heat ux once all of the exterior walls and roof fails was assumed
to be 150 kW/m
2
, which is similar to the equivalent heat ux (q

o
in Equation (13)) of
180 kW/m
2
used in many building codes (e.g., the National Building Code of Canada
[11]). In between the failure of the exterior walls and the roof, the incident heat ux is
calculated by dividing 12.5 kW/m
2
by the fraction of unprotected openings. The walls on
each side of the house are assumed to be the same size as those of the burning building.
The re department is assumed to begin suppressing the re 15 minutes after it begins.
This estimate is based on typical times for notication, dispatch, travel and set-up in
urban areas. This time is used in lieu of calculating the components that make up the
total intervention time separately (Figure 5).
Although the main purpose of these case studies was to demonstrate the use of the
new model, the estimates from the new model were compared with estimates made
using the ISO, Iowa State University and the Illinois Institute of Technology Research
Institute methods. The latter three methods were chosen as they were considered to be
the most valid for residential buildings. Comparisons for houses with oor areas of 100
and 200 m
2
are shown in Figure 7. Required water ow rates estimated for various re
department intervention times for a house with a oor area of 200 m
2
are shown in
Figure 8.
Ofce Buildings
The new model was used to estimate the water requirements for the ofce buildings used
earlier to compare the existing methods. The assumptions used in these case studies are
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
100 200
Floor Area (m
2
)
W
a
t
e
r

F
l
o
w

R
a
t
e

(
L
/
m
i
n
)
S
S
T
I
NRC
NRC
T
I
Figure 7. Comparison of required water ow rates estimated using
the new model (NRC), and the Insurance Services Ofce (I), Iowa State
University (S) and Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute (T)
Methods for Various Residential Buildings.
Estimating Water Requirements 253
0
50
100
150
200
250
0 10 20 30 40
Fire Department Intervention Time (min.)
W
a
t
e
r

F
l
o
w

R
a
t
e

(
L
/
m
i
n
)
Figure 8. Comparison of required water ow rate for various re
department intervention times for a house with a total oor area of
200 m
2
.
shown in Table 4, along with a brief justication for each assumption. The design re,
compartment sizes, heat release rate density and other parameters were all selected to
be consistent with the previous case studies and/or representative of ofce buildings.
These values were then used to calculate the time-dependent heat release rate and other
quantities necessary to calculate the required water ow rates for reghting operations.
The maximum fuel controlled heat release rate was also compared with the maximum
ventilation controlled heat release rate, based on the amount of ventilation openings, to
ensure that there was sufcient oxygen to support this size of re.
The individual times for the failure of interior walls, and the exterior walls and the roof
were selected to be indicative of ofce buildings, and to also allow water requirements for
exposure protection to be studied. Fire was assumed to spread to adjacent compartments
in 30 minutes. Two exterior walls of the building were assumed to fail in 30 minutes,
and the remaining two walls and the roof were assumed to fail in 40 minutes. This is due
to the fact that it will take some time for the re to spread to all of the exterior walls,
because of the size of the building. As with the residential case studies, the location and
distribution of windows were not specied and therefore thermal radiation heat uxes
to adjacent buildings were not calculated explicitly. Instead, it was assumed that the
incident heat ux from the unprotected openings to the neighbouring buildings is equal
to 12.5 kW/m
2
initially, then once all of the exterior walls and roof fail, the heat ux
was assumed to increase to 300 kW/m
2
. This latter value is similar to the equivalent heat
ux (q

