Clean air in cities

Effective air pollution control is the litmus test of urban

environmental policy. It will be successful if the principles

of integrated air quality management are observed.

In order to prevent emissions on a sustainable basis, GTZ takes

technical, political and social factors into consideration.

To the inhabitants of many cities in the industrialised countries, blue skies go without saying. The fact
that levels of pollutants in urban air are comparatively low in spite of massive industrial activity and
heavy traffic is a result of years of tough struggles to establish air pollution control. But anyone going
to Mexico City, Santiago de Chile, Beijing or Bangkok will suddenly once again experience what it is like
when the sky no longer turns blue.
In many cities in the developing countries, air pollution is an everyday concern. Across the world, 1.4 billion
people are inhaling air with pollution levels above the standards recommended by the World Health
Organization (WHO). Sometimes the concentration of the pollutants is three to four times as high.
Figure 1 shows the situation in a number of megacities for three selected criteria pollutants in comparison
to Paris. The strain on the cardiovascular system, diseases of the respiratory tract and an increased risk
of cancer are shortening life expectancy in the cities. According to WHO estimates, around three million
people die each year owing to the impact air pollution has on health. Air pollution also affects the water
and the soil. It harms ecosystems and damages historic buildings.
The pollutants are created by the combustion of fuels and fossil energy sources. So the transport sector,
manufacturing industry and the energy sector are the biggest air polluters. Using the example of Mexico
City, Figure 2 demonstrates the shares of some particularly harmful pollutants that result in damage to
health and the environment to a considerable degree. The situation is similar in other cities. It is above
all the high levels of emissions from vehicles that cause concern. The numbers of cars are enormously
increasing in the rapidly growing cities. The OECD estimates that the global number of motor vehicles
will be in excess of 1.3 billion by 2020. In most Asian cities, the motorised two and three-wheelers also
make a considerable contribution to air pollution. The dynamic growth of the population, industry and
cities aggravates the problem.

Uncontrolled urban sprawl

A second important factor in air pollution is urban, transport and settlement planning that is either
lacking or misconceived in many cities. Uncontrolled urban sprawl, poor suburban public transport
systems and sticking to the paradigm of the “car-friendly city” make many people dependent on individual
motorisation. Not only does a policy promoting traffic generate growing air pollution levels, it also
increasingly results in traffic jams and puts an excessive strain on an infrastructure that is usually
insufficient anyway. Given an average growth rate of cities – especially in Asia – of up to eight percent
annually, traffic volumes are expected to double every seven years. Prolonged transport planning taking
up to ten years – which is usually the case in the industrialised countries – can hardly be practicable

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here anymore. All that can help is an integrated transport, urban and settlement planning approach that
aims at avoiding traffic. However, such concepts have hardly ever been tested so far.
The third key cause of air pollution is the insufficient environmental policy framework of many coun-
tries. Giving consideration to a sustainable environmental and health policy is deliberately postponed to
the advantage of short-term economic growth interests. And often, public awareness is lacking of the
air pollution control problem and solution options and opportunities. In spite of dramatic air pollution
levels in Mexico City and Santiago de Chile, no experience was gathered with air pollution control
until the early 1990s. Even today, important legal foundations are still not in place in many countries.
Equipment, qualifications and the ability to assert positions against the opposition of ministries of
economics and transport are lacking.
Against this background, it is difficult to respond to the problem of air pollution in an appropriate
manner. Nevertheless, more and more countries and cities are finding suitable approaches. International
development cooperation has made a significant contribution to this trend. International platforms such
as the World Bank Clean Air Initiative (CAI), local Agenda 21 processes, the International Council for Local
Environment Initiatives (ICLEI) and several local city networks in various continents are enabling an in-

µg/m3 Alarming values.

PM SO2 NO2 Just under one-and-
450
a-half billion people are
400 breathing in air with
pollution levels above
350 WHO guideline WHO guideline the limit values
for NO2: 40 µg/m3 for SO2: 50 µg/m3
300
recommended by the
WHO. Sometimes the
250 concentration of the
pollutants is three to
200 WHO guideline for
four times higher.
particulate matter:
150 90 µg/m3 The diagram shows
the situation in a
100 number of megacities
50
for three selected
pollutants.Paris is shown
0 in comparison.
Beijing Shanghai Paris Calcutta Delhi Mumbai Mexico City Source: The World Bank

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 tensive exchange of knowledge and experience between politics, science, associations, civil society and
industry. This paves the way for more effective steps towards an integrated air pollution control
policy combining several aspects.

