Analytical solutions for consolidation aided by vertical drains

D. BASU, P. BASU and M. PREZZI*

School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
(Received 3 November 2005; in final form 12 December 2005)
Soil disturbance caused during the installation of vertical drains reduces the in situ hydraulic conductivity of soft deposits in the immediate vicinity of
the drains, resulting in a slower rate of consolidation than would be expected in the absence of disturbance. Experimental investigations have revealed
the existence of two distinct zones, a smear zone and a transition zone, within the disturbed zone around the vertical drain. The degree of change in the
hydraulic conductivity in the smear and transition zones is difficult to assess without performing of laboratory tests. Based on the available literature,
four different profiles of hydraulic conductivity versus distance from the vertical drain were identified. Closed-form solutions for the rate of
consolidation for each of these four hydraulic conductivity profiles were developed. It is found that different variations of the hydraulic conductivity
profiles in the disturbed zone result in different rates of consolidation.
Keywords: Vertical drain; Analytical solution; Consolidation; Smear; Soil disturbance; Ground improvement
1. Introduction
Soft soil deposits are characterized by low shear strength, high
compressibility, and low hydraulic conductivity. In order to
improve the strength and stiffness of clayey soils, vertical
drains, combined with preloading, are often used in practice
(Johnson 1970, Holtz 1987, Bergado et al. 1993a). The installa-
tion of vertical drains reduces the water drainage path, speeding
up the dissipation of the excess pore pressure generated during
preloading. The fact that the flow is predominantly in the
horizontal direction (except near the top surface or close to a
highly permeable silt/sand seam) further helps the process
because, owing to depositional anisotropy, the hydraulic con-
ductivity is generally greater in the horizontal direction than in
the vertical direction.
Since the early 1970s, prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs)
have been successfully used in various sites throughout the
world (Bergado et al. 1993a, 1997, 2002, Lo and Mesri 1994).
PVDs consist of a plastic core surrounded by a filter sleeve with
typical cross-sectional dimensions of 100 mm 4 mm (Holtz
1987). They are installed in rectangular or triangular patterns
with centre--centre distance ranging from about 1.0 m to 3.0 m
(Holtz 1987).
Closed-ended mandrels are generally used for the installation
of PVDs. Soil adjacent to the mandrel is displaced and dragged
down in order to produce a space for the PVD (Hird and
Moseley 2000). This creates a disturbed zone of soil around
the drain around the PVD in which the strength and the hydrau-
lic conductivity in the horizontal direction decrease, and the
compressibility increases (Holtz and Holm 1973, Lo and Mesri
1994). The reduction in hydraulic conductivity delays the con-
solidation process.
2. Disturbed zone characterization
The degree of change in the soil hydraulic conductivity k in the
disturbed zone with distance from the PVD is not known with
certainty. According to most researchers (Barron 1948,
Casagrande and Poulos 1969, Hansbo 1981, 1986, 1987,
1997, Bergado et al. 1991, 1993a), the soil within the disturbed
zone, which is also known as the smear zone, is completely
remoulded, resulting in a spatially uniform hydraulic conduc-
tivity k
s
which is smaller than the in situ hydraulic conductivity
k
c
(figure 1, case A). The degree of disturbance, quantified as
the ratio k
s
/k
c
of the hydraulic conductivities of the smear zone
and the undisturbed zone, and the extent of the smear zone have
been the subject of many investigations based on back analysis
of case histories, laboratory tests on samples collected from
field, model experiments, studies of pile driving, practical con-
siderations, and experience. According to Bergado et al.
(1993a,b), Hansbo (1986, 1997), and Hird and Moseley
(2000), the degree of disturbance k
s
/k
c
varies between 0.1 and
0.33. However, Casagrande and Poulos (1969) proposed a
value as low as 0.001, while Bergado et al. (1991) suggested
that k
s
/k
c
ranges from 0.5 to 0.66.
The dimensions and shape of the disturbed zone depend on
many factors, such as the size and shape of the mandrel, the rate
of mandrel penetration, the type of mandrel shoe, and the soil
properties (Hird and Moseley 2000, Holtz et al. 1991). In the
Geomechanics and Geoengineering: An International Journal
Vol. 1, No. 1, March 2006, 63--71
*Corresponding author. Email: mprezzi@purdue.edu
Geomechanics and Geoengineering: An International Journal
ISSN 1748-6025 print,ISSN 1748-6033 online 2006 Taylor & Francis
http:,,www.tandf.co.uk,journals
DOI: 10.1080,17486020500527960
case of circular sand drains, the smear zone is probably also
circular. A variety of mandrels with different cross-sections
(circular, rectangular or diamond shaped) are used for PVDs
(Holtz et al. 1991, Bo et al. 2003). The disturbed zone of a non-
circular mandrel is likely to have a non-circular cross-section.
However, it is customary to convert the areas of non-circular
mandrels and the corresponding cross-sections of the smear
zones surrounding the PVDs to equivalent circular areas.
Assuming that the disturbed zone has a single value of
hydraulic conductivity k
s
(figure 1, case A), a number of
researchers (Holtz and Holm 1973, Jamiolkowski et al. 1983,
Hansbo 1986, 1997, Bergado et al. 1991, 1993b, Mesri et al.
1994, Chai et al. 2001) have concluded that the equivalent
smear zone radius (radius of the smear zone measured from
the centre of the drain) can be taken as approximately two to
four times the equivalent mandrel radius r
m,eq
.
The above discussion is based on the assumption that the
hydraulic conductivity remains constant within the disturbed
zone (case A). However, recent experimental investigations
have shown that the assumption of a single value for the
hydraulic conductivity in the disturbed zone is not valid
(Onoue et al. 1991, Madhav et al. 1993, Indraratna and
Redana 1998, Sharma and Xiao 2000). Madhav et al. (1993)
performed a field-scale study to investigate the variation of the
hydraulic conductivity profile in the disturbed zone. Soil sam-
ples were collected from soft ground in which PVDs were
installed and tested in the laboratory to obtain the hydraulic
conductivity profile. The results of Madhav et al. (1993) are
reproduced in figure 2, where the degree of disturbance
(expressed as the ratio k/k
c
) is plotted as a function of the
normalized distance fromthe drain (normalization is performed
with respect to the equivalent mandrel radius r
m,eq
). Based on
these results, both Madhav et al. (1993) and Miura et al. (1993)
suggested that the disturbed zone comprises of two distinct
zones: the smear zone and the transition zone. In the completely
remoulded smear zone immediately surrounding the drain, the
soil has a constant hydraulic conductivity k
s
. In the transition
zone, which surrounds the smear zone, the degree of distur-
bance gradually decreases as the distance from the drain
increases. Madhav et al. (1993) further suggested that the
hydraulic conductivity increases linearly (figure 1, case B)
from a value equal to k
s
at the smear zone boundary (i.e. the
boundary between the smear zone and the transition zone) to the
in situ value k
c
at the transition zone boundary (i.e. the bound-
ary between the transition zone and the undisturbed zone).
c
k k
c
k k
c
k k
Unit cell
r
Pervious boundary
Impervious boundary
r
d
Sof t deposit
Undisturbed
zone
Transition zone
Smear zone
Vertical drain
r
sm
r
tr
r
c
(b)
c
k

