T SCH SOS2

KARL R. POPPER
X HI M V NHNG K TH CA N
2 Hegel v Marx

X HI M V NHNG K TH CA N
KARL R. POPPER

Tp II CAO TRO TIN TRI: HEGEL, MARX V HU QU

Ngi dch: Nguyn Quang A

THE OPEN SOCIETY AND ITS ENEMIES

by KARL R. POPPER

Volume II THE HIGH TIDE OF PROPHECY: HEGEL, MARX AND THE AFTERMATH

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY

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TP II: CAO TRO TIN TRI S NI LN CA TRIT HC TIN TRI . 1 Chng 11: Cc Ngun gc Aristotlian ca hc thuyt Hegel 1 Chng 12: Hegel v Ch ngha B lc Mi. 27 PHNG PHP CA MARX 81 Chng 13: Quyt nh lun x hi hc 81 Chng 14: Tnh c lp ca x hi hc. .. 89 Chng 15: Ch ngha lch s kinh t. 100 Chng 16: Cc giai cp. . 111 Chng 17: Cc H thng php l v h thng x hi. ... 118 LI TIN TRI CA MARX .. 135 Chng 18: S ra i ca ch ngha x hi. 135 Chng 19: Cch mng x hi. 146 Chng 20: Ch ngha t bn v s phn ca n . 166 Chng 21: Mt s nh gi 193 O C HC CA MARX ... 199 Chng 22: L thuyt o c ca ch ngha lch s .. 199 HU QU ... 212 Chng 23: X hi hc tri thc. ... 212 Chng 24: Trit hc tin tri v cuc ni lon chng li l tr.. 224 KT LUN . 259 Chng 25: Lch s c bt c ngha g? ... 259 CH THCH .. 281 PH LC (1961, 1965) . 369 CH MC V TN 397 CH MC NI DUNG ... 405

C th truy nguyn s phn li o c ca th gii hin i ci gy chia r nhng ngi c khai sng mt cch bi thm n vy v s sp hon ton ca khoa hc nhn vn WALTER LIPPMANN.

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CHNG 11: NGUN GC ARISTOTELIAN CA CH NGHA HEGEL Nhim v vit mt lch s v cc t tng m chng ta quan tm n v ch ngha lch s v quan h ca n vi ch ngha ton tr - s khng c th y. Bn c s nh, ti hi vng, rng ti thm ch khng th a ra nhiu hn vi nhn xt tn mc m c th ri nh sng ln hu trng ca phin bn hin i ca cc t tng ny. Cu chuyn v s pht trin ca chng, c bit trong giai on t Plato n Hegel v Marx, c l khng th c k trong khi vn gi quy m ca cun sch trong cc gii hn phi chng. V th ti s khng th lun bn nghim tc v Aristotle, tr chng mc phin bn ca ng v bn cht lun ca Plato c nh hng n ch ngha lch s ca Hegel, v v th n ch ngha lch s ca Marx. S hn ch n cc t tng ca Aristotle m ta quen trong ph phn ca chng ta v Plato, ngi thy ln ca Aristotle, tuy vy, khng gy ra tn tht ln nh ta c th s t ci nhn ban u. V Aristotle, bt chp s hiu bit k diu v tm kin thc ng ngc nhin ca ng, khng phi l mt ngi c tnh c o ni bt v t duy. Ci ng thm vo kho tng t tng Platonic, ch yu, l s h thng ho v mt mi quan tm chy bng n cc vn thc nghim v c bit n cc vn sinh hc. Chc chn, ng l nh pht minh ra logic, v v thnh tu ny v cc thnh tu khc ca ng, ng hon ton xng ng vi ci ng i cho mnh ( cui Sophistic Refutations ca ng) -li cm n nng nhit ca chng ta, v s tha th ca chng ta cho nhng thiu st ca ng. Th nhng i vi cc bn c v nhng ngi hm m Plato cc thiu st ny l kinh khng.

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I vi tc phm mun nht ca Plato, ta c th thy mt ting vng ca cc din bin chnh tr ng thi Athens- ca s cng c nn dn ch. C v ngay c Plato bt u nghi ng liu dng no ca nn dn ch khng tn ti hay khng. Aristotle, ta thy cc ch bo l ng khng cn nghi ng na. Mc d khng l bn ca dn ch, ng chp nhn n nh khng th trnh khi, v ng sn sng tho hip vi k th. Mt thin hng tho hip, c trn ln vi mt thin hng ch trch cc bc tin bi ca ng v nhng ngi ng thi (v c bit l Plato), l mt trong cc c im ni bt ca cc tc phm bch khoa ca ng. N khng cho thy du vt vo ca xung t bi thm v kch ng ci l ng c ca tc phm ca Plato. Thay cho cc lo sng thu hiu su sc ca Plato, ta thy s h thng ho kh khan v tnh yu, c rt nhiu nh vn xong ca thi sau chia s, gii quyt bt c vn no bng a ra mt phn xt hp l v cn i mang cng bng cho mi ngi; iu, ng thi, c ngha l, b qua im ct yu mt cch cng phu v long trng. Xu hng gy bc tc ny c h thng ho trong hc thuyt chit trung ni ting ca ng l mt trong cc ngun ca s ph bnh thng rt gng go v thm ch ngu ngc ca ng i vi Plato1. Mt th d v s thiu thu hiu ca Aristotle, trong trng hp ny l s thu hiu lch s (ng cng l mt s gia), l s thc rng ng ng vi s cng c dn ch r rng ng vo khi n b ch qun ch Macedon hng hch thay th; mt s kin lch s xy ra tut khi s ch ca ng. Nh b ng l, Aristotle l mt cn thn ca triu nh Macedon, c Philip la chn lm thy gio ca Alexander i , c v nh gi thp nhng ngi ny v k cc hoch ca h; c l ng ngh ng bit h qu k. Aristotle ngi xung n ti vi nn Qun ch m khng thc c v vic , l li bnh thch hp ca Gomperz.2 T duy ca Aristotle hon ton b t duy ca Plato chi phi. Hi min cng, ng theo ngi thy v i ca mnh st mc tnh kh ng cho php, khng ch cch nhn chnh tr ni chung m hu nh mi ni. Nh th ng tn thnh, v h thng ho l thuyt t nhin ch ngha ca Plato v n l3: Do t nhin mt s ngi l t do, v nhng ngi khc l n l; v cho nhng ngi sau, tnh trng n l hp chng khc g chnh ng Mt ngi do t nhin khng l ca ring mnh, m l ca ngi khc, l mt n l do t nhin Ngi Hy Lp khng thch gi mnh l n l, m hn ch t ny cho nhng ngi man r N l hon ton khng c bt c nng lc l tr no, cn n b t do ch

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c mt cht. (Nh cc ph phnh v t co ca Aristotle ta c hu ht hiu bit ca mnh v phong tro Athenian chng ch n l. Bng l l chng nhng ngi chin u v t do, ng bo tn mt s li ni ca h). vi im th yu Aristotle hi lm du bt l thuyt ca Plato v n l, v ch trch thch ng ngi thy ca mnh l qu tn nhn. ng chng t c hi no ph phn Plato, cng khng l c hi cho tho hip, khng du l mt tho hip vi cc xu hng t do ca thi ng. Nhng l thuyt v n l ch l mt trong nhiu tng chnh tr ca Plato c Aristotle chp nhn. c bit l l thuyt ca ng v Nh nc Tt nht, mc chng ta bit, c theo mu ca cc l thuyt ca Republic v Laws; v phin bn ca ng ri ng k nh sng ln l thuyt ca Plato. Nh nc Tt nht ca Aristotle l mt tho hip gia ba th, mt ch qu tc Platonic lng mn, mt ch ngha phong kin lnh mnh v cn i, v mt vi tng dn ch; song ch ngha phong kin thng th. Vi cc nh dn ch, Aristotle cho rng mi cng dn phi c quyn tham gia chnh ph. Nhng iu ny, tt nhin, khng c ngha trit nh n c v, v Aristotle gii thch ngay rng khng ch cc n l m mi thnh vin ca cc giai cp sn xut u b loi khi quyn cng dn. Nh th cng Plato ng dy rng cc giai cp lao ng khng c cai tr v cc giai cp cai tr khng c lao ng, cng khng c kim tin. (Song h c cho l c nhiu). H s hu t, song bn thn h khng c lm vic. Ch sn bn, chin tranh, v cc s thch tng t c coi l xng ng cho cc nh cai tr phong kin. Aristotle s bt c dng kim tin no, tc l mi hot ng chuyn nghip, c l cn i xa hn c Plato. Plato dng t banaustic -tm thng4 din t trng thi tinh thn th thin, tin, hay sa o. Aristotle m rng cch dng gy tai ting ca t nh bao hm mi mi quan tm khng l cc s thch thun tu. Thc ra, cch dng t ca ng rt gn cch dng t chuyn nghip ca chng ta, c bit hn theo ngha trong n lm mt c cch trong mt cuc ua nghip d, m c theo ngha trong n p dng cho bt c chuyn gia chuyn nghip no, nh mt thy thuc. i vi Aristotle, mi dng ca tnh chuyn nghip c ngha l mt s mt a v ng cp. Mt ngi qu phi phong kin, ng khng khng5, chng bao gi c quan tm qu nhiu n bt c ngh nghip no, ngh thut hay khoa hc Cng c mt vi khoa hc nhn vn, tc l, cc khoa hc x hi v nhn vn m mt ngi qu phi c th t c, song lun ch n mt mc nht nh. V nu anh ta quan tm nhiu qu n chng, th cc kt qu tai ho ny s xy ra, c th l, anh ta s tr nn thnh tho, ging mt nh chuyn

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nghip, v mt a v ng cp. y l tng ca Aristotle v mt s gio dc t do, tng, ng tic vn cha li thi6, v mt s gio dc ca ngi qu phi, nh i lp vi s gio dc ca mt n l, nng n, ngi hu, hay mt ngi chuyn nghip. Theo cng cch ng nhn nhn i nhn li rng nguyn l hot ng trc tin l nhn h7. S ngng m v tn trng ca Aristotle i vi cc giai cp nhn h dng nh l s biu l ca mt cm gic l k v trng thi khng thoi mi. C v c nh con trai ca thy thuc ca triu nh Macedon b vn v a v x hi ring ca ng lm cho phin mun, v c bit bi kh nng l ng c th mt a v ng cp bi v cc mi quan tm hc thut ca ring ng, ci c th c coi l chuyn nghip. Ngi ta b cm d tin, Gomperz8 ni, rng ng s nghe thy nhng lng m nh vy t cc bn hu qu tc ca ng Qu thc k l thy rng mt trong nhng hc gi ln nht ca mi thi i, nu khng phi l ln nht, li khng mun l mt hc gi chuyn nghip. ng thch l mt k nghip d, v mt ngi tng tri Cm gic t ti ca Aristotle, c l, vn c mt c s khc, ngoi mun chng minh s c lp ca ng vi Plato, ngoi ngun gc chuyn nghip ring ca ng, v ngoi s thc l ng, khng nghi ng g, l mt sophist-nh ngu bin chuyn nghip (thm ch ng dy thut hng bin). V vi Aristotle, trit hc Platonic t b cc kht vng ln lao ca n, cc yu sch quyn lc ca n. T lc ny, n ch c th tip tc nh mt ngh dy hc. V v khng ai tr mt cha t phong kin c tin v s nhn ri cho nghin cu trit hc, tt c ci m trit hc c th khao kht l tr thnh mt phn ph thm cho vic gio dc truyn thng ca mt ngi qu phi. Vi nh kht vng khim tn hn ny, Aristotle thy rt cn thit thuyt phc nh qu phi phong kin rng t bin v suy ngm trit hc c th tr thnh phn quan trng nht ca cuc i vui v ca ng ta; v n l phng php thch hp nht, cao thng nht v tinh t nht git thi gian, nu khng bn rn vi cc mu chnh tr hay chin tranh. N l cch tt nht dng thi gian nhn ri v, nh bn thn Aristotle din t, khng ai .. dn xp mt cuc chin tranh cho mc ch .9 Hp l cho rng mt trit hc cn thn nh vy s c khuynh hng lc quan, v s kh l mt th tiu khin d chu nu khc i. V qu thc, ch ngha lc quan ca n l mt s iu chnh quan trng do Aristotle tin hnh trong vic h thng ho ch ngha Plato10 ca ng. Cm gic tri dt ca Plato c by t trong l thuyt ca ng rng mi s thay i, ch t trong cc thi k v tr nht nh, hn phi l ti hn; mi thay i u l thoi ho. L thuyt ca Aristotle c ch cho cc thay

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i l nhng s ci thin; nh th thay i c th l tin b. Plato dy rng mi s pht trin bt u t Hnh thc hay nim gc, hon ho, sao cho s vt ang pht trin phi mt tnh hon ho ca n theo mc m n thay i v s ging nhau ca n vi bn gc gim i. L thuyt ny b chu trai v ngi k nghip ca ng, Speusippus, cng nh Aristotle t b. Nhng Aristotle ch trch cc l l ca Speusippus l i qu xa, v chng ng mt s tin ho sinh hc chung ti cc hnh thc cao hn. Aristotle, dng nh, phn i cc l thuyt tin ho sinh hc c tho lun nhiu thi ng.11 Nhng s thay i lc quan l k m ng mang li cho ch ngha Plato cng l mt kt qu ca t bin sinh hc. N da trn nim v mt mc ch cui cng, cu cnh. Theo Aristotle, mt trong bn nguyn nhn ca mi th - c ca bt c chuyn ng hay thay i no l cu cnh, hay mc ch m chuyn ng hng ti. Trong chng mc n l mt mc tiu hay mt mc ch ng mong mi, mc ch cui cng cng l tt. Suy ra t iu ny rng ci tt no khng ch c khi im ca mt chuyn ng (nh Plato dy, v nh Aristotle chp nhn12) m rng ci tt no cng phi c kt thc ca n. V iu ny l c bit quan trng cho bt c th g c mt khi u trong thi gian, hay, nh Aristotle din t, cho bt c th g tn ti. Hnh thc hay bn cht ca bt c th g ang pht trin l ng nht vi nh hay mc ch hay trng thi cui cng m n tin trin n. Nh th rt cuc, bt chp s t chi ca Aristotle, ta nhn c ci g rt ging s iu chnh ca Speusippus i vi ch ngha Plato. Hnh thc hay nim, ci vn c coi l tt vi Plato, ng kt thc, thay cho khi u. iu ny c trng cho s thay th ch ngha bi quan bng ch ngha lc quan ca Aristotle. Mc ch lun ca Aristotle, tc l s nhn mnh ca ng n mc ch hay mc tiu ca s thay i nh mc ch cui cng ca n, l biu l ca cc mi quan tm ch yu l sinh hc ca ng. N b nh hng bi cc l thuyt sinh hc ca Plato13, v c bi s m rng l thuyt ca ng v cng l ra v tr. V Plato khng gii hn mnh gio hun rng mi giai cp cng dn khc nhau c v tr t nhin ca n trong x hi, mt v tr m n thuc v v hp vi mt cch t nhin; ng cng th din gii th gii cc vt th vt l v cc lp hay loi khc nhau ca chng theo cc nguyn l tng t. ng th gii thch trng lng ca cc vt th nng, nh , hay t, v xu th ri ca chng, cng nh xu th bc ln ca khng kh v la, bng gi s rng chng c gng gi, hay ly li, v tr m loi ca chng chim. v t ri bi v chng c gng ni c hu ht v t, v l ni chng thuc v, theo ng trt t ca t nhin;

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khng kh v la bc ln bi v chng c gng ni c khng kh v la (cc vt th trn tri), v l ni chng thuc v, ng theo trt t ca t nhin.14 L thuyt ny v chuyn ng li cun nh ng vt hc Aristotle; n kt hp d dng vi l thuyt v mc ch cui cng, v n cho php mt gii thch ca mi chuyn ng tng t nh nc kiu ca nhng con nga ham tr v chung ca chng. ng pht trin n nh l thuyt ni ting ca ng v v tr t nhin. Mi s vt nu c di xa khi v tr t nhin ca n c mt xu hng t nhin quay v . Bt chp mt s sa i, phin bn Aristotle ca bn cht lun Plato ch cho thy nhng khc bit khng quan trng. Tt nhin, Aristotle khng nh rng khng nh Plato ng khng hnh dung cc Hnh thc hay nim nh ci tn ti ngoi cc s vt cm nhn c. Nhng chng mc m s khc bit ny l quan trng, n quan h mt thit vi s iu chnh trong l thuyt v thay i. V mt trong cc im ch yu trong l thuyt ca Plato l ng phi coi cc Hnh thc hay bn cht hay bn gc (hay cha) nh ci tn ti trc, v v th nm ngoi, cc s vt cm nhn c, v nhng ci ny chuyn ng khi chng ra xa hn na v hn na. Aristotle lm cho cc s vt cm nhn c chuyn ng ti mc tiu cui cng hay mc ch ca chng, v ng ng nht15 nhng ci ny vi cc Hnh thc hay bn cht ca chng. V nh mt nh sinh hc, ng cho rng cc s vt cm nhn c mang cc mm mng, c th ni nh vy, ca cc trng thi cui cng, hay ca bn cht ca chng mt cch tim nng trong bn thn chng. y l mt trong cc l do v sao ng c th ni rng Hnh thc hay bn cht nm trong s vt, khng nh Plato ni, c trc v ngoi s vt. i vi Aristotle, mi chuyn ng hay thay i c ngha l s thc hin (hay s bin thnh hin thc) cc tim nng no vn c trong bn cht ca mt s vt.16 N, th d, l tim nng c bn ca mt ming g, l n c th ni trn nc, hoc l n c th chy; cc tim nng ny vn vn c trong bn cht ca n cho d n khng bao gi ni hay chy. Nhng nu n ni hay chy, th n thc hin mt tim nng, v v th thay i hay chuyn ng. Do , bn cht, ci bao gm mi tim nng ca mt s vt, l ci g ging ngun ni ti v thay i v chuyn ng ca n. y l bn cht hay Hnh thc Aristotlian, mc ch hnh thc hay cui cng ny, v th hu nh ng nht vi bn tnh hay linh hn ca Plato; v s ng nht ny c bn thn Aristotle chng thc. Bn tnh, ng vit17 trong Metaphysics, cng thuc v cng lp nh tim nng; v n l mt nguyn l ca chuyn ng vn c trong bn thn s vt. Mt khc, ng nh ngha linh hn nh ci t mc ch [entelechy] ca mt thn th

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sng, v v entelechy, n lt n, c gii thch nh Hnh thc, hay nguyn nhn hnh thc, c coi nh mt ng lc18, vi s gip ca cng c thut ng hi phc tp ny, chng ta quay tr li vi quan im gc ca Plato: rng linh hn v bn tnh l ci g na n nh Hnh thc hay nim, nhng vn c trong s vt, v l nguyn l chuyn ng ca n. (Khi Zeller ca ngi Aristotle v ng s dng r rng v pht trin ton din thut ng khoa hc19, ti ngh ng hn cm thy mt cht bn khon khi dng t r rng; nhng tnh ton din th c tha nhn, cng nh s thc ti t nht l Aristotle, bng dng bit ng phc tp v hi kiu cng ny, m hoc qu nhiu trit gia; n mc nh Zeller din t, ng ch ng cho trit hc trong hng ngn nm). Aristotle, mt s gia thuc loi bch khoa hn, khng c ng gp trc tip no cho ch ngha lch s. ng bm cht vo mt phin bn hn ch hn ca l thuyt ca Plato rng cc trn lt v cc thin tai ti din i khi ph hu loi ngi, ch li t ngi sng st20. Nhng, ngoi im ny, ng dng nh khng quan tm n vn ca cc xu hng lch s. Bt chp s thc ny, c th chng t y l l thuyt v thay i ca ng thch hp vi cc din gii lch s ch ngha, v n cha tt c cc yu t cn thit trau chut mt trit hc lch s ch ngha s. (C hi ny khng c khai thc y trc Hegel). C th phn bit ba hc thuyt lch s ch ngha pht sinh trc tip t bn cht lun ca Aristotle. (1) Ch nu mt c nhn hay mt nh nc tin trin, v ch bng con ng ca lch s ca n, ta c th bit bt c th g v bn cht n giu v cha trin khai ca n (dng li ni ca Hegel21). Hc thuyt ny mun hn, trc ht, dn n s chp nhn mt phng php lch s ch ngha; tc l, nguyn l rng ta c th nhn bt c tri thc g v cc thc th x hi hay bn cht ch bng p dng phng php lch s ch ngha, bng nghin cu cc thay i x hi. Nhng hc thuyt (c bit khi lin kt vi ch ngha thc chng o c ca Hegel ng nht ci c bit cng nh thc t vi ci tt) dn hn na n s sng bi Lch s v cao n nh Sn khu Ln ca Thc ti cng nh To n ca Th gii. (2) S thay i, bng tit l ci c n giu trong bn cht cha c trin khai, ch c th lm cho bn cht, cc tim nng, cc mm mng hin hin, nhng ci ngay t u c tha k trong i tng ang thay i. Hc thuyt ny dn n tng lch s ch ngha v mt nh mnh lch s hay mt s phn c bn khng th trnh khi; v, nh Hegel22 mun hn cho thy, ci ta gi l nguyn l, mc tiu, s phn chng l g khc m l bn cht n giu cha c trin khai. iu ny c ngha l bt c th g xy ra vi mt ngi, mt

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quc gia, hay mt nh nc, phi c coi l bt ngun t, v c th c hiu thng qua, bn cht, s vt thc, tnh cch thc t th hin trong con ngi ny, quc gia ny, hay nh nc ny. S phn ca mt ngi lin quan trc tip vi s tn ti ca chnh anh ta; n l ci g m, qu thc, anh ta c th u tranh chng li, nhng thc s l mt phn ca cuc i ca chnh anh ta. Cch trnh by ny (ca Caird23) v l thuyt nh mnh ca Hegel r rng l bn tng ng ca l thuyt ca Aristotle rng mi vt th tm v tr t nhin ca ring chng. N, tt nhin, khng nhiu hn mt din t khoa trng v iu tm thng, rng ci xy ra vi mt ngi ph thuc khng ch vo cc hon cnh bn ngoi, m cng ph thuc vo bn thn anh ta, theo cch anh ta phn ng li vi chng. Nhng bn c ngy th li cc k hi lng vi nng lc ca mnh hiu, v cm nhn s tht ca s sng sut su sc ny ci cn c trnh by vi s tr gip ca cc t gy xc ng nh nh mnh v c bit s tn ti ca chnh anh ta. (3) tr thnh thc hay thc t, bn cht phi bc l mnh trong thay i. Hc thuyt ny mun hn, vi Hegel, c dng sau24: Ci tn ti ch cho chnh n, ch l tim nng n thun: n vn cha hin ra thnh Tn ti N ch l do hnh ng m nim c bin thnh hin thc. Nh th nu ti mun hin thnh Tn ti (chc chn l mt mong mun khim tn), th ti phi khng nh tnh cch ca ti. y vn l l thuyt kh ph bin, nh Hegel thy r, dn n mt s bin minh mi ca l thuyt v n l. V t khng nh c ngha25, trong chng mc lin quan n quan h ca mt ngi vi nhng ngi khc, l n lc chi phi h. Thc vy, Hegel ch ra rng mi quan h c nhn nh th u c th quy v quan h c bn ca ch v n l, ca thng tr v phc tng. Mi ngi phi phn u khng nh v chng t mnh, v ngi khng c bn tnh, lng dng cm, v nng lc chung gi s c lp ca mnh, phi b ging xung thnh n l. L thuyt quyn r ny v quan h c nhn, tt nhin, c ci tng ng ca n trong l thuyt ca Hegel v quan h quc t. Cc quc gia phi t khng nh mnh trn Sn khu Lch s; ngha v ca chng l c gng thng tr Th gii. Tt c cc h qu lch s ch ngha su rng ny, s c tip cn t mt gc nhn khc chng tip, ng say trong hn hai mi th k, n giu v cha pht trin, trong bn cht lun ca Aristotle. Ch ngha Aristotle mu m hn v ha hn hn so vi mc a s nhng ngi hm m n bit.

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II
Mi nguy him chnh i vi trit hc ca chng ta, ngoi tnh li bing v tnh m h, l tnh kinh vin [scholasticism], cp ci m h c nh l n chnh xc... F. P. RAMSEY

Chng ta t n im m t ta c th khng chm tr tin hnh mt phn tch v trit hc lch s ch ngha ca Hegel, hay, trong mi trng hp, bt u cc bnh lun ngn v nhng s pht trin gia Aristotle v Hegel v v s ni ln ca o C c, nh mc III, kt thc chng ny. Tuy vy, nh mt s lc , tip theo ti s tho lun mt vn mang tnh k thut hn, phng php bn cht lun v cc nh ngha ca Aristotle. Vn v cc nh ngha v v ngha ca cc thut ng khng lin quan trc tip ti ch ngha lch s. Song n l mt ngun v tn ca s ln ln v ca li ni di dng cu k m, khi kt hp vi ch ngha lch s trong tr c Hegel, gy ra cn bnh tr tu c hi ca chnh thi i chng ta m ti gi l trit hc sm truyn (tin tri) [oracular philosophy]. V n l ngun quan trng nht ca nh hng tr tu ng tic vn ph bin ca Aristotle, ca mi tnh kinh vin trng rng v bng li m nh khng ch Thi Trung c, m c trit hc ng i ca chnh chng ta; v ngay c mt trit hc mi y nh trit hc ca L. Wittgensten26 cng chu nh hng ny, nh chng ta s thy. S pht trin ca t duy t Aristotle, ti ngh, c th c tm tt bng ni rng mi mn hc, chng no n dng phng php Aristotlian v nh ngha, vn b ngng li trng thi ca thi ba hoa rng tuch v tnh kinh vin cn ci, v rng mc m cc khoa hc khc nhau c kh nng mang li bt c tin b no ph thuc vo mc m chng c th tng kh c phng php bn cht lun ny. (y l v sao rt nhiu khoa hc x hi ca chng ta vn thuc v Thi Trung C). Tho lun phng php ny s hi tru tng mt cht, do s thc l vn b Plato v Aristotle lm m mm hon ton, nh hng ca cc ng gy ra cc nh kin thm cn c n mc trin vng xua tan chng c v khng tht sng sa. Bt chp tt c iu , c l khng phi khng c li ch phn tch ngun ca rt nhiu lm ln v thi ba hoa. Aristotle theo Plato trong phn bit gia tri thc v kin27. Tri thc, hay khoa hc, theo Aristotle, c th thuc hai loi - hoc chng minh hoc trc gic. Tri thc chng minh [demonstrative knowledge] cng l tri thc v nguyn nhn. N bao gm cc mnh c th c chng

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minh cc kt lun cng vi cc chng minh tam on lun ca chng (trng by cc nguyn nhn trong s hng gia ca chng). Tri thc trc gic ct thu hiu hnh thc khng th chia c, hay bn cht, hay bn tnh c bn ca mt s vt (nu n l trc tip, tc l nu nguyn nhn ca n l ng nht vi bn tnh c bn ca n); n l ngun pht sinh ca mi khoa hc v n thu hiu cc tin gc c bn ca mi s chng minh. Khng nghi ng g, Aristotle ng khi ng c nht nh rng ta khng c th chng minh mi tri thc ca chng ta. Mi chng minh u phi c tin hnh t cc tin ; s chng minh, tc l, s suy dn ra [kt lun] t cc tin , v th chng bao gi gii quyt hon ton s ng n ca bt c kt lun no, m ch chng t rng kt lun phi l ng vi iu kin cc tin l ng. Gi nh nu chng ta c yu cu rng n lt chng cc tin phi c chng minh, th vn v s ng n ch b di li mt bc khc i vi mt tp mi ca cc tin , v c th, n v tn. Chnh nhm trnh mt s hi quy [thoi lui] v tn nh vy (nh cc nh logic hc ni) m Aristotle dy rng chng ta phi gi s l c cc tin ng rnh rnh, v chng khng cn chng minh; v ng gi nhng ci ny l cc tin c bn. Nu chng ta coi cc phng php, theo ta suy ra cc kt lun t cc tin c bn ny, l d nhin, th ta c th ni rng, theo Aristotle, ton b tri thc khoa hc c cha trong cc tin c bn, v rng ton b n s l ca chng ta nu ta c c mt danh mc bch khoa v cc tin c bn. Nhng lm sao c c cc tin c bn ny? Ging nh Plato, Aristotle tin rng cui cng chng ta nhn c mi tri thc bng mt s hiu thu trc gic v bn cht ca cc s vt. Chng ta c th bit mt s vt ch bng cch hiu bit bn cht ca n, Aristotle vit,28 v bit mt s vt l bit bn cht ca n. Mt tin c bn, theo ng, khng l g ngoi mt mnh m t bn cht ca mt s vt. Nhng mt mnh nh vy chnh l ci ng gi29 l mt nh ngha. Nh th tt c cc tin c bn ca cc chng minh l cc nh ngha. Mt nh ngha nhn ging ci g? Mt th d v mt nh ngha c th l: Mt con ch con l mt con ch non. Ch ng ca mt cu-nh ngha nh vy, t ch con, c gi l t phi c nh ngha (hay t c nh ngha); cc t ch non c gi l cng thc nh ngha. Nh mt quy tc, cng thc nh ngha di hn v phc tp hn t c nh ngha, v i khi di hn rt nhiu. Aristotle coi30 t c nh ngha nh tn ca bn cht ca mt s vt, v cng thc nh ngha nh s m t ca bn cht . V ng khng khng rng cng thc nh ngha

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phi cho mt m t mi mt ca bn cht hay cc tnh cht c bn ca s vt c ni n; nh th mt mnh nh Mt con ch con c bn chn, mc d ng, khng l mt nh ngha tho mn, v n khng vt cn ci c th c gi l bn cht ca ch con, m cng ng c vi nga na; v tng t mnh Mt con ch con c mu nu, tuy c th ng cho mt s, khng ng cho mi ch con; v n m t ci khng phi l mt tnh cht c bn m ch l tnh cht ngu nhin ca t c nh ngha. Nhng vn kh nht l lm sao ta c th hiu thu c cc nh ngha hay cc tin c bn, v chc chn rng chng l ng - rng ta khng sai lm, khng nm bn cht sai. Tuy Aristotle khng tht r rng v im ny31, t c th nghi ng rng, ch yu, ng li theo Plato. Plato dy32 rng chng ta c th hiu thu cc nim vi s gip ca loi no ca trc gic tr c khng sai lm; tc l, ta hnh dung hay xem xt chng vi con mt tinh thn, mt qu trnh ng hnh dung nh ging vi s nhn thy, nhng ph thuc thun tu vo tr tu ca chng ta, v loi tr bt c yu t no ph thuc vo cc gic quan ca chng ta. Cch nhn ca Aristotle t cc oan v t cm hng hn ca Plato, nhng n rt cuc cng th c33. V mc d ng dy rng chng ta i n nh ngha ch sau khi ta tin hnh nhiu quan st, ng tha nhn rng kinh nghim-gic quan bn thn n khng nm bt bn cht ph qut, v rng n khng th, v th, xc nh hon ton mt nh ngha. Cui cng ng n gin a ra nh rng chng ta c mt trc gic tr tu, mt nng lc tinh thn hay tr tu cho php chng ta hiu thu bn cht ca cc s vt, v hiu bit chng. V ng gi s thm rng nu ta bit mt bn cht mt cch trc gic, chng ta phi c kh nng m t n v v th nh ngha n. (Cc l l ca ng trong Posterior Analytic ng h l thuyt ny l yu n ng ngc nhin. Chng n thun ct ch ra rng tri thc ca chng ta v cc tin c bn l khng th chng minh, v iu ny s dn n mt hi quy v tn, v rng cc tin c bn ch t phi cng ng v cng chc chn nh cc kt lun da vo chng. Suy ra t iu ny, ng vit, rng khng th c tri thc chng minh v cc tin chnh; v v khng g ngoi trc gic tr tu c th tht hn tri thc chng minh, suy ra rng trc gic tr tu phi l ci hiu thu c cc tin c bn. Trong De Anima, v trong phn logic ca Metaphysics, chng ta thy nhiu hn mt l l; v y ta c mt l thuyt v trc gic tr tu- rng n lin h vi i tng ca n, bn cht, v rng n c th tr thnh mt vi i tng ca n. Tri thc thc s l ng nht vi i tng ca n).