o
in Equation (13)) of 360 kW/m
2
used in many building codes (e.g., the National
Building Code of Canada [11]) for more severe exposures than residential buildings. In
between the failure of the rst two exterior walls and the remaining walls and the roof,
the incident heat ux is calculated by dividing 12.5 kW/m
2
by the fraction of unprotected
openings. The walls on each side of the ofce building were assumed to be the same size
as those of the burning building. The re department was assumed to begin suppressing
the re 15 minutes after it begins.
Estimates from the new model were compared with estimates made using the ISO
and Iowa State University methods. The latter two methods were chosen as they were
254 Fire Technology Third Quarter 2001
TABLE 4
Values of Parameters used in Ofce Building Case Studies as Inputs
to NRC Model (four storey ofce building, each storey 3m high)
Property Value Reason for Assumed Value
Design re Fast t
2
re Representative of res in ofce buildings.
Size of room of 25% of total oor area Based on dimensions used in previous case studies.
re origin
Size of 50% of total oor Based on dimensions used in previous case studies.
compartments to area
which re spreads
Heat release 250 kW/m
2
oor area Recommended value for ofces (NFPA 92B [16]).
rate density
Sprinklers None Worst-case scenario. Consistent with inputs used to
calculate water requirements using existing methods.
Fraction of 0.07 Consistent with inputs used to calculate water
unprotected requirements using existing methods.
openings
Time of re 30 minutes Representative of the failure time of interior walls in
spread to adjacent ofce buildings during actual res.
compartment
Heat ux to 12.5 kW/m
2
prior to Maximum incident heat ux permitted in most
adjacent building failure of exterior wall building codes.
(q

in
) 300 kW/m
2
after failure Similar to values of equivalent heat uxes at
of exterior walls and boundaries of burning building for a severe hazard,
roof and representative of maximum heat uxes to
adjacent buildings after failure of exterior
walls and roof of burning buildings.
Time of failure of 30 minutes Selected in order to study water requirements
rst two exterior for exposure protection.
walls
Time of failure of 40 minutes Selected in order to study water requirements
remaining two for exposure protection.
exterior walls
and roof
Fire department 15 minutes Based on typical notication, response and setup
intervention time times in urban centers.
Size of exterior Same as exterior walls Typically building codes are based on information
walls of adjacent of burning building on burning building and not adjacent buildings.
buildings
considered to be the most valid for ofce buildings. The Illinois Institute of Technology
Research Institute method was not used here as it was shown in the earlier case studies
that this building is larger than the buildings that this method is applicable for. Com-
parisons for ofce buildings with oor areas of 500, 1000 and 2000 m
2
are shown in
Figure 9. Required water ow rates estimated for various re department intervention
times for an ofce building with a oor area of 200 m
2
are shown in Figure 10.
Estimating Water Requirements 255
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
500 2000 3000
Floor Area (m
2
)
W
a
t
e
r

F
l
o
w

R
a
t
e

(
L
/
m
i
n
)
I
S
NRC
I
S NRC
I
S
NRC
Figure 9. Comparison of required water ow rates estimated using
the new model (NRC), and the Insurance Services Ofce (I) and Iowa
State University (S) Methods for Various Ofce Buildings.
Warehouse Buildings
The new method was also used to estimate the water requirements for the warehouse
buildings described earlier. The assumptions used in these case studies are shown in
Table 5, along with a brief justication for each assumption. The design re, compartment
sizes, heat release rate density and other parameters were all selected to be consistent
with the previous case studies and/or representative of warehouse buildings. These values
were then used to calculate the time-dependent heat release rate and other quantities
necessary to calculate the required water ow rates for reghting operations. For the
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fire Department Intervention Time (min)
W
a
t
e
r

F
l
o
w

R
a
t
e

(
L
/
m
i
n
)
Figure 10. Comparison of required water ow rate for various re
department intervention times for an ofce building with a total oor
area of 2000 m
2
.
256 Fire Technology Third Quarter 2001
TABLE 5
Values of Parameters used in Warehouse Building Case Studies as
Inputs to NRC Model (single story residential building, 10m high)
Property Value Reason for Assumed Value
Design re Ultrafast t
2
re Representative of res in warehouses.
Size of room of 50% of total oor Based on dimensions used in previous case studies.
re origin area
Size of 50% of total oor Based on dimensions used in previous case studies.
compartments to area
which re spreads
Heat release 1000 kW/m
2
storage Representative of fuels in warehouse buildings-storage
rate density area area for fuel assumed to 50% of total oor area
of room of re origin.
Sprinklers None Worst-case scenario. Consistent with inputs used
to calculate water requirements using existing methods.
Fraction of 0.16 About one-half of value used in earlier case studies.
unprotected Representative of value of warehouse buildings,
openings assuming some loading doors open.
Time of re 45 minutes Representative of the failure time of interior walls in
spread to adjacent warehouses during actual res.
compartment
Heat ux to 12.5 kW/m
2
prior to Maximum incident heat ux permitted in most
adjacent building failure of exterior wall building codes.
(q

