Automated transient thermography for the inspection of CFRP structures: experimental results and developed procedures

P. Theodorakeas1, N.P. Avdelidis1,2*, K. Hrissagis1, C. Ibarra-Castanedo2, M. Koui1, X. Maldague2

1

NTUA National Technical University of Athens, School of Chemical Engineering, Materials Science & Engineering Department, Zografou Campus, 157 80 Athens, Greece. 2 Computer Vision and Systems Laboratory, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Laval University, Quebec City, G1V 0A6, Canada.
ABSTRACT
In thermography surveys, the inspector uses the camera to acquire images from the examined part. Common problems are the lack of repeatability when trying to repeat the scanning process, the need to carry the equipment during scanning, and long setting-up time. The aim of this paper is to present transient thermography results on CFRP plates for assessing different types of fabricated defects (impact damage, inclusions for delaminations, etc), as well as and to discuss and present a prototype robotic scanner to apply non destructive testing (thermographic scanning) on materials and structures. Currently, the scanning process is not automatic. The equipment to be developed, will be able to perform thermal NDT scanning on structures, create the appropriate scanning conditions (material thermal excitation), and ensure precision and tracking of scanning process. A thermographic camera that will be used for the image acquisition of the non destructive inspection, will be installed on a x, y, z, linear manipulator's end effector and would be surrounded by excitation sources (optical lamps), required for the application of transient thermography. In this work various CFRP samples of different shape, thickness and geometry were investigated using two different thermographic systems in order to compare and evaluate their effectiveness concerning the internal defect detectability under different testing conditions. Keywords: transient thermography, inspection, thermal scanning, robot, procedures, analysis, CFRP.

1. INTRODUCTION
Fibre reinforced composite materials are used in a wide range of transport applications due to their high strength to weight ratio, high specific strengths and moduli, superior corrosion resistance and improved fatigue performance. The use of fibre-reinforced composite materials has increased steadily in both low and high technology engineering applications over recent years. This growth is also apparent within the surface transport and automotive industry. There are many drivers behind this increased use of high performance composites within such industries with the weight reduction being the primary driver. Although, currently other materials (i.e. steel, aluminium, etc) are the main materials used in transport applications, advanced carbon-fibre reinforced polymers are providing an increasingly attractive and economically viable alternative. Main composite materials are Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastics (CFRP), Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastics (GFRP) and metal-aluminium laminates (i.e. Glass Fibre Reinforced Aluminium GLARE). These composite materials are used more and more from the aircraft production industry. Typical parts made of CFRP are flaps, vertical and horizontal tail planes, centre wing boxes, rear pressure bulkheads, ribs and stringers. For the Airbus A380, GLARE is used even for some shells of the upper fuselage. The weight percentage of composites in modern civil aircrafts like the A380 is in the order of 25%. It may be expected that this percentage will further increase for the next generation of civil aircrafts and that main structure parts like fuselage and wings will be composed of composites, too.

Correspondence Email: avdel@mail.ntua.gr

Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXIII, edited by Morteza Safai, Jeff R. Brown, Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8013, 80130W 2011 SPIE CCC code: 0277-786X/11/$18 doi: 10.1117/12.882695

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Even those composite materials are offering a large number of advantages over the conventional materials, a large number of possible defects can occur within these materials due to their complex production processes. These defects can reduce the mechanical performance of composite materials and it is vital to characterise and understand the effects such defects can have on the performance, as well as develop methods of detecting such defects promptly and successfully.