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Tm tt phn tch ngn ny, ta c th, ti tin, cho mt m t cng bng v l tng Aristotlian v tri thc hon ho v y nu ta ni rng ng thy mc ch cui cng ca mi kho cu l bin son mt bch khoa th cha cc nh ngha trc gic v mi bn cht, tc l, tn ca chng cng vi cc cng thc nh ngha ca chng; v rng ng coi s tin b v tri thc nh ct s tch lu dn dn ca mt bch khoa ton th nh vy, ct m rng n cng nh lp kn cc l hng trong n v, tt nhin, ct s suy din tam on lun t n ra ton b khi s thc to thnh tri thc chng minh. M t c th nghi ng rng tt c cc quan im bn cht lun ny i din cho s tri ngc mnh m nht c th i vi cc phng php ca khoa hc hin i. (Ti ngh n cc khoa hc thc nghim, c l khng vi ton hc thun tu). Th nht, mc d trong khoa hc ta lm ht sc mnh tm ra chn l, ta bit r s thc rng chng ta chng bao gi c th chc chn liu ta c c n hay khng. Chng ta hc trong qu kh, t nhiu tht vng, rng ta khng c k vng tnh cht cui cng, dt khot. V ta hc khng cn b tht vng nu cc l thuyt khoa hc ca chng ta b lt ; v, trong hu ht cc trng hp, chng ta c th xc nh vi s tin cy cao ci no trong hai l thuyt l l thuyt tt hn. V th ta c th bit rng chng ta c tin b; v i vi hu ht chng ta chnh hiu bit ny l ci b li cho s mt o tng v tnh cui cng v s chc chn. Ni cch khc, ta bit rng cc l thuyt khoa hc ca chng ta phi lun vn l cc gi thuyt, nhng, trong nhiu trng hp quan trng, ta c th tm ra liu mt gi thuyt mi c u vit hn mt gi thuyt c hay khng. V nu chng khc nhau, chng s dn n cc tin on khc nhau, nhng ci thng c th c kim tra v mt thc nghim; v trn c s ca mt th nghim then cht nh vy, i khi chng ta c th tm ra l l thuyt mi dn n cc kt qu tho mn ni l thuyt c sp . Nh th ta c th ni rng trong tm kim chn l, chng ta thay th s chc chn khoa hc bng tin b khoa hc. V cch nhn ny v phng php khoa hc c s pht trin ca khoa hc lm vng thm. V khoa hc khng pht trin bng mt s tch lu t t mang tnh bch khoa th ca thng tin c bn, nh Aristotle ngh, m bng mt phng php cch mng hn nhiu; n tin b bi cc tng to bo, bi s tin ti ca cc l thuyt mi v rt l thng (nh l thuyt cho rng tri t l khng phng, hay khng gian metric l khng phng), v bi s lt cc l thuyt c. Nhng cch nhn ny v phng php khoa hc c ngha34 rng trong khoa hc khng c tri thc, theo ngha m Plato v Aristotle hiu t

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ny, theo ngha m n ng tnh cui cng; trong khoa hc, chng ta khng bao gi c l do tin rng chng ta t chn l. Ci m chng ta thng gi l tri thc khoa hc, thng thng, khng l tri thc theo ngha ny, m ng hn l thng tin v cc gi thuyt cnh tranh khc nhau v cch trong chng ng vng i vi cc kim nghim khc nhau; n l, dng ngn ng ca Plato v Aristotle, thng tin v kin khoa hc mi nht v c kim chng tt nht. Cch nhn ny, hn na, cn c ngha l chng ta khng c cc chng minh trong khoa hc (tr, tt nhin, ton hc thun tu v logic). Trong cc khoa hc thc nghim, m ch ring chng c th cung cp cho chng ta thng tin v th gii trong chng ta sng, khng c cc chng minh, nu chng ta hiu chng minh l mt l l xc lp mt ln v cho mi mi s ng n ca mt l thuyt. (Ci c th xy ra, tuy vy, l s bc b cc l thuyt khoa hc). Mt khc, ton hc thun tu v logic, cc mn cho php cc chng minh, khng cho chng ta thng tin v th gii, m ch pht trin cc cng c m t n. Nh th chng ta c th ni (nh ti ch ra ni khc35): trong chng mc m cc khng nh khoa hc ni n th gii kinh nghim, chng phi c th b bc b; v trong chng mc chng khng th b bc b, chng khng ni n th gii kinh nghim. Nhng, tuy chng minh khng ng vai tr no trong cc khoa hc thc nghim, l l vn c ng vai tr36; tht vy, vai tr ca n t nht cng quan trng nh vai tr ca quan st v th nghim. Vai tr ca cc nh ngha trong khoa hc, c bit, l cng rt khc vi ci Aristotle ngh n. Aristotle dy rng trong mt nh ngha chng ta u tin ch ra bn cht c l bng t tn cho n v sau chng ta m t n vi s gip ca cng thc nh ngha; ng nh trong mt cu bnh thng ging nh Con ch con ny l nu, u tin ta ch ra mt s vt nht nh bng cch ni con ch con ny, v sau m t n nh l nu. V ng dy rng bng cch m t bn cht nh vy cho t cn c nh ngha, chng ta cng xc nh hay gii thch ngha37 ca t y. Cho nn, nh ngha c mt thi tr li cho hai cu hi quan h rt mt thit vi nhau. Mt cu hi l N l g?, th d, con ch con l g?; n hi bn cht no c biu th bi t c nh ngha. Cu hi khc l N c ngha g?, th d, con ch con ngha l g?; n hi v ngha ca ca mt t (c th l, ca t biu th bn cht). Trong ng cnh hin ti, khng cn thit phn bit hai cu hi ny; ng hn, quan trng thy chng c g chung; v ti mun, c bit, lu n s thc rng c hai cu hi c nu ln bi t ng bn tri v c tr li bi cng thc nh ngha ng bn phi trong

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nh ngha. S thc ny c trng cho cch nhn bn cht lun, m phng php khoa hc v nh ngha khc vi n mt cch trit . Trong khi chng ta c th ni rng din gii bn cht lun c mt nh ngha mt cch bnh thng, tc l, t tri qua phi, ta c th ni rng mt nh ngha, nh c dng bnh thng trong khoa hc hin i, phi c c t cui n u, hay t phi sang tri; v n bt u bng cng thc nh ngha, v yu cu mt ci nhn ngn cho n. Nh th cch nhn khoa hc v nh ngha Mt con ch con l mt con ch non c th l n tr li cho cu hi Chng ta s gi mt con ch non l g? hn l mt tr li cho cu hi Mt con ch con l g?. (Cc cu hi nh S sng l g? hay Hp dn l g? khng ng vai tr no trong khoa hc). Vic s dng mt cch khoa hc ca cc nh ngha, c trng bi cch tip cn t phi sang tri, c th c gi l s din gii duy danh [coi trng tn] ca n, ngc li vi din gii Aristotlian hay bn cht lun38 ca n. Trong khoa hc hin i, ch c39 cc nh ngha duy danh xut hin, tc l cc k hiu tc k hay cc nhn c a vo nhm ct ngn mt chuyn di. V ta c th thy ngay t iu ny rng cc nh ngha khng ng vai tr rt quan trng no trong khoa hc. V cc k hiu tc k lun c th, tt nhin, c thay bng cc din t di hn, bng cng thc nh ngha, ci m n i din. mt vi trng hp iu ny c th lm cho ngn ng khoa hc ca chng ta rt rm r, nng n; ta mt thi gian v ph giy.* Nhng chng ta khng bao gi mt mt mu thng tin thc s no. Tri thc khoa hc ca chng ta, theo ngha m t ny c th c dng mt cch thch ng, vn hon ton khng b nh hng nu ta loi b mi nh ngha; nh hng duy nht l ln ngn ng ca chng ta, n s mt, khng phi s chnh xc40, m ch l s ngn ngn, tnh khc chit. (iu ny khng c coi l c ni trong khoa hc khng c th c nhu cu thc tin cp bch a ra cc nh ngha, v mc ch ngn gn). Kh c th c mt s tri ngc ln hn tri ngc gia cch nhn ny v vai tr do cc nh ngha ng, v cch nhn ca Aristotle. V cc nh ngha bn cht lun ca Aristotle l cc nguyn l t mi tri thc ca chng ta c dn ra; nh th chng cha tt c tri thc ca chng ta; v chng c dng thay mt cng thc di cho mt cng thc ngn. Ngc li vi iu ny, cc nh ngha khoa hc hay duy danh khng cha bt c tri thc no, thm ch bt c kin no; chng khng lm g ngoi vic a ra cc nhn tc k tu ; chng ct ngn mt cu chuyn di.
*

v chc chn kh hiu na nh tc gi gii thch ngay sau.

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Trn thc tin, cc nhn ny c s hu ch ln nht. thy iu ny, ta ch cn xt cc kh khn cc k c th ny sinh nu mt nh vi khun hc, mi khi ng ni v mt loi vi khun no , phi lp li ton b m t v n (bao gm cc phng php nhum mu, v.v., theo n c phn bit vi mt s loi tng t). V ta cng c th hiu, bng mt xem xt tng t, v sao n li rt thng b qun, thm ch bi cc nh khoa hc, rng cc nh ngha khoa hc phi c c t phi sang tri, nh c gii thch trn. V phn ln ngi ta, khi u tin nghin cu mt khoa hc, th d vi khun hc, phi c tm ra ngha ca cc thut ng k thut mi ny m h i mt. Theo cch ny, h thc s hc nh ngha t tri sang phi, thay mt chuyn rt di bng mt chuyn rt ngn, c nh n l mt nh ngha bn cht lun. Song y ch n thun l mt s tnh c tm l, v mt nh gio hay mt tc gi ca mt cun sch gio khoa qu thc c th tin hnh hon ton khc; tc l, ng ta c th a ra mt thut ng k thut ch sau khi nhu cu v n ni ln41. Cho n y ti th cho thy rng cch s dng khoa hc hay duy danh ca cc nh ngha l hon ton khc vi phng php bn cht lun v nh ngha ca Aristotle. Nhng cng c th chng t rng bn thn cch nhn bn cht lun v cc nh ngha n gin khng th ng vng c. khng ko di on lc ny qu ng42, ti s ph phn ch hai hc thuyt bn cht lun; hai hc thuyt c tm quan trng bi v mt vi trng phi hin i c nh hng vn da vo chng. Mt l hc thuyt b truyn v trc gic tr tu, v ci khc l hc thuyt rt ph bin rng ta phi nh ngha cc thut ng ca chng ta, nu ta mun l chnh xc. Aristotle cng vi Plato cho rng chng ta c mt nng lc, trc gic tr tu, nh n chng ta c th hnh dung ra cc bn cht v tm ra nh ngha no l nh ngha ng, v nhiu nh bn cht lun hin i lp li hc thuyt ny. Cc trit gia khc, theo Kant, cho rng chng ta khng c bt c th g thuc loi . kin ti l chng ta c th sn sng tha nhn rng ta c ci g c th c m t nh trc gic tr tu; hay chnh xc hn, mt vi trong s nhng kinh nghim tr tu ca chng ta c th c m t nh vy. Bt c ai hiu mt tng, hay mt quan im, hay mt phng php s hc, th d, phng php nhn, theo ngha l anh ta c cm nhn v n, c th c ni l hiu s vic mt cch trc gic; v c v s kinh nghim tr tu thuc loi . Nhng, mt khc, ti khng khng rng cc kinh nghim ny, d c quan trng n u cho n lc khoa hc ca chng ta, chng bao gi phc v cho s xc lp tnh ng n ca bt c tng hay l thuyt no, du cho ai

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c th cm thy r rng n u, rng n phi ng, hay rng n l hin nhin43. Cc trc gic nh vy khng th phc v ngay c nh mt l l, mc d chng c th c v chng ta tm ra cc l l. V ngi khc no c th c mt trc gic r rt ht nh vy rng l thuyt l sai. Con ng ca khoa hc c lt bng cc l thuyt b vt b nhng ci mt thi c tuyn b l hin nhin; th d, Francis Bacon nho bng nhng ngi t chi chn l hin nhin rng mt tri v cc sao quay quanh tri t, ci hin nhin ng yn. Trc gic khng nghi ng g ng mt vai tr to ln trong i sng ca mt nh khoa hc, ht nh n ng trong cuc sng ca mt nh th. N dn ng ta n nhng khm ph. Nhng n cng c th dn ng ta n nhng tht bi. V n lun vn l chuyn ring t ca ng ta, c th ni nh vy. Khoa hc khng hi lm sao ng ta nhn c cc tng, n ch quan tm n cc l l c th c mi ngi kim tra. Trc kia Gauss, nh ton hc v i, m t tnh trng ny rt rnh mch khi ng la ln: Ti c kt qu; nhng ti khng bit mnh c c n ra sao. Tt c iu ny p dng, tt nhin, cho hc thuyt ca Aristotle v trc gic tr tu ca ci gi l cc bn cht44, hc thuyt c Hegel, v trong thi i ca chng ta c E. Husserl v rt ng hc tr ca ng, truyn b; v n biu th rng trc gic tr tu v cc bn cht hay hin tng hc thun tu, nh Husserl gi n, l mt phng php chng ca khoa hc cng khng ca trit hc. (Vn c tranh ci nhiu liu n l mt sng ch mi, nh cc nh hin tng hc thun tu ngh, hay c l l mt bin th ca ch ngha Cartesian hay ch ngha Hegel, c th c gii quyt d dng; n l mt bin th ca ch ngha Aristotle). Hc thuyt th hai cn ph phn thm ch c cc quan h quan trng hn vi cc quan im hin i; n c bit lin quan ti vn ca ch ngha ngn t [verbalism: chi ch, ni sung]. T Aristotle, c bit rng ri rng ta khng th chng minh mi mnh , v rng n lc lm vy s b sp v n s ch dn n mt s hi quy v tn ca cc chng minh. Nhng c ng45 ln, hin nhin, rt nhiu tc gi hin i c v khng nhn ra rng n lc tng t xc nh ngha ca mi thut ng ca chng ta, theo cng cch, s dn n mt s hi quy v tn ca cc nh ngha. on sau t Plato To-Day ca Crossman l c trng ca mt cch nhn m do quan h lin quan c nhiu trit gia ng thi danh ting cho l ng, th d, nh Wittgenstein46: nu ta khng bit chnh xc ngha ca cc t chng ta dng, chng ta khng th tho lun bt c th g mt cch thun li. Hu ht cc l l v ch m trn tt c chng ta u ph thi gian ch yu l do s thc rng mi

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chng ta u c ngha m h ring ca mnh cho cc t ta dng v gi s rng cc i th ca chng ta cng dng chng theo cng ngha. Nu ta nh ngha cc thut ng ca mnh bt u, chng ta c th c cc tho lun thun li hn nhiu. V li, ta ch cn c cc nht bo quan st thy rng tuyn truyn (t hin i tng ng vi thut hng bin) ph thuc ch yu vo thnh cng ca n v lm ln ln ngha ca cc t. Nu cc chnh tr gia b lut buc phi nh ngha bt c thut ng no h mun dng, h s mt hu ht sc li cun ph bin ca h, cc bi ni ca h s ngn hn, v nhiu s bt ng ca h s t ra l thun tu li sung. on ny l rt c trng cho mt trong cc nh kin ta c do Aristotle, cho nh kin rng ngn ng c th c lm cho chnh xc hn bng s dng cc nh ngha. Hy xem liu iu ny c tht s lm c khng. Th nht, ta c th thy r rng l nu cc chnh tr gia (hay bt c ai khc) b lut buc phi nh ngha bt c thut ng no h mun dng, cc bi ni ca h s khng ngn hn, m s di v tn. V mt nh ngha khng th xc minh ngha ca mt t nhiu hn cht no mt suy dn logic47 c th xc minh s ng n ca mt mnh ; c hai ch c th di vn lui li. Suy dn di vn chn l quay li cho cc tin , nh ngha di vn ngha quay li cho cc t nh ngha (tc l, cc t to thnh cng thc nh ngha). Nhng cc t ny, v nhiu l do48, chc li m h v ln ln ht nh cc t ta xut pht vi; v trong mi trng hp, n lt ta phi i nh ngha chng; vic dn n cc t mi cng phi c nh ngha. V vn vn, cho n v tn. Ta thy l i hi rng mi thut ng ca chng ta phi c nh ngha l khng th ng vng ht nh i hi rng mi mnh ca chng ta phi c chng minh. Thot nhn, ph phn ny c th c v khng cng bng. C th ni rng ci m ngi ta ngh n, nu h i cc nh ngha, th l loi b tnh nhp nhng rt thng gn vi cc t nh49 nn dn ch, t do, ngha v, tn gio, v. v.; rng r rng l khng th nh ngha tt c cc t ca chng ta, nhng c th nh ngha mt s ca cc t nguy him hn ny cn th thi c mc th; v rng cc t nh ngha ch cn c chp nhn, tc l, chng ta phi dng li sau mt hay hai bc trnh mt s hi quy v tn. S bin h ny, tuy vy, l khng th ng vng. Phi th nhn, cc t c nhc ti l cc t b dng sai nhiu. Nhng ti ph nhn rng n lc nh ngha chng c th ci thin vn . N ch c th lm cho vn ti i. Rng bng nh ngha cc t ca h ngay c mt ln, v cc t nh ngha khng xc nh,

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cc chnh tr gia s khng c kh nng lm cho cc bi ni ca h ngn hn, l r rng; v bt c nh ngha bn cht lun no, tc l ci nh ngha cc thut ng ca chng ta (ngc li vi ci theo thuyt duy danh a ra cc thut ng mi), c ngha thay mt cu chuyn di cho mt cu chuyn ngn, nh chng ta thy. Ngoi ra, n lc nh ngha cc thut ng ch lm tng s m h v lm ln. V do chng ta khng th yu cu tt c cc t nh ngha phi c nh ngha khi n lt chng, mt chnh tr gia hay trit gia lu lnh c th d dng tho mn yu cu v nh ngha. Nu c hi ng c nh ni g bng nn dn ch, th d, ng ta c th ni s cai tr ca ch chung hay s cai tr ca tinh thn ca nhn dn; v v by gi ng cho mt nh ngha, v nh th tho mn cc chun mc cao nht v s chnh xc, khng ai cn dm ph phn ng ta na. V, qu thc, lm sao ng ta c th b ph phn, v i hi rng s cai tr hay nhn dn hay ch hay tinh thn n lt chng phi c nh ngha, li t chng ta ln chnh con ng ti mt hi quy v tn cho nn mi ngi s lng l a n ra? Nhng nu phi a n ra bt chp tt c iu ny, th n c th tho mn cng d dng ngang vy. Mt khc, mt s ci ln v vn liu nh ngha c chnh xc, hay ng, ch c th dn n tranh ci v t ng. Nh th cch nhn bn cht lun v nh ngha sp , ngay cho d l n khng, vi Aristotle, n lc thit lp cc nguyn l v tri thc ca chng ta, m ch a ra i hi hnh nh khim tn hn rng ta phi xc nh ngha ca cc t ca chng ta. Nhng khng nghi ng g, i hi rng chng ta ni r rng v khng m h l rt quan trng, v phi c tho mn. Cch nhn duy danh c th tho mn n? V thuyt duy danh c th thot khi hi quy v tn? N c th. i vi lp trng duy danh khng c kh khn tng ng vi hi quy v tn. Nh ta thy, khoa hc khng dng cc nh ngha nhm xc nh ngha ca cc t ca n, m ch a ra cc nhn tc k thun tin. V n khng ph thuc vo cc nh ngha; mi nh ngha c th c b qua m khng c mt mt thng tin c truyn t. Suy ra t iu ny rng trong khoa hc, tt c cc t [thut ng] m chng ta tht s cn phi l cc t khng c nh ngha. Th th lm sao cc khoa hc chc chn v ngha ca cc thut ng ca chng? Cc tr li khc nhau cho cu hi ny c gi 50, song ti khng ngh rng bt c tr li no trong s l tho mn. Tnh hnh c v l th ny. Ch ngha Aristotle v cc trit l lin quan ni cho chng ta t lu rng quan trng th no c c hiu bit chnh xc v ngha ca cc thut ng ca chng ta m chng ta u c chiu hng tin vo. V

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chng ta tip tc bm cht vo tn iu ny bt chp s tht khng th nghi ng rng trit hc, trong hai mi th k lo lng v ngha ca cc t ca n, l khng ch y ry ch ngha ngn t m cng m h v nhp nhng kinh khng, trong khi mt khoa hc nh vt l hc hu nh khng h lo lng v cc thut ng v ngha ca chng, m thay vo lo v cc s thc, t chnh xc cao. iu ny, chc chn, phi coi nh biu th rng, di nh hng Aristotlian, tm quan trng ca ngha ca cc thut ng b thi phng cc k. Nhng ti ngh n biu th thm ch nhiu hn. V s tp trung ny vo vn ngha khng ch khng thit lp s chnh xc; bn thn n l ngun ch yu ca tnh m h, nhp nhng, v ln ln. Trong khoa hc, chng ta cn thn sao cho cc mnh ta a ra khng bao gi c ph thuc vo ngha ca cc thut ng ca chng ta. Ngay c ni cc thut ng c nh ngha, ta khng bao gi th dn ra bt c thng tin no t nh ngha, hay t c s cho bt c l l no da vo n. y l l do v sao cc thut ng ca chng ta gy ra t rc ri n vy. Chng ta khng cht qu nng ln chng. Ta c gng gn cho chng trng lng cng t cng tt. Chng ta khng coi ngha ca chng qu nghim tc. Chng ta lun thc c rng cc thut ng ca mnh l hi m h (v ta hc dng chng ch trong cc ng dng thc tin) v ta t s chnh xc khng bng cch gim bt vng na ti ca tnh mp m, m ng hn bng gi kho trong phm vi , bng din t cn thn cc cu ca chng ta sao cho cc bng kh d ca ngha ca thut ng ca chng ta khng quan trng g c. y l cch ta trnh tranh ci v t ng. Quan im rng tnh chnh xc ca khoa hc v ca ngn ng khoa hc ph thuc v s chnh xc ca cc thut ng ca n chc chn l rt c v hp l, nhng tuy nhin, ti tin, ch n thun l mt nh kin. S chnh xc ca mt ngn ng ph thuc, ng hn, ch vo s thc l n cn thn ng cht nng nhim v phi l chnh xc ln cc t ca n. Mt t nh n ct hay gi chc chn l rt m h. (Mt i ct phi cao bao nhiu c th gi l n ct? Khng kh phi chuyn ng nhanh th no c gi l gi?) Tuy vy, i vi nhiu mc ch ca nh a cht, cc t ny l hon ton chnh xc; v cho cc mc ch khc, khi cn n mt phn bit cao hn, ng ta lun c th ni cc n cao gia 4 v 30 b (feet) hay gi c tc gia 20 v 40 dm mt gi. V lp trng trong cc khoa hc chnh xc hn cng tng t. Trong cc o lng vt l, th d, chng ta lun cn thn xem xt di m trong c th c mt li; v s chnh xc khng ct n lc gim

20

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bt di ny xung bng khng, hay vic gi b rng khng c di no nh vy, m ng hn s tha nhn n mt cch tng minh. Ngay c khi mt thut ng gy ra rc ri, nh th d t tnh ng thi trong vt l hc, khng phi v ngha ca n khng chnh xc hay m h, m ng hn bi v l thuyt trc gic no khin chng ta cht nng ln thut ng qu nhiu ngha, hay ngha qu chnh xc, hn l qu t. Ci m Einstein tm thy trong phn tch ca ng v tnh ng thi l, khi ni v cc s kin ng thi, cc nh vt l a ra mt gi thit sai ci khng th b thch thc gi nh cc tn hiu c tc v hn. Li khng phi l chng khng c ngha g, hay ngha ca chng m h, hay thut ng khng chnh xc; ci Einstein tm thy, ng hn, l s loi b mt gi thit l thuyt, khng c nhn ra cho n nay bi v s hin nhin trc gic ca n, c th loi b mt kh khn ny sinh trong khoa hc. Cho nn, chng ta thc s khng lin quan n vn ngha ca mt thut ng, m ng hn n s ng n ca mt l thuyt. Rt khng chc l n s dn n nhiu nu gi nh ai bt u, ngoi mt vn vt l xc nh, ci thin khi nim v tnh ng thi bng phn tch ngha c bn ca n, hay thm ch bng phn tch cc nh vt l thc s mun ni g khi h ni v s ng thi. Ti ngh chng ta c th hc t th d ny rng chng ta khng nn th n u hay n [th i qua cu trc khi n vi n]. V ti cng ngh rng bn tm vi cc vn v ngha ca cc t, nh tnh m h v nhp nhng ca chng, chc chn khng th c bin minh bng cu khn n th d ca Einstein. Mt mi bn tm nh vy, ng hn, da vo gi thit rng phn ln ph thuc vo ngha ca cc thut ng ca chng ta, v rng chng ta thao tc vi ngha ny; v v th phi dn n ch ngha ngn t v tnh kinh vin. T quan im ny, chng ta c th ph phn mt hc thuyt ging ca Wittgenstein51, ngi cho rng trong khi khoa hc kho st cc vn v s thc, cng vic ca trit hc l lm r ngha ca cc thut ng, bng cch y thanh lc ngn ng ca chng ta, v loi b cc cu ngn ng. c trng ca cc quan im ca trng phi ny l chng khng dn n bt c chui l l no c th c ph phn mt cch duy l; trng phi v th din thuyt cc phn tch52 tinh t ca n ch ring cho gii b truyn nh ca ngi c th gio. iu ny dng nh gi rng bt c s bn tm no vi ngha c xu hng dn n kt qu rt in hnh ca ch ngha Aristotle: trit hc kinh vin v ch ngha thn b. Hy xem xt ngn ngn hai kt qu in hnh ny ca ch ngha Aristotle ny sinh ra sao. Aristotle khng khng rng s chng t hay

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chng minh, v nh ngha, l hai phng php c bn nhn tri thc. u tin hy xem hc thuyt v chng minh, khng th t chi l n dn n v s n lc chng minh hn l c th c chng minh; trit hc trung c y tnh kinh vin ny v cng xu hng c th c quan st, Lc a, cho n tn Kant. Chnh l ph phn ca Kant i vi mi n lc chng minh s tn ti ca Thng l ci dn n phn ng lng mn ca Fichte, Schelling, v Hegel. Xu hng mi l vt b cc chng minh, v vi chng, bt c loi l l duy l no. Vi nhng ngi lng mn, mt loi mi ca ch ngha gio iu tr thnh thi thng, trong trit hc cng nh trong cc khoa hc x hi. N i mt vi chng ta bng chm ngn ca n. V ta c th chp nhn n hay b mc n. Giai on ny ca mt trit hc sm truyn [tin tri], c Schopenhauer gi l thi i bt lng, c ng m t nh sau53: c tnh lng thin, tinh thn gnh vc cng vic thm tra cng bn c, ci thm su vo cc tc phm ca tt c cc trit gia trc y, hon ton bin mt y. Mi trang u chng t rng nhng ngi c gi l cc trit gia ny khng c gng dy, m b ba m bn c. Mt kt qu tng t c hc thuyt ca Aristotle v nh ngha to ra. u tin n dn n kh nhiu chuyn ch si tc lm t. Nhng mun hn, cc trit gia bt u cm thy rng khng th ci l v cc nh ngha. Bng cch ny, bn cht lun khng ch c v ch ngha ngn t, m n cng dn n s v mng vi l l, tc l, vi l tr. Trit hc kinh vin v ch ngha thn b v ni tht vng v l tr, y l nhng kt qu khng th trnh khi ca bn cht lun ca Plato v Aristotle. V s ni lon ca Plato chng li t do, vi Aristotle, tr thnh mt cuc ni lon b mt chng li l tr. Nh ta bit t bn thn Aristotle, bn cht lun v l thuyt v nh ngha gp phi s phn i mnh khi chng u tin c xut, c bit t Antisthenes bn c ca Socrates , ph phn ca ng c v hp l nht54. Nhng s phn i ny ng tic b tht bi. Cc hu qu ca s tht bi ny i vi s pht trin tr tu ca nhn loi c th hu nh khng c nh gi qu mc. Mt vi trong s s c tho lun chng tip. Ti y ti kt thc on lc ca mnh, ph phn i vi l thuyt Platonic-Aristotlian v nh ngha. III S hu nh khng cn thit nhn mnh li s thc rng s lun bn ca ti v Aristotle l rt s si s si hn nhiu lun bn ca ti v

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Plato. Mc ch ch yu ca ci c ni v c hai ng l cho thy vai tr m h ng trong s ni ln ca ch ngha lch s v trong cuc u tranh chng li x hi m, v cho thy nh hng ca h n cc vn ca thi i ring ca chng ta- n s ni ln ca trit hc sm truyn ca Hegel, cha ca ch ngha lch s v ch ngha ton tr hin i. Cc din bin gia Aristotle v Hegel khng h c bn lun y. lm bt c th g ging nh s cng bng cho chng, ch t cn n mt cun sch khc. Trong vi trang cn li ca chng ny, tuy vy, ti s c gng trnh by s qua giai on ny c th c din gii ra sao di dng xung t gia x hi m v x hi ng. Xung t gia s t bin Platonic-Aristotlian v tinh thn ca Th h V i, ca Pericles, ca Socrates, v ca Democritus, c th tm thy du vt sut cc thi k. Tinh thn ny c bo tn, t nhiu thun khit, trong phong tro ca cc Cynic, nhng ngi, ging nhng ngi C c ban u, thuyt ging tnh anh em ca con ngi, c h ni vi lng tin mt thn trong cng v lm cha ca Cha. ch ca Alexander cng nh ca Augustus b cc tng ny nh hng, u tin hnh thnh Athens quc ch ngha ca Pericles, v n lun c khch l bi s gp g gia Ty v ng. Rt c th l cc tng ny, v c l bn thn phong tro Cynic, cng nh hng n s ni ln ca o C c. khi u ca n, o C c, ging nh phong tro Cynic, phn i Ch ngha duy tm tr thc Plato ho v thuyt duy l tr ca cc hc gi tn gio chuyn nghip, nhng ngi uyn bc. (Ngi che giu nhng th ny khi ngi sng sut v thn trng v tit l chng cho nhng k kh di). Ti khng nghi ng rng, mt phn, n l mt s phn i chng li ci c th c m t nh ch ngha Plato Do Thi theo ngha rng55, s tn sng Thng v Li ca Ngi. V chc chn l mt s phn i chng li ch ngha b lc Do Thi, chng li cc cm k b lc cng nhc v v ngha, v chng li tnh c chim b lc c t biu hin, th d, trong hc thuyt v dn tc c chn, tc l trong mt din gii v Thng nh mt thn b lc. Mt s nhn mnh nh vy n cc lut b lc v s thng nht b lc hnh nh l c trng khng phi ca mt x hi b lc nguyn thu m l ca mt n lc tuyt vng phc hi v lm ngng cc dng c ca i sng b lc; v trong trng hp ca dn Do Thi, n c v nh bt ngun nh mt phn ng i vi tc ng ca s xm chim ca Babylon ln i sng Do Thi. Nhng snh i vi phong tro ny tin n mt s cng nhc ln hn ta thy mt phong tro khc hnh nh hnh thnh cng thi, v n to

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ra cc tng nhn o ch ngha ging vi phn ng li ca Th h V i i vi s tan r ca ch ngha b lc Hy Lp. Qu trnh ny, hnh nh, t lp li khi s c lp Do thi cui cng b Rome ph hu. N dn ti mt s li gio mi v su sc hn gia hai gii php kh d ny, s quay li vi b lc, nh c ngi Do Thi chnh thng i din, v ch ngha nhn o ca gio phi mi ca nhng ngi C c, gio phi bao gm c nhng ngi d man (hay nhng ngi khng theo o no) cng nh cc n l. Chng ta c th thy t Acts56 cc vn ny cp bch ra sao, vn x hi cng nh vn dn tc. V chng ta cng c th thy iu ny t s pht trin ca dn Do thi na; v phn bo th ca n phn ng li vi cng thch thc do phong tro khc tin n lm ngng v lm ho hnh thc b lc ca i sng ca h, v do s bm cht vo cc lut ca h vi mt s kin tr c th nhn c s chp thun ca Plato. C th hu nh khng c nghi ng rng s pht trin ny, ging s pht trin ca cc tng ca Plato, c gy cm hng bi mt s phn khng mnh i vi tn iu mi ca x hi m; trong trng hp ny, ca o C c. Nhng s song song gia tn iu ca Th h V i, c bit ca Socrates, v tn iu ca o C c ban u cn su hn na. t c nghi ng rng sc mnh ca nhng ngi C c ban u nm dng kh o c ca h. N nm s thc rng h t chi chp nhn yu sch ca Rome rng n c quyn bt cc thn dn ca n hnh ng ngc li lng tm ca h57. Nhng ngi C c t v o, nhng ngi t chi cc yu sch ca k mnh a ra cc chun mc v quyn, chu au kh v cng s nghip m v n Socrates cht. R rng l nhng vn ny thay i ng k khi bn thn nim tin C c gio tr nn hng mnh ch Roman. Cu hi ny sinh liu s cng nhn chnh thc ny ca Nh th C c gio (v t chc mun hn ca n theo m hnh ca Tn-Platonic-Chng-Nh th58 ca Julian ngi b o) c phi l mt nc c chnh tr ti tnh t pha chnh quyn cai tr, ngh ra ph v nh hng o c gh gm ca mt tn gio bnh ng - mt tn gio m h th mt cch v vng chin u vi bng v lc cng nh bng ln n l v thn v nghch o, hay khng. Ni cch khc, cu hi ny sinh liu (c bit sau Julian) Rome khng thy cn thit phi p dng li khuyn ca Pareto, li dng tnh cm, khng ph sc lc trong cc n lc v ch ph hu chng, hay khng. Cu hi ny l kh tr li; nhng n chc chn khng th b gt b bng cu khn (nh Toynbee lm59) n tri gic lch s ca chng ta ci rn chng ta chng li vic quy cho, thi k ca

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Constantine v nhng ngi theo ng, cc ng c v lim s li thi, tc l, cc ng c ho hp hn vi thi Phng Ty hin i ca ring chng ta i vi cuc sng. V chng ta thy rng cc ng c nh vy c by t mt cch cng khai v tr trn, hay chnh xc hn, mt cch khng xu h, ngay t th k th nm trc cng nguyn, bi Cristias, lnh t ca Ba mi Bo cha; v cc tuyn b tng t c th thy thng xuyn trong lch s ca trit hc Hy Lp60. D iu ny c th no i na, kh c th nghi ng l vi s khng b ca Justinian i vi nhng ngi khng theo o C c, nhng ngi theo d gio, v cc trit gia (nm 529 sau C.N.), thi k en ti bt u. Nh Th i theo ch ngha ton tr Platonic-Aristotlian, mt s pht trin ln n nh im To d gio (Inquisition). L thuyt ca To d gio, c bit hn, c th c m t l hon ton Platonic. N c trnh by trong ba cun cui ca Laws, ni Plato cho thy rng l ngha v ca cc nh cai tr chn dt bo v cu ca h vi mi gi bng duy tr tnh cng nhc ca cc lut v c bit ca cc tp qun v l thuyt tn gio, cho d h c phi git ch si, ngi [si] c th phi tha nhn l ngi lng thin v ng knh m lng tm bnh hon ca ngi y ng tic khng cho php anh ta ci u trc e do ca k mnh. Mt trong nhng phn ng c trng i vi cng thng ca nn vn minh trong thi i ring ca chng ta l, ch ngha c on c cho l C c ca Thi Trung c , trong cc gii tr thc nht nh, tr thnh mt trong cc mt thi thng mi nht hin nay61. iu ny, khng nghi ng g, l do khng ch s l tng ho ca mt qu kh qu thc hu c v hi nhp hn, m cng do mt mt s phn n c th hiu c chng li thuyt bt kh tri hin i ci lm tng s cng thng ny qu mc. Ngi ta tin Thng cai tr th gii. Lng tin ny hn ch trch nghim ca h. Lng tin mi rng bn thn h phi cai tr to ra cho nhiu ngi mt gnh nng trch nhim gn nh khng th chu ng ni. Tt c iu ny phi c tha nhn. Nhng ti khng nghi ng rng Thi Trung c, ngay c t quan im ca o C c, khng c cai tr tt hn cc nn dn ch Phng Ty ca chng ta. V chng ta c th c trong cc Sch Phc m rng ngi sng lp ra o C c c mt tin s lut no hi v tiu chun theo phn bit gia mt din gii ng v sai v li ca Ngi. Ngi tr li bng k mt truyn ng ngn v linh mc v ngi Levite, c hai, trng thy mt ngi b thng cc k au n, l i r sang bn khc, trong khi ngi dn Samaritan bng b vt thng cho anh ta, v chm lo cc nhu cu vt cht cho anh ta. Truyn ng ngn ny, ti ngh, phi

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c nhng ngi C c nh li nhng ngi ao c khng ch cho mt thi khi Nh Th cm quyn t do v lng tm, m c mt thi trong , di con mt v vi thm quyn ca Nh Th, s n p khng k xit dn ngi dn n tuyt vng. Nh mt bnh lun cm ng v ni au kh ca ngi dn trong nhng ngy v, ng thi, v gio l C c ca Trung c hc lng mn ang rt thi thng hin nay gio l mun gi li nhng ngy y, c th trch dn y mt on t cun Rats, Lice, and History62 [Chut, Chy rn, v Lch s] ca H. Zinsser, trong ng ni v cc bnh dch ca chng cung nhy [ma] trong Thi Trung c, c bit n nh iu nhy ca St. John, iu nhy ca St. Vitus, v.v. (Ti khng mun vin dn Zinsser nh mt chuyn gia c thm quyn v Thi Trung c - khng cn phi lm vy v cc s vic ang c ni n hu nh khng cn tranh ci. Nhng cc bnh lun ca ng c vn phong him c v l k v ngi Samaritan thc tin- v mt thy thuc ln v nhn hu). Nhng cn cp tnh l ny, tuy khng phi khng c nghe thy cc thi k trc, tr nn ph bin trong v ngay sau cnh cng cc khng khip ca ci Cht en. Phn nhiu, chng cung nhy ma khng by t c trng no m chng ta gn vi cc bnh dch truyn nhim ca h thng thn kinh. C v, ng hn, chng ging nh chng cung lon i chng, do khng b v tuyt vng gy ra, trong cc dn c b p bc, b cht i, v b khn kh n mc hu nh ngy nay khng th tng tng ni. Thm vo s cng cc ca chin tranh lin min, s tan r chnh tr v x hi, l tai ho ca cn bnh khng trnh c, b him, v ch t. Loi ngi ng b v nh th b mc kt vo mt th gii khng b v him nguy m khng c s bo v no chng li n. Thn thnh v ma qu l cc quan nim sinh ng i vi con ngi ca nhng ngy nhng ngi co rm li di cc tai ho m h tin l do cc lc siu nhin p t. i vi nhng ngi suy sp di s cng thng chng c ng no trn thot tr s n nu hng ni ca s lon tr m, trong hon cnh ca thi , i theo hng ca s cung tn tn gio. Sau Zinsser tip tc nu ra vi s tng t gia cc s kin ny v cc phn ng nht nh ca thi i chng ta trong , ng ni, cc chng cung lon kinh t v chnh tr c thay th cho cc chng cung lon tn gio ca cc thi trc; v sau im ny, ng tng kt m t c trng ca ng v ngi dn sng trong nhng ngy ca ch ngha c on nh mt dn c b khng b lm khip s v cng cc, dn c suy sp di s cng thng ca gian kh v nguy him hu nh khng th tin ni. Cn phi hi thi no l C c hn, thi c ao quay li s hi ho v

26

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thng nht nguyn vn ca Thi Trung c, hay thi mun dng l tr gii phng loi ngi khi bnh dch hch v p bc? Nhng ch t mt phn no ca Nh Th c on Thi Trung c thnh cng lm danh ch ngha nhn o thc tin nh vy l trn tc, l c trng ca ch ngha Epicurus, v ca nhng ngi ch mun nhi y bng h nh nhng con th. Cc t ch ngha Epicurus, ch ngha duy vt, v ch ngha kinh nghim, tc l, trit hc ca Democritus, mt trong nhng ngi v i nht ca Th h V i, bng cch ny tr thnh t ng ngha ca s i bi, v Ch ngha Duy tm ca Plato v Aristotle c tng bc nh mt loi o C c trc Jesus Christ. Qu thc, y l ngun ca uy quyn bao la ca Plato v Aristotle, ngay c trong thi i chng ta, rng trit l ca h c ch ngha c on trung c chp nhn. Nhng khng c qun rng, bn ngoi phe ton tr, danh ting ca h sng lu hn nh hng thc tin ca h n i sng ca chng ta. V tuy tn ca Democritus him khi c nh n, khoa hc ca ng cng nh o c ca ng vn sng mi cng chng ta.