Four aspects of integrated air quality management

The first task of an integrated air pollution control policy is to gather better information on air quality
and pollution sources. So one key element of air pollution control is to establish a reliable air measuring
and inventory system enabling statements on conditions and forecasts of future developments.
Not only is carefully ascertained information the basis of all decisions on air pollution control, it also
raises their credibility and acceptance by the public.
The second factor of an integrated air pollution control policy is that the most important contributions
to air pollution control first of all have to be effected among the chief emitters. As a rule, simple
and tried-and-tested methods are available for this purpose. In the transport sector, for instance, they
include: lead-free petrol, improved fuel quality, cars fitted with catalytic converters, converting bus
fleets running on diesel to compressed natural gas (CNG), improved emissions standards and technical
inspections for motorised vehicles as well as tax differentials favouring compliance with low emissions
standards. Many countries are already orienting themselves on the emissions standards and procedures
of the European Union and the United States.
Much is being achieved with filtering units in the energy and industrial sector. Ecologically efficient
concepts are very effective as well. Here, so-called end-of-pipe solutions are simply not enough.
Rather, the aim is to prevent emissions by applying an innovative and clever design of production
processes and industrial plant. Our development specialists recommend that easily achievable goals
be tackled first. In this manner, important experience in improving air quality can be gathered and
public acceptance can be raised, which gets the processes going. Gaining speed in this way is important.
For in view of the prolonged problem solutions, technology alone is not going to be enough – especially
if it is getting more and more expensive and increasingly elaborate for any additional reductions.
Moreover, if energy and fuel consumption is reduced on a lasting basis, emissions of both air pollutants
and greenhouse gases will be reduced.Thus air quality management also makes effective contributions
to climate policy.
The third aspect of integrated air pollution control is that of complementing technical means with
urban development. Here, the accent is on maintaining success in air pollution control that can, as a rule,
be easily achieved with technical measures, on a lasting basis. For given the continuing growth of the

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 100% Major sources of air pollutants in
cities include transport (mobile sources
90%
such as cars, trucks, buses etc.),
80% the energy sector, industry and housing.
In some cities, e.g. Mexico City, volcanic
70% activity contributes significantly to
pollutants such as Particulate Matter
60%
(PM10).
50%

40%

30%

20%
other sources
10%
natural sources
0% point sources
PM10 SO2 CO NOx VOC
mobile sourcces

cities, industries and traffic flows, there is the threat of a relapse into increasing pollution in the longer
term. Such a threat has to be countered with suitable urban, settlement and transport planning.
The most important target is to reduce traffic flows without restricting people’s mobility wherever possible.
This can only be achieved if people in the cities can switch to other, attractive means of transport in
the long run (public transport, non-motorised transport). Gentle political pressure exerted by fuel and
road taxes can accelerate this modal shift. In addition, it is important to enhance the capabilities and
capacities of environmental administrations.The authorities have to be appropriately staffed and qualified
to plan, co-ordinate, finance and effectively assume overall control of an air pollution control policy.
The key prerequisite for successful air pollution control is a clear political commitment and a medium-
term strategy that sets an obligatory course. National and urban environmental action plans, which have
already been developed and successfully implemented in some countries, are important steps in this
direction (e.g. the Third Air Pollution Control Programme in Mexico City, 2002-2010).
Modern air quality management includes all options to avoid emissions on a lasting basis.
Short-term actionism or purely symbolic measures are not helpful. Nobody wishing to achieve sustained
improvements in the quality of life will manage this without integrated air pollution control. The
integrated philosophy also includes creating environmental awareness among the population and
involving trade and manufacturing industry, the transport industry, NGOs, science, the media and
civil society. Our partner countries have had good experience with support given by GTZ and its
integrated approach. Ultimately, the ability and readiness of the cities to initiate an integrated air pollution
control policy are the litmus tests for an effective environmental policy in developing countries. When
people experience that the sky above their cities really can get blue again, this will release energy for
sustainable development.

The author is a member of the GTZ Division for Environment and Infrastructure.

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