Chapter 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution Case that ask to explain what make individual unique Individual differences

Factors like skills, abilities, personalities, perceptions, attitudes, values, and ethics differ from one individual to another - The Person - The Environment - Trait theory - Psychodynamic Theory - Humanistic Theory - Integrative Theory - Locus of control - Self-efficacy - Self-esteem - Self-Monitoring - Positive/Negative affect - Projective test - Behavioural Measures - Self-report questionnaire - MBTI - Extraversion/Introversion - Sensing/Intuition - Thinking/Feeling - Judging/Perceiving Influence by characteristics - Perceiver - Target - Situation - Selective perception - Stereotyping - First-Impression error - Projection - Self-fulfilling prophecies - Name-dropping - Managing ones appearance - Self-Description - Flattery - Favors - Agreement Internal/External Attributions

Case ask what influence Individual Behaviour Case ask to explain personality Case ask how personality characteristics can influence on individual behaviour in organization Case ask how personality can be measured Case ask how to understand and measure individual differences Case ask what could affect the process of interpreting information about another person Case ask what are the barriers to social perception

Variable influencing Individual Behaviour 4 theories of personality

5 characteristic on individual behaviour

Several method

Developed by Katherine Briggs & Isabel Briggs Myers Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Instrument Social Perception

Barriers

Case ask how could one control others impression of them

Impression Management Techniques

Case ask how to determine Attribution Theory cause of behaviour Used by manager in evaluating performance Case ask about biases in Attribution Biases attribution

Fundamental Attribution Error Self-Serving Bias

Individual differences The way on which factors such as skills, abilities, personalities, perceptions, attitudes, values, and ethics differ from one individual to another. The more manager understand individual differences, the better they can work with others. Variable influencing Individual Behaviour The Person Skills & Abilities Personality Perception Attribution Attitude Values Ethnics The Environment Organization Workgroup Job Personal Life

Personality Personality is an individual difference that lends consistency to a persons behaviour. It is defined as a relatively stable set of characteristics that influence an individuals behaviour. Personality is shaped by both heredity and environment. An understanding of personality characteristics can help a manager appreciate differences in employees. With the increased diversity of the workforce, tools like the MBTI can be used to help employees see someone elses point of view. These tools can also help make communication among diverse employees more effective. 4 theories can be used to describe personality: Trait theory The personality theory that states that in order to understand individuals, we must break down behaviour patterns into a series of observable traits. Traits can be reduced to 5 basic factors: -extraversion: person is gregarious, assertive, and sociable -agreeableness: person is cooperative, warm, and agreeable -conscientiousness: person is hardworking, organized, and dependable -emotional stability: person is calm, self-confident, and cool -openness to experience: person is creative, curious, and cultured Limitations of trait theory: Might not work well with cultures that are different from the western culture Personality is dynamic and not completely stable, thus simply identifying the traits does not explain it Influence of situations on personality is ignored Emphasizes on the unconscious determinants of behavior -Discusses the id, superego and ego Emphasizes in individual growth and improvement Broad theory that describes personality as a composite of an individuals psychological approach.

Psychodynamic Theory P85 Humanistic Theory P85 Integrative Approach P85

Personality Characteristics & their influences on behaviour in organizations that might affect work performance: Managers should understand personality because of their effect on behaviour. Several characteristics affect behaviour in organization, including: 1. Locus of Control Individuals generalized belief about internal control (self-control) vs external control (control by situation or by others) Reasearch has shown that locus of control has strong implication for organisations -Internal Control Believe they control what happens to them Internals have higher job satisfaction and performance, likely to assume managerial positions and prefer participative management styles. It is also important to allow internals considerable voice in how work is performed. They will not react well when closely supervised. -External control Believe that circumstances or other people control their fate Do not believe that own performance led to success (promotion) Externals prefer a more structured work setting and are more reluctant to participate in decision making.

2. Self-efficacy
Individuals general belief that they are capable of meeting job demands in a wide variety of situations. Higher the self efficacy, higher the confidence in job related abilities. This helps them function effectively when doing their job. They will be more likely to attempt difficult tasks and experience less anxiety when faced with adversity. Another form of self-efficacy is Task-specific self-efficacy persons belief that they can perform a specific task (covered in Chapter 6) 3. Self-esteem Individuals general feeling of self-worth Self-esteem affects other attitudes and has implications for behaviour in organization High self-esteem - Individuals with high self esteem perform better, and are more satisfied with their job. - They seek higher status jobs when involved in job search. - A team with high self-esteem individuals are more likely to succeed than a team of low or average self-esteem individuals. - Individuals with high self-esteem might brag inappropriately when in stressful situations or may lead to overconfidence. Relationship conflicts might also come about if others view this behaviour unfavourable. They also protect themselves from unfavourable comparisons. Self- esteem may be strongly affected by situation. Success tends to raise self-esteem, while failure tends to decrease self-esteem. Since high self-esteem is a positive characteristic, managers should raise it by giving them appropriate challenges and opportunities for success.