in
) 300 kW/m
2
after failure Similar to values of equivalent heat uxes at
of exterior walls and boundaries of burning building for a severe hazard,
roof and representative of maximum heat uxes to
adjacent buildings after failure of exterior
walls and roof of burning buildings.
Time of failure of 30 minutes Selected in order to study water requirements
rst two exterior for exposure protection.
walls
Time of failure of 40 minutes Selected in order to study water requirements
remaining two for exposure protection.
exterior walls
and roof
Fire department 15 minutes Based on typical notication, response and setup
intervention time times in urban centers.
Size of exterior Same as exterior walls Typically building codes are based on information
walls of adjacent of burning building on burning building and not adjacent buildings.
buildings
purposes of this calculation, it was assumed that material is only stored over half of the
oor area of the warehouse. Therefore, the maximum fuel controlled heat release rate
for the original re was calculated by multiplying the heat release rate density by 25%
of the total area of the building. The maximum fuel controlled heat release rate was
also compared with the maximum ventilation controlled heat release rate, based on the
amount of ventilation openings, to ensure that there was sufcient oxygen to support this
size of re.
Estimating Water Requirements 257
0
40000
80000
120000
160000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fire Department Intervention Time (min)
W
a
t
e
r

F
l
o
w

R
a
t
e

(
L
/
m
i
n
)
Total
Suppression
Exposure Protection
Figure 11. Comparison of required water ow rate for various re
department intervention times for a warehouse with a total oor
area of 2000 m
2
Total water requirements, and the components
for suppression and exposure protection.
Individual times for the failure of interior walls, and the exterior walls and the roof
were selected to be indicative of warehouse buildings, and to also allow water require-
ments for exposure protection to be studied. Fire was assumed to spread to adjacent
compartments in 45 minutes. Two exterior walls of the building were assumed to fail
in 30 minutes, and the remaining two walls and the roof were assumed to fail in 40
minutes. This is due to the fact that it will take some time for the re to spread to
all of the exterior walls, because of the size of the building. As with the previous case
studies, the location and distribution of windows were not specied and the therefore
thermal radiation heat uxes to adjacent buildings were not calculated explicitly. The
incident heat uxes were calculated in the same manner as for the ofce buildings, and
the walls on each side of the warehouse were again assumed to be the same size as those
of the burning building. The re department was assumed to begin suppressing the re
15 minutes after it begins.
As shown in the earlier case studies, there were huge differences in the predictions
made using existing methods for warehouses. Therefore, estimates from the new model
were not compared directly with any of the existing methods. Required water ow
rates estimated for various re department intervention times for a warehouse with
a oor area of 2000 m
2
are shown in Figure 11. These water ow rates are further
divided into the amounts required for suppression (Equation (14)) and exposure protec-
tion (Equation (15)).
Discussion
While the main purpose of the case studies, was to demonstrate the model, rather than
to compare its estimates with other models, the predictions made using the NRC model
are similar to those made using the ISO and Illinois Institute of Technology Research
Institute methods for the residential buildings studied (Figure 7). The predictions made
by the NRC and the two existing models are considerably different from those made
using the Iowa State University method, as the Iowa State University method only takes
258 Fire Technology Third Quarter 2001
into account the volume of the building, and not any other factors considered by the
other methods.
It is difcult, however, to draw concrete conclusions from these comparisons. Values
of the parameters shown in Table 3 were chosen to be similar to those used in the earlier
case studies. However, the new model considers a much larger number of parameters than
the existing model. Nevertheless for this choice of parameters, this study does indicate
that estimates made using the new model are at least comparable to those which re
departments would make using commonly used methods today.
The NRC model has the advantage of being able to take into account the re depart-
ment intervention time. In the case of the residential buildings, the water requirements
predicted by the NRC model are similar to those predicted using the ISO or Illinois Insti-
tute of Technology Research Institute method, if a typical re department intervention
time in urban centres, 15 minutes, is assumed. However, Figure 8 shows that for isolated