CHNG 12: HEGEL V CH NGHA B LC MI

Trit hc ca Hegel, khi , l mt s nghin cu cn thn v t duy thm thu n mc phn ln n l khng th hiu c J. H. STIRLING. I

Hegel, ngun ca mi ch ngha lch s ng i, l mt mn trc tip ca Heraclitus, Plato, v Aristotle. Hegel t c cc th huyn diu nht. Mt nh logic bc thy, l chuyn tr con i vi cc phng php bin chng hng mnh ca ng ly ra nhng con th bng xng bng tht t cc chic m la thun tu siu hnh hc. Nh th, bt u t Timaeus ca Plato v thuyt s thn b ca n, Hegel thnh cng chng minh bng cc phng php thun tu trit hc (114 nm sau Principia ca Newton) rng cc hnh tinh phi chuyn ng theo cc nh lut Kepler. Thm ch ng cn hon thnh1 vic suy lun ra v tr thc t ca cc hnh tinh, v th chng minh rng khng c hnh tinh no c th nm gia sao Ho v sao Mc (ng tic, tui khi s ch ca ng l mt hnh tinh nh vy c khm ph ra vi thng trc ). Tng t, ng chng minh rng s t ho st c ngha l lm tng trng lng ca n, rng cc l thuyt ca Newton v qun tnh v hp dn mu thun vi nhau (tt nhin, ng khng th thy trc l Einstein s chng t s ng nht ca khi lng qun tnh v hp dn), v nhiu th khc thuc loi ny. Rng mt phng php trit hc hng mnh nh vy c coi l nghim tc ch c th c gii thch mt phn bng s lc hu ca khoa hc t nhin c trong nhng ngy . Mc d s tht l, ti ngh, u tin n khng c coi l tht s nghim tc bi nhng ngi nghim tc (nh Schopenhauer, hay J. F. Fries), khng h trong mi trng hp bi cc nh khoa hc nhng ngi, ging Democritus2, thch tm ra mt quy lut nhn qu duy nht hn l lm vua Ba T. Danh ting ca Hegel c to ra bi nhng ngi thch mt s khai tm nhanh vo cc b mt su hn ca th gii ny i vi nhng tnh cht k thut tn mn ca mt khoa hc m, rt cuc, c th ch lm tht vng h do s thiu nng lc ca n tit l mi s b n. V mau chng h thy rng chng g c th c p dng d nh vy i vi bt c vn no, v ng thi vi s kh khn gy n tng n vy (tuy ch l b ngoi), v vi thnh cng nhanh v chc chn song nguy nga n vy, chng g c th c dng r n th th v vi t hun luyn khoa hc v tri thc n vy, v chng g c th cho mt dng v khoa

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hc ngon mc n vy, nh php bin chng Hegelian, phng php b n thay th cho logic hnh thc cn ci. Thnh cng ca Hegel l khi u ca thi i bt lng (nh Schopenhauer3 m t giai on ca Ch ngha Duy tm c) v ca thi i v trch nhim (nh K. Heiden m t c trng ca thi i ton tr ch ngha hin i); u tin ca tr thc, v mun hn, nh mt trong cc h qu ca n, ca s v trch nhim o c; ca mt thi i mi b kim sot bi ma lc ca cc t khoa trng, v bi sc mnh ca bit ng [ting lng-jargon]. lm nn lng bn c trc, khi coi ting lng nh ngh khoa trng v ra v b n ca Hegel qu nghim tc, ti s trch vi chi tit gy sng st m ng khm ph ra v m, v c bit v cc quan h gia m v nhit. Ti ht sc c gng th dch cu lng nhng ny t Philosophy of Nature4 [Trit hc T nhin] ca Hegel cng trung thnh cng tt; ng vit: 302. m thanh l s thay i v iu kin c th ca s tch bit ca cc phn vt cht, v v s ph nh ca iu kin ny; - n thun l mt s tru tng hay mt tnh l tng l tng, c th ni nh vy, ca c th . Nhng s thay i ny, v vy, bn thn n l ph nh trc tip ca s tn ti c th vt cht; ci, v th, l tnh l tng tht ca lc hp dn v lc c kt c th, tc l - nhit. S lm nng cc vt th pht ra m, ht nh ca cc vt th b p hay b c xt, l s xut hin ca nhit, bt ngun v nhn thc cng vi m thanh. C vi ngi vn tin vo tnh chn tht ca Hegel, hay nhng ngi vn nghi ng liu b mt ca ng c th khng l s su sc, s y ca t duy, hn l s trng tuch. Ti mun h hy c k cu cui cng cu c th hiu c duy nht- ca trch dn ny, v trong cu ny, Hegel l mnh. V r rng n khng c ngha g ngoi: S lm nng cc vt th pht ra m .. l nhit cng vi m thanh. Cu hi ny sinh liu Hegel la gt mnh, b bit ng gy cm hng ring ca ng thi min, hay liu ng sp t la gt v lm m mn nhng ngi khc. Ti cm thy va lng rng l trng hp sau, c bit cn c vo ci Hegel vit mt trong cc l th ca ng. Trong bc th ny, vit vi nm trc khi cun Philosophy of Nature ca ng xut bn, Hegel nhc n mt cun Philosophy of Nature khc do Schelling bn trc y ca ng vit: Ti c qu nhiu vic phi lm vi ton hc php tnh vi phn, ho hc, Hegel khoe khoang trong bc th ny (nhng y ch l tr bp), cho mnh b la bi tr bp bm ca Trit hc T nhin, bi s ln mt trit gia ny m khng c hiu bit v s thc .. v bi s lun bn v ch nhng iu tng tng, thm ch cc iu tng tng ngu n, nh cc tng. y l mt m t c trng rt cng bng v phng

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php ca Schelling, tc l, v cch bp bm tr tro m bn thn Hegel sao chp, hay ng hn lm trm trng thm, ngay sau khi ng nhn ra rng, nu n n cc c gi thch hp, n c ngha l thnh cng. Bt chp tt c iu ny c v khng chc l Hegel tng c th tr thnh nhn vt c nh hng nht trong trit hc c nu khng c quyn lc ca nh nc Ph ng sau ng. Tnh c, ng tr thnh nh trit hc chnh thng u tin ca ch ngha Ph, c b nhim trong thi k khi phc phong kin sau cc cuc chin tranh Napoleon. Mun hn, nh nc cng ng h cc hc tr ca ng (c , v vn ch c cc i hc do nh nc kim sot), v n lt h, h li ng h ln nhau. V mc d ch ngha Hegel b chnh thc phn i bi hu ht trong s h, [song] cc trit gia Hegel-ho chi phi vic dy trit hc v v th mt cch gin tip chi phi thm ch cc trng trung hc ca c sut t . (V cc trng i hc ni ting c, cc trng ca o theo o Thin cha Roman vn kh nguyn khng b quy ry, nh cc hn o trong mt trn lt). Sau khi tr thnh mt thnh cng to ln nh vy lc a, ch ngha Hegel kh c th khng nhn c s ng h Anh t nhng ngi, ngh rng mt phong tro hng mnh n vy rt cuc hn phi c ci g cho mi, bt u tm kim ci Stirling gi l B mt ca Hegel. H b li cun, tt nhin, bi ch ngha duy tm cao cp hn ca Hegel v bi cc i hi ca ng i vi o c cao hn, v h cng hi s b dn hp xng ca cc mn lm nhc [coi] l tri o c; v ngay c cc nh Hegelian khim tn hn [cng] xc nhn5 v cc hc thuyt ca h rng chng l nhng ci ginh c nhng ci phi .. tng c chim li ng trc cuc cng kch t cc th lc thng xuyn th ch vi cc gi tr tinh thn v o c. Mt vi ngi thc s li lc (ti ngh ch yu n McTaggart) ht sc n lc trong t duy duy tm ch ngha mang tnh xy dng, mc trn Hegel nhiu; nhng h chng i c xa hn vic to ra cc mc tiu cho cc nh ph bnh cng xut sc ngang th. V ta c th ni rng ngoi Chu u lc a, c bit trong hai mi nm gn y, mi quan tm ca cc trit gia n Hegel dn dn bin mt. Nhng nu l nh th, th v sao cn lo v Hegel na? Cu tr li l nh hng ca Hegel vn cn l mt lc lng hng mnh, bt chp s thc rng cc nh khoa hc chng bao gi cho ng l nhim tc, v rng (ngoi cc nh tin ho ch ngha6) nhiu trit gia bt u ht quan tm n ng. nh hng ca Hegel, v c bit nh hng ca ting lng nh ngh ca ng, vn rt mnh trong trit hc o c v x hi v trong cc khoa hc x hi v chnh tr (vi ngoi l duy nht ca kinh t hc). c

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bit cc trit gia v lch s, v chnh tr hc, v gio dc vn mc ln di s thng tr ca n. Trong chnh tr hc, iu ny c chng t mt cch trm trng nht bi s thc l cnh t cc oan Marxist, cng nh phi gia bo th, v phi hu cc oan pht xt, tt c u t c s trit l chnh tr ca h da vo Hegel; cnh t thay chin tranh gia cc quc gia xut hin trong s lch s ch ngha ca Hegel bng chin tranh giai cp, cnh hu cc oan thay n bng chin tranh chng tc, nhng c hai u theo ng mt cch t nhiu c thc. (Phi gia bo th thng thng t c thc hn v mn n ca n i vi Hegel). Lm sao c th gii thch nh hng rng ln ny? nh chnh ca ti khng phi l i gii thch hin tng ny m l chin u vi n. Song ti c th a ra vi gi gii thch. V l do no , thm ch ngy nay, cc trit gia vn c gi quanh h ci g mang khng kh ma thut. Trit hc c coi nh mt loi th l thng v kh hiu, gii quyt cc iu b n m tn gio x l, song khng theo cch c th tit l cho ngi ngy th, hay cho dn thng; n c coi l qu thm thu cho h, v l tn ngng v thn hc ca cc bc tr thc, ca ngi c hc v uyn thm. Ch ngha Hegel khp vi cc quan im ny mt cch ng khm phc; n chnh xc l ci m loi m tn ph bin ny cho rng trit hc phi l. N bit tt c v mi th. N c cu tr li sn cho mi cu hi. V qu thc, ai c th chc chn rng cu tr li l khng ng? Nhng y khng phi l l do chnh cho thnh cng ca Hegel. nh hng ca ng, v nhu cu chin u vi n, c l c th c hiu tt hn nu ta xem xt ngn gn tnh hnh lch s ni chung. Ch ngha c on trung c bt u tan r vi Thi Phc Hng. Song Lc a, i tc chnh tr ca n, ch ngha phong kin trung c, khng b e do nghim trng trc Cch mng Php. (Phong tro Ci cch [Reformation] ch cng c n). Cuc chin u v x hi m li bt u ch vi cc t tng ca 1789; v mau chng cc ch qun ch phong kin cm thy tnh nghim trng ca mi nguy him ny. Khi vo nm 1815 ng phn ng bt u chim li quyn lc ca n Ph, n thy mnh c nhu cu khng khip v mt h t tng. Hegel c b nhim tho mn yu cu ny, v ng lm vy bng lm sng li cc t tng ca cc k th ln u tin ca x hi m, Heraclitus, Plato, v Aristotle. Ht nh Cch mng Php ti khm ph ra cc t tng bt dit ca Th h V i v ca o C c, t do, bnh ng, bc i [tnh anh em] ca tt c mi ngi, nh th Hegel ti khm ph cc t tng Platonic nm ng sau s ni lon chng li t do v l tr. Ch ngha Hegel l s phc hng ca ch ngha b lc. Tm quan trng lch s ca

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Hegel c th thy s thc l ng i din cho mt xch thiu, c th ni nh vy, gia Plato v dng hin i ca ch ngha ton tr. Hu ht cc nh ton tr hin i hon ton khng bit l cc t tng ca h c th truy nguyn n Plato. Song nhiu ngi bit mn n ca h vi Hegel, v tt c h u ln ln trong bu khng kh ngt ngt ca ch ngha Hegel. H c dy tn th nh nc, lch s, v dn tc. (Cch nhn ca ti v Hegel gi nh trc, tt nhin, rng ng din gii gio hun ca Plato theo cng cch nh ti lm y, ni cch khc, nh l ch ngha ton tr, dng nhn hin i ny; v qu thc, c th chng t7, t ph phn ca ng i vi Plato trong Philosophy of Law ca ng, rng din gii ca Hegel hp vi din gii ca chng ta). cho c gi mt ci nhn lt qua ngay v s tn th Plato-ho ca nh nc, ti s trch vi on, ngay c trc khi bt u phn tch trit hc lch s ch ngha ca ng. Cc on ny cho thy ch ngha tp th trit ca Hegel ph thuc vo Plato cng nhiu nh ph thuc vo Frederick William III, vua nc Ph giai on nguy kch trong v sau Cch mng Php. Hc thuyt ca h cho rng nh nc l tt c, v c nhn chng l g c; v n c c mi th nh nh nc, s tn ti vt l cng nh tinh thn ca n. y l thng ip ca Plato, ca ch ngha Ph ca Frederick William, v ca Hegel. Ci Ph qut c thy Nh nc, Hegel vit8, Nh nc l nim Thn thnh trn tri t V th ta phi tn th Nh nc nh s hin hnh ca Thn thnh trn tri t, v xt rng, nu kh lnh hi T nhin, cn kh hn v vn lnh hi Bn cht ca Nh nc Nh nc l cuc diu hnh ca Thng khp th gii. .. Nh nc l tht; v .. thc ti tht l tt yu. Ci l thc l tt yu bt dit. ..Nh nc .. tn ti v mc ch ring ca n. .. Nh nc l s tn ti thc t, l cuc sng o c c thc hin. S chn lc cc li ni ny c th cho thy ch ngha Plato ca Hegel v s khng khng ca ng n uy quyn o c tuyt i ca nh nc, ci bc b mi o c c nhn, mi lng tm. N, tt nhin, l ch ngha Plato khoa trng v cung lon, song iu ny ch lm hin nhin hn s thc l n kt ni ch ngha Plato vi ch ngha ton tr hin i. Ta c th hi liu bng cc s phc v ny v bng nh hng ca ng n lch s, Hegel khng chng t s thin ti ca ng hay khng. Ti khng ngh cu hi ny l rt quan trng, v n ch l mt phn ca ch ngha lng mn ca chng ta m ta ngh qu nhiu di dng thin ti; ngoi iu ra, ti khng ngh l thnh cng chng minh bt c th g, hoc lch s l quan to ca chng ta9; cc gio l ny ng hn l

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mt phn ca ch ngha Hegel. Nhng chng mc lin quan n Hegel, ti thm ch khng ngh rng ng l ngi c ti. ng l mt tc gi kh hiu thu, kh lnh hi. V ngay c ngi bin bch hng hi nht ca ng phi th nhn10, phong cch ca ng khng h nghi ng g l y tai ting. V trong chng mc lin quan n ni dung ca vn ng, ng l ti cao ch s ni bt thiu c o ca ng. Chng c g trong vn ca Hegel m trc ng khng c ni hay hn. Chng c g trong phng php bin bch ca ng m khng c vay mn t cc bc tin bi bin bch ca ng11. Nhng ng hin ng cc t tng v cc phng php vay mn ny vi mt mc ch duy nht, tuy khng c du vt no ca ti hoa, cho mt mc tiu: chin u chng li x hi m, v nh th phng s cho ngi ch ca ng, Frederick William ca nc Ph. S ln ln v s lm mt phm cch l tr ca ng mt phn l thit yu vi t cch l mt phng tin cho mc ch ny, mt phn l mt biu l tnh c hn song rt t nhin v trng thi tm tr ca ng. V ton b cu chuyn ca Hegel qu thc c th khng ng k li, gi nh khng v cc hu qu xi quy hn ca n, ci chng t mt anh h c th l mt k kin to lch s d dng n th no. Bi kch v s ni ln ca Ch ngha duy tm c, bt chp cc ti c gh tm m n dn n, ging vi mt nhc kch hi hc nhiu hn bt c th g khc; v nhng s khi u ny c th gip gii thch v sao li kh n vy quyt nh v cc nhn vt chnh hin i liu h c trn thot khi sn khu ca cc v Nhc kch Teutonic* Ln ca Wagner hoc khi cc hi kch ca Offenbach hay khng. Khng nh ca ti, rng trit hc Hegel c gy cm hng bi cc ng c khng ni ra, c th l, bi mi quan tm ca ng v khi phc chnh ph Ph ca Fredrick William III, v v th n khng c cho l nghim tc, l khng mi. Cu chuyn c tt c nhng ngi bit tnh hnh chnh tr hiu r, v n c k mt cch t do bi vi ngi c lp lm vy. Nhn chng tt nht l Schopenhauer, bn thn ng l mt nh duy tm ch ngha Platonic v mt ngi bo th nu khng l phn ng12, song l mt ngi chnh trc cao ngi yu mn cng l hn bt c th g khc. Khng th c nghi ng g rng ng l mt ngi am hiu thnh tho v cc vn trit hc c th kim c thi y. Schopenhauer, ngi c hn hnh bit ch thn Hegel v gi 13 dng cc t ca Shakespeare, th nh vy nh ming li k in v khng phi tr c, lm t ca trit hc Hegel, v ra bc tranh tuyt
*

c trng ca ngi Teuton, ca phong cch c (H Lan, Bc u).

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vi sau v ngi thy: Hegel, c quyn lc sp t t trn xung, vi t cch l Trit gia Ln c chng nhn, l mt k u-dt, v v, ng tm, lang bm dt c, ngi t nh cao nht v s tr tro trong vit cu th v a ra li ni v ngha lm ra v b n in di nht. Li v ngha ny c cc mn v li tuyn b om sm nh s uyn thm bt t v sn sng c chp nhn l nh th bi tt c nhng ngi kh di, nhng ngi nh th tham gia vo mt hp xng hon ho cm phc nh cha tng c nghe n bao gi. Phm vi bao qut ca nh hng tinh thn m Hegel c nhng k nm quyn cung cp cho php ng thc hin vic lm i bi tr c ca ton b mt th h. V ch khc, Schopenhauer m t tr chi chnh tr ca ch ngha Hegel nh sau: Trit hc, li ln na c Kant mang li ting tm, .. mau chng tr thnh cng c ca cc li ch; ca cc li ch nh nc t bn trn, ca cc li ch c nhn t bn di ng lc ca phong tro ny, tri tt c dng iu trang nghim v cc khng nh ny, l khng l tng; chng qu thc l cc mc tiu rt thc t, c th l, c nhn, chnh thc, tng l, chnh tr, ni ngn gn l cc li ch vt cht. .. Cc quyn li ca ng kch ng mnh lit ngi bt ca rt nhiu ngi thanh khit ham m minh trit Cng l chc chn l th cui cng h ngh n Trit hc b lm dng, t pha nh nc nh mt cng c, t pha khc nh mt phng tin kim li Ai c th thc s tin l chn l cng s v th ra nh sng, ch nh mt sn phm ph? .. Cc chnh ph bin trit hc thnh phng tin phc v cc li ch nh nc ca chng, v cc hc gi bin n thnh mt cch kim sng Cch nhn ca Schopenhauer v a v ca Hegel vi t cch l mt nhn vin n lng ca chnh ph Ph c, ch nhc n mt th d, lm vng thm bi Schwegler, mt hc tr14 ngng m ca Hegel. Schwegler ni v Hegel: S trn vn ca danh ting v hot ng ca ng, tuy vy, c tnh mt cch ng n ch t vic gi ng v Berlin nm 1818. y ni ln quanh ng mt trng phi ng, rng khp v .. cc k tch cc; c y na, t cc mi quan h ca ng vi b my quan liu Ph, ng kim c nh hng chnh tr cho bn thn ng cng nh s cng nhn h thng ca ng nh trit hc chnh thng; v khng lun c li cho quyn t do ni ti ca trit hc ca ng, hay ca gi tr o c ca n. Nh bin tp ca Schwegler, J. H. Stirling15, tng Anh u tin ca ch ngha Hegel, tt nhin bo v Hegel chng li Schwegler bng cnh bo cc bn c ca ng ng hiu qu theo ngha en li m ch nh ca Schwegler chng li trit hc ca Hegel nh l trit hc-nh nc. Song vi trang sau, Stirling hon ton v cng nhn trnh by

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ca Schwegler v cc s thc cng nh cch nhn rng bn thn Hegel bit r chc nng ng-chnh tr v bin bch ca trit hc ca ng. (Bng chng do Stirling trch dn16 cho thy Hegel t biu l mnh kh tr tro v chc nng ca trit hc ca ng). V mun hn mt cht Stirling v tnh tit l b mt ca Hegel khi ng chuyn sang cc tit l y thi v cng nh tin tri sau17, m ch n tn cng chp nhong ca nc Ph ln nc o nm 1866, mt nm trc ng vit: Qu thc chng phi nh Hegel, v c bit trit hc ca ng v sc tc v chnh tr, m nc Ph c i sng v t chc hng mnh m n ang pht trin nhanh chng ngy nay? Qu thc chng phi Hegel kin nh l trung tm ca t chc , li khuyn tr nn chn chn trong mt b c v hnh, nh nhanh nh chp vi bn tay c qun chng h tr? Song lin quan n gi tr ca t chc ny, n s c th d cm nhn hn i vi nhiu ngi, ti phi ni rng, trong khi nc Anh lp hin, nhng ngi nm gi [c phiu] u i v Tri khon b s i bi thng mi thnh hnh lm ph sn, th cc ch bnh thng s hu C phiu ng st Ph c th trng ch mt [sut li tc] trung bnh chc chn 8,33 phn trm. iu ny, rt cuc chc chn ni ln ci g cho Hegel! Cc phc ho c bn v Hegel by gi phi, ti ngh, l r rt cho mi c gi. Ti nhn c nhiu t Hegel .. Stirling tip tc bi ca tng ca mnh. Ti cng hi vng l cc nt phc ho v Hegel by gi l r rt, v ti tin ci Stirling thu c l thot c khi mi e do ca s i bi thng mi thnh hnh mt nc Anh phi-Hegelian v lp hin. (Trong ng cnh ny ai c th cng li vic nhc n s thc l cc trit gia Marxist, lun c ch ra l thuyt ca mt i th b nh hng ra sao bi li ch giai cp ca ng ta, li thng xuyn khng p dng phng php ny vi Hegel? Thay cho vch mt ng nh k bin bch cho chnh th chuyn ch Ph, h tic18 l cng trnh ca nh sng to ra php bin chng, v c bit cng trnh ca ng v logic, khng c c rng ri hn Anh - ngc vi Nga, ni gi tr ca trit hc Hegel ni chung, v c bit ca logic ca ng, c chnh thc cng nhn). Quay li vn cc ng c chnh tr ca Hegel, ti ngh, ta c nhiu l do hn l nghi rng trit hc ca ng b nh hng bi cc li ch ca chnh ph Ph, ngi ch ca ng. Song di chnh th chuyn ch ca Federick William III, mt nh hng nh vy bao hm nhiu hn ci Schopenhauer hay Schwegler c th bit; v ch vo thp nin va qua ta mi c cc t liu c cng b chng t s r rng v nht qun m v vua ny nht nh i s l thuc hon ton ca mi vic hc tp i vi li ch nh nc. Cc khoa hc tru tng, ta c trong chng trnh

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gio dc ca ng19, ng chm ch n gii hn lm, v ch phng s cho khai sng nhm ny, tt nhin l khng c gi tr cho s thnh vng ca nh nc; s l ngu i hn ch chng hon ton, song l lnh mnh gi chng trong cc gii hn thch hp. Vic triu Hegel v Berlin nm 1818 xy ra trong cao tro phn ng, trong giai on bt u vi s thanh lc chnh ph ca ng khi nhng ngi ci cch v nhng ngi theo ch ngha t do dn tc nhng ngi cng hin nhiu n vy cho thnh cng ca ng trong Chin tranh Gii phng. Xem xt s thc ny, ta c th hi liu vic b nhim Hegel khng phi l mt nc i gi trit hc trong cc gii hn thch hp, cho php n lnh mnh v phng s s thnh vng ca Nh nc, tc l, ca Federick William v s cai tr tuyt i ca ng. Cng cu hi c gi cho chng ta khi c ci m mt ngi hm m ln ni20 v Hegel: V ng li Berlin cho n khi cht nm 1831, nh c ti c tha nhn ca mt trong cc trng phi trit hc hng mnh nht v lch s t tng. (Ti ngh ta phi thay t tng bng thiu t tng, bi v ti khng th hiu ra ci mt nh c ti c l c th lm vi lch s t tng, cho d ng l mt c ti trit hc. Song mt khc, on tit l ny l qu ng. Th d, cc n lc c phi hp ca trng phi hng mnh ca ng thnh cng, bng s thng ng m i, trong che du chnh s thc v s tn ti ca Schopenhauer khi th gii sut bn mi nm). Ta thy l qu thc Hegel c th c quyn lc gi trit hc trong cc gii hn thch hp, cho nn cu hi ca chng ta c th l hon ton ng vo vn . Trong phn tip, ti s th chng t rng ton b trit hc ca Hegel c th c din gii nh mt cu tr li dt khot cho cu hi ny; tt nhin l mt cu tr li khng nh. V ti s th chng t bao nhiu nh sng c ri ln ch ngha Hegel nu ta din gii n theo cch ny, tc l, nh mt s bin bch cho ch ngha Ph. Phn tch ca ti s c chia ra ba phn, c cp trong cc mc II, III, v IV ca chng ny. Mc II cp ch ngha lch s v ch ngha thc chng o c ca Hegel, cng vi nn tng l thuyt kh kh hiu ca cc hc thuyt ny, phng php bin chng v ci gi l trit hc v s ng nht ca ng. Mc III cp s ni ln ca ch ngha dn tc. Trong mc IV, s ni vi li v quan h ca Hegel vi Burke. V mc V cp s ph thuc ca ch ngha ton tr hin i vo cc hc thuyt ca Hegel.
II

Ti bt u phn tch ca mnh v trit hc ca Hegel vi mt so snh chung gia ch ngha lch s ca Hegel vi ca Plato.