r
1


Case A
r
c
1


Case B

t
r

1
Case C

r
1


Case D
r
p

r
p

1
Case E
(a)

k
k k
Figure 1. (a) Idealized domain: a unit cell with smear and transition zones. (b)
Variation of the hydraulic conductivity with distance from the centre of the
drain for different cases.
0 4 8 12 16 20
Normalized distance, r/r
m,eq
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
k
/
k
c
' = 118 kPa
' = 235 kPa
Case B
Case C
Case E

Figure 2. Normalized hydraulic conductivity profiles from field samples.

(Reproduced from Madhav et al. 1993.)
64 D. Basu et al.
To our knowledge, only three laboratory model studies
(Onoue et al. 1991, Indraratna and Redana 1998, Sharma and
Xiao 2000) have been performed to investigate the variation of
hydraulic conductivity in the disturbed zone. The results of
these studies are reproduced in figure 3. Onoue et al. (1991)
used a circular steel drain, which acted as a mandrel, in their
experiments. Consequently, in figure 3, r/r
m,eq
starts from 1 for
the data of Onoue et al. (1991). Based on their study, Onoue
et al. (1991) proposed a two-zone model for the disturbed zone.
However, unlike Madhav et al. (1993) and Miura et al. (1993),
Onoue et al. (1991) assumed a linear variation for the hydraulic
conductivity in the smear zone (figure 1, case C). This results in
a bilinear variation for the hydraulic conductivity; k increases at
one rate from k
s
at the drain boundary (i.e. the drain--soil inter-
face) to k
t
at the smear zone boundary, and at another rate from
k
t
at the smear zone boundary to k
c
at the transition zone
boundary.
Case C fits the PVD data of Sharma and Xiao (2000) well
(figure 3). However, no information regarding the variation of
the hydraulic conductivity for the zone lying between r/r
m,eq
= 0
and r/r
m,eq
= 2 is available from their study (r/r
m,eq
for their
experiment starts from zero since they performed tests with
PVDs of negligible thickness). Case C also fits the hydraulic
conductivity data of Madhav et al. (1993) reasonably well
(figure 2).
Holtz and Holm (1973) and Holtz et al. (1991) suggested that
the degree of disturbance decreases monotonically as the dis-
tance from the drain increases, and therefore there is no distin-
guishable smear zone (figure 1, case D). The data of Indraratna
and Redana (1998) (figure 3) appear to follow the profile of
case D, although a paucity of data immediately adjacent to the
drain makes it difficult to ascertain the actual variation of the
hydraulic conductivity in the smear zone.
A new case for the variation of hydraulic conductivity (figure
1, case E) may be identified for the data of Sharma and Xiao
(2000) if the hydraulic conductivity is assumed to be constant
(with a value equal to the value at r/r
m,eq
= 2) in the zone between
r/r
m,eq
= 0 and r/r
m,eq
= 2. For case E, the hydraulic conductivity
remains constant at k
s
within the smear zone and increases in the
transition zone following a bilinear curve with one slope from k
s
at the smear zone boundary to k
p
at any intermediate point within
the transition zone (at r = r
p
) and a different slope from k
p
(at
r = r
p
) to k
c
at the transition zone boundary. The hydraulic
conductivity profile (figure 2) obtained by Madhav et al. (1993)
can also be described by case E.
No definite conclusions regarding the variation of the
hydraulic conductivity in the disturbed zone can be drawn
from the experimental studies of PVD disturbance (Onoue
et al. 1991, Madhav et al. 1993, Indraratna and Redana 1998,
Sharma and Xiao 2000) which take the transition zone into
account. These studies suggest that k/k
c
can be assumed to be
about 0.2 in the immediate vicinity of the drain (r/r
m,eq
= 0) for
cases B, C, D, and E, and for case C, k/k
c
can be assumed to vary
between 0.5 and 0.8 at the smear zone boundary. Based on the
studies by Onoue et al. (1991), Madhav et al. (1993) and
Sharma and Xiao (2000), the smear zone boundary can be
assumed to lie at a distance of 2r
m,eq
to 5r
m,eq
from the centre
of PVD, and the transition zone boundary (beyond which the
hydraulic conductivity does not vary with increasing distance
from the drain) can be assumed to vary between 6r
m,eq
and
15r
m,eq
. Jamiolkowski et al. (1983) suggested that the transition
zone radius can be up to 20r
m,eq
based on studies of pile driving
in clay. However, more laboratory and field studies are neces-
sary to determine the hydraulic conductivity profile and the
corresponding dimensions of the smear and transition zones
that are most likely to occur in the field.
3. Theoretical studies on soil disturbance
Theoretical studies on soil disturbance have generally been
restricted to case A. Analytical solutions for case A, assuming
a radial flow of water into the drain, were developed by Barron