communities, the required ow rate can increase quickly, as this ow rate is directly
proportional to the heat release rate (Equation (14)), which is assumed to be directly
proportional to the square of the elapsed time in these case studies. On the other hand,
a shorter intervention time will result in a smaller required ow rate. While this concept
is well known qualitatively, tools such as the NRC model will allow re departments to
quantify the effects of intervention time on required water ow rate. Areas in which this
information can be used will be discussed in the next section of this paper.
The predictions made using the NRC model are similar to those made using the ISO
method for the 500 m
2
ofce building, and are similar to those made using the Iowa State
University method for the 2000 m
2
ofce building (Figure 9). The water requirements
predictions made by both existing methods are substantially larger than those made
using the NRC model for the 3000 m
2
ofce building. This is because the ow rates
predicted by the NRC model for a 15 minute re department intervention time are based
completely on the water required for suppression, as no external walls will have failed at
this time. Other than the 500 m
2
building, the heat release rate in the compartment of re
origin did not reached its maximum value (based on the size of the compartment and the
ventilation openings) for a re department intervention time of 15 minutes. Therefore,
the heat release rates, and hence the water ow rate predictions are the same for both
the 2000 and 3000 m
2
buildings. On the hand, the predictions made by the two existing
models are dependent on the size of the building, and hence increase as the building
oor area increases. For longer re department response times, after the re spreads to
other compartments and the exterior walls fail, the size of the building will have a larger
effect on the predictions made using the NRC model (Figure 10). This illustrates how
the NRC model is able to take into account features, such as compartmentation and fuel
loads, explicitly in its calculations.
As mentioned earlier, there are huge differences in the predictions made using existing
methods for warehouses, and therefore, estimates from the new model are not compared
directly with any of the existing methods. Figure 11 shows how the required water ow
rate, which for suppression is directly proportional to the heat release rate calculated for
an ultrafast t
2
re, increases very rapidly for a warehouse. In addition, as the oor areas
and ventilation openings in the warehouse are very large, the maximum heat release
rates for these buildings, and hence the required water ow rates, will be very large.
Depending on the expected intervention time, re departments may wish to examine the
Estimating Water Requirements 259
estimates for the water requirements for suppression and exposure protection separately,
and determine whether an offensive attack will be possible using the equipment and
personnel available, or whether the department will concentrate on exposure protection.
Figure 11 also helps to emphasize the importance of detection and suppression systems
in warehouses. A detection system that can signicantly reduce intervention time and a
suppression system that can maintain or reduce the heat release rate of the re when it
is activated will both have a large effect on water requirements for reghting. Again,
while these effects are well known qualitatively, tools such as the NRC model can help
to demonstrate these effects quantitatively, as well as assisting in the design of detection
and suppression systems.
Applications of the NRC Model
The results from the NRC model, when combined with information on the equipment
and human resources available to a re department, will allow a number of analyses to be
performed. Initial and subsequent responses to individual buildings and/or communities
can be planned, based on possible re scenarios in these buildings and/or communities.
The interactive nature of the program is designed to allow planners to perform what if
calculations when determining their equipment and human resources requirements. Input
data, such as information on the building design or the times used to calculate the re
department intervention time, can be changed in order to determine how these changes
affect water requirements.
Urban planners could also use the model for determining the optimal locations of re
stations. Studies could also be performed to determine how mandatory sprinklers in res-
idential buildings affect the locations of re stations in a community. As a major factor
in sizing water mains is providing sufcient water ow rates for reghting operations,
the new model should also be of interest to those designing new water lines or rehabili-
tating existing water lines. As many water lines are in the need of repair or replacement