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Plato tin rng cc nim hay bn cht tn ti trc cc s vt trong dng chy, v rng xu hng ca mi din tin c th c gii thch nh mt chuyn ng ri xa khi s hon ho ca cc nim, v v th nh mt s sa st, nh mt chuyn ng n suy tn. Lch s ca cc nh nc, c bit, l lch s v s thoi ho; v cui cng s thoi ho ny l do s thoi ho chng tc ca giai cp thng tr. ( y ta phi nh mi quan h mt thit gia cc khi nim Platonic v chng tc, linh hn, bn tnh, v bn cht21). Hegel cng Aristotle tin rng, cc nim hay bn cht nm trong cc s vt lun thay i [trong dng chy]; hay chnh xc hn ( mc ta c th xt mt Hegel vi s chnh xc), Hegel dy rng chng l ng nht vi cc s vt lun thay i: Mi s vt c tht l mt nim, ng ni22. Nhng iu ny khng c ngha l h su do Plato m ra gia bn cht ca mt s vt v din mo c th cm nhn c ca n c ng li; v Hegel vit: Bt c s nhc n no v Bn cht ng ni rng chng ta phn bit n vi Tn ti (ca s vt); .. v ci sau, khi so vi Bn cht, ng hn chng ta ch nh din mo hay v b ngoi Mi s vt c mt Bn cht, chng ta ni; tc l, cc s vt khng phi l ci chng trc tip cho thy chng l. Cng ging nh Plato v Aristotle, Hegel hnh dung cc bn cht, t nht ca cc sinh vt (v v th ca c cc nh nc na), nh linh hn, hay Tinh thn. Nhng khng ging Plato, Hegel khng dy rng xu hng pht trin ca th gii lun thay i l mt s sa st, ra xa khi nim, ti suy tn. Ging Speusippus v Aristotle, Hegel dy rng xu hng chung ng hn l ti nim; n l tin b. Mc d ng ni23, cng vi Plato, rng s vt c th b dit vong c c s ca n Bn cht, v c ngun gc t , Hegel khng khng, i lp vi Plato, rng ngay c bn cht cng pht trin. Trong th gii ca Hegel, nh ca Heraclitus, mi s vt u lun thay i; v bn cht, ban u do Plato a ra nhm nhn c ci g n nh, khng c min tr. Nhng s lun thay i ny khng phi l s suy tn. Ch ngha lch s ca Hegel l lc quan. Cc bn cht v Tinh thn, ging linh hn ca Plato, l t-chuyn ng, hay, dng t thi thng hn, l ni ln v t-to ra. V chng y bn thn chng theo chiu ca mt mc ch cui cng Aristotlian, hay, nh Hegel din t24 ti mt bn thn mc ch cui cng t-thc hin v t-c thc hin. Mc ch cui cng ny hay s chm dt pht trin ca cc bn cht l ci Hegel gi l nim Tuyt i hay nim. ( nim ny, Hegel bo chng ta, l kh phc tp: n, ng thi l, ci p; s Nhn thc v Hot ng Thc tin; s Lnh hi; ci Tt Cao nht; v V tr

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Trm t mt cch khoa hc. Nhng chng ta khng cn lo v nhng kh khn nh nh cc th ny). Chng ta c th ni rng th gii lun thay i ca Hegel l mt trng thi ni ln hay s tin ho sng to25; mi giai on ca n thay th tt c cc giai on trc, tin gn hn v gn hn ti s hon ho. Quy lut pht trin chung nh vy l mt quy lut v tin b; nhng, nh ta s thy, khng n gin v d hiu, m l v mt s tin b bin chng. Nh cc trch dn trc cho thy, Hegel tp th ch ngha, ging Plato, hnh dung nh nc nh mt sinh vt; v theo Rousseau ngi cho n mt ch tp th chung, Hegel cho n mt bn cht c thc v t duy, l tr hay Tinh thn ca n. Tinh thn ny, m mi bn cht ca n l hot ng (ci cho thy s ph thuc vo Rousseau), ng thi l Tinh thn tp th ca Dn tc ci to thnh nh nc. i vi mt nh bn cht lun, tri thc hay s hiu bit v nh nc phi r rng c ngha l tri thc v bn cht hay Tinh thn ca n. V nh chng ta thy26 chng trc, ta c th bit bn cht v cc tim nng ca n ch t lch s thc s ca n. Nh th chng ta n lp trng c bn ca phng php lch s ch ngha, rng con ng nhn tri thc v cc th ch x hi nh v nh nc l i nghin cu lch s ca n, hay lch s ca Tinh thn ca n. V cng suy ra hai h qu lch s ch ngha khc c trnh by chng trc. Tinh thn dn tc xc nh vn mnh lch s n giu ca n; v mi dn tc mun ni ln tn ti phi khng nh tnh cch c nhn hay linh hn ca n bng bc ln Sn khu Lch s, tc l, bng nh cc dn tc khc; mc tiu ca cuc u tranh l thng tr th gii. Ta c th thy t iu ny rng Hegel, ging Heraclitus, tin rng chin tranh l cha v vua ca mi s vt. V ging Heraclitus, ng tin rng chin tranh l chnh ng: Lch s Th gii l To n Th gii, Hegel vit. V ging Heraclitus, Hegel khi qut ho hc thuyt ny bng m rng n ra th gii t nhin, din gii cc s tng phn v i lp ca cc s vt, s phn cc ca cc i lp, v. v., nh mt loi chin tranh, v nh ng lc ca din tin t nhin. V ging Heraclitus, Hegel tin vo s thng nht hay ng nht ca cc i lp; thc vy, s thng nht ca cc i lp ng mt vai tr quan trng trong tin ho, trong qu trnh bin chng, n mc chng ta c th m t hai tng Heraclitean ny, chin tranh ca cc i lp, v s thng nht hay ng nht ca chng, nh cc t tng chnh ca php bin chng ca Hegel. Cho n y, trit hc ny xut hin nh mt ch ngha lch s kh ng n v chn tht, mc d l mt ch ngha c l khng my c

38

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o27; v c v chng c l do g m t n, vi Schopenhauer, nh tr bp. Nhng v b ngoi ny bt u thay i nu chng ta quay sang phn tch php bin chng ca Hegel. V ng ngh phng php ny nhm vo Kant, ngi, trong tn cng ca mnh ln siu hnh hc (s mnh lit ca cc tn cng ny c th c nh gi t t (motto) cho Dn nhp ca ti), th chng t rng tt c cc suy on thuc loi ny l khng th ng vng c. Hegel chng bao gi toan bc b Kant. ng b cong v xuyn tc cch nhn ca Kant thnh ci i lp vi n. y l cch php bin chng ca Kant, s tn cng ln siu hnh hc, bin thnh php bin chng Hegelian, cng c chnh ca siu hnh hc. Kant, trong Ph phn L tnh Thun tu ca ng, khng nh di nh hng ca Hume rng s suy on hay l tnh thun tu, mi khi n nh bo vo mt lnh vc trong n c l khng th c kim tra bng kinh nghim, nht thit b dnh vo cc tri ngc hay mu thunantinomy v to ra ci ng m t mt cch r rng nh nhng tng tng n thun; v ngha; o tng; mt ch ngha gio iu cn ci; v mt i hi nng cn i vi tri thc v mi th28. ng th chng t rng mi khng nh siu hnh hc hay lun , v th d khi u ca th gii trong thi gian, hoc s tn ti ca Thng , c th c tng phn mt phn-khng nh hay phn ; v c hai, ng cho rng, c th c tin hnh t cng cc gi thit, v c th c chng minh vi mt mc hin nhin ngang nhau. Ni cch khc, khi b lnh vc kinh nghim, s suy on ca chng ta khng th c a v khoa hc no, v vi mi l l phi c mt phn-l l hp l ngang th. nh ca Kant nhm ngn chn mt ln v mi mi s mu m ng ght ca nhng ngi vit cu th v siu hnh hc. Nhng ng tic, kt qu li rt khc. Ci Kant ngn chn ch l cc n lc ca nhng ngi vit cu th dng l l duy l; h ch t b c gng i dy, nhng khng b mu toan lm m hoc cng chng (nh Schopenhauer din t29). V din tin ny, bn thn Kant r rng chu mt phn ng k ca li khin trch; v phong cch ti ngha ca tc phm ca ng (c ng vit rt vi v, tuy ch sau cc nm di suy ngm) ng gp ng k h thp hn na tiu chun thp v s sng sa trong vn phong l thuyt c30. Khng ai trong nhng ngi vit siu hnh hc cu th sau Kant c bt c c gng no b li ng31; v Hegel, c bit, thm ch c s tr tro i x k c vi Kant v lm sng li tn ca Php bin chng, m ng khi phc cho a v danh d ca chng. ng dy rng Kant

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hon ton ng khi ch ra cc mu thun, nhng ng sai khi lo lng v chng. N chnh nm bn tnh ca l tnh rng n phi mu thun vi chnh n, Hegel khng nh; v n khng phi l mt im yu ca cc nng lc con ngi, m chnh l bn cht ca mi tnh duy l rng n phi hot ng vi cc tri ngc v mu thun; v y chnh l cch trong l tnh pht trin. Hegel khng nh rng Kant phn tch l tnh c nh n l ci g tnh; rng ng quyn l nhn loi pht trin, v vi n, di sn x hi ca chng ta. Nhng ci chng ta vui lng gi l l tnh ring ca chng ta khng l g ngoi sn phm ca di sn x hi ny, ca s pht trin lch s ca nhm x hi m trong chng ta sng, dn tc. S pht trin ny tin hnh mt cch bin chng, tc l, theo mt nhp iu ba-nhp. u tin mt lun [chnh] c ngh; nhng n s to ra ph phn, n s b ph nhn bi cc i th nhng ngi khng nh ci i lp ca n, mt phn ; v trong s xung t ca cc quan im ny, t c mt s tng hp, tc l mt loi thng nht ca cc i lp, mt s tho hip hay mt s ho gii mt mc cao hn. S tng hp hp thu, c th ni nh vy, hai lp trng i lp ban u, bng thay th chng; n bin i chng thnh cc thnh phn ca bn thn n, bng cch y ph nh, nng cao, v duy tr chng. V mt khi s tng hp hon thnh, ton b qu trnh c th t lp li mc cao hn mc n va t c. y, ngn gn, l nhp iu ba-nhp ca s tin b m Hegel gi l b ba bin chng. Ti hon ton sn sng tha nhn rng y khng phi l mt m t ti v cch theo mt tho lun ph phn, v v vy c t duy khoa hc na, i khi c th tin trin. V tt c s ph phn ct ch ra cc mu thun hay s khng nht qun no , v s tin b khoa hc ch yu ct s loi b cc mu thun bt c khi no chng ta tm thy chng. iu ny, tuy vy, c ngha l khoa hc tin ln trn gi thit rng cc mu thun l khng th cho php v c th trnh c, cho nn s khm ph ra mt mu thun buc nh khoa hc a ra mi n lc loi b n; v qu thc, mt khi mt mu thun c tha nhn, ton b khoa hc sp 32. Nhng Hegel rt ra mt bi hc rt khc t b ba bin chng ca ng. V cc mu thun l phng tin theo khoa hc tin ln, ng kt lun rng cc mu thun khng nhng l chp nhn c v khng th trnh khi m cng rt ng mong mi. y l hc thuyt Hegelian ci phi ph hu mi l l v mi s tin b. V nu cc mu thun l khng th trnh khi v ng mong mun, khng c nhu cu no loi b chng, v nh th mi s tin b phi chm dt.

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Nhng hc thuyt ny ch l mt trong cc gio l ch yu ca ch ngha Hegel. nh ca Hegel l hot ng mt cch t do vi mi mu thun. Mi s vt u mu thun trong bn thn chng, ng khng khng32, nhm bo v mt lp trng c ngha l s kt thc khng ch ca mi khoa hc, m ca mi l l duy l. V l do v sao ng mun tha nhn cc mu thun l ng mun ngn chn l l duy l, v vi n s tin b khoa hc v tr tu. Bng lm cho l l v s ph phn l bt kh, ng c nh lm cho trit hc ring ca ng c th chng li c mi ph phn, sao cho n c th xc lp mnh nh mt ch ngha gio iu c cng c, an ton khi mi tn cng, v l nh cao nht khng th vt qua ca mi s pht trin trit hc. ( y chng ta c mt th d u tin v mt s bp mo bin chng in hnh; tng v tin b, ph bin trong mt thi k dn ti Darwin, nhng khng theo kp cc li ch bo th, b bp mo thnh ci i lp ca n, thnh tng tin b ca mt s pht trin t ti mt kt thc - mt s pht trin b ngng li). Ngn y v b ba bin chng ca Hegel, mt trong hai ct tr trn trit hc ca ng da vo. Tm quan trng ca l thuyt s c thy khi ti tin n cc ng dng ca n. Ct tr th hai trong hai ct tr ca ch ngha Hegel l ci gi l trit hc v s ng nht ca ng. n lt n, n l mt p dng ca php bin chng. Ti khng mun ph thi gi ca bn c bng th hiu n, c bit v ti th lm ni khc34; v ch yu, trit hc v s ng nht chng l g m l s lp l tr tro, v, dng chnh t ca Hegel, n chng bao gm g ngoi cc tng tng, thm ch cc tng tng n n. N l mt m cung trong bt gp cc bng v ting vng ca cc trit hc qu kh, ca Heraclitus, Plato, v Aristotle, cng nh ca Rousseau v Kant, v trong by gi chng c hnh mt loi l sabbath ca cc ph thu, th mt cch in lon lm ln ln v la di ngi xem ngy th. tng ch o, v ng thi l cu ni gia php bin chng ca Hegel v trit hc v s ng nht ca ng, l hc thuyt v s thng nht ca cc i lp ca Heraclitus. Con ng dn ln v con ng dn xung l y ht nhau, Heraclitus ni, v Hegel lp li iu ny khi ng ni: Con ng hng ty v con ng hng ng l nh nhau. Hc thuyt Heraclitean ny v s ng nht ca cc i lp c p dng cho mt lot cc hi tng t cc trit hc c nhng ci v vy c bin thnh cc cu thnh ca h thng ring ca Hegel. Bn cht v nim, ci mt v ci nhiu, thc cht v s tnh c, hnh thc v ni dung, ch th v khch th, s tn ti v s tr thnh, mi th v khng th g, thay i v s ngng li, s tn ti thc s v

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tim nng, s thc v din mo, vt cht v tinh thn, tt c cc bng ma ny t qu kh dng nh m nh u c ca nh c ti Ln trong khi ng biu din iu ma vi qu bng ca ng, vi cc vn c thi phng ln v h cu ca ng v Thng v Th gii. Nhng c mt phng php trong s in lon ny, v thm ch l phng php Ph. V ng sau s ln ln hin nhin n np cc li ch ca nn qun ch tuyt i ca Frederick William. Trit hc v s ng nht c dng bin minh cho trt t hin tn. Kt qu chnh cui cng l mt ch ngha thc chng o c v php l, hc thuyt cho rng ci tn ti, l tt, v khng th c cc chun mc no ngoi cc chun mc hin tn; n l hc thuyt rng l phi thuc v k mnh. Hc thuyt ny c dn ra th no? Ch bng mt chui cc li ni lp l nc i. Plato, m cc Hnh thc hay nim ca ng, nh ta thy, l hon ton khc vi cc nim trong u, c ni rng ch c cc nim l thc, v rng cc s vt c th b dit vong l khng thc. Hegel chp nhn t hc thuyt ny phng trnh L tng = Thc. Kant ni, trong php bin chng ca ng, v cc nim ca L tnh thun tu dng t nim theo ngha ca cc nim trong u. Hegel chp nhn t hc thuyt ny rng cc nim l ci g thuc tr c hay tinh thn hay duy l, ci c th c trnh by bng phng trnh nim = L tnh. Kt hp, hai phng trnh li, hay ng hn cc li lp l, cho ta Thc = L tnh; v iu ny cho php Hegel xc nhn rng mi th hp l phi l thc, v mi th l thc phi l hp l, v rng s pht trin ca thc ti l ht nh s pht trin ca l tnh. V v khng th c chun mc cao hn trong tn ti so vi s pht trin mi nht ca L tnh v ca nim, mi th hin nay l thc v c tht tn ti do s tt yu, v phi l hp l cng nh tt35. (c bit tt, nh chng ta s thy, l nh nc Ph hin tn thc s). y l trit hc v s ng nht. Ngoi ch ngha thc chng o c mt l thuyt v chn l cng b ra nh sng, chnh nh mt sn phm ph (dng t ca Schopenhauer). V n l mt l thuyt rt tin li. Tt c ci l hp l l thc, ta thy. iu ny c ngha, tt nhin, rng tt c ci l hp l phi ph hp vi thc ti, v v th phi ng. Chn l pht trin theo cng cch nh l tr pht trin, v mi th li cun l tr trong giai on pht trin mi nht ca n cng phi ng cho giai on . Ni cch khc, mi th c v chc chn i vi nhng ngi m l tr ca h c cp nht, phi l ng. S hin hin l ht nh s tht, chn l. Vi iu kin anh c cp nht, tt c ci anh cn l tin vo mt hc thuyt; iu ny lm cho n, theo nh ngha, l ng. Bng cch ny, s i lp gia ci Hegel gi l ci Ch quan, tc l lng tin, v ci Khch quan,

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tc l chn l, bin thnh mt s ng nht; v s thng nht ny ca cc i lp cng gii thch tri thc khoa hc na. nim l s hp nht ca Ch quan v Khch quan .. Khoa hc gi nh trc rng s chia ct gia bn thn v Chn l b xo b ri.36 Ngn y v trit hc v s ng nht ca Hegel, tr ct th hai ca s uyn thm trn ch ngha lch s ca ng c xy dng. Vi vic dng n ln, cng vic hi mt nhc v phn tch cc hc thuyt tru tng hn ca Hegel chm dt. Phn cn li ca chng ny s c gii hn cho cc ng dng thc tin chnh tr do Hegel a ra t cc l thuyt tru tng ny. V cc p dng thc tin ny s cho ta thy r rng hn mc ch bin gii ca mi cng vic ca ng. Php bin chng Hegel, ti khng nh, mc rt ln c ngh ra xuyn tc cc t tng ca 1789. Hegel ht sc bit r s thc rng phng php bin chng c th c dng b cong mt tng thnh ci i lp ca n. Php bin chng, ng vit37, khng phi l iu mi trong trit hc. Socrates .. dng m phng mun i vi tri thc d hiu hn no v ch ang c tho lun, v sau khi a ra mi loi cu hi vi nh , ng lm cho nhng ngi m ng tr chuyn thng thn tin iu tri ngc ca ci n tng u tin m h cm thy dt khot l ng. Nh mt m t v cc nh ca Socrates, tuyn b ny ca Hegel c l khng tht cng bng (xt rng mc ch ch yu ca Socrates l bc trn tnh t ph n kiu ngo hn l ci bin ngi dn sang ngc vi ci h tin vo trc ); nhng nh mt tuyn b v nh ring ca Hegel, n l xut sc, cho d trong thc tin phng php ca Hegel ho ra vng v hn cng lnh ca ng biu th. Nh th d u tin v vic s dng ny ca php bin chng, ti s la ra vn v quyn t do t tng, v s c lp ca khoa hc, v v cc tiu chun ca chn l khch quan, nh c Hegel cp trong cun Philosophy of Law [Trit hc Php lut] (270). ng bt u vi ci ch c th c din gii nh mt yu sch cho quyn t do t tng, v cho s bo v n bi nh nc: Nh nc, ng vit, coi .. t duy nh nguyn l c bn ca n. Nh vy quyn t do t tng, v khoa hc, ch c th hnh thnh trong nh nc; chnh nh th thiu sng Giordano Bruno, v buc Galileo cng khai rt kin Khoa hc, v vy, phi tm kim s che ch t nh nc, v .. mc tiu ca khoa hc l tri thc v chn l khch quan. Sau s khi u y ha hn ny m ta c th coi nh trnh by cc n tng u tin ca cc i th ca ng, Hegel tip tc a h n ngc vi ci m cc n tng u tin ca h cm thy dt khot l ng, che s thay i mt trc ca ng bng mt cng

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kch gi v khc ln Nh th: Nhng tri thc nh vy, tt nhin, khng lun lun thch hp vi cc tiu chun ca khoa hc, n c th thoi ho thnh kin n thun ..; v v cc kin ny .. n (tc l khoa hc) c th nu ln cng yu sch kiu cng nh nh th - i hi c t do v cc kin v cc xc tn ca n. Nh th yu sch cho quyn t do t tng v yu sch khoa hc t phn x, c m t nh kiu cng; nhng y ch l bc u tin trong vic bp mo ca Hegel. Tip theo ta nghe thy rng, nu i mt vi cc kin mang tnh lt , nh nc phi bo v chn l khch quan; iu nu ra cu hi c bn: ai l ngi i phn x ci g l, v ci g khng l, chn l khch quan? Hegel tr li: Nh nc, ni chung, phi quyt nh v ci g c coi nh chn l khch quan. Vi cu tr li ny, quyn t do t tng, v cc yu sch ca khoa hc t ra cc tiu chun ring ca mnh, cui cng, nhng ng cho cc i lp ca chng. Nh th d th hai v vic dng ny ca php bin chng, ti chn cp ca Hegel v i hi cho mt hin php chnh tr, iu ng kt hp vi cp ca ng v bnh ng v t do. nh gi cao vn hin php, phi nh rng chnh th chuyn ch Ph khng bit lut hin nh no (ngoi cc nguyn l nh quyn ti cao hon ton ca nh vua) v rng khu hiu ca phong tro ci cch dn ch cc cng quc c khc nhau l vng cng phi ban cho t nc mt hin php. Nhng Frederick William thng nht vi Ancillon u vin hi ng ca ng trong s tin chc rng khng bao gi ng nhng ng cho bn nng vi, nhm nhng ngi rt tch cc v to mm nhng ngi vi nm nay dng ln nh mt quc gia v i mt hin php38. V mc d, di p lc ln, c vua ha mt hin php, ng khng bao gi gi li mnh. (C mt cu chuyn rng mt bnh lun v ti v hin php ca c vua dn n s sa thi vin ng y khng may ca ng). By gi Hegel x l vn t nh ny th no? Nh mt tr c sinh ng, ng vit, nh nc l mt ci ton th c t chc, khp li vi nhau thnh cc c quan khc nhau Hin php l s khp ni hay s t chc ny ca quyn lc nh nc Hin php l cng l hin hu T do v bnh ng l .. cc mc tiu v kt qu cui cng ca hin php. y, tt nhin, ch l khc do u. Nhng trc khi tin hnh bin i yu sch cho mt hin php thnh mt yu sch cho mt nn qun ch tuyt i, u tin chng ta phi cho thy Hegel bin i hai mc tiu v kt qu, t do v bnh ng, thnh cc i lp ca chng th no. u tin hy xem Hegel bp mo bnh ng thnh bt bnh ng ra sao: Rng cc cng dn l bnh ng trc lut, Hegel tha nhn39,

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cha mt chn l ln. Song trnh by theo cch ny, n ch l mt s lp tha [tautology]; n ch tuyn b chung chung rng c mt a v php l, rng lut php cai tr. Song l c th hn, cc cng dn .. l bnh ng trc lut ch cc im trong h bnh ng c ngoi php lut na. Ch s bnh ng m h c v ti sn, tui tc, .. v. v., c th xng ng s i x bnh ng trc php lut .. Cc lut bn thn chng .. gi nh trc cc iu kin khng bnh ng .. Phi ni, rng s pht trin ln v s chn mui ca hnh thc cc nh nc hin i ci to ra s bt bnh ng c th cao nht ca cc c nhn trong thc t, l cng bng. phc tho ny v s bp mo ca Hegel i vi chn l ln ca ch ngha bnh ng thnh ci i lp ca n, ti tm gn li mt cch trit l l ca ng; v ti phi cnh bo bn c l ti s cng phi lm nh th sut chng ny; v ch bng cch ny mi cht no c th trnh by, mt cch c th c c, tnh di dng ca ng v s bay bng ca cc t tng ca ng (nhng ci, ti khng nghi ng, l bnh hon40). Tip n chng ta c th xem xt t do. V quyn t do, Hegel vit, trong cc thi trc, cc quyn c xc nh v mt php l, cc quyn t cng nh cng ca mt thnh ph, v.v., c gi l cc quyn t do ca n. Thc ra, mi lut nh thc l mt quyn t do; v n bao gm mt nguyn l hp l ..; ci c ngha, ni cch khc, l n cha ng mt quyn t do M l l ny c chng t rng quyn t do l ht nh mt quyn t do v v th l ht nh lut, t suy ra rng cng nhiu lut, cng nhiu t do, r rng chng l g m l mt s trnh by vng v (vng v n da vo mt loi chi ch) v nghch l t do, u tin do Plato khm ph ra, v c tho lun ngn gn trn41; mt nghch l c th c trnh by bng ni rng quyn t do v hn dn n ci i lp ca n, v khng c s bo v v hn ch ca n [quyn t do] bng lut, th quyn t do phi dn n mt s chuyn ch ca k mnh trn ngi yu. Nghch l ny, c Rousseau pht biu li hi m h, v c Kant gii quyt, ngi i hi rng quyn t do ca mi ngi phi b hn ch, nhng khng qu mc cn thit bo v mt mc ngang nhau ca quyn t do cho tt c mi ngi. Hegel tt nhin bit gii php ca Kant, nhng ng khng thch n, v ng trnh by n, m khng nhc n tc gi ca n, theo cch gy tai ting nh sau: Ngy nay, khng g quen thuc hn tng rng mi ngi phi hn ch quyn t do ca mnh trong quan h vi quyn t do ca nhng ngi khc; rng nh nc l mt iu kin ca cc hn ch c i c li nh vy; v rng cc lut l cc hn ch. Nhng, ng tip tc ph phn l thuyt ca Kant, iu ny by t mt loi quan im coi quyn t do nh khoi lc v s

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bng bnh bt cht. Vi nhn xt b n ny, l thuyt bnh ng ca Kant v cng l b gt b. Song bn thn Hegel cm thy rng tr a ct nh, theo ng nh ng quyn t do v lut, l khng hon ton cho mc ch ca ng; v hi do d ng quay li vn gc ca ng, vn hin php. Thut ng quyn t do chnh tr, ng ni42, thng c dng ni mt s tham gia chnh thc vo cc vn cng ca nh nc bi nhng ngi khc i c chc nng chnh ca h trong cc mc tiu v cng vic c bit ca x hi dn s (ni cch khc, bi cc cng dn thng). V n tr thnh mt thi quen cho t cch hin php ch cho pha ca nh nc, pha xc lp s tham gia nh vy .., v coi mt nh nc trong iu ny khng c lm mt cch chnh thc l mt nh nc khng c hin php. Qu thc, vic ny tr thnh mt thi quen. Nhng lm th no thot khi n? Ch bng mo t ng - bng mt nh ngha: V vic s dng ny ca thut ng, vic duy nht ni l bng mt hin php chng ta phi hiu s nh r ca lut ni chung, tc l, ca quyn t do .. Nhng, bn thn Hegel li cm thy s ngho nn kinh khng ca l l, v trong ni tuyt vng ng chm m vo mt ch ngha thn b tp th ch ngha (sng tc ca Rousseau) v vo ch ngha lch s43: Cu hi Quyn lm ra mt hin php .. thuc v ai? l ht nh Ai phi to ra Tinh thn ca mt Dn tc?. Tch tng ca anh v mt hin php, Hegel la ln, khi tng v mt Tinh thn tp th, c nh th ci sau tn ti, hay tn ti, m khng c mt hin php, v s tng tng ca anh chng minh anh hiu r mi lin h mt cch hi ht n th no (c th l, gia Tinh thn v hin php). .. Chnh Tinh thn c ng lc ni ti v lch s Dn tc- ci ch l lch s ca Tinh thn theo cc hin php c v c to ra. Nhng ch ngha thn b ny vn cn qu m h bin minh cho chnh th chuyn ch. Ta phi c th hn; v by gi Hegel hp tp l vy: Ci ton b sinh ng thc s, ng vit, ci duy tr, v lin tc to ra, Nh nc v hin php ca n, l Chnh ph Trong Chnh ph, c coi nh mt ton th hu c, Ch quyn hay Quyn ti cao l ch duy tr mi th, ra lnh mi th ca Nh nc, nh cao nht ca n v Tnh thng nht to khp. Trong hnh thc hon ho ca Nh nc trong mi v mi yu t .. t c s tn ti t do ca n, ch ny l ch ca mt C nhn thc s ra lnh (khng ch ca mt a s trong s thng nht ca ch ra lnh khng c s tn ti thc s); n l nn qun ch. Hin php qun ch v th l hin php ca l tr pht trin; v tt c cc hin php khc thuc cp thp hn ca s pht trin v s t-

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th hin ca l tr. V c th hn na, Hegel gii thch mt on tng t ca Philosophy of Law ca ng cc trch dn trc u ly t Encyclopdia ca ng - rng quyt nh cui cng .. quyn t quyt tuyt i to thnh quyn lc ca vng cng nh th, v rng yu t quyt nh tuyt i trong ton th .. l mt c nhn duy nht, c vua. By gi chng ta nm c ri. Lm sao bt c ai li ngu n n mc i i mt hin php cho mt nc c ban phc vi mt nn qun ch tuyt i, du sao i na l bc cao nht ca mi hin php? Nhng ngi a ra cc i hi nh vy hin nhin khng bit h lm g v h ni v ci g, ht nh nhng ngi i quyn t do l qu m qung thy rng trong nn qun ch Ph tuyt i, mi v mi yu t t s tn ti t do ca n. Ni cch khc, y chng ta c s chng minh bin chng tuyt i ca Hegel rng nc Ph l nh cao nht, v thnh tr thc s ca t do; rng hin php chuyn ch ca n l ch [goal] (khng nh mt s ngi c th ngh, l nh t [gaol]) m ti nhn loi tin n; v rng chnh ph ca n duy tr v gi, c th ni nh vy, tinh thn thanh khit nht ca quyn t do trong s tp trung. Trit hc ca Plato, mt thi i a v lm thy trong nh nc, vi Hegel tr thnh k y t tin ca n. Nhng s hu h44 ti tin ny, quan trng lu , c cung phng mt cch t nguyn. khng c s hm do ton tr no trong nhng ngy may mn ca nn qun ch tuyt i; s kim duyt cng khng tht hu hiu, nh v s xut bn phm t do chng t. Khi Hegel xut bn Encyclopdia ca mnh ng cn l gio s Heidelberg. V ngay sau vic xut bn, ng c triu v Berlin tr thnh, nh nhng ngi hm m ng ni, nh c ti c tha nhn ca trit hc. Nhng, mt s ngi c th tranh ci, tt c iu ny, cho d ng, chng chng minh bt c th g chng li s xut sc ca trit hc bin chng ca Hegel, hoc chng li s v i ca ng vi t cch mt trit gia. i vi tranh lun ny, tr li ca Schopenhauer c a ra ri: Trit hc b lm dng, t pha nh nc nh mt cng c, t pha khc nh phng tin kim li. Ai c th thc s tin rng chn l v th cng s ra nh sng, ch nh mt sn phm ph? Cc on ny cho ta mt ci nhn thong qua v cch m phng php bin chng ca Hegel c p dng trong thc tin. By gi ti tip tc vi s p dng kt hp ca php bin chng v trit hc v s ng nht. Hegel, nh thy, dy l mi s vt u lin tc thay i [trong dng chy], ngay c bn cht. Cc Bn cht v nim v Tinh thn tin trin; v s tin trin ca chng, tt nhin, l t-chuyn ng v bin chng45.

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V giai on mi nht ca mi s pht trin phi l hp l, v v th tt v ng, v n l nh cao ca mi s tin trin qu kh, thay th tt c cc giai on trc. (Nh th cc s vt ch c th tt hn v tt hn). Mi din tin thc s, v n l mt qu trnh thc, theo trit hc ca s ng nht, phi l mt qu trnh duy l v hp l. R rng l n phi ng cho c lch s na. Heraclitus xc nhn rng c mt l tnh n giu trong lch s. i vi Hegel, lch s tr thnh mt cun sch ng. Cun sch l s bin gii thun tu. Bng s quyn r ca n i vi s sng sut ca Thng n a ra mt bin gii cho tnh u t ca ch ngha qun ch Ph; bng s quyn r ca n i vi tnh u t ca ch ngha qun ch Ph n a ra mt bin gii cho s sng sut ca Thng . Lch s l s pht trin ca ci g thc. Theo trit hc v s ng nht, n v th phi l ci g c l. S tin ho ca th gii thc, m lch s l phn quan trng nht ca n, c Hegel coi l ging ht vi mt loi thao tc logic, hoc vi mt qu trnh suy l. Lch s, nh ng thy n, l mt qu trnh t duy ca Tinh thn Tuyt i hay Tinh thn Th gii. N l s biu th ca Tinh thn ny. N l mt loi ca suy din tam on lun46 bin chng s; do Thng suy ra, c th ni nh vy. Php tam on lun l k hoch m Thng i theo; v kt lun logic nhn c l mc ch m Thng theo ui - s hon thin ca th gii. T tng duy nht, Hegel vit trong Philosophy of History [Trit hc Lch s], m vi n Trit hc tip cn Lch s, l khi nim n gin v L tnh; n l hc thuyt cho rng L tnh l Ch quyn ca Th gii, v rng Lch s Th gii, v th, tng chng ta mt qu trnh duy l. S tin chc v trc gic ny khng phi .. l gi thuyt trong lnh vc Trit hc. c chng minh .. rng L tnh .. l Thc th; cng nh Quyn lc V hn; .. Vt cht V hn ..; Hnh thc V hn ..; Nng lc V hn Rng nim ny hay L tnh l Tht, l Thng , l Bn cht Hng mnh tuyt i; rng n t tit l mnh trong Th gii, v rng trong Th gii chng c g khc c tit l m l ci ny v vinh d v s v vang ca n y l mt chnh m, nh chng ta ni, c chng minh trong Trit hc, v y c coi l c chng minh. Li ni trng giang i hi ny khng a chng ta i xa. Song nu chng ta ng n on trong Trit hc (tc l trong Encyclopdia ca ng) m Hegel dn chiu n, th ta thy nhiu hn mt cht v mc ch bin gii ca ng. V y ta c c: Rng Lch s, v trc ht Lch s Ph qut, c xy dng trn mt mc tiu c bn v thc t, ci th s c, v s c, thc hin trong n - K

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hoch ca Thng ; rng, tm li, c L tnh trong Lch s, phi c quyt nh trn nn tng trit hc nghim ngt, v nh th c thy l c bn v thc ra cn thit. M v mc tiu ca Thng c thc hin thc s cc kt qu ca lch s, c th nghi rng s thc hin ny xy ra nc Ph hin ti. V th ; chng ta thm ch cho thy mc tiu ny t c ra sao, trong ba bc bin chng ca s pht trin lch s ca l tnh, hay, nh Hegel ni, ca Tinh thn, m cuc sng ca n .. l mt chu k ca cc s hin thn tin b47. Bc u trong ba bc ny l ch chuyn quyn ng phng, bc th hai c cc ch dn ch v qu tc Hy Lp v Roman to thnh, v bc th ba, bc cao nht, l ch Qun ch c, tt nhin l mt nn qun ch tuyt i. V Hegel lm rt r l ng khng c ni mt nn qun ch Khng tng ca tng lai: Tinh thn .. khng c qu kh, khng c tng lai, ng vit, m v c bn l hin ti; iu ny nht thit ng rng dng hin ti ca Tinh thn cha v vt tri tt c cc bc trc. Nhng Hegel c th thm ch ni thng hn th. ng cng chia nh giai on th ba ca lch s, Ch Qun ch c, hay Th gii c, thnh ba phn, v vic ng ni48: Th nht, chng ta phi xem xt bn thn Phong tro Ci cch [Reformation] - Mt tri soi sng tt c, theo nh bnh minh m chng ta quan st thy on kt thc ca thi k trung c; tip n, l s bc l ca tnh trng k tip Phong tro Ci cch; v cui cng, Thi k Hin i, c tnh t cui th k trc, tc l giai on t 1800 n 1830 (nm cui cng trong cc bi ging ny c trnh by). V Hegel li chng minh rng nc Ph hin ti ny l nh cao nht v thnh tr v l ch ca quyn t do. Trn Sn khu Lch s Ph qut, Hegel vit, trn chng ta c th quan st v lnh hi n, Tinh thn t ph by mnh trong thc ti c th nht ca n. V bn cht ca Tinh thn, Hegel dy, l quyn t do. Quyn t do l chn l duy nht ca Tinh thn. Do , s pht trin ca Tinh thn phi l s pht trin ca quyn t do, v quyn t do cao nht hn ginh c ba mi nm y ca nn Qun ch c, phn chia nh cui cng ca s pht trin lch s. V qu thc, ta c thy49: Tinh thn c l Tinh thn ca Th gii mi. Mc tiu ca n l s thc hin Chn l tuyt i nh quyn t quyt v hn ca Quyn t do. V sau mt bi ca tng nc Ph, chnh ph nc , Hegel m bo vi chng ta, tu thuc vo gii quan chc, m nh ca n l quyt nh c nhn ca c Vua; v mt quyt nh cui cng, nh c chng t trn, l mt tt yu tuyt i, Hegel i n kt lun chu ton ca cng trnh ca mnh: y l im, ng ni, m thc t ti, v y l cc pha chnh ca dng y

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trong Quyn t do t thc hin; v Lch s Th gii chng l g m l s pht trin ca nim v Quyn t do Rng Lch s Th gii .. l s thc hin ca Tinh thn, y l Thuyt Bin Thn ng, s bin minh ca Thng trong Lch s Ci xy ra v ang xy ra .. v c bn l Tc phn ca Ngi .. Ti hi liu mnh khng c chng minh l ng khi ni rng Hegel gii thiu vi chng ta mt bin gii ng thi cho Thng v cho nc Ph, v liu khng r l nh nc m Hegel ra lnh cho chng ta phi tn th nh nim Thnh thn trn tri t khng phi n gin l nc Ph ca Frederick William t 1800 n 1830 hay khng. V ti hi liu c th vt c s xuyn tc ti tin ny v mi th t t hay khng; mt s bp mo khng ch l tnh, quyn t do, s bnh ng, v cc t tng khc ca x hi m, m cng l s bp mo lng tin chn thnh vo Thng , v thm ch ch ngha yu nc chn tht. Ti m t lm sao m, xut pht t mt im t ra tin b v thm ch cch mng, v tin hnh bng phng php bin chng tng qut v s bp mo cc s vt m by gi bn c quen, Hegel cui cng i n mt kt qu bo th ng ngc nhin. ng thi, ng lin kt trit hc lch s ca ng vi ch ngha thc chng o c v php l ca ng, cho ci sau mt loi bin minh lch s ch ngha. Lch s l quan to ca chng ta. V Lch s v Thng a cc quyn lc hin tn thnh tn ti, sc mnh ca chng phi l ng, thm ch ng Tuyt trn. Nhng ch ngha thc chng o c ny khng hon ton tho mn Hegel. ng mun nhiu hn. Ht nh ng chng t do v bnh ng, ng cng chng tnh anh em ca con ngi, ch ngha nhn o, hoc, nh ng ni t thin. Lng tm phi c thay th bng s phc tng m qung v bng mt o c hc Heraclitean v danh ting v nh mnh, v tnh anh em ca con ngi c thay bng mt ch ngha dn tc ton tr. iu ny c lm ra sao s c thy mc III v c bit50 mc IV ca chng ny.
III