(1948) and Hansbo (1981); their solutions can be used to
calculate the degree of consolidation as a function of time.
These formulations consider a vertical drain with a circular
cross-section. The solution obtained by Barron (1948) is
0 4 8 12 16 20
Normalized distance, r/r
m,eq
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
k
/
k
c
Onoue et al. (1991)
Onoue et al. (1991)
Indraratna and Redana (1998)
Indraratna and Redana (1998)
Indraratna and Redana (1998)
Indraratna and Redana (1998)
Indraratna and Redana (1998)
Indraratna and Redana (1998)
Sharma and Xiao (2000)
Sharma and Xiao (2000)
Sharma and Xiao (2000)
Onoue et al. (1991)
Indraratna and Redana
(1998)
Sharma and
Xiao (2000)
Figure 3. Normalized hydraulic conductivity profiles from laboratory model
studies.
Consolidation aided by vertical drains 65
based on the Terzaghi--Rendulic theory of radial consolidation
(Terzaghi 1925, Rendulic 1935, 1936), while that obtained by
Hansbo (1981) is a simplified approach based on the continuity
of flow and Darcys law. The Hansbo (1981) solution matches
closely the rigorous solution obtained by Barron (1948) and is
widely used in practice. Leo (2004) developed analytical solu-
tions considering both radial and vertical flow. Numerical solu-
tions considering only smear (case A) also exist (Indraratna and
Redana 1997; Basu and Madhav 2000).
Numerical studies of the variation of the hydraulic conduc-
tivity in the transition zone represented in cases B and C have
also been reported (Madhav et al. 1993, Hawlader et al. 2002,
Basu et al. 2005). Madhav et al. (1993) considered case B with
a simplified assumption that the hydraulic conductivity in the
transition zone is constant at a value equal to the average of k
s
and k
c
, and used finite-difference analysis to study the PVD
response. Basu et al. (2005) also considered case B but used
finite-element analysis, taking into account the actual linear
variation of the hydraulic conductivity in the transition zone.
Hawlader et al. (2002) considered case Cand analysed the PVD
performance using an elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model.
However, most of these numerical studies are case specific
and cannot be directly used in design. Chai et al. (1997)
obtained an analytical solution for consolidation by PVD for
case D; however, their expressions are too complex for use in
routine design.
3.1 Scope of the present study
In this paper, we develop analytical solutions for consolidation
by vertical drains, considering both the smear and the transition
zones, which are easy to use. Solutions are obtained for cases B,
C, D, and E using a methodology similar to that of Hansbo
(1981).
In practice, a number of drains are installed in the ground,
and each drain has a zone of influence. This zone of influence is
called a unit cell because each cell behaves identically (for
homogeneous deposits), and water within one unit cell does not
flow into another unit cell. The analysis considers one such unit
cell with a circular cross-section. The cross-sections of the
drain and the disturbed zone are assumed to be circular.
4. Analysis
4.1 Definition of the problem and assumptions
It is assumed that a drain with a circular cross-section of radius
r
d
is installed in a saturated soft soil deposit. The length of the
drain spans the entire thickness of the soil deposit. An annular
cylinder of soil with inner and outer radii r
d
and r
c
(measured
fromthe centre of the drain) is considered as the unit cell (figure
1) (r
d
and r
c
are the drain radius and the unit cell radius,
respectively). The effect of the flow of water in the vertical
direction within the unit cell is negligible (Leo 2004). Therefore
the only pervious boundary of the unit cell is the interface
between the drain and the unit cell. This results in a radially
convergent horizontal flow of water into the drain. If a homo-
geneous deposit with no horizontal strain in the soil cylinder is
assumed, flowpatterns are identical along any horizontal plane.
Consideration of only one such horizontal plane with axisym-
metric flow is sufficient to solve this problem. In addition, the
flow of water is assumed to follow Darcys law. It is further
assumed that the vertical strain within the unit cell is spatially
uniform. This represents the case of equal strain consolidation
(Richart 1959).
For cases B, C, and E, the smear and transition zones are
assumed to have annular cross-sections with outer radii (as
measured from the centre of the drain) r
sm
and r
tr
, respectively
(r
sm
and r
tr
are the smear zone radius and the transition zone
radius, respectively). As can be seen in figure 1, r
d
,r
sm
,r
tr
,r
c
.
For case D, no smear zone is considered (figure 1). For all
cases (B, C, D and E), the undisturbed zone lies between r
tr