2. DEFECT ASSESSMENT OF COMPOSITES & TRANSIENT THERMAL NDT

Several approaches could find use in the monitoring of the structures damage [1,2]. One area where relatively little work has been done is on the effects that manufacturing and assembly defects have on the performance of composites. Several defects can occur within composite materials both due to the manufacturing of the material and assembly of manufactured components. Due to the complex processes involved in the production of composite materials and the numerous material manufacturing, lay-up and curing processes that are available there is a large number of possible defects that can occur within the material. Within assembly of an aircraft structure, a huge number of different components manufactured from differing materials need to be assembled to create the finished product. This assembly stage of the manufacture will have differing amounts of automation and can involve a number of processes whereby the material can become damaged. This damage may have a detrimental effect on the components ability to support a load and thus such defects need to be understood and quantified. This is necessary for both the production of safe aircraft transport and in order to establish damage and defect tolerance criteria for the various components. A better understanding of these defects and their effects is necessary to establish inspection criteria and in order to fully understand both the production and operation costs that may be incurred. A lot of this work has concentrated on the effects of manufacturing defects in composites but less work has been carried out on assembly related defects and their effects on the materials performance [3,4]. Assembly related defects have been investigated; including out-of-round holes, hole exit side delaminations, improper countersink depths, incorrect countersink angles, interference fit and damage associated with numerous fastener removal and instillation cycles. Varying defect effects depending on the defect size, laminate lay-up and testing environment but in all cases the defects resulted in a drop-off in mechanical properties. Furthermore, careful control of the manufacturing process and increased automation can reduce the probability of defects occurring; however they will never be fully removed. Manufacturing defects are described graphically in the following figures (Figures 1 & 2).

Delamination

Inclusion

Voids/porosity

Figure 1: Typical Manufacturing Defects in Composite Laminates

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Resin poor region

Resin rich region

Figure 2: Schematic of resin variation.

Internal damage to a laminate (such as delaminations, inclusions and voids) is rarely visible from the material surface. For this reason a number of NDT techniques have been developed. These methods are advantageous because they do not affect the serviceability of the component, they can be used as manufacturing process control and failure prevention and they can lead to cost reduction. Non-destructive investigation techniques are largely used because of the outstanding advantages that they are capable to provide in a variety of applications. Transient thermal NDT is a prompt and reliable technique [5] that could be used for the inspection, monitoring and assessment of composites and composite components that find use in transport applications. Transient thermal NDT requires an external source of energy to induce a temperature difference between defective and non-defective areas in the specimen under examination. A wide variety of energy sources are available [6] and can be divided in optical, if the energy is delivered to the surface by means of optical devices such as photographic flashes (for heat pulsed stimulation) or halogen lamps (for periodic heating), mechanical if the energy is injected into the specimen by means of mechanical oscillations (e.g. with a sonic or ultrasonic transducer) or electromagnetic. Furthermore, other forms of external active excitation have been proposed, such are hot or cold air/ water jet and thermo-elastic heating. Commonly all active thermography techniques can be used in the NDT assessment of industrial materials. Selection of the most suitable technique and energy source depends on the application. Optical pulsed thermography (PT) is a fast and easy to deploy inspection technique [7]. In PT the heat stimulation can last from some ms to some seconds depending from the thermal diffusivity of the material being inspected. A short pulse of light energy (i.e. flash lamp) heats the inspection surface of a composite material and the infrared camera monitors and records the surface temperature (or radiance) as the sample cools down. The surface temperature falls predictably as heat from the surface diffuses into the sample bulk. Nonetheless, internal thermal discontinuities such as voids or delaminations modify the local cooling of the surface and the corresponding radiation flux from the surface that is detected by the infrared camera. Fundamental detectability of a defect will depend on its size, depth and the degree to which its thermal properties differ from those of the composite material. Detectability is a function of the aspect ratio of the defect. The minimum detectable defect size increases with the depth of the defect. Detectability is highest for larger defects that are closer to the sample surface and have thermal properties that are significantly different from the composite material. There are various parameters that affect detectability and these are: emissivity reflectivity, data acquisition period, thermal energy from pulsed source, wavelength of infrared camera, frame rate, sensitivity, and spatial resolution. Lock-in Thermography (also known as modulated thermography) uses thermal waves instead of pulses in order to illuminate the investigated specimen [8]. The thermal wave is recorded at the same time using an infrared detector and decomposed by a lock-in amplifier to extract the amplitude and phase of the modulation. Sinusoidal waves are typically used in lock-in thermographic approach. The periodic wave propagates by radiation through the air until it reaches the specimen surface where the heat is produced that propagates through the material. Internal defects act as a barrier for heat propagation which produces changes in the amplitude and phase of the response signal at the surface of the item under inspection. Optical lock-in thermography allows better control of the energy deposited on a surface, which might be interesting if a low power source is to be used or if special care has to be given to the inspected part (i.e. inspection of artworks). However, it requires a separate experiment for each and every inspected depth and there is a stabilization time before reaching a permanent regime.

