Particle Physics Measurements and Theory

Outline Outline
Natural Units Relativistic Kinematics Particle Physics Measurements
Lifetimes Resonances and Widths Scattering Cross section Collider and Fixed Target Experiments

Conservation Laws
Charge, Lepton and Baryon number, Parity, Quark flavours

Theoretical Concepts
Quantum Field Theory Klein-Gordon Equation Anti-particles Yukawa Potential Scattering Amplitude - Fermis Golden Rule Matrix elements

Nuclear and Particle Physics

Franz Muheim

Particle Physics Units

Particle Physics
is relativistic and quantum mechanical c = 299 792 458 m/s = h/2 = 1.05510-34 Js size of proton: 1 fm = 10-15 m as short as 10-23 s 1 e = -1.6010-19 C

Length

Lifetimes Charge Energy Mass

Units: 1 GeV = 109 eV -- 1 eV = 1.6010-19 J use also MeV, keV in GeV/c2, rest mass is E = mc2

Natural Units Natural Units

Useful relations

Mass [GeV/c2], energy [GeV] and momentum [GeV/c] in GeV Time [(GeV/)-1], Length [(GeV/c)-1] in 1/GeV area [(GeV/c)-2] = 6.582 10-22 MeV s
Franz Muheim 2

Set = c = 1

c = 197 MeV fm
Nuclear and Particle Physics

Particle Physics Measurements

How do we measure particle properties and interaction strengths? Static properties
Mass How do you weigh an electron? Magnetic moment couples to magnetic field Spin, Parity

Particle decays
Lifetimes Resonances & Widths Allowed/forbidden Decays Conservation laws
Force Strong El.mag. Weak Lifetimes 10-23 -- 10-20 s 10-20 -- 10-16 s 10-13 -- 103 s

Scattering
Elastic scattering e- p e- p Inelastic annihilation e+ e- + Cross section
total Differential d/d Force Strong El.mag. Weak

Cross sections O(10 mb) O(10-1 mb) O(10-1 pb)

Luminosity L
Particle flux

Event rate N
Nuclear and Particle Physics

Franz Muheim

Relativistic Kinematics
Basics
4-momentum Invariant mass Four-vector notation set = c = 1 = E/mc2 = E/m = pc/mc2 = p/m = pc/E = p/E
E p = , p x , p y , pz c

r 2 p 2 = p p = ( E / c ) p 2 = m 2 c 2

Useful Lorentz boosts relations

invariant mass m2 = E2 p2 = 1/(1- 2) = (1 -1/2)

2-body decays
P0 P1 P2 work in P0 rest frame
r p = m0 ,0
2 p2 = p p1

r p1 = (E1 , p1 )

r p2 = (E 2 , p 2 )

= p 2 + p12 2 p p1 r r p1 = p2

2 2 m2 = m0 + m12 2m0 E1 2 2 m0 + m12 m2 E1 = 2m0

Example:

work in + rest frame use m2 = 0

Nuclear and Particle Physics

++

r p = m ,0 E =

r r p1 = (E , p ) p2 = (Ev , p ) = 109.8 MeV

2 2 m + m

2m

r 2 2 p = E m = 29.8 MeV/c
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Lifetimes
Decay time distribution
Mean lifetime d t = exp dt = <d/dt> aka proper time, eigen-time of a particle
= 1

Lifetime measurements
In laboratory frame Decay Length L = c

Example:

in LHCb experiment <L> 7 mm Average B meson energy <EB> 80 GeV = 1.54 ps

Bd +-

<L>
+ + + e + e

Example: + discovery
Decay sequence Emulsions exposed to Cosmic rays
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+ +

+ e + e

Resonances and Widths

Strong Interactions
Production and decay of particles Lifetime ~ 10-23 s c ~ O(10-15 m) unmeasurable

Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle

E t h

Time and energy measurements are related

Natural width
Energy width and lifetime of a particle = / Width = O(100 MeV) measurable Production
+ p + + + p