r r
c
with r measured radially outward from the centre of the
drain.
4.2 Average excess pore pressure
4.2.1 Case B. Aradial coordinate system, where r represents
the radial distance from the centre of the drain, is used in the
analysis. In this case, the hydraulic conductivity k
sm
(r) within the
smear zone (i.e. for r
d
r r
sm
) is assumed to be a constant equal
to k
s
. In the transition zone (i.e. for r
sm
r r
tr
), the hydraulic
conductivity k
tr
(r) increases linearly from k
s
at the smear zone
boundary (r = r
sm
) to k
c
at the transition zone boundary (r = r
tr
).
The hydraulic conductivity k
c
remains constant in the
undisturbed zone (i.e. for r
tr
r r
c
). The linear variation of
k
tr
(r) can be expressed mathematically as
k
tr
r k
s

r r
sm
r
tr
r
sm
k
c
k
s
for r
sm
r r
tr
. 1a
which can be rearranged as
k
tr
r A Br 1b
where
A
k
s
r
tr
k
c
r
sm
r
tr
r
sm
2
B
k
c
k
s
r
tr
r
sm
. 3
The specific discharge v
c
in the undisturbed zone can be
written as
v
c

k
c

w
0u
c
0r
for r
tr
r r
c
4a
where
w
is the unit weight of water and u
c
is the excess pore
pressure at a distance r in the undisturbed zone. Similarly, the
66 D. Basu et al.
specific discharges within the transition and smear zones can be
written as
v
tr

k
tr

w
0u
tr
0r
for r
sm
r r
tr
4b
v
sm

k
sm

w
0u
sm
0r
for r
d
r r
sm
4c
The total volume of water entering a cylinder of arbitrary radius r
(r , r
c
) within the unit cell from the outer hollow cylinder (of
thickness r
c
-- r) must be equal to the change in volume of the
outer hollow cylinder. Using this concept, the pore pressure at any
distance r within the unit cell can be related to the vertical strain e
v
(whichis assumedtobe uniformthroughout the unit cell) as follows:
2rv
c
r
2
c
r
2