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Vibrothermography (VT), also known as ultrasound thermography utilizes mechanical waves to directly stimulate internal defects without heating the surface as in optical methods [9]. In ultrasound thermography a transducer is placed in contact with the sample. The ultrasonic waves travel through the specimen and are transmitted back to the surface where the transducer picks up the reflected signal (pulse echo technique) or they are collected on the opposite side (through transmission). The ultrasonic waves will travel freely through a homogeneous material in all direction dissipating their energy at the discontinuities in the form of heat. The heat generated will then travel by conduction in all directions. An infrared camera can be directed to one of the surfaces of the specimen to capture the defect signature. Ultrasonic waves are ideal for NDT as the defect detection is independent from its orientation inside the specimen, and both internal and open surface defects can be detected. Vibrothermography is extremely fast very useful in either lockin or burst (e.g. pulsed) configuration for the detection of cracks and delaminations. Either brust or modulated vibrothermography requires attention to some experimental parameters [10]. These parameters are the pressure and the contact area between the horn and the specimen and the duration of the stimulation. The longer the transducer operates at the surface; the most heat is released in the contact surface, increasing the probability of damaging the area. Nevertheless, once all these factors are correctly addressed, inspection is extremely fast and results provide good defect contrast without processing. Finally, Eddy Current Thermography (ECT) is a very promising technique [11]. Although it is limited to electroconductive materials, the range of potential applications is extensive, from metal laminates such as GLARE, to composite materials and sandwiched structures such as honeycomb specimens. Electromagnetic excitation is achieved by inducing Eddy currents through electromagnetic coils. The presence of an internal defect will disturb the current flow generating changes in the temperature profile of the defective area. These temperature changes are visualized using an IR thermographic camera. As in the case of optical and ultrasound excitation, during the electromagnetic excitation both pulsed and lock-in configuration can be used. In common practice, advanced signal processing algorithms are used to enhance detectability of defects that are not detectable in the raw thermographic data. Transient thermal thermography based on optical techniques, in general, provide very good defect resolution. However, results are strongly affected by surface features and advanced signal/image processing is required to reduce their impact. Data obtained by optical stimulation in either PT or LT, is processed by the fast Fourier transform (FFT), which is commonly refer as pulsed phase thermography (PPT) in the case of pulsed thermographic data [12,13]; and phase angle thermography or phase sensitive thermography in the case of modulated data [14,15]. By using FFT, data is transformed from the time domain to the frequency spectra. Results are presented in the form of phasegrams, i.e. a map of the specimen surface indicating the phase delay of the output signal with respect to the input. Furthermore, there are many other advanced processing techniques developed to improve the transient signal. Thermographic signal reconstruction (TSR) is one of such techniques [16]. It allows reducing the amount of data, de-noise the signal and further process synthetic data using first and second time derivative images as well as the FFT, which considerably improve the signal-to-noise ratio. Another prompt signal /image processing tool is Principal Component Thermography [9]. PCT reorganizes data in a transformed space where the first components contains the maximum variance. Typically, a 1000 thermogram sequence can be replaced by 10 or less Empirical Orthogonal Functions (EOF) that describe spatial variation of data. The first EOF will represent the most characteristic variability of the data; the second EOF will contain the second most important variability and so on. After applying the PCT tool each of the resulting EOF highlights a specific type of feature. These processing techniques can be applied to any thermographic regardless of the energy source used for stimulation. It should be pointed out however, that when all the experimental factors are correctly addressed in the case of vibrothermography, raw data present adequate contrast to detect defects and no advance processing is required [17]. A simple cold image subtraction or the FFT can be used to improve contrast in some cases.