Example - Delta(1232) Resonance

Peak at Energy E = 1.23 GeV (Centre-of-Mass) Width = 120 MeV Lifetime = / 510-24 s
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Scattering
Fixed Target Experiments
a+bc+d+ na va nb # of beam particles velocity of beam particles # of target particles per unit area Incident flux F = nava effective area of any scattering happening normalised per unit of incident flux depends on underlying physics What you want to study dN # of scattered particles in solid angle d d/d differential cross section in solid angle d total cross section L N
dN = na v a nb d = Fnb d = Ld

Cross Section Cross Section

Luminosity Event rate

Luminosity Luminosity
1 barn = 1 b = 10 24 cm 2

d d 1 1 dN dN == d L L d d d N d = d N =L = L d

Event Rate N

Incident flux times number of targets Depends on your experimental setup

Luminosity [ L] = 10 30...34 cm 2s 1

Event Rate = Luminosity times Cross Section

Nuclear and Particle Physics Franz Muheim 7

Scattering
Centre-of-Mass Energy
a+bc+d+ Collision of two particles s is invariant quantity Mandelstam r r 2 2 2 variable s = ( p1 + p2 ) = (E1 + E2 ) ( p1 + p2 )
2 = p12 + p2 + 2 p1 p2

r r 2 = m12 + m2 + 2(E1 E2 p1 p2 cos )

Energy Threshold

centre-of-mass energy Total available energy in centre-of-mass frame ECoM is invariant in any frame, e.g. laboratory for particle production
E CoM = s

ECoM = s

j = c ,d ,...

Fixed Target Experiments

r p1 = ( E lab , p1 ) r p 2 = ( m 2 ,0 )

2 2 ECoM = s = m1 + m 2 + 2 E lab m 2

ECoM 2 E lab m 2 if E lab >> m i

Example:
100 GeV proton onto proton at rest ECoM = s = (2Epmp) = 14 GeV Most of beam energy goes into CoM momentum and is not available for interactions
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Scattering
Collider Experiments
Head-on collisions of two particles

= 1800
r r 2 s = m12 + m 2 + 2(E1 E 2 p1 p2 cos )

r r 2 2 E CoM = m1 + m 2 + 2(E1 E 2 + p1 p2 )

E CoM 4 E1 E 2 if E i >> m i

All of beam energy available for particle production

Example
LEP - Large Electron Positron Collider at CERN 100 GeV e- onto 100 GeV e+ Centre-of-mass energy ECoM = s = 2E = 200 GeV Cross section (e+ e- + -) = 2.2 pb Luminosity Ldt = 400 pb-1 Number of recorded events N = Ldt = 870
Nuclear and Particle Physics Franz Muheim 9

Conservation Laws
Noethers Theorem
Every symmetry has associated with it a conservation law and vice-versa

Energy and Momentum, Angular Momentum

conserved in all interactions Symmetries translations in space and time, rotations in space

Charge conservation
Well established |qp + qe| < 1.6010-21 e Valid for all processes Symmetry gauge transformation

Lepton and Baryon number (L and B)

|L+B| conservation = matter conservation Proton decay not observed (B violation) Lepton family numbers Le, L, L conserved Symmetry mystery

Quark Flavours, Isospin, Parity

conserved in strong and electromagn processes Violated in weak interactions Symmetry unknown
Nuclear and Particle Physics Franz Muheim 10

Theoretical Concepts
Standard Model of Particle Physics Standard Model of Particle Physics Quantum Field Theory (QFT)
Describes fundamental interactions of Elementary particles Combines quantum mechanics and special relativity Very small x p c Classical Physics Very fast vc Special relativity Quantum mechanics Quantum field theory

Standard Model of Particle Physics

Natural explanation for antiparticles and for Pauli exclusion principle Full QFT is beyond scope of this course