By gi ti tip tc mt phc ho rt ngn v mt cu chuyn hi l k cu chuyn v s ni ln ca ch ngha dn tc c. Khng nghi ng g cc xu hng c biu hin bng t ny rt ging vi s ni lon chng l tnh v x hi m. Ch ngha dn tc ku gi n cc bn nng b lc ca chng ta, n s say m v thnh kin, v n kht khao hoi c phi c lm du i khi s cng thng ca trch nhim c nhn m n c gng thay th bng mt trch nhim tp th hay nhm. Chnh theo kp vi cc xu hng ny m chng ta thy rng cc tc phm c

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nht v l thuyt chnh tr, ngay c ca u s C, nhng ni bt hn l cc tc phm ca Plato v Aristotle, by t cc quan im dn tc ch ngha mt cch dt khot; v cc tc phm ny c vit trong mt n lc chin u vi x hi m v cc tng mi v ch ngha quc, ch ngha th gii, v ch ngha bnh ng51. Nhng s pht trin ban u ny ca mt l thuyt chnh tr dn tc ch ngha t ngt ngng li vi Aristotle. Vi ch ca Alexander, ch ngha dn tc b lc ch thc bin mt mi mi khi thc tin chnh tr, v mt thi gian di khi l thuyt chnh tr. T Alexander tr i, tt c cc quc gia vn minh ca Chu u v Chu l cc ch, bao gm dn c c ngun gc pha trn rt nhiu. Nn vn minh chu u v mi n v chnh tr thuc v n k t vn mang tnh quc t hay, chnh xc hn, tnh gia-cc b lc. (Dng nh l mt khong trc xa Alexander nh Alexander trc chng ta, ch c ca ngi Sumer to ra nn vn minh quc t u tin). V ci l ng v thc tin chnh tr l ng v l thuyt chnh tr; cho n khong mt trm nm trc, ch ngha dn tc PlatonicAristotlean hu nh bin mt khi cc hc thuyt chnh tr. (Tt nhin, cc xc cm b lc v a phng lun lun mnh). Khi ch ngha dn tc c hi sinh mt trm nm trc, n trong mt khu vc pha tp nht trong cc khu vc pha tp hon ton ca Chu u, nc c, v c bit nc Ph vi dn c ch yu l ngi Slav ca n. (Khng my ngi bit l ch mt th k trc, nc Ph, vi dn c phn ln Slav ca n khi , khng c coi l mt bang c mt cht no; mc d cc vua ca n, nhng ngi nh cc hong t Brandenburg l cc C tri ca ch c, c coi l cc hong t c. Ti Hi ngh Vienna, nc Ph dng k nh mt vng quc Slav; v nm 1830 Hegel vn ni52 ngay c v Brandenburg v Mecklenburg nh c nhng ngi Slav c c ho) c tr. Nh th ch mt thi gian ngn t khi nguyn l v quc gia dn tc c a li vo l thuyt chnh tr. Bt chp s thc ny, c chp nhn rng ri ngy nay rng n thng c coi l d nhin, v rt thng xuyn khng c thc nh vy. By gi n to thnh, c th ni nh vy, mt gi thit ngm ca t tng chnh tr ph bin. N thm ch c nhiu ngi coi l nh c bn ca o c chnh tr, c bit k t nguyn l c thin ch nhng t c cn nhc k ca Wilson v quyn t quyt dn tc. Lm sao m bt c ai ngi c mt cht hiu bit v lch s chu u, v s di chuyn v ho trn ca mi loi b lc, v v s ln sng ngi ti t mi trng sng chu ban u ca h v tch ra v ho trn khi n m l ca cc bn o c gi l lc a u chu,

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lm sao m bt c ai ngi bit iu ny li c th a ra mt nguyn l khng th p dng c nh vy, l kh hiu. S gii thch rng Wilson, ngi l mt ng vin dn ch tht th (v Masaryk cng th, mt ngi v i nht trong s cc chin s u tranh v x hi m53), chu thua mt phong tro bt ngun t trit hc chnh tr phn ng v tin nht tng p t ln nhn loi d bo v nhn nhc. ng chu thua s dy d ca ng trong cc l thuyt chnh tr siu hnh hc ca Plato v ca Hegel, v phong tro dn tc ch ngha da trn chng. Nguyn l v quc gia dn tc, tc l, yu sch chnh tr rng lnh th ca mi quc gia phi trng vi lnh th do mt dn tc c tr, khng h hin nhin nh n c v t ra i vi nhiu ngi ngy nay. Ngay d l bt c ai bit ci anh ta mun ni khi anh ta ni v tnh dn tc, hon ton khng r v sao tnh dn tc phi c chp nhn nh mt phm tr chnh tr c bn, quan trng hn th d tn gio, hay sinh ra trong mt khu vc a l no , hay lng trung thnh vi mt triu i, hay mt tn iu chnh tr ging nh dn ch (l ci to ra, ta c th ni vy, nhn t thng nht ca Thu S a ngn ng). Nhng trong khi tn gio, lnh th, hay mt tn iu chnh tr c th t nhiu c xc nh r rng, th chng ai tng c kh nng gii thch anh ta hiu mt dn tc l g, theo mt cch m n c th c dng nh mt c s cho hot ng chnh tr thc tin. (Tt nhin, nu ta ni rng mt dn tc l s ngi sng hay sinh ra mt quc gia no , th mi th s r rng; nhng iu ny c ngha l t b nguyn l v quc gia dn tc i hi rng quc gia phi c dn tc xc nh, ch khng phi bng cch khc). Khng mt trong cc l thuyt no cho rng mt quc gia c thng nht do mt ngun gc chung, hay mt ngn ng chung, hay mt lch s chung, l c th chp nhn c, hay c th p dng c trong thc tin. Nguyn l v quc gia dn tc khng ch khng p dng c m cng chng bao gi c hnh dung r rng. N l mt huyn thoi. N l mt c m phi l, lng mn v Khng tng, mt c m v ch ngha t nhin v v ch ngha tp th b lc. Bt chp cc xu hng phn ng v phi l ni ti ca n, ch ngha dn tc hin i, kh l k, l mt tn iu cch mng v t do trong lch s ngn ngi ca n trc Hegel. Do ci g ging nh mt tai nn lch s - s xm chim t c bi qun i dn tc u tin, qun i Php do Napoleon lnh o, v phi ng do s kin ny gy ra n i vo phe t do. Khng phi khng c ch li i phc ho lch s ca s pht trin ny, v ca con ng theo Hegel a ch ngha dn tc tr li phe ton tr ni n thuc v t thi khi Plato u tin cho rng

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nhng ngi Hy Lp c quan h vi nhng ngi mam r nh cc ng ch vi cc n l. Plato, hy nh li54, ng tic trnh by vn chnh tr c bn ca ng bng cch hi: Ai phi cai tr? ch ca ai phi l lut php? Trc Rousseau, cu tr li thng thng cho cu hi ny l: Vng cng. Rousseau cho mt tr li mi v cch mng nht. Khng phi vng cng, ng kin nh, m l nhn dn phi cai tr; khng phi ch ca mt ngi m l ch ca tt c mi ngi. Bng cch ny, dn ng n sng ch ra ch ca nhn dn, ch tp th, hay ch chung, nh ng gi n; v nhn dn, mt khi c ban cho mt ch, phi c cao ln thnh mt siu nhn cch; trong mi quan h i vi ci nm ngoi n (tc l, trong quan h vi nhng ngi khc), Rousseau ni, n tr thnh mt tn ti duy nht, mt c nhn. C rt nhiu ch ngha tp th lng mn trong s sng ch ny, nhng khng c xu hng no ti ch ngha dn tc. Nhng l thuyt ca Rousseau r rng c cha mt mm mng ca ch ngha dn tc, m hc thuyt c trng nht ca n l cc dn tc khc nhau phi c hnh dung nh cc nhn vt. V mt bc thc tin ln theo hng dn tc ch ngha c tin hnh khi Cch mng Php thnh lp mt qun i nhn dn, da vo s cng bch quc gia. Mt ngi tip ng gp cho l thuyt v ch ngha dn tc l J. G. Herder, mt cu hc sinh v ng thi l mt bn ring ca Kant. Herder kin nh rng mt quc gia tt phi c cc ng bin gii t nhin, c th l cc bin gii trng vi cc ch do dn tc ca n sng; mt l thuyt m u tin ng kin ngh trong Ideas towards a Philosophy of History of Mankind (1785) ca ng. Quc gia t nhin nht, ng vit55, l mt quc gia bao gm mt dn tc duy nht vi mt c tnh dn tc duy nht Mt dn tc l mt s pht trin t nhin ging nh mt gia nh, ch to ra rng hn Nh trong mi cng ng ngi, .. cho nn, trong trng hp ca quc gia, trt t t nhin l tt nht -tc l, trt t trong mi ngi thc hin cc chc nng m t nhin dnh cho anh ta. L thuyt ny, th cho mt cu tr li cho vn v cc bin gii t nhin ca quc gia56, mt tr li ch nu ra vn mi v cc bin gii t nhin ca quc gia, u tin khng c nhiu nh hng. L th thy l Kant hiu r ngay ch ngha lng mn phi l nguy him trong tc phm ny ca Herder, ngi ng bin thnh k th khng i tri chung bng ph phn thng thng ca ng. Ti s trch mt on t ph phn ny, v n tng kt tuyt vi, mt ln cho mi mi, khng ch Herder, m c cc trit gia sm truyn mun hn nh Fichte , Schelling,

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Hegel, cng tt c cc mn hin i ca h: Mt s khn ngoan lanh ln v nht ra cc s tng t, Kant vit, v mt sc tng tng to bo v dng n lm cho chng c kt hp vi mt nng lc tranh th cc xc cm v nim say m nhm nhn c s quan tm cho mc ch ca n - mt mc ch lun b giu kn trong b n. Cc xc cm ny d b hiu lm vi cc n lc ca cc t tng hng mnh v su sc, hay ch t ca cc m ch y ngha su sc; v nh th chng khi dy nhng k vng cao hn s phn x im tnh c th thy c bin minh Cc t ng ngha c mo nhn nh cc gii thch, v cc li ni bng c ngh nh cc chn l. Chnh Fichte l ngi cho ch ngha dn tc c l thuyt u tin ca n. Cc ng bin gii ca mt quc gia, ng cho rng, c xc nh bi ngn ng. (iu ny khng ci thin tnh hnh. u cc s khc bit v th ng tr thnh cc khc bit ngn ng? Nhng ngi Slav hay Teuton ni bao nhiu th ting khc nhau, hoc cc khc bit ch l cc ting a phng?) Cc quan im ca Fichte c mt s pht trin l lng, c bit nu ta xt n rng ng l mt trong nhng nh sng lp ra ch ngha dn tc c. Nm 1793, ng bo v Rousseau v Cch mng Php, v nm 1799 ng vn tuyn b57: R rng l t by gi ring Cch mng Php c th l t quc ca ngi ngay thng, rng anh ta c th hin dng nng lc ca mnh cho ring t nc ny thi, v khng ch nhng hi vng ng yu nht ca nhn loi m c bn thn s tn ti ca n gn b vi thng li ca nc Php Ti hin dng bn thn mnh v mi kh nng ca ti cho nn Cng ho. C th lu rng khi Fichte a ra cc nhn xt ny ng ang m phn cho mt chc v i hc Mainz, mt a phng lc do ngi Php kim sot. Nm 1804, E. N. Anderson vit trong nghin cu l th ca ng v ch ngha dn tc, Fichte .. ho hc b vic lm Ph v chp nhn mt li mi t Nga. Chnh ph Ph khng nh gi ng ng vi mc ti chnh mong mun v ng hi vng s cng nhn nhiu hn t Nga, vit cho ngi thng tho Nga rng nu chnh ph ng l thnh vin ca Vin Hn lm Khoa hc St. Peterburg v tr ng mt khon lng khng t hn bn trm rp, ti s l ca h cho n cht.. Hai nm sau, Anderson tip tc, s chuyn i t Ficte th gii ch ngha thnh Fichte dn tc ch ngha hon tt. Khi ngi Php chim Berlin, Fichte b i, v lng yu nc; mt hnh ng m, nh Anderson ni ng khng cho .. vua v chnh ph Ph khng ch n. Khi A. Mueller v W. von Humboldt c Napoleon tip kin, Fichte vit mt cch phn n cho v mnh: Ti

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khng ghen t vi Mueller v Humboldt; ti vui l ti khng nhn c vinh d ng h thn .. C s khc bit i vi lng tm ca mt ngi v hin nhin c i vi thnh cng sau ny ca ngi nu .. ngi cng khai chng t s hin dng cho s nghip cao p. V iu ny, Anderson bnh lun: Thc ra, ng thu li; khng nghi ng g li mi ng n i hc Berlin l kt qu t tnh tit ny. iu ny khng lm gim gi tr lng yu nc ca hnh ng ca ng, m ch t n di nh sng ng n ca n. Thm vo tt c iu ny chng ta phi ni rng s nghip ca Fichte vi t cch mt trit gia ngay t u da vo mt s gian ln. Khi ngi ta mong i trit hc ca Kant v tn gio, th cun sch u tin ca ng c xut bn n danh di tiu Critique of all Revelation. N l mt cun sch cc k n n, iu khng ngn n khi l mt s bt chc kho lo bt php ca Kant; v mi th c khi ng, k c cc li n i, u lm cho ngi dn tin rng n l mt tc phm ca Kant. S vic hin ra di nh sng ng ca n nu chng ta hiu r rng Fichte ch c c mt nh xut bn thng qua s tt bng ca Kant (ngi chng bao gi c th c hn vi trang u ca cun sch). Khi bo ch ca tng tc phm ca Fichte nh l ca Kant, Kant buc phi ra mt tuyn b cng khai rng tc phm l ca Fichte, v Fichte, danh ting bt ng p n, c b nhim gio s Jena. Song Kant mun hn buc phi a ra mt tuyn b khc, nhm tch mnh ra khi con ngi ny, mt tuyn b cc t sau xut hin58: C th Thng bo v chng ta khi cc bn ca mnh. Khi cc k th ca chng ta, ta c th th bo v chnh mnh. y l vi tnh tit trong s nghip ca mt ngi m thi ba hoa ca ng ta gy ra ch ngha dn tc hin i cng nh trit hc Duy tm ch ngha hin i, c dng ln trn s xuyn tc gio hun ca Kant. (Ti theo Schopenhauer trong phn bit gia thi ba hoa ca Fichte v ngn bp ca Hegel, mc d ti phi tha nhn rng khng khng v s phn bit ny c l l hi ra v thng thi rm). Ton b cu chuyn l l th ch yu v nh sng n ri ln lch s trit hc v ln lch s ni chung. Ti mun ni khng ch s thc c l khi hi hn l mang tai ting rng cc anh h nh vy c coi l nghim tc, v rng h c bin thnh cc i tng ca mt loi tn sng, ca cc nghin cu long trng mc d thng t nht (v ca giy thi c tng ng). ti mun ni khng ch s thc kinh khng rng Fichte ba hoa v Hegel bp bm li c i x mc vi nhng ngi nh Democritus, Pascal, Descartes, Spinoza, Locke, Hume, Kant, J. S. Mill, v Bertrand Russell, v rng gio hun o c ca h c coi l nghim tc v c

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l thm ch cao hn ca nhng ngi khc ny. Nhng ti mun ni rng nhiu trong s cc s gia ca tng ny ca trit hc, khng c kh nng phn bit gia t duy v iu tng tng, ch khng ni n gia tt v xu, dm tuyn b rng lch s ca h l quan to ca chng ta, hoc rng lch s trit hc ca h l mt ph phn ngm ca cc h thng t tng khc nhau. V l r, ti ngh, rng s nnh ht ca h ch c th l mt ph phn ngm ca lch s trit hc ca h, v ca tnh khoa trng v s ng lo om sm theo ngh trit hc c ca ngi. Dng nh l mt quy lut v ci m nhng ngi ny hi lng gi l bn tnh con ngi rng tnh t ph tng t l thun vi s km ci v t duy v t l nghch vi khi lng cng lao ng gp cho s thnh vng ca con ngi. Ti thi im khi Fichte tr thnh ng t ca ch ngha dn tc, mt ch ngha dn tc bn nng v cch mng ang ni ln c nh mt phn ng li vi s xm chim ca Napoleon. (N l mt trong cc phn ng b lc chng s bnh trng ca mt ch siu-quc gia). Nhn dn i hi cc ci cch dn ch m h hiu theo ngha ca Rousseau v ca Cch mng Php, nhng h mun n m khng c nhng ngi Php xm chim. H quay sang chng cc vng cng ring ca h v ng thi chng hong . Ch ngha dn tc ban u ny ni ln vi sc mnh ca mt tn ngng mi, nh mt loi mt n trong s kht khao t do v bnh ng c che ph. Ch ngha dn tc, Anderson vit59, tng ln khi C c gio chnh thng suy dn, thay th ci sau vi lng tin vo kinh nghim thn b ca bn thn n. N l kinh nghim thn b ca cng ng vi cc thnh vin khc ca b lc b p bc, mt kinh nghim ci thay th khng ch o C c m c bit c cm gic v s tin tng v trung thnh vi c vua m s lm dng ca chnh th chuyn ch ph hu. L r rng mt tn ngng mi khng ch ng v dn ch nh vy l mt ngun rt chc tc, v thm ch nguy him, i vi giai cp thng tr, v c bit i vi vua Ph. i ph vi mi nguy him ny th no? Sau cc cuc chin tranh gii phng, Frederick William i ph vi n u tin bng sa thi cc c vn dn tc ch ngha ca ng, v sau bng b nhim Hegel. V Cch mng Php chng minh nh hng ca trit hc, mt im c Hegel nhn mnh thch ng (v n l c s cho cng vic ng gp ca ring ng): Ci Tinh thn, ng ni60, by gi l c s c bn ca c cu tim nng, v Trit hc v th tr thnh thng tr. Ngi ta ni rng Cch mng Php l kt qu ca Trit hc, v khng phi khng c l do rng Trit hc c m t nh Th gii Sng sut; Trit hc khng ch l Chn l trong

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v v chnh n .. m cng l Chn l nh c biu l ra trong cc vn th tc. Chng ta khng c, v th, ph nhn khng nh rng Cch mng nhn c xung lc u tin ca n t Trit hc. y l mt ch bo v s thu hiu ca Hegel v nhim v trc tip ca ng, a ra mt phn xung lc; mt xung lc, mc d khng phi l ci u tin, bng cch trit hc c th tng cng cc phn lc. Mt phn ca nhim v ny l xuyn tc cc t tng v t do, bnh ng, v.v. Nhng c l mt nhim v thm ch cn cp bch hn l thun phc tn ngng dn tc ch ngha cch mng. Hegel hon thnh nhim v ny theo tinh thn ca li khuyn ca Pareto li dng cc tnh cm, ng ph nng lc trong n lc v ch i ph hu chng. ng thun phc ch ngha dn tc khng bng s chng c thng thng m bng bin i n thnh ch ngha c on Ph rt c k lut. V cng tnh c l ng em tr li mt v kh hng mnh cho phe x hi ng, ni n c bn thuc v. Tt c iu ny c lm kh vng. Hegel, vi mong mun ca ng lm va lng chnh ph, i khi tn cng nhng ngi dn tc ch ngha qu cng khai. Mt s ngi, ng vit61 trong Philosophy of Law, mi y bt u ni v ch quyn ca nhn dn i lp vi ch quyn ca quc vng. Song khi c tng phn vi ch quyn ca quc vng, th cm t ch quyn ca nhn dn ho ra ch l mt trong cc khi nim ln ln ny sinh t mt t tng hoang d v nhn dn. Khng c quc vng .. nhn dn ch l mt m ng khng c hnh dng r rt. Sm hn, trong Encyclopdia, ng vit: Ton th cc c nhn ring l thng c ni ti nh dn tc. Nhng mt ci ton th nh vy l mt m hn tp, khng phi nhn dn; v lin quan n n, chnh mt mc tiu ca nh nc, i vi quyn lc v hnh ng, l dn tc khng nn tn ti nh mt ci ton th nh vy. Mt tnh trng nh vy ca mt dn tc l mt tnh trng v lut php, bng hoi o c, tn bo. Trong , dn tc ch l mt lc lng m qung, hoang di, d hnh, ging nh sc mnh ca bin bo t d di, ci tuy vy khng phi l sc mnh t-hu hoi, vi t cch dn tc - mt yu t tinh thn c th l. Th m ngi ta thng xuyn c th nghe mt tnh trng nh vy c m t nh t do thun khit. y c mt m ch khng th hiu lm n nhng ngi dn tc ch ngha t do, nhng ngi m nh vua cm ght ging nh bnh dch. V iu ny thm ch cn r hn khi ta thy Hegel dn chiu n cc m c ca nhng ngi dn tc ch ngha ban u v xy dng li ch c: iu h cu v mt ch, ng ni bi ca ngi nhng pht trin mi nht nc Ph, hon ton tiu tan. N bc vo cc Nh nc Ch quyn. Cc xu hng chng t

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do ca ng khin ng ni n nc Anh nh th d c trng nht ca mt dn tc theo ngha xu. Ly trng hp ca nc Anh, ng vit, nc, v cc c nhn c phn p o trong cng vic chung, c coi nh c hin php t do nht trong mi hin php. Kinh nghim cho thy nc , khi so snh vi cc quc gia vn minh u chu, l lc hu nht v php ch dn s v hnh s, v lut v quyn t do ti sn, v v cc dn xp cho ngh thut v khoa hc, v rng quyn t do khch quan hay quyn duy l b hi sinh cho quyn hnh thc62 v c bit cho li ch t: v iu ny xy ra thm ch cc nh ch v ti sn c dnh cho tn gio. Qu thc l mt tuyn b l lng, c bit khi xt n ngh thut v khoa hc, chng g c th lc hu hn nc Ph, ni i hc Berlin c thnh lp ch di nh hng ca cc cuc chin tranh Napoleon, v vi t tng, nh nh vua ni63, rng nh nc phi thay ci n mt v sc mnh vt cht bng lng dng cm tr tu. Vi trang sau, Hegel qun ci ng ni v ngh thut v khoa hc nc Anh; v ng ni v nc Anh, ni ngh thut vit s tri qua mt qu trnh lc trong v t danh ting bn vng hn v chn mui hn. Chng ta thy Hegel bit rng nhim v ca ng l chin u vi cc thin hng t do v thm ch quc ch ngha ca ch ngha dn tc. ng lm vic bng thuyt phc nhng ngi dn tc ch ngha rng cc yu sch tp th ch ngha ca h t ng c thc hin bi mt nh nc ton nng, v rng tt c ci h cn lm l gip tng cng sc mnh ca nh nc. Quc gia Dn tc l Tinh thn trong tnh duy l thc s ca n v tnh thc t trc tip ca n, ng vit64; n v vy l quyn lc tuyt i trn tri t Nh nc l Tinh thn ca bn thn Nhn dn. Nh nc thc s c tinh thn ny lm sinh ng, trong mi cng vic c bit ca n, cc cuc Chin tranh ca n, cc Th ch ca n S t- thc ca mt Dn tc c bit l phng tin cho .. s pht trin tinh thn tp th; .. trong n, Tinh thn Thi i u t ch ca n. Chng li ch ny, cc tinh thn dn tc khc khng c quyn g: Dn tc thng tr Th gii. Nh th dn tc v tinh thn ca n v ch ca n l ci ng vai trn sn khu lch s. Lch s l s tranh ua ca cc tinh thn dn tc khc nhau v s thng tr th gii. Suy ra t iu ny rng cc ci cch do nhng ngi t do dn tc ch ngha ch trng l khng cn thit, v dn tc v tinh thn ca n du sao i na l cc din vin chnh; ngoi ra, mi dn tc .. c hin php ph hp vi n v thuc v n. (Ch ngha thc chng php l). Ta thy Hegel thay cc yu t t do trong ch ngha dn tc khng ch bng s tn sng Platonic-Prussianist [theo ch ngha Ph] i vi nh nc, m cng

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bng mt s sng bi lch s, tn th thnh cng lch s. (Frederick William thnh cng chng Napoleon). Bng cch ny, Hegel khng ch m u mt chng mi trong lch s ca ch ngha dn tc, m ng cng cho ch ngha dn tc mt l thuyt mi. Fichte, chng ta thy, cho n mt l thuyt da trn ngn ng. Hegel a vo l thuyt lch s ca dn tc. Mt dn tc, theo Hegel, c thng nht bi mt tinh thn ci tinh thn ng vai trong lch s. N c thng nht bi mt k th chung, v bi tnh ng ch ca cc cuc chin tranh m n chin u. ( Ngi ta ni rng mt chng tc l mt tp hp ngi c thng nht khng phi bi ngun gc ca h m bi mt li chung v ngun gc ca h. Theo cch tng t, chng ta c th ni rng mt dn tc theo ngha ca Hegel l mt s ngi c thng nht bi mt li chung v lch s ca h). Tht r l l thuyt ny lin h ra sao vi bn cht lun lch s ch ngha ca Hegel. Lch s ca mt dn tc l lch s ca bn cht hay Tinh thn ca n, t khng nh mnh trn Sn khu Lch s. kt thc phc ho ny v s ni ln ca ch ngha dn tc, ti c th a ra mt nhn xt v cc s kin xung n tn s thnh lp ch c ca Bismarck. Chnh sch ca Hegel l li dng cc tnh cm dn tc ch ngha, thay cho ph nng lc v ch i ph hu chng. Nhng i khi k xo ni ting ny t ra c cc h qu kh l lng. S ci bin trung c ca o C c thnh mt tn iu c on ch ngha khng th ngn cn hon ton cc xu hng nhn o ch ngha ca n; khng bit bao nhiu ln o C c ph v mt n c on ch ngha (v b ngc i nh d gio). Bng cch ny, li khuyn ca Pareto khng ch c dng trung ho cc xu hng nguy him cho giai cp thng tr, m cng v tnh gip duy tr chnh cc xu hng ny. Mt iu tng t xy ra vi ch ngha dn tc. Hegel thun phc n, v th thay ch ngha dn tc c bng mt ch ngha dn tc Ph. Nhng bng cch bin ch ngha dn tc thnh cc thnh t ca Ch ngha Ph ca ng (dng bit ng ring ca ng) Hegel duy tr n; v nc Ph thy mnh buc phi tip tc theo con ng li dng cc tnh cm ca ch ngha dn tc c. Khi n nh nc o nm 1866 n phi lm vy di danh ngha ch ngha dn tc c, v ly c m bo s lnh o ca nc c. V n phi qung co nc Ph c m rng mnh mng ca 1871 nh ch c mi, mt Dn tc c mi c chin tranh hn li thnh mt n v, ph hp vi l thuyt lch s v dn tc ca Hegel.

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Trong thi i ring ca chng ta, ch ngha lch s cung lon ca Hegel vn l phn bn nh ch ngha ton tr hin i c s pht trin nhanh ca n. Vic s dng n chun b mt bng, v gio dc tng lp tr thc n vi tnh bt lng, nh s c chng t mc v ca chng ny. Chng ta phi rt ra bi hc rng tnh trung thc tr tu l c bn cho mi th chng ta yu du. Nhng y l tt c ? V n l cng bng? Chng c g trong i hi rng s v i ca Hegel nm s thc rng ng l ngi sng lp ra mt cch t duy mi, mang tnh lch s -mt ngha lch s mi ? Nhiu ngi trong cc bn ti ph phn ti v thi ca ti i vi Hegel, v v s bt lc ca ti thy s v i ca ng. Tt nhin, h hon ton ng, v ti qu thc khng c kh nng thy iu . (Ti vn th). Nhm cu cha cho sai lm ny, ti tin hnh mt kho cu c h thng i vi cu hi, S v i ca Hegel nm u? Kt qu l ng tht vng. Khng nghi ng g, Hegel ni sung v tnh bao la v v i ca tn kch lch s to ra mt bu khng kh quan tm n lch s. Khng nghi ng g, cc khi qut ho, cc s phn chu k, v cc din gii lch s ch ngha mnh mng ca ng quyn r mt s s gia v thch thc h to ra cc nghin cu lch s c gi tr v chi tit (iu gn nh lc no vn vy chng t im yu ca nhng khm ph cng nh ca phng php ca ng). Nhng thch thc ny c nh hng n thnh tu ca hoc mt s gia hoc ca mt trit gia khng? Chng phi, ng hn, l thnh tu ca mt nh tuyn truyn? Cc s gia, ti thy, hay nh gi Hegel (nu c cht no) nh mt trit gia, v cc trit gia hay tin rng cc ng gp ca ng (nu c g) l s hiu bit lch s. Nhng ch ngha lch s khng phi l lch s, v tin vo n khng tit l c s hiu bit lch s cng khng tit l tri gic lch s. V nu chng ta mun nh gi s v i ca Hegel, vi t cch mt s gia hay mt trit gia, chng ta khng c hi mnh liu nhng ngi no thy tm nhn ca ng v lch s l gy cm hng, m liu c my s tht trong tm nhn ca ng hay khng. Ti thy mt t tng duy nht ci l quan trng v c th cho l c ngm nh trong trit hc ca Hegel. l tng dn Hegel i tn cng ch ngha duy l [rationalism] v ch ngha duy l tr [intellectuallism] tru tng cc thuyt khng nh gi ng mn n ca l tr i vi truyn thng. C mt nhn thc chc chn v s thc (m, tuy vy, Hegel qun trong Logic ca ng) rng con ngi khng th xut pht vi mt khong trng khng, to ra mt th gii t tng t khng g c; m rng cc t tng ca h, ch yu, l sn phm ca mt s k tha tr tu.