0
v
0t
for r
tr
r r
c
5a
2rv
tr
r
2
c
r
2

0
v
0t
for r
sm
r r
tr
5b
2rv
sm
r
2
c
r
2

0
v
0t
for r
d
r r
sm
5c
where t is time.
Replacing v
c
, v
tr
and v
sm
in equations (5a), (5b), and (5c) by
equations (4a), (4b), and (4c), respectively, we obtain
0u
c
0r

w
2k
c
r
2
c
r
r
8
>
>
:
9
>
>
;
0
v
0t
for r
tr
r r
c
6a
0u
tr
0r

w
2k
tr
r
2
c
r
r
8
>
>
:
9
>
>
;
0
v
0t
for r
sm
r r
tr
6b
0u
sm
0r

w
2k
s
r
2
c
r
r
8
>
>
:
9
>
>
;
0
v
0t
for r
d
r r
sm
. 6c
Integrating equation (6c) and applying the boundary condi-
tion that the excess pore pressure is fully dissipated at the drain
boundary (i.e. u
sm
= 0 at r = r
d
), we obtain
u
sm

w
2k
s
r
2
c
ln
r
r
d
8
>
:
9
>
;

1
2
r
2
r
2
d

!
0
v
0t
. 7a
Integrating equation (6b) and using the continuity condition
u
tr
= u
sm
at r = r
sm
, we obtain
u
tr

w
2
r
2
c
A
ln
k
s
r
ABrr
sm
& '

1
B
2

ABrk
s
Aln
ABr
k
s
8
>
:
9
>
;
& '

1
k
s
r
2
c
ln
r
sm
r
d
8
>
:
9
>
;

1
2
r
2
sm
r
2
d

& '!
0
v
0t
. 7a
Similarly, integrating equation (6a) and using the continuity
condition u
c
= u
tr
at r = r
tr
, we obtain
u
c

w
2
1
k
c
r
2
c
ln
r
r
tr
8
>
:
9
>
;

1
2
r
2
r
2
tr

& '

1
k
s
r
2
c
ln
r
sm
r
d
8
>
:
9
>
;

1
2
r
2
sm
r
2
d

& '

r
2
c
A
ln
r
tr
k
s
r
sm
k
c
8
>
:
9
>
;

1
B
2
k
c
k
s
Aln
k
c
k
s
8
>
:
9
>
;
& '!
0
v
0t
. 7c
Let u be the average excess pore pressure throughout the unit
cell. Then we can write the following equation:
r
2
c
r
2
d

u

r
sm
r
d
2ru
sm
dr

r
tr
r
sm
2ru
tr
dr

r
c
r
tr
2ru
c
dr. 8
Substituting u
sm
, u
tr
, and u
c
from equations (7a), (7b), and (7c),
respectively, in equation (8) and rearranging terms we obtain
u

w
r
2
c
2k
c
0
v
0t
j 9
where
j
r
2
c
r
2
c
r
2
d
ln
r
c
r
tr
8
>
:
9
>
;

k
c
k
s
ln
r
sm
r
d
8
>
:
9
>
;

k
c
r
tr
r
sm

k
s
r
tr
k
c
r
sm

ln
k
s
r
tr
k
c
r
sm
8
>
:
9
>
;

3
4
!

1
r
2
c
r
2
d
k
c
k
s
r
2
sm
r
2
d

r
2
tr

k
c
r
tr
r
d
r
2
tr
r
2
d

k
s
r
tr
k
c
r
sm

1
r
2
c
r
2
c
r
2
d

k
c
4k
s

r
4
sm
r
4
d

k
c
3k
c
k
s

r
3
tr
r
3
sm

r
tr
r
sm

k
c
k
s
r
tr
k
c
r
sm
r
tr
r
sm

2
2k
c
k
s

3
5k
s
r
tr
k
c
r
sm
r
tr
k
c
k
s
r
sm
f g

k
c
r
tr
r
sm
k
s
r
tr
k
c
r
sm

3
k
c
k
s

4
ln
k
c
k
s
8
>
:
9
>
;

r
4
tr
4
#
.
10
We now define the following dimensionless terms:
n
r
c
r
d
11
m
r
sm
r
d
12
q
r
tr
r
d
13
u
k
s
k
c
. 14
Equation (10) can then be rewritten in terms of these quantities
as
j
n
2
n
2
1
ln
n
q
8
>
>
:
9
>
>
;
1
u
ln m
qm
uqm
ln
uq
m
8
>
:
9
>
;

3
4
!