Introduction to Major QFT concepts

Transition Rate Matrix elements Feynman Diagrams Force mediated by exchange of bosons
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Klein-Gordon Equation
Schroedinger Equation
For free particle non-relativistic 1st order in time derivative 2nd order in space derivatives not Lorentz-invariant
p2 = E 2m h2 2 = ih t 2m

Klein-Gordon (K-G) Equation

Start with relativistic equation E ih E2 = p2 + m2 ( = c = 1) t Apply quantum mechanical operators
2 r 2 2 + = m 2 t 2 r or 2 2 + m 2 = 0 t

r r p ih

2nd order in space and time derivatives Lorentz invariant Plane wave solutions of K-G equation
( x ) = N exp( ip x ) E = p 2 + m 2

negative energies (E < 0) also negative probability densities (||2 < 0)

Negative Energy solutions

Dirac Equation, but ve energies remain Antimatter
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Klein-Gordon Equation
Interpretation
K-G Equation is for spinless particles Solutions are wave-functions for bosons

Time-Independent Solution
Consider static case, i.e. no time derivative
2 = m

Solution is spherically symmetric

g2 (r ) = exp( mr ) 4 r

Interpretation - Potential analogous to Coulomb potential Force is mediated by exchange of massive bosons

Yukawa Potential Yukawa Potential Potential

Introduced to explain nuclear force
g2 r exp V (r ) = 4 r R R=
h mc

g strength of force strong nuclear charge m mass of boson R Range of force see also nuclear physics For m = 0 and g = e Coulomb Potential
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Antiparticles
Klein-Gordon & Dirac Equations
predict negative energy solutions

Interpretation - Dirac
Vacuum filled with E < 0 electrons 2 electrons with opposite spins per energy state - Dirac Sea Hole of E < 0, -ve charge in Dirac sea -> antiparticle E > 0, +ve charge -> positron, e+ discovery (1931) Predicts e+e- pair production and annihilation

Modern Interpretation Feynman-Stueckelberg

E < 0 solutions: Negative energy particle moving backwards in space and time correspond to

Antiparticles
Positive energy, opposite charge moving forward in space and time
r r exp[ i (( E )( t ) ( p ) ( x ))] r r = exp[ i (( Et p x )]
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Scattering Amplitude
Transition Rate W
Scattering reaction a + b c + d W=F Interaction rate per target particle related to physics of reaction

Fermis Golden Rule Fermis Golden Rule Fermis Rule

W =
2 2 M fi f h

Matrix Element Mfi Density f

scattering amplitude # of possible final states phase space

non-relativistic 1st order time-dependent perturbation theory see e.g. Halzen&Martin, p. 80, Quantum Physics

Matrix Element Matrix Element

Contains all physics of the interaction ) M fi = f H i Hamiltonian H is perturbation 1st order Incoming and outgoing plane waves works if perturbation is small Born Approximation
Nuclear and Particle Physics Franz Muheim 15

Matrix Element
Scattering in Potential
Example: e- p e- p Incoming and outgoing plane waves Matrix element r r r q = pi p f Momentum transfer
r r r r * M fi = *fV ( r ) iid 3 r M fi = V (r ) d 3r f

Mfi (q) is Fourier transform of Potential V(r)

g2 Scattering in Yukawa Potential V ( r ) = exp( mr ) 4 r r g 2 2 exp( mr ) 2 M fi = r dr sin dd exp(i q r cos ) r 4 0 0 0 r r g2 = r (exp(i q r ) exp( i q r ))exp( mr )dr 2i q 0

r r r r r r 1 exp ip f r V ( r ) exp(ipi r )d 3 r 2 N r r r r r r r 1 V q = pi p f = 2 exp(iq r ) ( r )d 3 r N =

g2 g2 = 2 r2 M fi = 2 r 2 m +q m +q

Propagator
term in Mfi 1/(m2 +q2)
d 1 4 d q m=0

Cross section

1 d 2 M r2 d m2 + q

Result still holds relativistically r r 4-momentum transfer q = (E i E f , pi p f )

Nuclear and Particle Physics Franz Muheim 16