4.

7 ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSORS

Transducers a device for converting a signal of any sort into one of another type. Strictly speaking, a pressure gage is a transducer for converting the distortion of the Bourdon spring into an indication through use of a calibrated dial; a speedometer is a transducer for converting the rotary motion of its drive shaft into an indication of speed. Pressure transducers. Because the measurement of pressure is of immediate concern, we shall start with the various transformations which are needed to convert pressure to some sort of usable electrical signal. Some of the more common means employ the following:

Semiconductor Strain Gauges the sensitivity of semiconductors such as Silicon and Germanium is 100 times that of wire
strain gauges. Silicon has very good elasticity, which make it an ideal material for receiving an applied force. Since it is a perfect crystal, it does not become permanently stretched but returns to its original shape after the force is removed.

the change of resistance of an elastic material the piezoelectric effect: the conversion of a changing pressure into electrical voltage signals
Although there are various types of pressure transducers, one of the most common is the strain-gage base transducer. The conversion of pressure into an electrical signal is achieved by the physical deformation of strain gages which are bonded into the diaphragm of the pressure transducer and wired into a Wheatstone bridge (device for measuring unknown electrical resistance) configuration. Pressure applied to the pressure transducer produces a deflection of the diaphragm which introduces strain to the gages. The strain will produce an electrical resistance change proportional to the pressure. A strain gauge consists of a grid of very fine wire that is bonded to a surface. When the surface moves due to changes in pressure, the resistance of the wire changes. The strain gauge must be connected in a circuit such as a Wheatstone bridge so that the change in resistance can be converted to a change in voltage. When you purchase a strain gauge, it will come mounted on its backing ready to be glued to the surface of the material that will move or flex when pressure is applied to it. For example, a strain gauge could be glued to the end of the Bourdon tube or the bellows of the pressure gauges that were previously discussed. As pressure is applied to the Bourdon tube and bellows, they will deform or change and the strain gauge will monitor this change by changing its resistance. If the strain gauge is connected to a Wheatstone bridge, the amount of change in resistance can be converted to a change of voltage. The strain gauge must be connected to an electrical circuit for it to be useful. The figure (left) shows an example of a two-wire strain gauge connected to a Wheatstone bridge circuit. From this example you can see that the strain gauge acts like one of the legs of the bridge. The typical resistance for the strain gauge is 120 . Resistor R2, is used to balance all the resistance in the bridge. When this occurs and no force is applied to the surface where the strain gauge is mounted, the voltage-out signal will be zero. When a force is applied to the surface, it will deform the

metal that the strain gauge is glued to. At this time, the wire in the strain gauge will also deform and the amount of resistance in the wire will change. The change in resistance is proportional to the deformation of the wire in the strain gauge, which means that the signal from the bridge circuit will be somewhat linear due to the change in pressure. You should notice that R2, can be adjusted at any point to balance the bridge. If a small amount of pressure is applied to the strain gauge when the circuit is balanced, it is called a preload. The formula for calculating the voltage out from the bridge is: Vout = Vin ((R3/(R3+Rg)) - ((R2/(R1+R2)) This means that (R1/R2) = (Rg/R3) when the bridge is balanced. Gauge Factor the ratio of the amount of change in resistance to the change in the length (strain) along the axis of the gauge: GF = ((R/R)/(L/L)) = (R/R)/ Notice that L/L is identified as epsilon . Gauge factor is a dimensionless value, and the larger the value the more sensitive the strain gauge is. The gauge factor is provided with the strain gauge: typical values are 2-2.5.

Transverse Voltage Strain Gauge

the creation of voltage by the movement of a coil or diaphragm within an electrical field

It uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to detect strain due to applied pressure. Common technology types are Silicon (Monocrystalline), Polysilicon Thin Film, Bonded Metal Foil, Thick Film, and Sputtered Thin Film. Generally, the strain gauges are connected to form a Wheatstone bridge circuit to maximize the output of the sensor. This is the most commonly employed sensing technology for general purpose pressure measurement. Generally, these technologies are suited to measure absolute, gauge, vacuum, and differential pressures. The transverse strain gauge can comprise a single four contact resistor element orientated to maximize response to pressure induced stresses through shear stress effects. The transverse strain gauge comprising the single resistor can be provided with current contacts which allow forcing of a current along a current axis, such as at 45 degrees with respect to the edge of the membrane or die. The transverse voltage can be generated in response to pressure induced stresses which can be detected at voltage contacts located at the edges of the transverse stress gauge. The voltage can be generated along a line perpendicular to the current axis. The transducer element can comprise an elongated resistor portion which is orientated along a current axis. The current axis can be orientated along a crystalline direction and can form a 45 degree angle with an edge of the membrane or die as discussed previously. Current contacts can make electrical contact to the ends of the resistor. The current contacts can be formed from a heavily doped diffusion which provides a low impedance path from the ends of the resistor to a location outside the diaphragm or die. The transverse strain gauge can have voltage taps which are positioned on two sides of the resistor, such as approximately midway along the length of the resistor. Voltage taps allow the detection and measurements of a transverse voltage generated in response to flexing of a diaphragm or die when the current flows along the current axis. Ohm contact to voltage taps can be made by voltage contacts. The voltage contacts can be heavily doped, high conductivity regions which extend from the voltage taps to a position outside the diaphragm or die. In the transverse strain gauge, a pressure differential across the diaphragm can produce a voltage which is detectable at the voltage taps. Such voltage can be proportional to the magnitude of the pressure differential. This can be characterized as a physical analog to a Hall device.

In the sensor or pressure transducer, the transverse strain gauge can comprise a P-type resistor. The resistor can be diffused to a depth such as about 4 micrometers (m) and can have a resistance of about 500 ohms. The transverse strain gauge, the current contact and contact to voltage taps, can be high concentration P-type diffusions having a resistance of about 10-20 ohms. The contact diffusion can be of a sufficiently high conductivity so as not to appreciably interfere with the operation of the transducer element. Contact to the voltage taps and the current contacts can also be made by metallically contacting the transducer element to the semiconductor interconnects. Advantages: Minimal adverse effect from thermally induced stresses. Minimal measurement deviation at engine operating temperatures. Simple to use. Economical. Safe. Longer life.

Variable Capacitor Pressure Detector the change in capacitance when the distance between the capacitor plates is varied or the
dielectric is changed

a diaphragm with stable deflection properties can measure pressure with a spacing-sensitive
detector

used in weight sensors, security sensors and balance meters

Variable capacitance technology uses the change of capacitance due to change of the distance between the plates of a capacitor because of change in pressure to calculate the pressure. The invention uses the concept of a capacitor to create a pressure sensor. This is done by using a dielectric that is able to compress. As the dielectric compresses between the plates when there is pressure being applied to the top plate, the capacitance will increase. With the change in capacitance, an equation will be used to calculate the pressure being applied to plates. The different applications are made using the pressure sensor in different configurations. The design process usually follows these steps Design electrode plates to measure the desired variable. Maximize capacitance with large-area, close-spaced plates Surround this sensor with appropriate guard or shield electrodes to handle stray capacitance and crosstalk from other circuits Calculate sensor capacitance, stray capacitance and output signal swing Specify transfer function, like Eo = C (area-linear), Eo = 1/C (spacing-linear). Use two balanced capacitors for high accuracy, with a transfer function like C1/C2 or (C1-C2)/(C1+C2) Choose an excitation frequency high enough for low noise. As excitation frequency increases, external and circuit-generated noise decreases Design circuit to meet accuracy specifications and provide immunity to environmental challenges Calculation: The simplest electrode configuration is two close-spaced parallel plates. Figure 1 Parallel plate

With a plate size of 100 mm x 100 mm and a spacing of 1mm, the capacitance in vacuum, neglecting a small fringe effect, is 88.54 pF. With a vacuum dielectric, the relative dielectric constant r or K is 1. An air dielectric increases K to 1.0006. Typical dielectric materials such as plastic or oil have dielectric constants of 3-10, and some polar fluids such as water have dielectric constants of 50 or more. Effect of fringing flux If the plates are close compared to the plate spacing, the calculation in Fig. 1 is accurate. But as the plate spacing increases relative to area, more flux lines connect from the edges and backs of the plates and the measured capacitance can be much larger than calculated. Figure 2 Disk

Figure 3 Sphere

Figure 4 Coaxial cylinders

Capacitance of arbitrary electrode shapes The task of calculating the capacitance of an arbitrary electrode configuration involves finding an integration of Poissons Law over the volume of interest. Simple configurations with radial or rectangular symmetry can usually be solved--the solutions above are symmetric--but more complex shapes can be difficult. For asymmetric electrodes, approximate solutions are available. Field line sketching can produce an approximation of the orthogonal equipotential surfaces and flux lines, and capacitance is estimated by counting squares of the resulting sketch.

Finite Element Analysis software available from Ansoft and others performs a rough equivalent to field line sketching. FEA programs can produce field line drawings in 2D or 3D as well as capacitance values accurate to a percent or less. Advantage: better affordability, salability, simplicity and a range of applications