in the near future, models that can provide information on the required ow rates for
reghting are becoming increasingly important to municipalities around the world.
Conclusions and Future Work
There are a limited number of existing methods to estimate required ow rates of water
for reghting purposes, and there are large differences between the results predicted by
these methods. A new water requirements model developed by the Fire Risk Management
Program of the National Research Council of Canada, for use on Canadian DND bases,
has been briey described. This water requirements model is designed to be used in
conjunction with submodels from FIERAsystem, a computer model used to evaluate re
protection systems in light industrial buildings, or as a stand-alone piece of software.
Input data from other sources, such as re test data or heat release rate curves for design
res, can also be used by the water requirements model.
Future work is ongoing to improve the water requirements model. Research is being
conducted to determine appropriate values for some of the factors used in these calcu-
lations, such as the suppression and re department effectiveness values. As mentioned
earlier, this is very important, as currently there is no method of calculating these values,
260 Fire Technology Third Quarter 2001
and water requirements estimates are inversely proportional to these values. While some
values have been estimated from laboratory tests, it is necessary to determine values for
actual reghting. In many cases, efciency values will be much lower, for a number
of reasons, including reduced visibility and in many cases, the inability to get to the
seat of the re. As well as identifying how to calculate these and other parameters used
in the model, it will also be important to conduct sensitivity studies to determine how
variations in each individual parameter will affect water requirements estimated using
this methodology. This work will be done for many of the individual submodels as part
of the development of FIERAsystem.
Further case studies are being conducted to compare the required ow rates predicted
by this model with those predicted using existing methods for actual DND buildings. The
user interface for the program will be improved based on the results of eld trials of this
software by DND and municipal re departments. This interface work will also include
adding the capability of calculating equipment and human resource requirements for
specic buildings based on calculated water ow rates. Work is also ongoing to improve
the FIERAsystem submodels included in the water requirements program and to develop
additional re development submodels to simulate other re scenarios of interest. The
program will also be modied for use by urban planners in sizing water mains.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the hard work and efforts of the entire team responsi-
ble for the development of both this computer program and FIERAsystem: Dr. Zhuman
Fu, Ping Feng, Henry Hum, Joe Hum, Neil Pilgrim, Dr. Don Raboud, Irene Reid, Wei
Su, Martin Will and Brent Yager. Assistance from the FIRECAM
TM
team, including
Charles Dutcher, Dr. Guylne Proulx, and Dr. David Yung is also gratefully acknowl-
edged. Financial assistance for this project from the Canadian Department of National
Defence is also gratefully acknowledged, along with the assistance and feedback pro-
vided by Major Barry Colledge and Captain Steve Vollhoffer.
Notes
1. Now with the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, 57 Campus Dr.,
Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A9.
2. Now with the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By
Drive, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6.
Nomenclature
A area (m
2
)
C building construction factor (L/s or L/min)
ratio of product of height and width to distance squared (dimensionless)
J distance (m)
E radiation view factor (dimensionless)
h height (m)
K building occupancy and construction factor (dimensionless)
Estimating Water Requirements 261
N factor to account for ames from a roof (dimensionless)
NFF needed re ow (L/s or L/min)
O occupancy factor (dimensionless)
P communication paths factor (dimensionless)
Q heat release rate or energy absorption rate (kW)
q

heat ux (kW/m
2
)
RFR required ow rate (L/s or L/min)
S spatial separation factor, ratio of height to width (dimensionless)
t time (s)
u fraction of unprotected openings (dimensionless)
V volume (m
3
)
W amount of water (L)
n width (m)
X adjacent exposed buildings factor (dimensionless)
Greek letter
q efciency of water application (dimensionless)
Subscripts
a adjacent
ab absorption
act at time of activation of automatic suppression system
as automatic suppression system
cr critical
e exposure protection
f re, ame
i index
in incident
m modied
min minimum
o original
roof roof
sp special operations
tot total
W water
0 value with no automatic suppression system
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