1
n
2
1
1
u
m
2
1

q
2

q m q
2
m
2

uq m
!
Consolidation aided by vertical drains 67

1
n
2
n
2
1
1
4u

m
4
1

1
31 u
q
3
m
3

q m

uq mq m
2
21 u
3
5uq m q um f g

q muq m
3
1 u
4
ln
1
u
8
>
:
9
>
;

q
4
4
#
. 15a
Equation (15a) is too cumbersome for use in routine design.
However, a number of terms on the right-hand side make a
negligible contribution to the value of m. If we neglect these
terms, equation (15a) simplifies to
j ln
n
q
8
>
>
:
9
>
>
;
1
u
ln m
q m
uq m
ln
uq
m
8
>
:
9
>
;

3
4
. 15b
The ratio n
2
/(n
2
-- 1) is close to unity for the typical unit cell and
drain diameters used in practice, and is not included in equation
(15b).
4.2.2 Case C. In this case, the hydraulic conductivity
k
sm
(r) in the smear zone varies from k
s
at the drain--soil
interface (r = r
d
) to k
t
at the smear zone boundary (r = r
sm
),
and is given by
k
sm
r k
s

r r
d
r
sm
r
d
k
t
k
s
for r
d
<r<r
sm
. 16
The expression for the hydraulic conductivity k
tr
(r) in the
transition zone can be obtained from equation (1a) by
replacing k
s
by k
t
. Again, the hydraulic conductivity k
c
in
the undisturbed zone is a constant. Following steps similar to
those of case B, and eliminating the terms which make a
negligible contribution to the value of m, we obtain the
following expression for m (associated with equation (9)):
j ln
n
q
8
>
>
:
9
>
>
;
m 1
um u
t

ln
um
u
t
8
>
:
9
>
;

q m
u
t
q m
ln
u
t
q
m
8
>
:
9
>
;

3
4
. 17
The dimensionless term b
t
is defined as follows:
u
t

k
t
k
c
. 18
4.2.3 Case D. In this case the disturbed zone consists of the
transition zone of radius r
tr
, and the hydraulic conductivity
k
tr
(r) varies from k
s
at the drain boundary (r = r
d
) to k
c
at the
transition zone boundary (r = r
tr
). The expression for k
tr
(r) can
be obtained from equation (1a) by replacing r
sm
by r
d
. As
before, the hydraulic conductivity k
c
in the undisturbed zone
is a constant. The expression for m (associated with equation
(9)) is derived following the same procedure as outlined for
case B. After eliminating the terms which make a negligible
contribution, the following equation is obtained for m:
j ln
n
q
8
>
>
:
9
>
>
;
q 1
uq 1
ln uq
3
4
. 19
4.2.4 Case E. In this case, the hydraulic conductivity k
sm
(r)
has a constant value k
s
within the smear zone (i.e. for r
d
r
r
sm
) and increases in the transition zone, following a bilinear
curve with one slope between k
s
(at r = r
sm
) and k
p
(at r = r
p
, say)
and another slope between k
p
(at r = r
p
) and k
c
(at r = r
tr
).
Thereafter, the hydraulic conductivity in the undisturbed zone
remains constant at k
c
. This variation can be described
mathematically as follows:
j ln
n
q
8
>
>
:
9
>
>
;
1
u
ln m
p m
up u
p
m
ln
up
u
p
m
8
>
>
:
9
>
>
;

q p
u
p
q p
ln
u
p
q
p
8
>
>
:
9
>
>
;
3
4
20
where the dimensionless terms p and b
p
are defined as
p
r
p
r
d
21
u
p

k
p
k
c
22
where r
d
, r
sm
, r
p
, r
tr
, r
c
and k
s
, k
p
, k
c
.
4.3 Degree of consolidation
If we assume that all the excess pore pressure due to preloading
is developed instantly, we can write the following relationship:
0
v
0t
m
v
0 o
0
0t
m
v
0u
0t
23
where o
0
is the average effective stress in the unit cell due to
preloading at the end of consolidation, u is the average excess
pore pressure at the time of load application, and m
v
is the
coefficient of volume compressibility.
The coefficient of consolidation c
h
in the horizontal direction
and the time factor T are defined as follows:
c
h

k
c
m
v

w
24
T
c
h
t
4r
2
c
25
68 D. Basu et al.
Substituting equation (9) into equation (23) we obtain the linear
differential equation
du
dt