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Ti sn sng tha nhn rng y l mt im quan trng, v l mt im c th c thy Hegel nu ta mun tm n. Song ti ph nhn rng n l ng gp ring ca Hegel. N l ti sn chung ca nhng ngi Lng mn. Rng mi thc th x hi l cc sn phm ca lch s; khng phi cc sng ch, c l tr thit k, m l cc thc th ni ln t thi ng nh ca cc s kin lch s, t s tc ng ln nhau ca cc t tng v cc li ch, t nhng au kh v nhng say m, tt c iu ny l gi hn Hegel. N quay li tn Edmund Burke, ngi ng gi cao tm quan trng ca truyn thng i vi t tng chnh tr ca Phong tro Lng mn c. Cc du vt ca nh hng ca ng c th tm thy Hegel, nhng ch dng thi phng v khng ng vng c ca mt ch ngha tng i lch s v tin ho - dng ca mt hc thuyt nguy him cho rng ci c tin ngy nay, thc ra, l ng ngy hm nay, v mt h qu cng nguy him ngang th rng ci ng hm qua (ng, ch khng ch l c tin) c th sai vo ngy mai - mt hc thuyt, chc chn, khng chc c v mt s nh gi cao tm quan trng ca truyn thng.
V

By gi ti tip tc phn cui ca nghin cu ca ti v ch ngha Hegel, phn tch s ph thuc ca ch ngha b lc mi hay ch ngha ton tr vo cc hc thuyt ca Hegel. Nu gi nh mc tiu ca ti l vit lch s v s ni ln ca ch ngha ton tr, th u tin ti phi cp n ch ngha Marx; v ch ngha pht xt pht trin mt phn t s suy sp ca ch ngha Marx. (V, nh chng ta s thy, mt tuyn b tng t c th c a ra v quan h gia ch ngha Lenin v ch ngha Marx). V vn chnh ca ti, tuy vy, l ch ngha lch s, ti kin ngh cp n ch ngha Marx mun hn, nh dng thun khit nht ca ch ngha lch s ni ln cho n nay, v tho lun ch ngha pht xt u tin. Ch ngha ton tr ch l mt tnh tit trong cuc ni lon lun ti din chng li t do v l tr. T cc tnh tit c n c phn bit khng my bi thc h ca n, m bi s thc rng cc lnh t thnh cng thc hin mt trong cc m c to bo nht ca cc bc tin bi ca h; h bin cuc ni lon chng t do thnh mt phong tro c nhiu ngi ngng m. (Tt nhin, khng nn nh gi qu cao tnh i chng ca n; gii tr thc ch l mt phn ca dn chng). N c lm cho l kh d ch bi s suy sp ca mt phong tro ni ting khc, cc nc c lin quan, phong tro Dn ch X hi hay phin bn dn ch ca ch

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ngha Marx, m trong tm tr ca nhn dn lao ng c ngha l cc t tng t do v bnh ng. Khi tr nn hin nhin rng khng ch ngu nhin m phong tro ny tht bi nm 1914 kin quyt chng chin tranh; khi tr nn r rng l bt lc i ph vi cc vn ho bnh, trn ht vi tht nghip v suy thoi kinh t; v khi, cui cng, phong tro ny ch min cng bo v mnh chng s xm lc pht xt, th lng tin vo t do v vo kh nng bnh ng b e do nghim trng, v cuc ni lon mun tha chng t do mi c th bng trm phng ngn k kim c t nhiu s ng h ca dn chng. S thc rng ch ngha pht xt phi k tc mt phn di sn ca ch ngha Marx gii thch cho cho mt c tnh gc ca thc h pht xt, cho mt im trong n lch khi tnh cht truyn thng ca cuc ni lon chng t do. im m ti ngh n l ch ngha pht xt khng my dng mt s ku gi cng khai n s siu nhin. Khng phi l n nht thit v thn hay thiu cc yu t thn b hay tn gio. Nhng s lan rng ca thuyt bt kh tri thng qua ch ngha Marx dn n mt tnh trng trong khng tn iu chnh tr no nhm ti tnh i chng gia giai cp lao ng c th gn mnh vi bt c dng tn ngng truyn thng no. y l l do v sao ch ngha pht xt thm vo thc h chnh thng ca n, t nht cc giai on u, mt s pha trn no ca ch ngha duy vt tin ho ch ngha th k mi chn. Nh vy cng thc ca m ru bia pht xt tt c cc nc l nh nhau: Hegel cng mt cht ch ngha duy vt th k mi chn (c bit ch ngha Darwin dng hi th m Haeckel65 cho n). Yu t khoa hc trong ch ngha chng tc c th truy nguyn v Haeckel, ngi chu trch nhim v mt cuc thi c gii nm 1900, m ch ca n l: Chng ta c th hc c g t cc nguyn l ca ch ngha Darwin lin quan n s pht trin ni ti v chnh tr ca mt nh nc? Gii nht c trao cho mt cng trnh chng tc ch ngha s ca W. Schallmeyer, ngi nh vy tr thnh ng [t] ca sinh hc chng tc. L th quan st thy lm sao ch ngha chng tc duy vt ny, bt chp ngun gc rt khc ca n, li rt ging ch ngha t nhin ca Plato. Trong c hai trng hp, tng c bn l s thoi ho, c bit ca cc giai cp trn, l gc r ca s suy tn chnh tr ( hiu l: s tin ti ca x hi m). Hn na, huyn thoi hin i v Mu v t c ci tng ng chnh xc ca n trong huyn thoi ca Plato v Ngi sinh ra t t. Tuy th m, khng phi Hegel+Plato, m l Hegel+Haeckel l cng thc ca ch ngha chng tc hin i. Nh chng ta s thy, Marx thay T tng ca Hegel bng vt cht, v bng cc li ch vt cht v

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kinh t. Theo cng cch, ch ngha chng tc thay Tinh thn ca Hegel bng khi nim bn-sinh hc, vt cht no v Mu hay Chng tc. Thay cho Tinh thn, Mu l bn cht t-pht trin; thay cho Tinh thn, Mu l Quyn ti cao ca th gii, v ph trng mnh trn Sn khu Lch s; v thay cho Tinh thn ca n, Mu ca mt dn tc quyt nh vn mnh c bn ca n. S ho th ca ch ngha Hegel thnh ch ngha chng tc hay ca Tinh thn thnh Mu khng thay i lm xu hng chnh ca ch ngha Hegel. Ch cho n mt v sinh hc v tin ho ch ngha hin i. Kt qu l mt tn ngng duy vt v ng thi thn b v mt bn cht sinh hc t-pht trin, gi li rt gn vi tn ngng v tin ho sng to (m ngi xng l Bergson theo phi Hegel66), mt tn ngng m G. B. Shaw mt ln m t c trng, mt cch tin tri hn l thm thu, nh mt nim tin tun th iu kin hng u ca mi tn ngng tng nm nhn loi trong tay: c th, n phi l .. mt siu-sinh hc [metabiology]. V qu thc, tn ngng mi ny v ch ngha chng tc cho thy r rng mt thnh t-siu v mt thnh t-sinh hc, c th ni nh vy, hay siu hnh hc thn b Hegelian v sinh hc duy vt Haeckelian. Ngn y v s khc bit gia ch ngha ton tr hin i v ch ngha Hegel. Bt chp tm quan trng ca n t quan im i chng, s khc bit ny l khng quan trng chng mc lin quan n cc xu hng chnh tr chnh ca chng. Song nu quay sang cc im tng t, th ta c mt bc tranh khc. Gn nh tt c cc t tng quan trng hn ca ch ngha ton tr hin i c k tha trc tip t Hegel, ngi thu thp v bo tn ci A. Zimmern gi67 l kho tng v kh cho cc phong tro c on. Mc d hu ht cc v kh khng phi do bn thn Hegel rn ra, song c ng khm ph ra cc kho tng chin tranh c khc nhau ca cuc ni lon mun thu chng li t do, khng nghi ng g n lc ca ng ti khm ph ra v a chng vo tay cc mn hin i ca ng. y l mt danh mc ngn ca mt vi t tng qu nht trong s cc t tng ny. (Ti b qua ch ngha ton tr v ch ngha b lc Platonic, c tho lun ri, cng nh l thuyt v ch nhn v n l). (a) Ch ngha dn tc, dng t tng lch s ch ngha cho rng nh nc l s hin thn ca Tinh thn (hay by gi, ca Mu) ca dn tc (hay chng tc) lp quc; mt dn tc c chn (by gi, chng tc c chn) c d nh cho vic thng tr th gii. (b) Nh nc nh k th t nhin ca tt c cc nh nc khc phi khng nh s tn ti ca n trong chin tranh. (c) Nh nc c min tr mi loi ngha v o c; lch s, tc l, thnh cng lch s, l thm phn duy nht; s v

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li tp th l nguyn l duy nht ca t cch c nhn; tuyn truyn ni di v bp mo s tht c cho php. (d) T tng o c ca chin tranh (ton b hay tp th ch ngha), c bit ca cc dn tc tr chng li cc dn tc gi ci; chin tranh, s phn v danh ting nh cc iu tt ng mong mi nht. (e) Vai tr sng to ca V Nhn, nhn vt lch s th gii, ngi c hiu bit su v nhit tnh ln (by gi, l nguyn l lnh o). (f) L tng v cuc sng anh hng (sng him ngho) v v ngi anh hng nh i lp vi tiu t sn v cuc sng tm thng nng cn ca anh ta. Danh mc ny v kho tng tinh thn l khng c h thng cng khng y . Tt c chng u l phn hay mnh ca mt di sn c. V chng c tr, v sn sng dng, khng ch trong cc tc phm ca Hegel v cc mn ca ng, m c trong u c ca mt gii tr thc c nui dng sut ba th h ch bng thc n tinh thn mt phm cch nh vy, c Schopenhauer68 nhn ra ban u nh mt trit hc-gi to ph hu tri tr c v nh mt s lm dng tai c v ti li ca ngn ng. By gi ti tip tc kho st chi tit cc im trong danh mc ny. (a) Theo cc hc thuyt ton tr hin i, nh nc nh vn l khng phi l mc ch cao nht. iu ny, ng hn, l Mu [Huyt thng], v Nhn dn, Chng tc. Cc chng tc cao hn c quyn lp ra cc nh nc. Mc tiu cao nht ca mt chng tc hay mt dn tc l thit lp mt nh nc hng mnh c th c dng nh mt cng c hng mnh cho s t bo ton ca n. Gio hun ny (nhng thay Mu bng Tinh thn) l do Hegel, ng vit69: Trong s tn ti ca mt Dn tc, mc tiu trng yu l tr thnh mt Nh nc v t bo tn vi t cch nh vy. Mt Dn tc khng t t chc thnh mt Nh nc- th ch l mt Dn tc ni nghim tc khng c lch s, ging nh cc Dn tc .. tn ti trong tnh trng man r. Ci xy ra vi mt Dn tc .. c tm quan trng c bn ca n trong quan h vi Nh nc. Nh nc c thnh lp nh vy phi l ton tr, tc l, sc mnh ca n phi thm vo v kim sot ton b cuc sng ca nhn dn trong mi chc nng ca n: Nh nc v th l c s v trung tm ca mi yu t c th trong i sng ca mt dn tc: ca Ngh thut, Lut, o c, Tn ngng, v Khoa hc Cht liu ci .. tn ti trong thc ti c th l nh nc, l Tinh thn ca bn thn Nhn dn. Nh nc thc s c Tinh thn ny lm sng ng trong mi cng vic c bit ca n, trong Chin tranh, cc nh ch, v.v. ca n. V nh nc phi hng mnh, n phi tranh ginh quyn lc ca cc nh nc khc. N phi t khng nh mnh trn Sn khu Lch s, phi chng minh bn cht c bit hay Tinh thn ca n

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v c tnh dn tc c xc nh nghim ngt ca n bng cc hnh ng lch s ca n, v cui cng phi hng ti thng tr th gii. y l mt phc ho ca bn cht lun ny bng li ca Hegel: Bn cht thc ca Tinh thn l hnh ng; n thc hin tim nng ca n, v bin mnh thnh hnh ng, cng vic ring ca n .. Nh th n l vi Tinh thn ca mt Dn tc; n l Tinh thn c cc c tnh xc nh nghim ngt nhng ci tn ti v bn b .. trong cc s kin v cc qu to thnh lch s ca n. l cng vic ca n l ci Dn tc ny l. Cc Dn tc l ci cc hnh ng ca chng l Mt Dn tc l c o c, c c hnh, hng cng, chng no n thc hin cc mc tiu to ln ca n Cc hin php di cc Dn tc Lch s-Th gii t cc nh ca h l c bit i vi h .. V vy, t .. cc nh ch chnh tr ca cc Dn tc Lch s-Th gii xa xa, chng c th hc c g Mi Thin ti Dn tc phi c coi nh Mt C nhn duy nht trong qu trnh Lch s Ph qut. Tinh thn hay Thin ti Dn tc cui cng phi t chng minh mnh trong Thng tr-Th gii: S t thc ca mt Dn tc c bit .. l thc ti khch quan trong Tinh thn Thi gian u t ch ca n. Chng li ch tuyt i ny cc tinh thn dn tc c bit khc khng c quyn g: Dn tc thng tr Th gii .. Song Hegel khng ch pht trin l thuyt lch s v ton tr ca ch ngha dn tc, ng cng on trc cc kh nng tm l hc ca ch ngha dn tc. ng thy ch ngha dn tc p ng cho mt nhu cu mong mun ca con ngi tm kim v bit ch r rng ca h trn th gii, v thuc v mt t chc tp th hng mnh. ng thi ng ph by c tnh ni bt ca ch ngha dn tc c, cc cm gic t ti (dng mt thut ng gn y hn) c bc l mnh m ca n. V ng ku gi mt cch c thc, vi ch ngha dn tc hay ch ngha b lc ca ng, n cc cm xc m ti m t ( chng 10) nh s cng thng ca nn vn minh: Mi ngi Anh, Hegel vit70, s ni: Chng ta l nhng ngi vt i dng, v c nn thng mi th gii; m ng n v cc x giu c thuc v n Quan h ca c nhn vi Tinh thn .. l ci .. cho php anh ta c mt v tr xc nh trn th gii - l ci g . V anh ta thy .. dn tc m anh ta thuc v mt th gii c xc lp, vng chc .. vi n anh ta phi t hp nht mnh. Cng vic ca anh ta l y, v v th th gii ca anh ta l y, Tinh thn dn tc c c s tn ti ca n v tm c s tho mn. (b) Mt l thuyt chung i vi Hegel v cc mn chng tc ch ngha ca ng l, nh nc do chnh bn cht ca n ch c th tn ti thng qua s tng phn ca n vi cc nh nc khc. H. Freyer, mt

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trong cc nh x hi hc hng u hin thi ca c, vit71: Mt s tn ti ko mnh quanh ci li ring ca n to ra ng ranh gii, thm ch khng ch . V bin gii cho d n l khng ch - to ra k th. Hegel ni tng t: Ht nh c th khng thc s l mt c nhn tr phi c quan h vi cc c nhn khc, cng th Nh nc khng c c tnh thc tr phi c quan h vi cc Nh nc khc Quan h ca mt Nh nc c bit i vi [nh nc] khc trnh din .. tn kch thng trm nht v .. cc nim say m, li ch, mc tiu, ti nng, c hnh, sc mnh, s bt cng, tt xu, v s may ri n thun bn ngoi. N l mt v kch ngay c ci Ton th o c, s c lp ca Nh nc, b phi ra cho s tnh c. C nn khng, v th, th iu tit tnh trng khng may ny bng chp nhn k hoch ca Kant thit lp ho bnh vnh vin bng phng tin ca mt hip hi lin bang? Chc chn khng, bnh lun k hoch ca Kant cho ho bnh Hegel ni: Kant xut mt lin minh ca cc ng hong, Hegel ni hi khng chnh xc (v Kant xut mt lin bang ca ci nay ta gi l cc quc gia dn ch), ci phi gii quyt nhng tranh ci ca cc Nh nc; v Lin minh Thn thnh c l c mong mi l mt nh ch thuc loi ny. Nh nc, tuy vy, l mt c th; v trong tnh cht c nhn, s ph nh c bn c bao hm. Mt s Quc gia c th to thnh mt gia nh, song lin bang ny, vi t cch mt c nhn, phi to ra i lp v nh th sinh ra mt k th. V trong php bin chng ca Hegel, s ph nh l bng s gii hn, v v th khng ch c ngha l ng ranh gii, bin gii, m cng l s to ra mt i lp, mt k th: Vn may v hnh ng ca cc Nh nc trong mi quan h ca chng vi nhau tit l s bin chng v bn tnh hu hn ca cc Tinh thn ny. Cc trch dn ny l t Philosophy of Law; cn tc phm sm hn ca ng Encyclopdia, l thuyt ca Hegel thy trc cc l thuyt hin i, th d ca Freyer, thm ch t m hn: Kha cnh cui cng ca Nh nc l xut hin trong thc ti trc tip nh mt quc gia duy nht Vi t cch mt c nhn duy nht n l ring bit vi nhng ci ging c nhn khc. Trong quan h tng h ca chng, tnh tht thng v s may ri c ch S c lp ny .. bin cc tranh ci gia chng thnh dng bo lc chung, thnh mt trng thi chin tranh Chnh trng thi chin tranh ny quyn ti cao ca Nh nc t th hin .. Nh th Treitschke s gia Ph ch chng t ng hiu k bn cht lun bin chng Hegelian n th no khi ng lp li: Chin tranh khng ch l mt iu tt yu thc tin, n cng l mt tt yu l thuyt, mt yu cu cp bch ca logic. Khi nim

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Nh nc bao hm khi nim chin tranh, v bn cht ca Nh nc l Quyn lc. Nh nc l Nhn dn c t chc trong Quyn lc ti cao. (c) Nh nc l Lut php, lut o c cng nh lut php l. Nh vy n khng th b l thuc vo bt c tiu chun khc no, v c bit khng l thuc vo tiu chun ca o c thng. Cc ngha v lch s ca n su hn. Thm phn duy nht ca n l Lch s Th gii. Tiu chun kh d duy nht ca phn x ln nh nc l thnh cng lch s th gii ca cc hnh ng ca n. V thnh cng ny, sc mnh v s bnh trng ca nh nc, phi gt b mi cn nhc khc trong cuc sng ring ca cc cng dn; ci ng l ci phng s cho sc mnh ca nh nc. y l l thuyt ca Plato; n l l thuyt ca ch ngha ton tr hin i; v n l l thuyt ca Hegel: l o c Platonic-Ph. Nh nc, Hegel vit72, l s thc hin ca nim o c. N l Tinh thn o c vi t cch ch c bc l, t gic, trng yu. Do , khng th c nim o c no trn nh nc. Khi cc ch c bit ca cc Nh nc khng th i n tho thun, s tranh ci ca chng ch c th c gii quyt bng chin tranh. S vi phm no s c coi nh mt s vi phm hip c, hay nh mt s xc phm danh d v s knh trng, phi mp m Nh nc c th nhn din tnh v tn v danh d ca n vi mi kha cnh ca n. V .. quan h gia cc Nh nc thay i tht thng, v khng c thm phn no iu chnh cc khc bit ca chng. Ni cch khc: Chng li Nh nc khng c quyn lc no quyt nh ci g l .. ng Cc Nh nc .. c th tham gia vo cc tho thun chung, nhng ng thi chng l cao hn cc tho thun ny (tc l chng khng cn tun theo) Cc hip c gia cc quc gia .. ph thuc cui cng vo cc ch ti cao c bit, v v l do , chng phi vn l khng ng tin cy. Nh th ch mt loi phn x c th a ra v cc hnh ng v s kin Lch s Th gii: kt qu ca chng, thnh cng ca chng. V th Hegel c th nhn din73 vn mnh c bn - mc tiu tuyt i, hay, ci cng th - kt qu tht ca Lch s Th gii. l thnh cng, tc l, ni ln nh k mnh nht t cuc u tranh bin chng ca cc Tinh thn Dn tc khc nhau v quyn lc, v s thng tr th gii, nh vy l mc tiu duy nht v cui cng v l c s duy nht ca phn x; hay nh Hegel din t mt cch nn th hn: T bin chng ny ni ln Tinh thn ph qut, Tinh thn-Th gii v hn, tuyn b phn x ca n v s phn x ca n l cao nht -v cc Dn tc c hn ca Lch s Th gii; v Lch s Th gii l to n Th gii.

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Freyer c cc tng rt ging, nhng ng pht biu chng thng thng hn74: Mt ging can m v to bo thnh hnh trong lch s. Ngi am hiu c chin li phm. Ngi c nc i sai th s nghip b tiu tan .. ngi mun t im phi bit bn th no. Nhng tt c cc tng ny, cui cng, ch l s lp li Heraclitus: Chin tranh .. chng t mt s l thn v nhng ngi khc ch l ngi, bng bin nhng ngi sau thnh cc n l v nhng ngi trc thnh ch Chin tranh l chnh ng. Theo cc l thuyt ny, khng c s khc bit o c gia mt cuc chin tranh trong chng ta b tn cng, v mt cuc trong chng ta tn cng cc lng ging ca mnh; s khc bit kh d duy nht l thnh cng. F. Haiser, tc gi ca cun sch Slavery: Its Biological Foundation and Moral Justification (1923), nh tin tri ca dng ging ch nhn v ca mt o c ch nhn, l l: Nu ta bo v mnh, th phi cng c cc k xm lc ..; nu nh vy, th v sao bn thn chng ta khng l k xm lc? Song ngay c hc thuyt ny l Hegelian (tin bi ca n l hc thuyt ni ting ca Clausewitz rng mt cuc tn cng lun l s t v hu hiu nht); v khi ni v cc vi phm dn n chin tranh, Hegel khng ch cho thy s tt yu vi mt cuc chin t v ho ra mt cuc chin xm ln, m ng cho chng ta bit l mt s quc gia c c tnh mnh s t nhin c thin hng d cu hn, tm ra c hi v lnh vc m n gi mt cch hoa m l hot ng d di. Vi s xc lp thnh cng lch s nh thm phn duy nht trong cc vn lin quan n cc nh nc hay quc gia, v vi n lc ph v cc s phn bit o c nh vy nh gia tn cng v t v, tr nn cn thit l l chng o c lng tm. Hegel lm vic ny bng xc minh ci ng gi l o c tht, hay ng hn l c hnh x hi i lp vi o c sai. Khng cn phi ni, o c tht ny l o c ton tr Platonic, kt hp vi mt liu ch ngha lch s, trong khi o c sai, m ng cng m t nh tnh chnh trc hnh thc n thun, l o c ca lng tm c nhn. Chng ta c th, Hegel vit75, xc lp mt cch cng bng cc nguyn l ng ca o c, hay ng hn ca c hnh x hi, i lp vi o c sai; v Lch s Th gii chim v tr cao hn ci o c mang tnh c nhn lng tm ca cc c nhn, mun c bit v cch hnh ng ca h Ci m mc ch tuyt i ca Tinh thn i v thc hin, ci Thng lm, vt hn .. s quy ti ca cc ng c tt v xu Do ch l tnh chnh trc hnh thc, b Tinh thn sng v Thn rung b, m nhng ngi cn c vo quyn v trt t c xa vn bm vo. (Tc l, cc nh o c ngi vin dn, th d, n kinh Tn c). Cc hnh ng ca Nhng Ngi V i, ca cc

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Nhn vt Lch s Th gii, ..phi khng c xung t vi cc i hi o c khng thch ng. Kinh cu nguyn v cc c hnh c nhn, v s khim tn, nhn nhng, t thin, v tnh chu ng, phi khng c a ra chng li chng. Lch s Th gii c th, v nguyn tc, hon ton b qua phm vi trong o c .. c chp nhn. y, cui cng, ta c s xuyn tc t tng th ba ca cc t tng 1789, t tng v tnh anh em, hay, nh Hegel ni, v t thin, cng vi o c lng tm. L thuyt o c Platonic-Hegelian lch s ch ngha ny c lp i lp li. S gia ni ting E. Meyer, th d, ni v s nh gi nng cn v ln mt dy i, phn x cc nhim v chnh tr ln bng tiu chun ca o c thng, l b qua cc nhn t o c tht, su hn ca Nh nc v ca trch nhim lch s. Khi cc quan im nh vy c coi l ng, th mi s do d v tuyn truyn ni di v bp mo s tht phi bin mt, c bit nu n thnh cng tng cng sc mnh ca nh nc. Cch tip cn ca Hegel i vi vn ny, tuy vy, l kh t nh: Mt bc v nhn nu cng khai cu hi, ng vit76, liu c cho php nh la Nhn dn. Cu tr li l Nhn dn s khng cho php mnh b la v c s quan trng (F. Haiser, nh o c hc bc thy, ni: khng li no l c th ni linh hn chng tc sai khin) nhng n nh la mnh, Hegel tip tc, v cch n bit iu ny Cng lun v th ng c qu trng cng nhiu nh b xem thng Nh vy c lp vi cng lun l iu kin u tin t c bt c g to ln V cc thnh tu to ln ri chc chn c cng lun tha nhn v chp nhn .. Ni ngn gn, thnh cng lun lun l ci c tnh n. Nu ni di thnh cng, th n khng cn l ni di, v Nhn dn khng b la v c s quan trng ca h. (d) Ta thy l Nh nc, c bit trong mi quan h ca n vi cc nh nc khc, c min tr o c n l phi-o c. V th ta ch i nghe rng chin tranh khng phi l mt tai ho o c, m l trung lp v mt o c. Tuy vy, l thuyt ca Hegel coi thng s ch i ny; n hm rng chin tranh l tt t n. C mt yu t o c trong chin tranh, ta c77. Cn phi tha nhn rng ci Hu hn, nh ti sn v cuc sng, l ci tnh c. S tt yu ny xut hin u tin dng ca mt lc t nhin, v tt c cc th hu hn u cht v nht thi. Trong trt t o c, trong Nh nc, tuy vt, .. tt yu ny c cao ln thnh mt tc phm ca quyn t do, mt quy lut o c... Chin tranh .. gi y tr thnh mt yu t .. ca .. iu thin Chin tranh c ngha su sc rng nh n m s lnh mnh o c ca mt

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dn tc c bo ton v cc mc tiu hu hn ca h c tit tr Chin tranh bo v nhn dn khi s mc nt m mt nn ho bnh di lu c th em li. Lch s cho thy cc pha m chng minh ho cc cuc chin tranh ngn chn tnh trng ri ren ni a thnh cng n th no Cc Dn tc ny, b xung t ni b ging x, c c ho bnh trong nc nh mt kt qu ca chin tranh nc ngoi. on ny, ly t Philosophy of Law, cho thy nh hng ca gio hun ca Plato v Aristotle v cc mi nguy him ca s phn vinh; ng thi, on cng l mt th d tt ca s ng nht o c vi kho mnh, o c hc vi v sinh chnh tr, hay s ng n vi sc mnh; iu ny dn trc tip, nh s thy, n s ng nht ca c hnh v sinh lc, nh on sau t Philosophy of History ca Hegel cho thy. (N tip ngay sau on c nhc ti ri, cp n ch ngha dn tc nh mt cng c khc phc cm gic t ti, v v th gi rng thm ch mt cuc chin tranh c th l mt phng tin thch hp cho mc ch cao qu ). ng thi, l thuyt hin i v tnh hung hng c o c ca cc nc tr hay ngho [have-not] chng cc nc chim hu gi ci c c c hm r rng. Mt Dn tc, Hegel vit, l c lng tri, o c tt, y sinh lc khi n tin hnh thc hin cc mc tiu ln lao ca n Nhng sau khi iu ny t c, hot ng do Tinh thn ca Nhn dn biu hin .. khng cn cn n na Dn tc vn c th hon thnh nhiu trong chin tranh v ho bnh .. nhng bn thn linh hn sng ng ln lao c th ni l ngng hot ng ca n Dn tc sng cng cuc sng nh c nhn khi chuyn t tui trng thnh sang tui gi Cuc sng thng thng n thun ny (ng h c ln dy v chy) l ci a n ci cht t nhin Nh th l cc c nhn dit vong, v th l nhng ngi dit vong do mt ci cht t nhin Mt Dn tc ch c th c mt ci cht d di khi n tr thnh bn thn ci cht t nhin. (Cc nhn xt cui thuc v truyn thng suy tn v sp ). Cc t tng ca Hegel v chin tranh l hin i ng sng st; ng thm ch hnh dung cc h qu o c ca c kh ho; hay ng hn, ng thy trong cuc chin tranh c kh cc h qu ca Tinh thn o c ca ch ngha ton tr hay ch ngha tp th78: C cc loi tnh dng cm khc nhau. Dng kh ca th vt, hay k cp, lng dng cm ny sinh t cm gic danh d, s dng cm ho hip, cn cha phi l cc dng tht ca s dng cm. Trong cc quc gia vn minh s dng cm tht s ct s sn sng hin ton b mnh phng s Nh nc sao cho c nhn c tnh n nhng [ch] nh mt trong nhiu ngi. (Mt m ch n s cng bch tng qun ph qut). Khng phi s dng cm c nhn l

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quan trng; mt quan trng nm s t phc tng ci chung. Dng cao hn ny lm cho .. s dng cm t ra my mc hn S th ch khng hng chng li cc c nhn tch ri, m chng mt ci ton th th ch ( y ta c mt s thy trc nguyn l v chin tranh ton b); .. s dng cm c nhn t ra nh phi-nhn tnh. Nguyn l ny khin sng ch ra sng; n khng phi l sng ch tnh c.. Theo li tng t, Hegel ni v s sng ch ra thuc sng: Nhn loi cn n, v lm cho n xut hin tc th. (Loi Tri th sao!) V th chnh l ch ngha Hegel thun khit khi, nm 1911, trit gia E. Kaufmann l l chng l tng Kantian v mt cng ng nhng ngi t do: Khng phi mt cng ng ca nhng ngi c ch t do m l mt cuc chin tranh thng li l l tng x hi .. chnh trong chin tranh m Nh nc ph by bn tnh tht ca n79; hoc khi E. Banse, nh khoa hc qun s ni ting, vit nm 1933: Chin tranh c ngha l s tng cng cao nht .. ca mi nng lng tinh thn ca mt thi i .. n c ngha l n lc tt bc ca sc mnh Tinh thn ca nhn dn .. Tinh thn v Hnh ng kt ni vi nhau. Tht vy, chin tranh to c s trn linh hn con ngi t th hin nh cao nht ca n Khng u khc ch .. ca Chng tc .. c th ng ln thnh tn ti mt cch ton vn nh vy nh trong chin tranh. V Tng Ludendorff tip tc nm 1935: Trong cc nm c gi l ho bnh, cc hot ng chnh tr .. ch c mt ngha v chng chun b cho chin tranh ton b. Nh vy ng ch trnh by chnh xc hn mt tng c trit gia bn cht lun ni ting Max Scheler ni nm 1915: Chin tranh c ngha l Nh nc trong s pht trin v tng ln tht s nht ca n: n c ngha l chnh tr. Cng hc thuyt Hegelian c Freyer trnh by li nm 1935: Nh nc, t giy pht tn ti u tin ca n, ng trong lnh vc chin tranh Chin tranh khng ch l dng hot ng hon ho nht ca Nh nc, n l chnh yu t trong Nh nc gn vo; chin tranh c tr hon, c ngn chn, c che du, c loi tr, tt nhin phi c bao hm trong thut ng. Song kt lun to bo nht c F. Lenz rt ra, cun sch The Race as the Principle of Value, ng nu ra cu hi mt cch thm d: Nhng nu gi nh nhn loi l ch ca o c, th cui cng chng phi chng ta pha sai? v, tt nhin, ng xua tan ngay gi ng ngn ny bng tr li: Chng ta cn xa mi ngh l nhn loi nn ln n chin tranh: khng, chnh chin tranh l ci ln n nhn loi. tng ny kt ni vi ch ngha lch s bi E. Jung, ngi nhn xt: Ch ngha nhn o, hay t tng v nhn loi .. khng phi l ngi iu chnh lch s. Song chnh tin bi ca Hegel, Fichte,

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c Schopenhauer gi l k ba hoa, phi c cho l c cng v l l phn nhn o u tin. Ni v t nhn loi, Fichte vit: Nu ai gii thiu, cho ngi c, thay cho ngi Roman t nhn tnh-humannes cch dch thch hp ca n, t nhn cch-manhood , th .. anh ta s ni: N rt cuc khng my l mt ngi thay cho mt th hoang! y l cch mt ngi c s ni theo cch khng th c i vi mt ngi Roman. V trong ting c, nhn cch vn ch l mt khi nim hin tng n thun; n cha bao gi tr thnh mt nim siu-hin tng, nh n tr thnh nhng ngi Roman. D ai c th th ln a biu tng Roman xa l ny mt cch gian tr (tc l, t nhn tnh) vo ting c, s v th lm gim phm gi cc tiu chun o c ca h mt cch hin nhin .. Hc thuyt ca Fichte c Spengler lp li, ng vit: Nhn cch hoc l mt t ng ng vt hc hoc l mt t rng tuch; Rosenberg cng th, ng vit: cuc sng ni tm ca con ngi b gim phm gi khi .. mt ng c xa l c khc vo tm khm anh ta: s cu ri, ch ngha nhn o, v vn ho ca nhn loi. Kolnai, nh sch ng ti c rt nhiu t liu m khc i th ti khng th tip cn c, ni80 mt cch rt gy n tng: Tt c chng ta .. nhng ngi ng h .. cc phng php duy l v vn minh ca chnh ph v t chc x hi, u ng rng chin tranh bn thn n l mt tai ho Ni thm l theo kin ca hu ht chng ta (tr nhng ngi theo ch ngha ho bnh), di cc hon cnh no , n c th tr thnh ci xu buc phi chp nhn, ng tip tc: thi dn tc ch ngha l khc, mc d khng nht thit hm mt s mong mun chin tranh lin min hay thng xuyn. N thy trong chin tranh mt ci tt hn l mt ci xu, cho d l mt ci tt nguy him, ging nh ru cc k nng loi ru tt nht cho cc dp l hi ln him c. Chin tranh khng l ci xu thng thng v d dt m l mt ci tt qu bu mc d him: iu ny tng kt cc quan im ca Hegel v ca cc mn ca ng. Mt trong cc k cng ca Hegel l lm sng li nim Heraclitean v s phn; v ng nhn mnh81 rng tng Hy Lp vinh quang ny v nh mnh vi t cch l ci biu hin bn cht ca mt c nhn, hay ca mt dn tc, l i lp vi nim duy danh Do thi v cc quy lut ph qut, bt lun t nhin, hay o c. Hc thuyt bn cht lun v s phn c th c dn ra (nh c cho thy chng trc) t quan im rng bn cht ca mt dn tc c th tit l mnh ch trong lch s ca n. N khng phi nh mnh ch ngha theo ngha rng n c v tnh khng hot ng; vn mnh khng c ng nht vi s nh trc s phn. Ngc li. Chnh mnh, bn cht thc ca mnh, linh hn tn

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y lng ca mnh, ci lm nn mnh ( ch v nhit tnh hn l l tr) l nhng ci quan trng quyt nh trong hnh thnh s phn ca mnh. V Hegel phng i l thuyt ny, tng v s phn hay vn mnh tr thnh mt ni m nh c a thch nht, c th ni nh vy, v s ni lon chng t do. Kolnai nhn mnh ng mi quan h gia ch ngha chng tc (s phn l ci lm cho ta l mt thnh vin ca chng tc mnh) v s th ch i vi t do: Nguyn l v Chng tc, Kolnai ni82, c ngha l biu hin v by t s ph nh hon ton ca quyn t do con ngi, s t chi cc quyn bnh ng, mt thch thc i mt vi loi ngi. V ng nhn mnh ng rng ch ngha chng tc hay i chi T do bng S phn, s hiu bit c nhn bng s thi thc hp dn ca Huyt thng ngoi kim sot v l l. Thm ch xu hng ny c Hegel pht biu, mc d theo cch hi m h nh thng th: Ci ta gi l nguyn l, mc tiu, vn mnh, hay bn tnh hay nim ca Tinh thn, Hegel vit, l mt bn cht c che giu, cha trin khai, ci nh vn th -tuy vy l tht trong bn thn n- khng phi l thc hon ton ng lc ci .. cho chng .. s tn ti l nhu cu, bn nng, thin hng v nim say m ca con ngi. Trit gia hin i v gio dc ton b, E. Krieck, i xa hn theo hng ch ngha nh mnh: Mi mong mun v hnh ng ca c nhn c gii hn cuc sng thng nht; ngoi phm vi ny anh ta ch c th t c mt s phn v s hon thnh cao hn chng mc anh ta b quyn nng cao hn ca s phn thu tht. C v ging nh kinh nghim c nhn khi ng tip tc: Khng phi qua s duy l ring ca mnh anh ta s tr thnh mt ngi sng to v thch ng, ch thng qua cc lc hot ng bn trn v bn di anh ta, cc lc khng bt ngun bn thn anh ta m lt nhanh v hot ng theo cch ca chng qua bn thn anh ta.. (Song l mt khi qut ho khng c c s v cc kinh nghim c nhn ring t nht khi cng trit gia ngh rng khng ch thi i ca khoa hc khch quan hay t do chm dt, m c thi i ca l tnh thun tu na). Cng vi nim v s phn, ci i snh ca n, nim v danh ting cng c Hegel lm sng li: Cc c nhn .. l cc cng c Ci h ch thn nhn c .. qua phn c nhn h tham gia vo cng vic quan trng (c chun b v ch nh c lp vi h) l .. Danh ting, l phn thng ca h.83 V Stapel, mt ngi truyn b o C c ngoi o mi, lp li ngay lp tc: Tt c cc k cng ln c tin hnh v danh ting hay vinh quang. Song nh o c C c ny thm ch cn cp tin hn Hegel: Vinh quang siu hnh l o c ng duy nht, ng