3. THERMOGRAPHIC INSPECTION OF CFR PLATES

In this work, five different CFRP samples were investigated. The specimens were of different geometry and thickness consisted of various types of fabricated defects. Experimental tests were carried out on the first set of CFRP samples of 2mm thickness and of three different shapes (planar, curved, and trapezoid) as described in Figure 3. In each specimen twenty five square Teflon insertions of different sizes were placed between the plies at different locations. The

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specimens geometry as well as the defect locations, depths (ranged from 0.2 to 1.0 mm) and sizes are presented in the left column of Figure 3. The use of the equivalent diameter Deq, defined as the diameter of the circle having the same area of the considered shape, is proposed for the eventual comparison to similar studies using defects with different geometries. For instance, the equivalent diameter of a square of size L is Deq=2L/1/2 [18].

a) CFRP planar

b) CFRP curved

c) CFPR trapezoid
Figure 3: a) Schematics (left) and real images (right) of the first set of the CFRP investigated samples

Furthermore, two other CFRP laminates of 6 and 12 mm thickness respectively were also investigated. The two plates were consisted of different types of fabricated defects. The 12mm of thickness CFR plate as can be seen from figure 4, is consisted of some countersink defects as well as and some hidden defect stimulating the effects of impact damage. A schematic of the 6 mm thick plate is presented in Figure 5.

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Figure 4: CFRP test sample of 6mm thickness (left) and CFRP test sample of 12 mm thickness (right)
50 mm D1 50 mm D2 D3 300 mm D4 O I3 I2 O I1 300 mm O C1 O C2 C3 I: Impact I1: Load 1 I2: Load 2 I3 :Load 3 C: Countersink B: Burned drill hole O: Other defects D: Delamination D1: 1 mm x 1 mm D2: 2.5 mm x 2.5 mm D3: 5 mm x 5 mm D4: 10 mm x 10 mm

B3 B2 B1

Figure 5: Schematic of the CFRP test sample of 6mm thickness

For the investigation of the composite samples two different integrated thermographic systems were used (Echotherm and Voyage IR from TWI Inc). The Echotherm pulsed thermographic system is employing a medium wave (35 mm) infrared camera (Indigo) in order to image the defects. Echotherm is a portable state-of-the-art non-destructive evaluation system with an integrated flash heating system. The Indigo Phoenix mid-wave infrared camera (also attached to the system) uses a cooled detector with a frame rate of 60 Hz and a focal plane array pixel format of 640 x 480. On the other hand, the data acquisition with the Voyage IR system was performed using of a long wave infrared camera (ThermaCAMTM SC640). The long wave camera uses an uncooled microbolometer detector of FPA type with image resolution 640 x 480 pixels and working on the maximum frequency of 30Hz. The thermal stimulation was performed with the use of a heat gun (incorporated in the Voyage IR thermographic system) providing energy of 1875 Watts. The data obtained by the two thermographic systems were processed using Thermographic Signal Reconstruction. The main aim of this work was to compare and evaluate the reliability of different thermographic systems in order to assess hidden defects on CFRP samples and propose procedures to be accommodated in a robotic scanner that will perform thermographic scanning. The main difference of the two thermographic systems is on the infrared detector. The Echotherm system employs a cooled MWIR camera opposite to the Voyage IR where the acquisition was performed using an uncooled microbolometer LWIR camera. The two infrared detectors are having the same image resolution but as it is well know a cooled detector is more sensitive to thermal radiation. Furthermore, aim of this work was also to compare different energy sources (flash lamps and heating gun) as well as and different testing conditions. The inspection area of the Echotherm system is isolated from the surrounding with a frame box as can be seen in figure 6, opposite to the testing condition using Voyage IR system.

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Figure 6: Test arrangements for the thermographic measurements.

Figures 7 and 8 present the pulsed thermographic results obtained from the 2 mm CFRP specimens inspection (first set of samples) with the use of the integrated flash thermographic system, employing the MWIR camera. As can be seen from the representative figures most of the Teflon insertions can be clearly identified. Furthermore, some background variations can be observed due to the presence of fibres. Finally, for the trapezoid panel (Figure 7b), the sharp geometrical changes at the surface can be perfectly observed apart from some of the Teflon insertions in these areas.

a)

b)
Figure 7: Second time derivative images acquired with the frame rate of 15 Hz from a) the rear side of the flat sample at t= 2 s and b) the front side of the trapezoid sample at t= 1.46 s.

a)

b)
Figure 8: Second time derivative images of the curved CFRP acquired with the frame rate of 15 Hz from a) the left front side at t=1.8 s and b) the right front side of defects at t=1.46 s.