2k
c
m
v

w
r
2
c
j
u 0. 26
Solving equation (26) using the initial condition u u
0
at t = 0,
where u
0
is the initial average excess pore pressure, and using
the dimensionless terms defined in equations (24) and (25), we
obtain the change in average excess pore pressure with time:
u u
0
e

8T
j
. 27
The degree of consolidation U at a particular time t (or time
factor T) is the ratio of the excess pore pressure dissipated to the
excess pore pressure induced at that time. U can be expressed
mathematically as follows:
U 1
u
u
0
. 28
Substituting equation (27) in equation (28) gives the following
expression for the degree of consolidation:
U 1 e

8T
j
. 29
5. Results
5.1 Consolidation rates for different cases
In order to determine the influence of the various hydraulic
conductivity profiles described above on the consolidation rate,
the solution for case A given by Hansbo (1981) is reproduced
here so that a comparison can be made:
j ln
n
m
8
:
9
;

1
u
lnm
3
4
. 30
Hansbo (1981) suggested that, by using an equivalent radius
r
d,eq
, the analytical solutions can also be applied to PVDs. The
equivalent radius is calculated as follows:
r
d.eq

b
w
b
t
31
where b
w
and b
t
are the width and thickness, respectively, of the
PVD. Rectangular or hexagonal unit cells are obtained when
PVDs are installed in rectangular or triangular patterns (Holtz
et al. 1991). In order to use the analytical solutions, these shapes
need to be replaced by equivalent circles which have the same
area as the rectangular or hexagonal unit cell. The equivalent
radius r
c,eq
of the unit cell for a rectangular installation pattern is
r
c.eq

s
x
s
y

r
32
where s
x
and s
y
are the spacings of the PVDs in two mutually
perpendicular directions. For a triangular pattern, the equivalent
radius is given by
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Time f actor, T
0
20
40
60
80
100
D
e
g
r
e
e

o
f

c
o
n
s
o
l
i
d
a
t
i
o
n
,
U

(
%
)
Case A
Case B
Case C
Case D
n = 17.05
m = 2.69
q = 16.17
= 0.2
t
= 0.6
(a)

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10

Time f actor, T
0
20
40
60
80
100
D
e
g
r
e
e

o
f
c
o
n
s
o
l
i
d
a
t
i
o
n
,
U

(
%
)
Case A
Case B
Case C
Case D
n = 51.14
m = 5.11
q = 30.67
= 0.2
t
= 0.6
(b)

Figure 4. Plots of degree of consolidation versus time factor for different

hydraulic conductivity profiles: (a) spacing of 1 m; (b) spacing of 3 m. The
curve for case D is just to the right of the curve for case A. The curve for case A
corresponds to the solution obtained by Hansbo (1981).
Consolidation aided by vertical drains 69
r
c.eq