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dy, v Mnh lnh Tuyt i ca o c ng duy nht ny do c din t: Hy lm cc vic nh vy nh vinh quang bo hiu! (e) Th m vinh quang khng th n vi mi ngi; sng bi vinh quang hm phn-ch ngha bnh ng- n ng mt s sng bi V Nhn. Ch ngha chng tc hin i do khng bit n s bnh ng gia cc linh hn, gia nhng con ngi84 (Rosenberg). Nh vy khng c cn tr no chp nhn Nguyn l Lnh t t kho tng v kh ca cuc ni lon mun thu chng li t do, hay nh Hegel gi n, nim v Nhn vt Lch s Th gii. nim ny l mt trong cc ch yu thch nht ca Hegel. Trong tho lun vn bng b liu c cho php la gt nhn dn hay khng (xem trn), ng ni: Trong d lun tt c l sai v ng, nhng tm ra chn l l chuyn ca V Nhn. V Nhn ca thi ng l ngi by t ch ca thi i ng; ngi ni cho thi i ng n mun g; v ai thc hin n. ng hnh ng ph hp vi Tinh thn v Bn cht ni ti ca thi ng, m ng thc hin. V ngi khng hiu lm sao xem thng d dun, nh c nghe thy y, l ngi s chng bao gi t bt c g to ln. M t tuyt vi ny v Lnh t - Nh c ti Ln nh mt nh bo chuyn gia c kt hp vi mt huyn thoi tinh vi v Tnh V i ca V Nhn, ci ct con ngi ng l cng c trc nht ca Tinh thn trong lch s. Trong tho lun v Nhng con Ngi Lch s - Cc C nhn Lch s Th gii Hegel ni: H l nhng ngi chnh tr thc tin. Nhng ng thi h l nhng ngi suy ngh, nhng ngi c s thu hiu cc i hi ca thi i ci chn mui cho s pht trin Nhng ngi Lch s Th giicc Anh hng ca mt thi i v th phi c cng nhn nh nhng ngi nhn xa trng rng; cc vic lm ca h, cc li ni ca h l tt nht ca thi Chnh h l ngi hiu cng vic nht; nhng ngi khc hc t h, v chp thun, hay ch t tn thnh, chnh sch ca h. V Tinh thn ci i bc i kho khun ny trong Lch s l linh hn tn y lng ca mi c nhn; nhng trong mt trng thi v thc khi dy cc V Nhn Cc ng bn ca h, v th, i theo cc Lnh t-Linh hn , v h cm thy sc mnh khng th cng li c ca Tinh thn bn trong ca ring h c hin thn nh th. Song V Nhn khng ch l ngi c hiu bit ln nht v sng sut m cng l Ngi c nim Say m Ln- trc ht, tt nhin, c cc nim say m chnh tr v tham vng. V th ng c kh nng khi dy cc nim say m nhng ngi khc. Cc V Nhn to ra cc mc ch tho mn h, ch khng phi nhng ngi khc H l cc V Nhn v h mun v t ci g to ln Chng c g V i trn th gii t c m khng c nim say

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miu ny c th c gi l s lu c ca l tr - rng n cc nim say m hot ng cho chnh nng, nim say m l t khng hon ton thch hp cho ci ti mun by t. ti mun ni y ch l hot ng ca con ngi do cc li ch ring c bit, hay nu bn mun, do cc nh t t t li - vi s hn ch l ton b nng lc ca ch v c tnh c dnh ht cho vic t chng Cc nim say m, cc mc tiu ring, v s tho mn cc dc vng ch k l .. cc ng c hu hiu nht ca hnh ng. Sc mnh ca chng nm s thc rng chng khng tn trng hn ch no m cng l v o c c th p t ln chng; v rng cc xung lc t nhin ny c mt nh hng trc tip ln cc ng bn ca h hn l k lut nhn to v chn ngt hng v trt t v t-kim ch, lut v o c. K t Rousseau, trng phi Lng mn v t duy nhn ra l con ngi khng hon ton duy l. Nhng trong khi cc nh nhn o ch ngha bm vo tnh duy l nh mt mc tiu, s ni lon chng t do li dng s thu hiu tm l ny i vi tnh phi l ca con ngi cho cc mc tiu chnh tr. S cu khn pht xt n bn tnh con ngi l s ku gi n cc nim say m ca chng ta, n cc nhu cu b n tp th ch ngha, n con ngi khng c bit. Chp nhn cc li va c trch ca Hegel, li cu khn ny c th c gi l s lu c ca s ni lon chng l tnh. Song nh cao ca s lu c ny c Hegel t ti s bp mo mang tnh bin chng to bo nht ny ca ng. Trong khi ch kho mm vi ch ngha duy l, trong khi ni sung v l tnh m hn bt k ai trc ng, ng kt thc ch ngha phi l; mt s phong thn khng ch nim say m, m c v lc tn bo: Chnh, Hegel vit, li ch tuyt i ca L tnh m ci Ton th o c ny (tc Nh nc) phi tn ti; v y c s bin minh v cng trng ca cc anh hng, nhng ngi sng lp ra Nh nc- d cho h c th c c n u Nhng ngi nh vy c th gii quyt cc li ch ln v thm ch thing ling khc khng thn trngNhng mt tinh thn phi thng nh vy phi gim nt nhiu hoa v ti; n phi nghin vn nhiu th l lng trn con ng ca n. (f) Quan nim v con ngi khng phi nh sinh vt duy l m nh mt th vt qu cm khng phi do s ni lon chng li l tnh sng ch ra; n l mt l tng b lc ch ngha in hnh. Chng ta phi phn bit gia l tng ny v Ngi Anh hng v mt s knh trng hp l hn vi ch ngha anh hng. Ch ngha anh hng l, v lun lun s l, ng ca tng; nhng s khm phc ca chng ta phi ph thuc, ti ngh, rt nhiu vo s nh gi ca chng ta v s nghip m ngi anh hng hin dng bn thn mnh. Yu t qu cm trong hnh ng k cp, ti

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ngh, t ng cm kch. Nhng chng ta phi khm phc Thuyn trng Scott* v i ca ng, v nu c th thm ch phi khm phc hn na, cc anh hng ca nghin cu X-quang hay Bnh St Vng; v chc chn cc anh hng bo v quyn t do. L tng b lc v Ngi Anh hng, c bit dng pht xt ca n, da trn cc quan im khc. N l mt tn cng trc tip ln nhng th lm cho ch ngha anh hng ng ca tng vi hu ht chng ta- nhng th thc y nn vn minh. V n l mt s tn cng ln tng v bn thn cuc sng dn s; cuc sng ny b ln n l nng cn v qu thin v vt cht, v tng v an ninh m n yu du. Hy sng him ngho! l mnh lnh ca n; s nghip m anh cam kt i theo mnh lnh ny c tm quan trng th yu; hoc nh W. Best ni85: S chin u tt nh n vn l, khng phi l mt s nghip ng ..l ci lm nghing bn cn N ch c ngha th no, khng phi v mc ch no chng ta chin u. Chng ta li thy rng l l ny l mt s trau chut cc tng Hegelian: Trong ho bnh, Hegel vit, cuc sng dn s tr nn m rng hn, mi lnh vc c ro li.. v t nht mi ngi m mm T cc bc ging ngi ta thuyt ging nhiu v s bt an ton, s ph phim, v s bt n nh ca cc th trn tc, v tuy th mi ngi .. ngh rng anh ta, ch t, s tm cch bm cht vo ti sn ca mnh Cn chp nhn .. ti sn v cuc sng l tnh c Cui cng hy cho s bt an ton tr thnh dng ca cc K binh vi li kim lp lnh, v th hin hnh ng ng n ca mnh! mt ch khc, Hegel v ln mt bc tranh m m v ci ng gi ch l cuc sng thng; c v vi n ng nun ni ci g nh cuc sng bnh thng ca mt cng ng vn minh: Tp qun l hot ng khng c s chng li.. s y v thch th l khng th c - ch l s tn ti bn ngoi v do gic quan (tc l ci ngy nay mt s ngi thch gi l nng v vt cht) ci ngng lao hng hi vo i tng ca n .., mt s tn ti khng c tr tu hay sc sng. Hegel, lun trung thnh vi ch ngha lch s ca ng, t c s cho thi phn-v li ca ng (phn bit vi cc bnh lun v li ca Aristotle v cc mi him nguy ca s thnh vng) vo din gii ca ng v lch s: Lch s ca Th gii khng phi l nh ht hnh phc. Cc giai on hnh phc l cc trang trng trong n, v chng l cc giai on hi ho. Nh th, ch ngha t do, quyn t do v l tr, nh thng thng, l cc i tng Hegel tn cng. Cc ting ku cung lon: Chng ta mun lch s ca mnh! Chng ta
Robert Falcon Scott, cng nhm thm him Nam cc ca ng hi sinh anh dng sau khi n Nam cc nm 1912.
*

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mun s mnh ca mnh! Chng ta mun cuc chin ca mnh! Chng ta mun xing xch ca mnh! vang di khp dinh th ca ch ngha Hegel, khp thnh tr ny ca x hi ng v ca s ni lon chng li t do. Bt chp ch ngha lc quan chnh thng, c th ni nh vy, ca Hegel, da trn l thuyt ca ng cho rng ci hp l l thc, c cc c im ng m ta c th thy du vt ch ngha bi quan ci l rt c trng ca trit gia thng minh hn gia cc trit gia chng tc hin i; c l khng phi cc trit gia sm hn (nh Lagarde, Treitschke, hay Moeller van den Bruck) m l nhng ngi n sau Spengler, nh lch s ch ngha ni ting. Chng phi chnh th lun sinh hc, s hiu bit trc gic, Tinh thn-Nhm v Tinh thn Thi i ca Spengler, thm ch cng khng phi Ch ngha Lng mn ca ng, l ci gip ngi thy bi ny thot khi mt ci nhn rt bi quan. Mt yu t tuyt vng ngy di l hin nhin trong ch ngha tch cc tn nhn li cho nhng ngi bit trc tng lai v cm thy cng c trong vic n ca n. L th thy rng cch nhn u m ny v cng vic cng c c hai phi ca cc nh chng tc ch ngha chia s, phi V thn cng nh phi C c. Stapel, ngi thuc phi sau (nhng c nhng ngi khc, th d nh Gogarten), vit86: Con ngi di s thng tr ca ti t tng trong ton th ca mnh.. Ngi theo o C c bit rng hon ton l khng th i vi anh ta sng tr trong ti li.. V vy anh ta trnh xa tnh nh nhen ca s ch si tc o c lm t Mt Tnh C c c o c l mt tnh-phn C c hon ton Cha lm cho th gii ny b dit vong, n b kt ti phi b hu dit. N c th, sau , ho thnh ch ph hp vi nh mnh! Nhng ngi ng rng h c kh nng lm cho n tt hn, nhng ngi mun to ra mt o c cao hn, l nhng ngi bt u mt cuc ni lon tm thng nc ci chng li Cha Hi vng v Thin ng khng c ngha l s ch i hnh phc ca thn thnh; n c ngha l s phc tng v Tnh ng Ch-Chin tranh. (S tr li vi b lc). Nu Cha ra lnh cho ngi ca Ngi i vo a ngc, th mn ch ct ca ngi .. s v th i vo a ngc Nu Ngi phn cho anh ta s au kh vnh vin, th phi chu c iu ny na c tin ch l mt t khc cho thng li. Thng li m Cha i hi .. Mt tinh thn rt ging vy c trong tc phm ca hai trit gia hng u ca nc c ng thi, cc nh hin sinh Heidegger v Jaspers, c hai ban u l cc mn ca cc trit gia hin sinh Husserl v Scheler. Heidegger c c danh ting do lm sng li Trit hc v H v Hegelian: Hegel thit lp l thuyt87 cho rng S Tn ti Thun tu v S H v Thun tu l ng nht; ng ni rng nu ta th

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ngh v quan nim ca mt s tn ti thun tu, ta phi tru tng ho khi n mi s xc nh ca mt i tng c bit, v v th, nh Hegel din t chng cn li g c. (Phng php Heraclitean ny c th c dng chng minh mi loi ng nht vn vt, nh s ng nht ca giu c thun tu v ngho kh thun tu, a v ngi ch thun tu v tnh cnh n l thun tu, ch ngha Aryan thun tu v ch ngha Juda thun tu). Heidegger p dng rt kho l thuyt Hegelian v H v cho Trit l ca Cuc sng thc tin, hay ca Tn ti. Cuc sng, Tn ti, c th c hiu ch bng hiu H v. Trong What is Metaphysics ? ca ng Heidegger ni: S thm vn phi vo ci Tn ti hoc khc i vo khng g c; vo ring ci tn ti, v vt qua n vo H v. S thm vn h v (Chng ta ta tm kim H v u? Chng ta c th thy H v u?) c lm cho l c th bi s thc rng chng ta bit H v; chng ta bit n qua s s hi: S hi tit l H v. S s hi; s hi h v; ni au n ca ci cht; y l cc phm tr c bn ca Trit hc v Tn ti ca Heidegger; v mt cuc sng m ngha tht ca n l88 b qung xung thnh tn ti, hng ti ci cht. S tn ti con ngi phi c din gii nh Ging bo Sm st ca Thp; ci tn ti c xc nh ca mt ngi l phi l t mnh, t do say sa cht ..trong s t gic hon ton v au n trn tr. Song cc th ti u su ny l khng hon ton khng c kha cnh an i. Bn c khng cn b ln t bi s say m cht ca Heidegger. V mong mun quyn lc v mong mun sng t ra khng km pht trin ng hn thy ng, Hegel. ch ca i hc c n Bn cht, Heidegger vit nm 1933, l ch n Khoa hc; n l ch i vi s mnh tinh thn lch s ca Dn tc c, nh mt Dn tc tri nghim bn thn n trong Nh nc ca n. Khoa hc v Vn Mnh c phi ginh c Quyn lc, c bit trong ch bn cht. on ny, tuy khng l mt lu i v s c o hay sng sa, chc chn l cng trnh trung thnh vi cc bc thy ca ng; v nhng ngi ngng m Heidegger nhng ngi bt chp tt c iu ny vn tip tc tin vo s thm thu ca Trit hc v Tn ti ca ng c th c nhc nh v li ca Schopenhauer: Ai c th thc s tin rng chn l cng s ra nh sng, ch nh mt sn phm ph? V cn c vo trch dn cui trong cc trch dn ca Heidegger, h phi hi chnh h liu li ch bo ca Schopenhauer i vi mt ngi bo v bt lng khng c nhiu nh gio dc phn pht cho nhiu thanh nin y ha hn, c trong ln ngoi nc c, hay sao. Ti ngh n on: C bao gi anh c nh lm cn tr thng minh ca mt thanh nin v lm cho u c anh ta mt ht kh

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nng cho bt k loi t duy no, th anh anh khng c th lm g tt hn l a Hegel cho anh ta c. V ng t ng qui d ny l ci th tiu v mu thun ln nhau dn tm tr vo s t dy v vi cc n lc v vng ngh bt c th g trong quan h vi chng, cho n khi cui cng n sp v kit sc hon ton. Nh th bt c kh nng no ngh u b ph hu hon ton n mc ngi thanh nin cui cng s hiu lm li ni ba hoa sung v rng tuch l t tng thc. Mt ngi bo v s rng khu ca anh ta c th tr thnh qu thng minh v s ca anh ta c th ngn cn iu khng may ny bng gi mt cch ngy th c Hegel. Jaspers tuyn b89 cc xu hng h v ch ngha ca ng thm ch thng thn, nu iu l c th, hn Heidegger. Ch khi i mt vi H v, vi s hu dit, Jaspers dy, ta mi c kh nng tri nghim v nh gi cao s Tn ti. sng theo ngha bn cht, ta phi trong mt khng hong. nm mi cuc sng ta phi khng ch mo him, m phi thua! Jaspers a nim lch s ch ngha v thay i v s phn mt cch liu lnh n im cc oan m m ca n. Mi th u phi dit vong; mi th kt thc trong tht bi: bng cch ny quy lut lch s ch ngha v pht trin t ph by cho tr tu b v mng ca ng. Nhng i mt vi s hu dit v ta s c s xc ng ca i mnh! Ch cc tnh hung bn l, mp gia s tn ti v h v, chng ta mi sng thc s. Nim vui sng nht ca cuc i lun trng vi s chm dt tnh d hiu ca n, c bit vi cc tnh hung cc oan ca thn th, trn ht vi mi nguy him thn th. Ta khng th nm mi cuc sng m khng nm tht bi. Hy hng mnh dit vong! y l trit l ca k c bc, ca k cp. Khng cn ni, tn ngng v s Thi thc v S, v Hn hoan hoc khc i v Th tnh b Sn ui b ma m ny (Kolnai90), ch ngha h v tuyt i theo ngha y nht ca t, khng phi l mt tn iu ph bin. N l l li th ti c trng ca mt nhm b truyn ca cc nh tr thc nhng ngi u hng l tnh ca h, v vi n, nhn tnh ca h. C mt nc c khc, nc c ca nhng ngi dn thng m u c h vn cha b u c bi mt h thng gio dc bc cao tn ph. Nhng nc c khc ny chc chn khng phi l ca cc nh t tng ca n. ng l, nc c cng c mt s nh t tng khc (ng u trong s h l Kant); Tuy nhin, tng quan va kt thc l khng khch l, v ti hon ton ng tnh vi nhn xt91 ca Kolnai: C l khng phi l .. mt nghch l an i ni tht vng ca chng ta v

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vn ho c vi cn nhc rng, cui cng, c mt nc c khc ca cc Tng Ph bn cnh nc c ca cc Nh T tng Ph.

VI

Ti th cho thy s ng nht ca ch ngha lch s Hegelian vi trit l ca ch ngha ton tr hin i. S ng nht ny him khi c nhn ra r. Ch ngha lch s Hegelian tr thnh ngn ng ca cc gii tr thc rng ri, thm ch ca nhng ngi chng-pht xt v nhng ngi cnh t tht th. N l mt phn ca bu khng kh tr tu ca h n mc, i vi nhiu ngi, n khng c th nhn ra c na, v tnh bt lng kinh khng ca n khng ni bt hn khng kh m h th. Nhng mt s trit gia chng tc hon ton c thc v mn n ca h vi Hegel. Mt th d l H. O. Ziegler, trong nghin cu ca mnh, The Modern Nation, ng m t92 ng dn nhp ca tng ca Hegel v cc Tinh thn tp th c hnh dung nh cc Nhn vt, nh cuc cch mng Copernican trong Trit hc v Dn tc. Mt minh ho khc ca nhn thc ny v tm quan trng ca ch ngha Hegel, iu c th c bit l th vi c gi Anh, c th thy trong cc nh gi c a ra trong mt lch s c mi y v trit hc Anh (do R. Metz, 1935 tin hnh). Mt ngi xut sc nh T. H. Green b ph phn y, tt nhin khng v ng b Hegel nh hng, m bi v ng rt lui vo ch ngha c nhn in hnh ca ngi Anhng li bc trc cc h qu cp tin nh vy nh Hegel rt ra. Hobhouse, ngi chin u dng cm chng li ch ngha Hegel, c m t mt cch khinh b nh tiu biu cho mt dng in hnh ca ch ngha t do t sn, t bo v mnh chng li quyn v hn ca Nh nc bi v n cm thy quyn t do ca n b e do bng cch y - mt cm gic i vi mt s ngi c th c v c cn c. Bosanquet tt nhin c ca ngi v ch ngha Hegel chnh cng ca ng. Nhng s thc quan trng l iu ny c coi l hon ton nghim tc bi hu ht cc nh ph bnh Anh. Ti nhc n s thc ny ch yu v ti mun cho thy kh n th no, v ng thi, cp bch n th no tip tc cuc chin u ca Schopenhauer chng li iu gi di nng cn ny (iu bn thn Hegel tm hiu mt cch chnh xc khi m t trit hc ring ca ng nh c b su cao thng nht). t nht th h mi phi c gip t gii phng mnh khi s gian tr tr tu ny, s gian ln ln nht, c l, trong lch s ca nn vn minh ca chng ta v cc tranh chp ca n vi nhng k th ca n. C l h s sng xng ng vi cc mong i ca Schopenhauer, nm 1840 ng tin on93 rng s gy b n kh hiu khng l ny s cung cp cho hu th mt ngun ch nho khng bao gi

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ht c. (n nay nh bi quan ch ngha ln t ra lc quan qu ng lin quan n hu th). Tr h Hegelian gy kh [nhiu] tc hi. Chng ta phi chn n li. Chng ta phi ni ngay c vi ci gi lm vy bn mnh do ng chm vo iu ng kinh tm ny vic c bc trn ra r rng n vy mt trm nm trc, ng tic khng thnh cng. Qu nhiu trit gia b qua cc li cnh bo c lp li khng ngng ca Schopenhauer; h b qua chng khng phi vi s nguy him ring ca h (h lm n khng ti) m vi s nguy him ca nhng ngi m h dy, v vi s nguy him ca nhn loi. Dng nh i vi ti mt kt thc thch hp cho chng ny nu ti li cui cng cho Schopenhauer, nh chng-dn tc ch ngha ngi ni v Hegel mt trm nm trc: ng s dng mt nh hng tn ph, hay ni nghim tc hn, mt nh hng gy u m n n, ta cng c th ni, mt nh hng c hi khng ch ln ring trit hc m ln mi hnh thc ca vn hc c. chin u vi nh hng ny mt cch mnh lit v trn mi c hi l ngha v ca mi ngi nhng ngi c kh nng nh gi mt cch c lp. V nu chng ta yn lng, ai s ni?

PHNG PHP CA MARX

Cc nh tp th ch ngha .. c nim say m v tin b, s ng cm vi ngi ngho, thc chy bng v ci sai, s thi thc cho cc cng vic ln lao, nhng ci ch ngha t do ngy nay thiu. Song khoa hc ca h c xy dng trn mt s hiu lm su sc , v cc hnh ng ca h, v th, l ht sc tn ph v phn ng. V th tri tim con ngi b ging x, tm tr h b chia r, h c ngh cc la chn khng th lm c. WALTER LIPPMANN.

CHNG 13: QUYT NH LUN X HI HC CA MARX Chin lc ca s ni lon chng t do lun li dng tnh cm, khng ph nng lc trong cc n lc v ch i ph hu chng1. Cc t tng yu du nht ca cc nh nhn o ch ngha thng c cc k th ch t ca chng hoan nghnh nhit lit, nhng k bng cch ny thm nhp vo phe nhn o di chiu bi ng minh, gy ra s chia r v s ln ln hon ton. Chin lc ny thng rt thnh cng, nh c chng t bi s thc rng nhiu ngi theo ch ngha nhn o chn tht vn sng knh tng ca Plato v cng l, tng trung c v ch ngha c on C c, tng ca Rousseau v ch chung, hay cc tng ca Fichte v Hegel v quyn t do dn tc2. Song phng php ny thm nhp, chia r v gy ln ln phe nhn o v dng ln mt i qun th nm [gin ip] tr thc phn nhiu khng ch tm v v th hu hiu gp i, t thnh cng ln nht ch sau khi ch ngha Hegel t thit lp vi t cch l c s ca mt phong tro nhn o thc s: ca ch ngha Marx, cho n nay l dng thun khit nht, c pht trin nht v nguy him nht ca ch ngha lch s. Cm d chm ch vo s ging nhau gia ch ngha Marx, cnh t Hegelian, v cnh hu pht xt tng ng ca n. Nhng s hon ton bt cng b qua s khc bit gia chng. Mc d ngun gc tr tu ca chng l gn nh ng nht, khng th nghi ng v s thi thc nhn o ch ngha ca ch ngha Marx. Hn na, tri vi cc Hegelian cnh hu, Marx c mt c gng chn thc p dng cc phng php duy l cho cc vn cp bch nht ca i sng x hi. Gi tr ca n lc ny khng b suy suyn bi s thc l phn ln n khng thnh cng, nh ti s th chng t. Khoa hc tin b qua th v sai. Marx th, v tuy

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ng sai trong cc hc thuyt chnh ca mnh, ng khng th mt cch v ch. ng m v lm tinh mt ca chng ta theo nhiu cch. Mt s quay tr li khoa hc x hi tin-Marxian l khng th tng tng ni. Tt c cc tc gi hin i u i n Marx, cho d h khng bit iu . iu ny c bit ng vi nhng ngi khng ng vi cc hc thuyt ca ng, nh ti; v ti sn sng tha nhn rng s bn lun ca ti, th d v Plato3 v Hegel, mang du n nh hng ca ng. Ta khng th nh gi ng Marx m khng cng nhn s chn tht ca ng. u c rng m ca ng, thc v s thc ca ng, s khng tin ca ng vi li ni ba hoa, v c bit vi li ni ba hoa lun v lun l, bin ng thnh mt trong cc chin s c nh hng nht ca th gii chng li thi o c gi v tnh gi di. ng c c m chy bng gip ngi b p bc, v hon ton c thc v nhu cu chng minh mnh bng hnh ng, v khng ch bng li. Ti nng chnh ca ng l ti l lun, ng dnh cng sc to ln rn ci ng tin l v kh khoa hc cho cuc u tranh ci thin s phn ca tuyt i a s ngi. Tnh chn tht ca ng trong truy tm chn l v s trung thc tr tu ca ng phn bit ng, ti tin, vi nhiu mn ca ng (mc d ng tic ng khng hon ton thot khi nh hng i bi ca mt nn gio dc trong bu khng kh ca php bin chng Hegelian, c Schopenhauer m t nh hu hoi mi tr tu4). Mi quan tm ca Marx v khoa hc x hi v trit hc x hi c bn l mt mi quan tm thc tin. ng thy trong tri thc mt phng tin thc y tin b ca con ngi5. Th th v sao li cng kch Marx? Bt chp cc cng trng ca ng, ti tin, Marx l mt nh tin tri sai lm. ng l mt nh tin tri v din tin ca lch s, v cc li tin tri ca ng khng thnh s tht; nhng y khng phi l co buc chnh ca ti. Quan trng hn nhiu l ng lm cho rt nhiu ngi thng minh lm lc i tin rng tin tri lch s l con ng khoa hc tip cn cc vn x hi. Marx chu trch nhim v nh hng tn ph ca phng php t duy lch s ch ngha trong hng ng nhng ngi mun thc y s nghip ca x hi m. Song c ng ch ngha Marx l mt loi thun tu ca ch ngha lch s? Khng c cc yu t no ca cng ngh x hi trong ch ngha Marx? S thc rng nc Nga ang tin hnh cc th nghim to bo v thng thnh cng v k thut x hi dn nhiu ngi suy ra rng ch ngha Marx, vi t cch l khoa hc hay tn iu lm c s cho th nghim Nga, phi l mt loi cng ngh x hi, hay ch t c ch cho n. Nhng khng ai, ngi bit bt c g v lch s ca ch ngha Marx, c th mc sai lm ny. Ch ngha Marx l mt l thuyt lch s thun tu,

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mt l thuyt hng ti tin on din tin tng lai ca s pht trin kinh t v chnh tr-quyn lc v c bit ca cc cuc cch mng. Vi t cch nh vy, n chc chn khng cung cp c s cho chnh sch ca ng Cng sn Nga sau khi n ln nm quyn. V Marx hu nh cm mi cng ngh x hi, m ng ln n l Khng tng6, cc hc tr Nga ca ng lc u thy mnh hon ton khng c chun b cho cc nhim v to ln ca h trong lnh vc k thut x hi. Nh Lenin mau chng nhn ra, ch ngha Marx khng th gip trong cc vn kinh t hc thc tin. Ti khng bit bt c nh x hi ch ngha no gii quyt cc vn ny, Lenin ni7, sau khi ng ln nm quyn; cc sch gio khoa Bolshevik hay Menhsevik chng vit g v nhng vn nh vy. Sau mt thi k th nghim, ci gi l giai on ch ngha cng sn thi chin, khng thnh cng, Lenin quyt nh chp nhn cc bin php thc ra c ngha l mt s quay tr li hn ch v tm thi vi hot ng kinh doanh t nhn. Ci gi l Chnh sch Kinh t Mi (NEP) ny v cc th nghim mun hn cc k hoch nm nm, v.v.- chng c lin quan g n cc l thuyt v Ch ngha X hi Khoa hc c Marx v Engels xut mt thi. C tnh hnh c bit m Lenin i mt trc khi ng a NEP vo, ln cc thnh tu ca ng, khng th c nh gi ng m khng xem xt k im ny. Cc nghin cu kinh t mnh mng ca Marx thm ch khng ng chm n cc vn v mt chnh sch kinh t mang tnh xy dng, th d, lp k hoch kinh t. Nh Lenin th nhn, hu nh chng c t no v kinh t hc ca ch ngha x hi c th tm thy trong cng trnh ca Marx- ngoi cc khu hiu8 v dng nh lm theo nng lc, hng theo nhu cu. L do l nghin cu kinh t ca Marx l hon ton ph i vi tin tri lch s ca ng. Nhng thm ch chng ta phi ni nhiu hn. Marx rt nhn mnh s i lp gia phng php lch s ch ngha thun tu ca ng v bt c n lc no tin hnh mt phn tch kinh t vi nh lp k hoch duy l. Cc n lc nh vy b ln n l Khng tng, v l khng chnh ng. H qu l, cc nh Marxist thm ch khng nghin cu ci m nhng ngi c gi l cc nh kinh t t sn t c trong lnh vc ny. Do o to h thm ch cn t c chun b cho cng vic mang tnh xy dng hn bn thn mt s nh kinh t t sn. Marx thy s mng c bit ca ng vic gii phng ch ngha x hi khi nn tng tnh cm, o c, v ho huyn ca n. Ch ngha x hi phi c pht trin t giai on Khng tng sang giai on khoa hc9; n phi da vo phng php khoa hc v phn tch nguyn nhn v kt qu, v vo tin on khoa hc. V v ng gi s tin on trong

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lnh vc x hi l ht nh tin tri lch s, ch ngha x hi khoa hc phi da vo mt nghin cu cc nguyn nhn lch s v cc kt qu lch s, v cui cng vo s tin tri v s xut hin ca chnh n. Cc nh Marxist, khi thy cc l thuyt ca mnh b tn cng, thng rt lui v vi lp trng rng ch ngha Marx trc ht khng phi l mt hc thuyt m l mt phng php. H ni rng cho d mt s phn c bit ca cc hc thuyt ca Marx, hay ca mt s mn ca ng, b thay th, [nhng] phng php ca ng vn khng th b tn cng. Ti tin l hon ton ng nhn mnh rng, v c bn, ch ngha Marx l mt phng php. Nhng l sai i tin rng, vi t cch mt phng php, n phi an ton khi cc cuc tn cng. Lun im, n gin, l d ai mun nh gi ch ngha Marx phi kho st n v ph phn n vi t cch mt phng php, tc l, phi o lng n bng cc tiu chun phng php lun. Phi hi liu n l mt phng php hiu qu hay l mt phng php ti, tc l liu n c kh nng thc y nhim v ca khoa hc hay khng. Cc tiu chun theo chng ta phi nh gi phng php Marxist nh th l mang tnh thc tin. Bng m t ch ngha Marx nh ch ngha lch s thun tu nht, ti biu th rng ti cho phng php Marxist qu thc l rt ti10. Bn thn Marx c th ng vi mt cch tip cn thc tin nh vy i vi s ph phn phng php ca ng, v ng l mt trong cc trit gia u tin i pht trin cc quan im mun hn c gi l ch ngha thc dng. ng i n lp trng ny, ti tin, bi nim tin chc ca ng rng chnh tr gia thc tin, tt nhin ni chnh tr gia x hi ch ngha, cn khn cp mt nn tng khoa hc. Khoa hc, ng dy, phi mang li cc kt qu thc tin. Lun ng n cc kt qu, cc h qu thc tin ca mt l thuyt! Chng ni ln ci g thm ch v cu trc khoa hc ca n. Mt trit hc hay khoa hc khng mang li cc kt qu thc tin ch din gii th gii chng ta sng; nhng n c th v phi lm nhiu hn; n phi thay i th gii. Cc trit gia, Marx vit trong s nghip ban u ca ng, ch din gii th gii theo nhng cch khc nhau; quan trng tuy vy l i thay i n. C l chnh thi thc dng ny khin ng thy trc hc thuyt phng php lun quan trng ca cc nh thc dng ch ngha mun hn cho rng nhim v c trng nht ca khoa hc khng phi l thu nhn kin thc ca cc s thc qu kh, m tin on tng lai. S nhn mnh ny v tin on khoa hc, bn thn n l mt pht kin phng php lun quan trng v tin b, ng tic khin cho Marx lc li. V l l c v hp l rng khoa hc c th tin on tng lai

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ch nu tng lai c xc nh trc- nu, c th ni nh vy, tng lai l hin ti trong qu kh, thu gn li trong n dn ng n bm vo nim tin sai rng mt phng php khoa hc kht khe phi da vo mt quyt nh lun cng nhc. Cc quy lut khng lay chuyn c ca t nhin v ca din tin lch s chng t r nh hng ca bu khng kh Laplacean v nh hng ca cc nh Duy vt Php. Song lng tin rng cc t khoa hc v quyt nh lun, nu khng l ng ngha, ch t c quan h khng th tch ri, hin nay c th ni l mt trong cc iu m tn ca mt thi vn cha hon ton tri qua12. V ti quan tm ch yu n cc vn phng php, ti vui l, khi tho lun kha cnh phng php lun ca n, hon ton khng cn lao vo tranh ci v vn siu hnh ca quyt nh lun. V bt c g c th l kt qu ca cc tranh ci siu hnh nh vy nh, th d, thi ca l thuyt Lng t v ch t do, l mt th, ti phi ni, c gii quyt. Khng loi quyt nh lun no, d c pht biu nh nguyn l v tnh cht u ca t nhin hay nh quy lut v quan h nhn qu ph qut, cn c th c coi l gi thit cn thit ca phng php khoa hc; v vt l hc, khoa hc tin tin nht trong mi khoa hc, chng t khng ch rng n c th hot ng m khng cn cc gi thit nh vy, m cng chng t rng mc no n mu thun vi chng. Quyt nh lun khng l mt iu kin tin quyt cn thit ca mt khoa hc c th a ra cc tin on. Phng php khoa hc, v th, khng th c vin ra ng h s chp nhn quyt nh lun nghim ngt. Khoa hc c th l khoa hc nghim tc m khng c gi s ny. Marx, tt nhin, khng th b trch c v gi quan im tri ngc, v cc nh khoa hc gii nht thi u lm th. Phi lu rng khng phi hc thuyt tru tng, l thuyt ca quyt nh lun l ci khin cho Marx lc ng, m ng hn l nh hng thc tin ca hc thuyt ny ln quan im ca ng v phng php khoa hc, ln cch nhn ca ng v cc mc tiu v kh nng ca khoa hc x hi. tng tru tng v cc nguyn nhn, ci quyt nh cc din tin x hi, l hon ton v hi chng no n khng dn n ch ngha lch s. V qu thc, khng c bt c l do g v sao tng ny phi khin ta i chp nhn mt thi lch s ch ngha i vi cc nh ch x hi, ngc li k l vi thi cng ngh hin nhin c mi ngi, v c bit cc nh quyt nh lun, chp nhn, i vi my c hc hay in. Khng c l do v sao ta phi tin rng, trong mi khoa hc, khoa hc x hi c kh nng thc hin m c lu i v khm ph ra tng lai no s n vi chng ta. Lng tin ny vo bi ton khoa hc khng da ring vo quyt nh lun; c s khc ca n l s ln ln gia tin on