4. Self-Monitoring Extent to which people base their behaviour on cues from other people and situations: High self-monitors They pay attention to what is appropriate in a particular situation and others behaviour and behave accordingly. So, they appear to be more unpredictable and less consistent. Low self-monitors They are not as vigilant to situational cues and act from internal states rather than paying attention to the situation. They are consistent across situations. Less likely to respond to work group norms or supervisory feedback. Effects of self monitoring in organizations: Research: Authors tracked the career of 139 MBAs for 5 years to find that high self monitors were more likely to get promoted, change employers, or make a job related geographic move. High self monitors get promoted because they meet the expectations and they seek out central positions in social networks. Their skill are also made aware though self-promotion. However, they might not be flexible for every job, and tendency to move may not fit every organization. They also demonstrate higher levels of managerial self-awareness. 5. Positive/Negative Affect Positive affect Individuals tendency to accentuate the positive aspects of themselves, other people and the world in general. Linked with job satisfaction. They are absent from work less often and are more satisfied with their jobs. Positive individual affects produces positive team affect which leads to more cooperation and less conflict within the team. Can promote positive affect by allowing participative decision making and providing pleasant work condition.

Negative affect Individuals tendency to accentuate the negative aspects of themselves, people and the world in general. Strong situation Situation that overwhelms the effects of individual personalities by providing strong cues for appropriate behaviour. Example; performance appraisal session Weak Situation Situation that is open to many interpretations with no obvious rewards for a behaviour. Example: Informal meeting Organizations present combinations of strong and weak situations; therefore, personality has a stronger effect on behaviour in some situations than in others.

Measuring personality 1. Projective Test A personality test that elicits an individuals response to abstract stimuli. - Show picture/ Abstract image/ Photo and ask to describe what they see or tell a story. (Rorschach Ink blot test) - Rationale: each individual responds to the way the STIMULI in a ways that reflect he/shes unique PERSONALITY Problem: has LOW REALIABILITY - Same person looking at the same picture at a different time many see something different - Assessor may apply his/her own BIAS when interpreting the information about the persons personality 2. Behavioural Measures Personality assessments that involve observing an individuals behaviour in a controlled situation. - Involved observing and individuals behaviour in a CONTROLLED environment. - Rationale: Like counting the number of times he/she approach a stranger at a party. It will be SCORED to produce an index of his/ her personality. Problems: 1) Observers ability to stay focus for long periods of time 2) Way observer interprets behavior 3) Some people behave differently when they know that they are being observed. 3. Self report questionnaires A common personality assessment that involves an individuals responses to a series of questions. - Individuals respond to a series of questions. (agree/disagree, true/false) a. MMPI Minnesota Multiphasic Personality inventory assesses a variety of traits, including Neurotic and Psychotic disorders. Long Questionnaire. b. NEO personality Theory Used to find the 5 Big personality Traits Problem: suffers from potential Bias 1) People often answer questions in terms of how they want to be see and not who they really are. (falsify answer) 4. MBTI Myers Briggs Indicator An instrument developed to measure Carl Jungs theory of individual differences. - People are fundamentally different but also fundamentally alike. - People have preference combinations for extraversion/introversion, perception, judgement - Human similarities/differences understood by combining preferences a. Ways of doing things b. Extraversion or introversion - There are no preferences better than others. Differences are to be understood, celebrated and appreciated. Briggs & Myers developed MBTI to understand individual differemces by analyzing the combinations of preferences. Use of MBTI - Identify learning and teaching styles - Decide on careers - Determine decision-making style - Determine management style - Build team

Potential for MISUSE of information from MBTI - Labeling each other - Providing convenient excuse that they cannot work together - Avoiding responsibility

Application of personality theory (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) in organizations: Jungian approach and measurement tool- MBTI Combination of preferences that make up an individuals psychological type: Preferences Represent Extraverted type (E) Introverted type (I) Represents where you get your Energized by interaction with Energized by time alone energy other people Sensing type (S) Intuition type (I) Represents perception or how Gathers information through Gathers information through we prefer to gather the five senses sixth sense and focuses on information what could be rather than what actually exists Thinking type (T) Feeling type (F) Represents the way we prefer Makes decisions in a logical, Makes decisions in a personal, to make decisions objective fashion value-oriented way Judging type (J) Perceiving type (P) Reflects ones orientation to Prefer closure and to lead a Prefer a more flexible and the outer environment planned, organized life and spontaneous life and wants to like making decisions keep options open (explores alternatives) *note: refer to page 94 for all the possible combinations of the preferences