3
p
2
s
s 33
where s is the PVD spacing.
Figures 4(a) and 4(b) show plots of the degree of con-
solidation U versus time factor T for PVDs installed in a
rectangular arrangement with centre--centre spacings of 1 m
(r
c,eq
= 564.2 mm) and 3 m (r
c,eq
= 1692.6 mm), respec-
tively. Four hydraulic conductivity profiles (cases A, B, C
and D) are considered. The PVDs are assumed to have a cross-
section of 100 mm 4 mm (r
d,eq
= 33.1 mm). Mandrels with a
rectangular cross-section (a b) are considered, with dimen-
sions 125 mm 50 mm (Saye 2003) (r
m,eq
= 44.6 mm) for a
spacing of 1 m and 150 mm 150 mm (Bergado et al. 1993b)
(r
m,eq
= 84.6 mm) for a spacing of 3 m. The equivalent mandrel
radii are obtained from equation (32) by replacing s
x
and s
y
by a and b, respectively. The extent of the disturbed zone is
defined by r
sm
= 2r
m,eq
(except for case D) and r
tr
= 12r
m,eq
.
The degree of disturbance b at the drain surface is taken as
0.2. For case C, b
t
= 0.6 is assumed.
Figures 4(a) and 4(b) indicate that the hydraulic conductivity
profile in the disturbed zone has a definite impact on the rate of
consolidation. In figure 4(a), the time factors T at U = 90%
corresponding to cases A, B, C, and D are 1.74, 2.54, 1.37, and
2.09, respectively. For c
h
= 1 m
2
/year, the corresponding actual
times are 2.2, 3.2, 1.7 and 2.7 years. With respect to case A
(Hansbo 1981), the increase in time (or time factor) required for
90% consolidation is 46% and 20% for cases B and D, respec-
tively; for case C, the time required for 90% consolidation
decreased by 21%. The time factors corresponding to U = 90%
in figure 4(b) are 2.79, 3.59, 2.13, and 2.95 for cases A, B,
C, and D, respectively. The increases in T for cases B and D
compared with case A are 29% and 6%, respectively, while
for case C the decrease in T relative to case A is 24%.
It is clear from these results that a proper knowledge of the
hydraulic conductivity profile in the disturbed zone is needed
for accurate design. In addition, neglecting the transition zone
in design may lead to errors in the estimation of the consolida-
tion rate. Knowledge of the degree of soil disturbance in the
immediate vicinity of the drain is of utmost importance for
predicting drain performance. This is evident by comparing
the curves for cases B, C, and D. For cases B and D, k/k
c
is
approximately 0.2 in the vicinity of the drain. However, for case
C this ratio increases from 0.2 to 0.6 in the vicinity of the drain.
Consequently, the difference in response between cases C and
Bor cases Cand Dis more than that observed when cases Band
D are compared.
5.1.2 Example In order to understand the impact of the
various hydraulic conductivity profiles on the rate of
consolidation, a practical example is analysed for all the
hydraulic conductivity profiles of figure 2. It is assumed that
the PVDs were installed with a mandrel of cross-section 120
mm 120 mm (r
m,eq
= 67.7 mm), the PVDs have a cross-
section of 100 mm4 mm(r
d,eq
= 33.1 mm), and the clay at the
site has c
h
= 10 m
2
/year.
For a hydraulic conductivity profile corresponding to case B,
the smear zone extends to 2r
m,eq
and the transition zone extends
to 11r
m,eq
(figure 2). If the hydraulic conductivity profile cor-
responds to case C, r
sm
and r
tr
are 4.5r
m,eq
and 13r
m,eq
, respec-
tively. However, if the hydraulic conductivity profile
corresponds to case E, r
sm
, r
p
, and r
tr
are equal to 2r
m,eq
,
7r
m,eq
, and 15r
m,eq
, respectively. The degree of disturbance b
near the drain can be taken as 0.2 for all the cases (figure 2). For
case C, b
t
= 0.75 and for case E, b
p
= 0.9 (figure 2). A square
arrangement of PVDs with a centre--centre spacing of 2 m
(r
c,eq
= 1128.4 mm) is chosen. The values of m calculated
for cases B, D, and E (table 1) are 11.00, 7.50, and 10.32,
respectively. The value of T for U = 90% is calculated
from equation (29) as 3.17, 2.16, and 2.97 for cases B, C,
and E, respectively. For c
h
= 10 m
2
/year, the actual times
required for 90% consolidation are 1.6 years, 1.1 years, and
1.5 years for cases B, C, and E, respectively.
6. Conclusions
Installation of vertical drains disturbs the soil around the drain.
The hydraulic conductivity of the disturbed soil is less than that of
the original soil, reducing the acceleration of the consolidation
process caused by the presence of the drains to less than it would
be in the absence of disturbance. A number of researchers have
proposed various hydraulic conductivity profiles in the disturbed
zones. Five possible hydraulic conductivity profiles (cases A, B,
C, D, and E) have been considered in this paper. An analytical
solution for the rate of consolidation, corresponding to case A, is
already available in the literature (Hansbo 1981). Analytical solu-
tions for the remaining cases have been developed in this paper.
Our analyses showed that the transition zone has a definite
impact in slowing down the consolidation process and therefore
must be considered in design. Moreover, the rate of consolidation
can vary greatly depending on how the hydraulic conductivity
varies within the transition zone. Hence, proper identification of
the hydraulic conductivity profile around a vertical drain is
necessary for accurate prediction of the rate of consolidation.
Table 1. Solution of example
a
Case r
sm
(mm) r
tr
(mm) r
p
(mm) m q p n b b
t
b
p
m
B 135.4 744.7 -- 4.09 22.50 -- 34.09 0.2 -- -- 11.00
C 304.7 880.1 -- 9.20 26.59 -- 34.09 0.2 0.75 -- 7.50
E 135.4 1015.5 466.9 4.09 30.68 14.11 34.09 0.2 -- 0.9 10.32
a
r
d
= 33.1 mm; r
c
= 1128.4 mm.
70 D. Basu et al.
The experimental data available in the literature concerning the
variation of the hydraulic conductivity within the transition zone
was collected and analysed. Definite conclusions regarding the
most likely hydraulic conductivity profile could not be reached
because of the limited amount of experimental data. Until more
information regarding this issue becomes available, all possible
hydraulic conductivity profiles, as outlined in this paper, should
be considered before final design decisions are made.
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