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The results obtained for the two other CFRP samples are presented in Figures 9 and 10. Evidence of the hidden defects on the right lower corner in the front side as well as and a hidden defect in the left side of the 6mm thick plate can be seen (Figure 9). The fibres breakout on the burned drill and countersink holes can be better observed by extracting the 1st and 2nd time derivative images of the raw thermographs.

Figure 9: Raw image of the 6mm CFRP acquired with a frame rate of 3.75 Hz from the front side at t= 8.6 s (left) and1st derivative image acquired with a frame rate of 15 Hz from the front side at t=5.53s by using TSR approach (right).

Furthermore, from the results obtained after the thermographic inspection of the 12mm CFRP laminate, analysis shows some hidden defects on the right lower corner of the front side. The rear side inspection reveals the loose of fibres on the countersink holes.

Figure 10: Transient thermography results of the 12mm CFRP sample presenting raw image acquired with a frame rate of 1 Hz from the front side (left) and another raw thermogram acquired with a frame rate of 2 Hz from the back side (right).

As mentioned above, some transient thermal testing was performed with the aid of a thermographic system employing an uncooled microbolometer LWIR camera and a heating gun as stimulation source. Similar results were observed compared with the results from the flash thermographic system, but as can be seen from the figures below, in this case the results are strongly affected by noise and environmental reflections. Furthermore, some of the results are affected by non-uniform heating, especially the samples with complex surface geometry (i.e. curved and trapezoid). Nevertheless, some internal defects on the CFRP samples can be clearly indentified as well.

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a)

b)
Figure 11: First time derivative images acquired with the frame rate of 30 Hz a) from the rear side of the planar CFRP at t=1.09 s and b) from the rear side of the trapezoid CFRP at t= 1.22 s.

a)

b)
Figure 12: First time derivative images a) of the curved CFRP acquired from the rear side with the frame rate of 15 Hz at t=0.92 s and b) of the 6mm thick CFRP acquired from the from side with the frame rate of 15 Hz at t=13.97 s

a)

b)

Figure 13: a) First time derivative image of the 12 mm CFRP acquired from the front side with the frame rate of 1.5 Hz t=13.97 s and b) second time derivative image at= 13.26 s.

4. CONCLUSIONS
From the above results presented, it can be seen that different active thermographic techniques can be used in the NDT assessment of composite materials. Selection of the most suitable energy source depends on the application. Although data are affected by different problems (non-uniform heating, emissivity variations, environmental reflections and

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surface geometry), there are numerous processing techniques such as TSR, available to counter these problems and therefore to obtain prompt results of reliable quality, as well as quantitative information in some instances. Furthermore, the results presented lead to the conclusion that the above mentioned transient thermal inspection techniques can be accommodate in a robotic scanner in order to apply non destructive testing (thermographic scanning) in composite materials and structures as shown in figure 14. The equipment will be able to perform thermal NDT scanning on structures, create the appropriate scanning conditions (material thermal excitation, data acquisition), and ensure precision, tracking and repeatability of the scanning process. A thermographic camera that will be used for the image acquisition of the non destructive inspection that will be installed on a x, y, z, linear manipulator's end effector and would be surrounded by excitation sources (i.e. optical lamps), required for the application of transient thermography. An automatic scanning progress can improve the non-invasive imaging NDT & E of composites and decrease the operating costs and time by reducing unnecessary unscheduled inspections. The equipment for data acquisition and analysis of the thermographic inspection data will be installed close to the scanner, connected via umbilical to it and the inspection equipment. A control console and a monitor will be available, providing automatic or semi-automatic robotic functions for operating the robotic scanner.

Figure 14: Concept overview of the automated robotic scanner

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgements are attributed to the ComPair project, which is a collaboration between the following organisations: TWI Ltd, Kaunas University of technology, Technical Research Centre of Finland, National Technical University of Athens, ATOUTVEILLE, Cereteth, G-Tronix Ltd, ENEA, ENVIROCOUSTICS, HEXCEL COMPOSITES, KINGSTON COMPUTER CONSULTANCY LIMITED. The Project is co-ordinated and managed by TWI Ltd. and is partly funded by the EC under the Collaborative project programme - Small to medium scale focused research project. Grant Agreement Number 218697.

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