Social perception The process of interpreting information about another person. Knowledge of the forces that affect perception and the barriers to accuracy can help the manager form a more accurate impression of others. Characteristics of perceiver that can affect social perception Familiarity with target (person being perceived) - With more familiarity, we have multiple observations on which to base our impression on that person Attitudes - About a particular persons race or gender Mood - We think differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. - Positive mood; form more positive impression of others. - Negative mood; evaluate others unfavourably. Self-concept - Positive self concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person - Negative self concept tends to lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another person Cognitive structure - Individuals pattern of thinking - Some have tendency to perceive physical traits - Others focus on central traits and personality dispositions Characteristics of the target (person being perceived), influence social perception Physical appearance - Targets physical features such a height, weight, race, gender and clothing that are being worn - Physically attractive people are rated more favourably Verbal communication - Listen to their speech topics, voice tone and accent and make judgments based on this. Nonverbal cues - Eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, posture etc. - some nonverbal signals mean different things in different cultures but some are universal Intentions - Perceivers interpretation of the targets intentions affects the way the perceiver views the target. Characteristics of the situation influence perceivers impression of target Context of the interaction - Social context of the interaction - Eg. where the meeting is held and is it during working hours\after hours Strength of the situational cues - Discounting principle is assumption that an individuals behaviour is accounted for by the situation - Eg. Automobile salesperson with a warm and personable manner. But it might not be his personality, he is trying to sell a car and he probably treats all the customers in the same manner.

Potential barriers to social perception Selective perception - process of selecting information that supports our individual viewpoints while discounting information that threatens our viewpoint - eg. Sales manager evaluating performance of employee. Although employee does not get along well with colleagues, he brings the most new sales contracts. Sales manager may choose to ignore the negative information and just base evaluation on contracts generated. Stereotype - generalization about a group of people - eg. May harm individuals when inaccurate impressions of them are inferred and are never tested. - Attractiveness is a powerful stereotype; assume that they are warm, kind, sociable and outgoing. But attractive people may be quiet and soft-spoken. First-impression error - tendency to form lasting opinions about an individual based on initial perceptions - eg. Speakers with higher vocal pitch are believed to be more competent and more dominant. Projection - overestimating the number of people who share our own beliefs, values and behaviour. - Eg. Usually we assume others are similar to us and that our own beliefs and values are appropriate. People who are different are viewed as unusual and even deviant. Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect) - Situation in which our expectations about people affect our interaction with them in such a way that our expectations are fulfilled. - Eg. Initial impression is that an employee has the potential to move up within the organization. Chances are that you will spend a great deal of time coaching and counselling the employee, providing challenging assignments, and grooming the individual for success. Impression management The process by which individuals try to control the impressions others have of them. Techniques for impression management Self-enhancing - Name-dropping, which involves mentioning an association with important people in the hopes of improving ones images is often used. - Managing ones appearance by dressing carefully Other-enhancing - Flattery, where compliments are given to an individual in order to win his/her approval - Where you provide people favours to gain approval of yourself - Agreement with opinion As long as the impressions conveyed are accurate, it can benefit the organization. However, if the impression is found to be false, it may result in a strongly negative overall impression. Excessive impression management can lead to the perception that the user is manipulative and insincere.

Attributions in the Organization Attribution Theory A theory that explain how individuals pinpoint the causes of their own behaviour. The process by which people use information to make inferences about the causes of behaviour or event. It attempts to explain the why of behaviour. Internal and external Attributes - Internal: something within the individuals control. Emphasize some aspect of individual, such as ability or skill, to explain behaviour. - External: something OUTSIDE the individuals control. Emphasize the environments effect on behaviour. Example: Doing well in an exam, - Internal Attribute - You can attribute the reason to hard work and ability - External Attribute - You were just lucky / paper was easy Attribution Theory differs among people - Achievement oriented people attribute Success to Ability and Failures to lack of effort - Failure oriented people attribute Failure to Lack of Ability. May develop feelings of in competence. - May lead to depression. More predominant in Women (due to social norms thatt they are more modest) Note: When praised, With internal Attribute may have a higher sense of self-Efficacy, but with External Attribute may think u are just lucky and would not be motivated to repeat the performance BECAUSE u believe that you had little influence to your success In interviews: Successful candidates are less defensive and make INTERNAL Attributes for Negative events. UN-successful candidates attribute negative outcomes to things beyond their control (External Attribution). Attribution Bias Fundamental Attribution Error The tendency to make attribution to internal causes when focusing on others behaviour. Self-serving bias The tendency to attribute ones own successes to internal causes and ones failures to external causes. USA and India tendency to contribute to External Attributes China tendency to contribute to internal attributes. Reflection on morals, social norms and environment

Managerial Implication - Understanding personality characteristics help manager appreciate differences in employees. - MBTI can be used to help employees see someone else point of view. - Also help make communication among diverse employee more effective - Knowledge of forces that affect perception and barriers to accuracy help manager form more accurate impression of others. - Attribution theory help explain how managers determining causality - Knowledge of attribution bias help manager guard against these biases in the process of looking for causes of behaviour on the job.