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khoa hc, nh ta bit n t vt l hc hay thin vn hc, v tin tri lch s tm c ln, on trc cc xu hng chnh v s pht trin tng lai ca x hi trn cc ng nt khi qut. Hai loi tin on ny l rt khc nhau (nh ti th cho thy ni khc13), v c tnh khoa hc ca ci trc khng l l l ng h c tnh khoa hc ca ci sau. Quan im lch s ch ngha ca Marx v cc mc tiu ca khoa hc x hi rt gy kh chu cho ch ngha thc dng ci ban u dn ng i nhn mnh chc nng tin on ca khoa hc. N buc ng phi thay i quan im trc y ca ng rng khoa hc phi, v n c th, thay i th gii. V nu c mt khoa hc x hi, v do , s tin tri lch s, th din tin chnh lch s phi c xc nh trc, v c thin ln l tr u khng c nng lc thay i n. Tt c ci li cho chng ta bng con ng can thip phi chng l bit chc, bng tin tri lch s, v din tin sp xy ra, v d b cc cn tr xu nht trn con ng ca n. Khi mt x hi khm ph ra, Marx vit trong Capital14, quy lut t nhin xc nh chuyn ng ring ca n, .. ngay c khi n chng th b qua c cc pha t nhin ca s tin ho , cng chng th xo trn chng khi th gii bng mt nt bt. Nhng ngn ny n c th lm; c th rt ngn v lm gim bt cc cn au ca n. y l cc quan im dn Marx i ln n tt c nhng ngi nhn cc nh ch x hi vi con mt ca k s x hi, coi chng l c th tun theo l tr v ch con ngi, v l mt lnh vc kh d ca lp k hoch duy l, l nhng ngi Khng tng. Cc nh Khng tng ny i vi ng dng nh toan li con tu x hi khng l ngc cc dng chy t nhin v bo t ca lch s vi bn tay mong manh ca con ngi. Tt c ci m mt nh khoa hc c th lm, ng ngh, l i d on cc cn lc v cc xoy nc ng trc. Vic lm thc tin m anh ta c th thc hin nh th s gii hn a ra mt li cnh bo phng cn bo tip theo e do a con tu trch khi tin trnh ng ca n (tin trnh ng tt nhin l tin trnh khuynh t!) hoc khuyn cc hnh khch v pha no ca con tu h nn t tp li. Marx thy nhim v tht ca ch ngha x hi khoa hc l s loan bo v thin nin k x hi ch ngha sp n. Ch bng cch loan bo ny, ng tin, gio hun x hi ch ngha khoa hc mi c th gp phn dn n th gii x hi ch ngha, m s xut hin ca n c th thc y bng lm cho con ngi thc v s thay i sp ti, v v cc vai c phn cho h trong v kch lch s. Nh th ch ngha x hi khoa hc khng phi l mt cng ngh x hi; n khng dy cc cch v phng tin xy dng cc th ch x hi ch ngha. Quan

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im ca Marx v quan h gia l lun x hi ch ngha v thc tin cho thy s thun khit ca cc quan im lch s ch ngha ca ng. T tng ca Marx v nhiu kha cnh l mt sn phm ca thi ng, khi k c v mt trn ng t lch s ln, Cch Mng Php, vn cn ti ri. (N c cch mng 1848 lm sng li). Mt cuc cch mng nh vy, ng cm thy, khng th c lp k hoch v dn dng bi l tr con ngi. Nhng n c th c mt khoa hc x hi lch s ch ngha on trc; hiu bit su sc tnh hnh x hi c th tit l cc nguyn nhn ca n. Rng thi lch s ch ngha ny l kh in hnh ca giai on c th thy t s rt ging nhau gia ch ngha lch s ca Marx v ca J. S. Mill. (N ging nh s tng t gia cc trit l lch s ch ngha ca cc tin bi ca h, Hegel v Comte). Marx khng coi trng cc nh kinh t t sn nh .. J. S. Mill15 ngi ng xem nh mt i din in hnh ca mt thuyt h ln ngu si nht pho. Mc d ng l vi ch Marx cho thy s tn trng no i vi cc xu hng hin i ca nh kinh t hc t thin Mill, i vi ti dng nh c d chng c chi tit chng li phng on rng Marx b nh hng trc tip bi cc quan im ca Mill (hoc ng hn ca Comte) v cc phng php ca khoa hc x hi. S thng nht gia cc quan im ca Marx v ca Mill v th ni bt hn. Nh th khi Marx ni trong li ni u cho Capital, Mc ch cui cng ca cng trnh ny l bc trn .. quy lut vn ng ca x hi hin i16, c th ni l ng i thc hin chng trnh ca Mill: Vn c bn .. ca khoa hc x hi, l tm ra quy lut theo bt c trng thi no ca x hi to ra trng thi k tip n v chim v tr ca n. Mill phn bit kh r kh nng v ci ng gi l hai loi kho st x hi hc, loi u tng ng st vi ci ti gi l cng ngh x hi, v loi th hai tng ng vi tin tri lch s ch ngha, v ng v phe vi loi th hai, m t c trng n nh Khoa hc X hi tng qut theo cc kt lun ca loi kho st khc v c bit hn phi c hn ch v kim sot. Khoa hc x hi tng qut ny da trn nguyn l nhn qu, ph hp vi quan im ca Mill v phng php khoa hc; v ng m t phn tch nhn qu ny nh Phng php Lch s. Cc trng thi x hi17 ca Mill vi cc tnh cht .. c th thay i c .. t thi k ny sang thi k kia tng ng chnh xc vi cc giai on lch s Marxist, v nim tin lc quan ca Mill vo tin b gi nh li nim tin ca Marx, mc d n tt nhin ngy th hn nhiu nim tin bin chng tng ng. (Mill ngh rng kiu chuyn ng m cc cng vic con ngi phi tun theo .. phi l ci ny hay ci khc ca hai chuyn ng thin vn kh d, tc l mt qu o hay mt ng bay.

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Php bin chng Marxist t chc chn hn v s n gin ca quy lut v s pht trin lch s; n chp nhn mt s kt hp, c th ni nh vy, ca hai chuyn ng ca Mill ci g ging chuyn ng sng hay chuyn ng xoy trn c). C nhiu s tng t hn gia Marx v Mill; th d, c hai u khng hi lng vi ch ngha t do laissez-faire, v c hai th to ra nn tng tt hn cho vic a t tng c bn v t do vo thc tin. Nhng trong quan im ca h v phng php ca x hi hc, c mt s khc bit rt quan trng. Mill tin rng nghin cu x hi, phn tch cui cng, phi c th quy v tm l hc; rng cc quy lut ca s pht trin lch s phi c th gii thch c bng bn tnh con ngi, bng cc quy lut tinh thn, v c bit, bng tnh tin b ca n. Tnh tin b ca chng tc ngi, Mill ni, l nn tng trn phng php ca .. khoa hc x hi c.. dng ln, u vit hn .. cc phng thc.. thnh hnh rt nhiu..18 L thuyt cho rng x hi hc v nguyn tc phi c th quy c v tm l hc x hi, tuy s quy v c th kh bi v s phc tp ny sinh t tng tc ca v s c nhn, c nhiu nh t tng cho l ng mt cch rng ri; qu tht, n l mt trong cc l thuyt thng n gin c coi l d nhin. Ti s gi cch tip cn ny n x hi hc l ch ngha tm l hc19 (phng php lun). By gi chng ta c th ni, Mill tin vo ch ngha tm l hc. Nhng Marx thch thc n. Cc mi quan h php l, ng khng nh20, v cc cu trc chnh tr khc nhau khng th c gii thch bng .. ci c gi l tnh tin b ca tinh thn con ngi tng qut. t vn nghi ng ch ngha tm l c l l thnh tu v i nht ca Marx vi t cch mt nh x hi hc. Bng cch lm vy ng m ng cho nhn thc su sc hn v a ht c th ca cc quy lut x hi hc, v ca mt x hi hc ch t mt phn t tr. Trong cc chng tip theo, ti s gii thch mt s im ca phng php ca Marx, v ti s c lun nhn mnh c bit n cc quan im ca ng m ti tin l c gi tr lu di. Nh th tip theo ti s cp n cng kch ca Marx ln ch ngha tm l, tc l n cc l l ca ng ng h mt khoa hc x hi t tr, khng th quy v tm l hc. V ch mun hn ti s c gng chng t im yu tai hi v cc h qu tn ph ca ch ngha lch s ca ng.

CHNG 14: S T TR CA X HI HC

Mt trnh by sc tch v s phn i ca Marx i vi ch ngha tm l , tc l i vi hc thuyt c v hp l rng tt c cc qui lut ca i sng x hi cui cng phi qui c v cc qui lut tm l hc ca bn tnh ngi, l li ni d dm [epigram] ni ting ca ng: Khng phi thc ca con ngi l ci xc nh s tn ti ca anh ta ng hn, chnh s tn ti x hi ca anh ta l ci xc nh thc ca anh ta.2 Nhim v ca chng ny cng nh ca hai chng tip theo ch yu l i lm sng t li ni d dm ny. V ti c th ni r ngay rng trong trnh by ci ti tin l phn-ch ngha tm l ca Marx, ti trnh by mt quan im m bn thn ti tn thnh. Nh mt minh ho s ng, v mt bc u tin trong kho st ca chng ta, ta c th nhc n vn v ci gi l cc qui tc ca ch ngoi hn, tc l vn gii thch s phn b rng, gia cc nn vn ho rt khc nhau, ca cc lut hn nhn r rng c nh ngn cn s giao phi cng dng. Mill v trng phi x hi hc tm l hc ca ng (c nhiu nh phn tm hc gia nhp mun hn) c th th gii thch cc qui tc ny bng vin dn n bn tnh ngi, th d n loi no ca c cm bn nng chng li s lon lun (c pht trin c l qua chn lc t nhin, hay qua n p); v ci g ging th ny c th cng l gii thch ngy th hay ph bin. Chp nhn quan im c by t trong li ni d dm ca Marx, tuy vy, ta c th hi liu khng phi ln ngc , tc l, liu bn nng b ngoi khng ng hn l mt sn phm ca s gio dc, l kt qu hn l nguyn nhn ca cc qui tc x hi v truyn thng i hi ch ngoi hn v cm lon lun hay khng.3 R rng l hai cch tip cn ny tng ng chnh xc vi vn rt c xa liu cc lut x hi l t nhin hay qui c (c cp chi tit chng 5). Trong mt vn nh vn c chn ra y nh mt minh ho, s kh xc nh ci no trong hai l thuyt l ci ng, gii thch cc qui tc x hi truyn thng bng bn nng hay gii thch mt bn nng hin nhin bng cc qui tc x hi truyn thng. Kh nng quyt nh cc vn nh vy bng th nghim, tuy vy, c chng minh trong mt trng hp tng t, trng hp ca c cm bn nng hin nhin vi rn. S c cm ny c v ging l bn nng hay t nhin hn ch n c
1

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biu hin khng ch bi con ngi m c bi mi vn ngi v cng nh bi hu ht kh na. Nhng cc th nghim dng nh cho thy l ni s ny l c tnh qui c. N c v l mt sn phm ca gio dc, khng ch loi ngi m cng c th d tinh tinh, v4 c cc tr nh v cc con tinh tinh non nhng a khng c dy s rn khng biu th bn nng c vin ra . Th d ny phi c coi l mt li cnh bo. Chng ta i mt y vi mt c cm hnh nh l ph qut, thm ch vt xa hn loi ngi. Nhng du cho t mt s thc l mt thi quen khng ph qut chng ta c th l l chng vic n da trn mt bn nng (nhng ngay c l l ny l nguy him v cc cc tp qun x hi tng cng s km nn cc bn nng), chng ta thy iu ngc li chc chn khng ng. S xut hin ph qut ca mt hnh vi no khng l mt l l quyt nh ng h c tnh bn nng ca n, hay ng h n c gc r bn tnh con ngi. Cc cn nhc nh vy c th cho thy i gi s rng mi qui lut x hi hc, trn nguyn tc, phi c th c dn ra t tm l hc v bn tnh con ngi l ngy th n th no. Song phn tch ny vn kh th thin. tin thm mt bc na, ta c th th phn tch mt cch trc tip hn lun im chnh ca ch ngha tm l, hc thuyt cho rng, x hi do l sn phm ca nhng u c tng tc vi nhau, cc qui lut x hi cui cng phi c th qui v cc qui lut tm l hc, v cc s kin ca i sng x hi, gm c cc qui c ca n, phi l kt qu ca cc ng c xut pht t u c ca cc c th. Chng li hc thuyt ny ca ch ngha tm l, nhng ngi bo v mt x hi hc t tr c th a ra cc quan im trng th ch.5 Trc ht, h c th ch ra rng khng hnh ng no tng c th c gii thch ch bng ring ng c; nu cc ng c (hoc bt c khi nim tm l hc hay hnh vi ch ngha no) c dng trong gii thch, th chng phi c b sung bng mt dn chiu n tnh hnh chung, v c bit n mi trng, n cc th ch x hi v cung cch hot ng ca chng. V th, ngi trng th ch c th tranh lun, l khng th qui x hi hc v mt phn tch tm l hc hay hnh vi ch ngha ca cc hnh ng ca chng ta; ng hn, mi phn tch nh vy gi nh trc x hi hc, ci v th khng th ph thuc hon ton vo phn tch tm l hc. X hi hc, hay ch t mt phn rt quan trng ca n, phi l t tr. Chng li quan im ny, nhng ngi theo ch ngha tm l c th vn li rng h hon ton sn sng tha nhn tm quan trng to ln ca cc nhn t mi trng, bt lun t nhin hay x hi; nhng cu trc (h c th thch t thi thng hnh mu hn) ca mi trng x hi l

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nhn to, ngc vi mi trng t nhin; v v vy n phi c th c gii thch bng bn tnh con ngi, ph hp vi hc thuyt ca ch ngha tm l. Th d, nh ch c trng m cc nh kinh t hc gi l th trng, v s vn hnh ca n l ch nghin cu chnh ca h, trong phn tch cui cng n c dn ra t tm l hc v con ngi kinh t, hay dng cch ni ca Mill, t hin tng tm l hc .. v theo ui s giu sang6. Hn na, nhng ngi theo ch ngha tm l khng khng rng chnh v cu trc tm l l k ca bn tnh con ngi m cc nh ch ng mt vai tr quan trng n nh vy trong x hi chng ta, v rng, mt khi c thit lp, chng chng t mt xu hng tr thnh mt phn truyn thng v tng i c nh ca mi trng ca chng ta. Cui cng v y l im quyt nh ca h - ngun gc cng nh s pht trin ca cc truyn thng phi c th c gii thch di dng bn tnh con ngi. Khi truy nguyn cc truyn thng v cc nh ch cho n ngun gc ca chng, ta phi thy rng vic a chng vo c th c gii thch v mt tm l hc, v chng c con ngi a vo v mc ch no hay mc ch khc, v di nh hng ca cc ng c nht nh. V cho d cc ng c ny b qun i vi thi gian, th tnh hay qun , cng nh tnh sn sng ca chng ta chu ng cc nh ch m mc ch ca chng l m h, n lt n li da vo bn tnh con ngi. Nh th tt c cc hin tng x hi l cc hin tng v bn tnh con ngi7, nh Mill ni; v cc Qui lut v cc hin tng x hi l, v c th l, khng g c ngoi cc qui lut v cc hnh ng v nim say m ca nhng con ngi, tc l, cc qui lut v bn tnh c nhn con ngi. Con ngi, khi c nhm li vi nhau, khng bin thnh mt loi vt cht khc..8 Nhn xt cui ny ca Mill biu th mt trong cc kha cnh ng ca ngi nht ca ch ngha tm l, c th l, s phn i tnh to ca n i vi ch ngha tp th v chnh th lun, s t chi ca n b n tng bi ch ngha lng mn ca Rousseau hay Hegel - bi mt ch chung hay mt tinh thn dn tc, hay c l, bi mt tinh thn nhm. Ti tin, ch ngha tm l l ng ch chng mc n c nhn mnh ci c th c gi l ch ngha c nhn phng php lun i lp vi ch ngha tp th phng php lun; n nhn mnh mt cch ng n rng ng x v cc hnh ng ca cc tp th, nh cc nh nc hay cc nhm x hi, phi c qui v ng x v cc hnh ng ca cc c nhn. Nhng lng tin rng s la chn mt phng php c nhn ch ngha nh vy ng s la chn phng php tm l hc th l sai lm (nh s c chng t chng ny), cho d thot nhn n c v rt thuyt phc. V

92

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rng ch ngha tm l, nh n vn l, di chuyn trn mnh t kh nguy him, ngoi phng php c nhn ch ngha ng ca ngi ca n, c th thy t vi on na v l l ca Mill. V chng cho thy l ch ngha tm l buc phi chp nhn cc phng php lch s ch ngha. N lc i qui cc s kin ca mi trng x hi ca chng ta v cc s kin tm l hc buc ta i vo cc suy on v ngun gc v din tin. Khi phn tch x hi hc Plato, ta c mt c hi nh gi cc gi tr ng ng ca mt cch tip cn nh vy n khoa hc x hi (so chng 5). Trong ph phn Mill, by gi chng ta s th cho n mt n quyt nh. Khng nghi ng g chnh ch ngha tm l ca Mill l ci buc ng chp nhn mt phng php lch s ch ngha; v ng thm ch bit ng ng v s cn ci v ngho nn ca ch ngha lch s, v ng th tnh n s cn ci ny bng ch ra cc kh khn ny sinh t s phc tp khng khip ca s tng tc ca rt nhiu u c c nhn. Trong khi .. nht thit, ng ni, .. khng bao gi c a ra bt c khi qut ho no .. vo cc khoa hc x hi cho n khi c th ch ra c s trong bn tnh con ngi, ti khng ngh bt c ai dm chc rng l c th, bt u t nguyn l v bn tnh con ngi v t hon cnh chung v v tr ca loi chng ta, xc nh a priori [mt cch tin nghim] trt t trong s pht trin ca con ngi phi xy ra, v, do , tin on cc s kin tng qut ca lch s cho n hin thi.9 L do ng a ra l sau vi s hng u tin ca chui, nh hng do cc th h i trc thc hin ln mi th h ngay sau chng.. ngy cng tr nn tri hn mi nh hng khc. (Ni cch khc, mi trng x hi tr thnh mt tc ng chi phi). Mt chui di nh th ca cc tc ng v cc phn ng li .. c l kh nng ca con ngi khng th tnh c .. L l ny, v c bit nhn xt ca Mill v vi s hng u tin ca chui, l mt s tit l ni bt v s yu km ca phin bn tm l hc ca ch ngha lch s. Nu mi s u n trong i sng x hi, cc qui lut ca mi trng x hi ca chng ta, ca mi th ch, v.v., cui cng phi c gii thch bng, v c qui v, cc hnh ng v nim say m ca nhng con ngi, th mt cch tip cn nh vy s p buc ln chng ta khng ch tng v s pht trin lch s-nhn qu, m c tng v cc bc u tin ca mt s pht trin nh vy. V s nhn mnh ngun gc tm l hc ca cc qui tc x hi hay cc nh ch ch c th c ngha rng chng c th c truy nguyn v mt trng thi khi vic a chng vo ch ph thuc vo cc nhn t tm l hc, hay chnh xc hn, khi n c lp vi bt c nh ch x hi no c thit lp. Ch ngha tm l nh th b buc, bt lun n thch hay khng thch iu

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, phi hot ng vi tng v mt s khi u ca x hi, v vi tng v mt bn tnh con ngi v mt tm l hc con ngi nh chng tn ti trc x hi. Ni cch khc, nhn xt ca Mill v vi s hng u tin ca chui din tin x hi khng phi l mt s l li tnh c, nh ngi ta c l c th tin, m l s din t thch hp v th tuyt vng p buc ln ng. N l mt th tuyt vng bi v l thuyt ny v bn tnh ngi trc x hi l ci gii thch nn tng ca x hi - mt phin bn tm l hc ca kh c x hi khng ch l mt huyn thoi lch s, m cng l, c th ni nh vy, mt huyn thoi phng php lun. N kh c th c tho lun nghim tc, v chng ta c mi l do tin rng con ngi hay ng hn t tin con ngi c tnh x hi trc khi tr thnh ngi (cn nhc, th d, rng ngn ng gi nh trc x hi). Nhng iu ny hm rng cc th ch x hi, v vi chng, nhng s u n x hi in hnh hay cc qui lut x hi10, phi tn ti trc ci mt s ngi thch gi l bn tnh con ngi, v trc tm l hc con ngi. Nu mt s qui v phi c c th cht no, c th v th s c trin vng hn i th qui hay din gii tm l hc v [hay di dng] x hi hc hn l ngc li. iu ny a ta quay li vi li ni d dm ca Marx u chng ny. Con ngi - tc l tm tr, cc nhu cu, cc hi vng, ni s hi, v nhng mong i, cc ng c, nhng kht vng ca cc c nhn l, nu c th ni nh vy, sn phm ca i sng trong x hi hn l cc ng sng to ra n. Phi tha nhn rng cu trc ca mi trng x hi ca chng ta l nhn to theo mt ngha no ; cc th ch v cc truyn thng ca n chng phi l tc phm ca Thng cng khng ca t nhin, m l kt qu ca cc hot ng v quyt nh ca con ngi, v c th thay i c bi cc hot ng v quyt nh ca con ngi. Song iu ny khng c ngha l tt c chng c thit k mt cch c ch , v c th gii thch c bng cc nhu cu, hi vng, hay cc ng c. Ngc li, ngay c nhng ci ny sinh nh kt qu ca cc hnh ng c thc v c ca con ngi, nh l thng, l cc sn phm ph, gin tip, khng ch v thng khng mong mun ca cc hnh ng nh vy. Ch mt thiu s cc nh ch x hi c thit k c ch , trong khi tuyt i a s ch n thun mc ln, nh cc kt qu khng d tnh ca cc hot ng con ngi, nh ti ni trc y11; v ta c th ni thm rng thm ch hu ht ca s t cc nh ch c thit k c ch v thnh cng (th d, mt i hc mi c thnh lp, hay mt Cng on) cng khng theo k hoch - li bi v cc hu qu x hi khng c d kin ny sinh t s to thnh c ch ca chng. V s

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to ra chng nh hng khng ch n nhiu nh ch x hi khc m cng n bn tnh ngi- cc hi vng, ni s, v tham vng, trc tin ca nhng ngi dnh n trc tip hn, v mun hn thng l ca mi thnh vin x hi. Mt trong cc h qu ca iu ny l cc gi tr o c ca mt x hi cc i hi v xut c tt c hay gn nh ton b thnh vin ca n tha nhn gn b mt thit vi cc nh ch v truyn thng ca n, v chng khng th sng qua c s ph hu cc nh ch v truyn thng ca mt x hi (nh c ch ra chng 9 khi tho lun vic lm sch bc vi v ca nh cch mng cc oan). Tt c iu ny ng r rng nht cho cc giai on c xa hn ca s pht trin x hi, tc l cho x hi ng, trong vic ch thit k cc nh ch l mt s kin cc k him, nu n c xy ra cht no. Ngy nay, s th c th bt u khc i, nh tri thc tng dn ca chng ta v x hi, tc l, nh vo nghin cu cc hu qu khng d tnh ca cc k hoch v hnh ng ca chng ta; v mt ngy no , con ngi thm ch c th tr thnh nhng ngi sng to c thc ca mt x hi m, v bng cch y ca mt phn ln hn ca s phn ring ca h. (Marx p hi vng ny, nh s c cho thy chng tip). Nhng tt c vic ny mt phn l vn v mc , v mc d ta c th hc on trc nhiu hu qu khng d tnh ca cc hot ng ca chng ta (mc tiu chnh ca mi cng ngh x hi), s lun lun c nhiu hu qu m chng ta khng thy trc c. S thc rng ch ngha tm l buc phi hot ng vi tng v mt ngun gc tm l hc ca x hi, theo ti, to thnh mt l l quyt nh chng li n. Nhng n khng phi l l l duy nht. C l ph phn quan trng nht i vi ch ngha tm l l n khng hiu nhim v ch yu ca cc khoa hc x hi mang tnh gii thch. Nhim v ny khng phi l tin tri din tin tng lai ca lch s, nh nh lch s ch ngha tin. N, ng hn, l s khm ph v gii thch nhng s ph thuc t hin nhin hn trong lnh vc x hi. N l s khm ph ra cc kh khn cn ng ca hot ng x hi - s nghin cu, c th ni nh vy, v tnh kh s dng, tnh n hi hay tnh d v ca cht liu x hi, v s khng c ca n i vi n lc ca chng ta c v gia cng n. lm r vn ca mnh, ti s m t ngn gn mt l thuyt c hiu lc rng ri song l l thuyt mang ci ti coi l hon ton tri ngc vi mc tiu tht ca cc khoa hc x hi; ti gi n l l thuyt m mu v x hi. N l cch nhn rng mt s gii thch mt hin tng x hi

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ct s xy ra ca hin tng ny (i khi mt li ch n giu l ci phi c tit l u tin) v ai ln k hoch v c m mu gy ra n. Cch nhn ny v cc mc tiu ca cc khoa hc x hi ny sinh, tt nhin, t l thuyt sai lm rng, bt c th g xy ra trong x hi c bit cc bin c nh chin tranh, tht nghip, i ngho, thiu ht, m nhn dn nh l thng khng thch l kt qu ca thit k trc tip ca cc c nhn hay nhm hng mnh no . L thuyt ny c hiu lc rng ri; n thm ch cn gi hn c ch ngha lch s (ci, nh c dng hu thn nguyn thu ca n cho thy, l mt dn xut ca l thuyt m mu). Trong cc hnh thc hin i ca n, ging nh ch ngha lch s hin i, v mt thi hin i no n cc qui lut t nhin, n l mt kt qu in hnh ca s th tc ho ca mt s m tn tn gio. Lng tin vo cc thn Homeric, m cc m mu ca h gii thch lch s ca Chin tranh thnh Trojan, qua i. Cc thn b t b. Nhng ch ca h c th bng nhng ngi hay cc nhm hng mnh cc nhm p lc c c m tnh i bi ca n chu trch nhim v mi iu tai ho m chng ta chu ng nh cc Chng lo Uyn thm ca Zion, hay bn c quyn, hay bn t bn, hay bn quc. Ti khng mun ng rng cc m mu khng bao gi xy ra. Ngc li, chng l cc hin tng x hi in hnh. Chng tr nn quan trng, th d, mi khi nhng ngi tin vo thuyt m mu nm c quyn lc. V nhng ngi tin chn thnh rng h bit lm th no to ra thin ng trn tri t rt c th chp nhn l thuyt m mu, v dnh lu vo mt phn-m mu chng li nhng ngi m mu khng tn ti. V s gii thch duy nht v tht bi ca h to ra thin ng ca h l nh ti li ca Ma Qu, k c c li a ngc. Cc m mu xy ra, phi th nhn. Song s thc ni bt, bt chp s xut hin ca chng, bc b l thuyt m mu l t trong s cc m mu ny cui cng thnh cng. Nhng ngi m mu him khi hon tt m mu ca h. V sao li nh th? V sao cc thnh tu li khc xa cc nguyn vng n vy? Bi v iu ny thng l nh th trong i sng x hi, c m mu hay khng c m mu. i sng x hi khng ch l mt s th thch sc mnh gia cc nhm i lp: n l hot ng trong khung kh t nhiu d phc hi hay d v ca cc nh ch v truyn thng, v n to ra ngoi bt c phn-hnh ng ch no - rt nhiu phn ng khng d kin trong khung kh ny, mt s trong s c l thm ch khng th thy trc c.

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th phn tch cc phn ng ny v d kin trc chng cng xa cng tt, ti tin, l nhim v chnh ca cc khoa hc x hi. N l nhim v phn tch cc hu qu x hi khng c d kin ca cc hnh ng c ch ca con ngi nhng hu qu m tm quan trng ca chng b c l thuyt m mu ln ch ngha tm l b qua, nh c biu th ri. Mt hnh ng din tin chnh xc theo nh khng gy ra vn cho khoa hc x hi (tr c th l c nhu cu gii thch v sao trong trng hp c bit ny li khng xy ra cc hu qu khng d kin). Mt trong cc hot ng kinh t s ng nht c th dng nh mt th d lm tht r tng v cc h qu khng d kin ca cc hnh ng ca chng ta. Nu mt ngi mun mua khn cp mt cn nh, chng ta chc chn c th cho rng ng ta khng mun lm tng gi th trng nh . Nhng chnh s kin rng ng ta xut hin trn th trng vi t cch ngi mua s c xu hng lm tng gi th trng. V cc nhn xt tng t [khng mun h gi] l ng cho ngi bn. Hay ly mt th d t mt lnh vc rt khc, nu mt ngi quyt nh bo him cuc sng ca mnh, chc ng ta khng c nh khuyn khch ngi no u t tin ca h vo c phn bo him. Nhng ng ta s lm th mc d vy. Chng ta thy r rng y rng khng phi tt c h qu ca cc hnh ng ca chng ta l cc h qu c d nh; v do , l thuyt m mu v x hi khng th ng bi v n chng khc g l khng nh rng mi kt qu, ngay c nhng ci thot nhn khng c v l c bt c ai ch , l cc kt qu c ch ca cc hnh ng ca nhng ngi quan tm n cc kt qu ny. Cc th d c a ra khng bc ch ngha tm l d dng nh chng bc l thuyt m mu, v ta c th l l rng chnh hiu bit ca nhng ngi bn v s hin din ca ngi mua trn th trng, v hi vng ca h nhn c gi cao hn ni cch khc, cc nhn t tm l l ci gii thch cc hu qu c m t. iu ny, tt nhin, l kh ng; nhng chng ta khng c qun rng s hiu bit ny v hi vng ny khng phi l cc d liu cui cng ca bn tnh ngi, v rng, n lt, chng c th c gii thch bng tnh th x hi tnh th th trng. Tnh th x hi ny kh c th c qui v cc ng c v cc qui lut chung ca bn tnh ngi. Qu thc, s xen vo ca cc c im v bn tnh ngi no , nh tnh nhy cm ca chng ta i vi tuyn truyn, i khi c th dn n cc lch lc khi ng x kinh t va nhc n. Hn na, nu tnh th x hi l khc tnh th ta hnh dung, th c th l ngi tiu dng, bng hnh ng mua, c th ng gp gin tip vo vic lm gim gi mt hng; th d bng lm cho vic sn xut hng lot

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n l c li nhun hn. V mc d tc ng ny tnh c thc y li ch ca ng ta vi t cch ngi tiu dng, n c th c sinh ra mt cch v tnh ht nh tc ng ngc li, v hon ton di cc iu kin tm l hc chnh xc ging nhau. C v r rng l cc tnh th x hi, ci c th dn n cc hu qu khng mong mun hay khng d nh khc nhau nhiu n vy, phi c nghin cu bi mt khoa hc x hi khng b gn vi thnh kin rng nht thit khng bao gi c a ra bt c khi qut ho no vo cc khoa hc x hi cho n khi c th ch ra c s trong bn tnh con ngi, nh Mill ni12. Chng phi c mt khoa hc x hi t tr nghin cu. Tip tc l l ny chng li ch ngha tm l ta c th ni rng cc hnh ng ca chng ta mc rt ln c th c gii thch bng tnh th trong chng xut hin. Tt nhin, chng chng bao gi c th c gii thch y bng ring tnh th; mt s gii thch v cch mt ngi, khi qua ng, n trnh cc xe chy trn ng, c th vt qu tnh th, v c th qui cho cc ng c ca anh ta, v cho mt bn nng t bo ton, hay cho mong mun ca anh ta trnh au, v.v. Nhng phn tm l hc ny ca gii thch thng rt tm thng, khi so snh vi quyt tm cn k ca hnh ng ca anh ta theo ci m chng ta c th gi l logic tnh th; v ngoi ra, l khng th bao hm mi nhn t tm l hc vo s m t tnh th. S phn tch cc tnh th, logic tnh th, ng mt vai tr quan trng trong i sng x hi cng nh trong cc khoa hc x hi. N, thc ra, l phng php phn tch kinh t. Nh mt th d ngoi kinh t hc, ti nhc n logic quyn lc13, m chng ta c th dng gii thch cc nc i ca hot ng chnh tr quyn lc cng nh s hot ng ca cc nh ch chnh tr no . Phng php p dng logic tnh th vo cc khoa hc x hi khng da vo bt c gi thit tm l hc no v tnh duy l (hay gi thit khc) ca bn tnh ngi. Ngc li: khi chng ta ni v ng x hp l hay v ng x phi l th chng ta hiu l cch ng x ph hp vi, hay khng ph hp vi, logic ca tnh th . Thc ra, phn tch tm l hc ca mt hnh ng di dng cc ng c (hp l hay phi l) ca n gi nh trc- nh c Max Weber14 ch ra - rng chng ta pht trin trc tiu chun no v ci c coi l hp l trong tnh th c ni n. Khng c hiu lm cc l l ca ti chng li ch ngha tm l15. Chng, tt nhin, khng phi c nh chng t rng cc nghin cu v khm ph tm l hc l t quan trng cho nh khoa hc x hi. Chng c ngha, ng hn, l tm l hc tm l hc v c nhn l mt trong cc khoa hc x hi, cho d n khng l c s cho mi khoa hc x hi. Cho

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khoa hc chnh tr khng ai ph nh tm quan trng ca cc s thc tm l hc nh s thm mun quyn lc, v cc hin tng thn kinh khc nhau lin quan vi n. Nhng ham mun quyn lc khng nghi ng g l mt khi nim x hi cng nh mt khi nim tm l hc: khng c qun rng, nu chng ta nghin cu, th d, s xut hin u tin ca s thm mun ny tui th u, th chng ta nghin cu n trong khung cnh ca mt nh ch x hi nht nh, th d, ca gia nh hin i ca chng ta. (Gia nh Eskimo c th gy ra cc hin tng hon ton khc). Mt s thc tm l hc khc, ci l quan trng vi x hi hc, v n gy ra cc vn chnh tr v th ch nghim trng, l c sng trong ni n nu ca mt b lc, hay ca mt cng ng gn nh mt b lc, i vi nhiu ngi l mt tt yu xc cm (c bit vi nhng ngi tr, c l ph hp vi mt s tng t gia s pht trin pht sinh bn th [ontogenetic] v pht sinh loi [phylogenetic], dng nh tri qua mt giai on b lc hay Indian-M). Rng tn cng ca ti ln ch ngha tm l khng c nh nh mt cng kch mi cn nhc tm l hc, c th thy t vic s dng, m ti dng ( chng 10), ca mt khi nim nh s cng thng ca nn vn minh mt phn nh kt qu ca nhu cu xc cm khng c tho mn ny. Khi nim ny ni n cc cm gic no v trng thi bt rt, v v th l mt khi nim tm l hc. Nhng ng thi, n cng l mt khi nim x hi hc; v n m t c trng cc cm gic ny khng ch nh kh chu v ng lo, v.v., m lin h chng vi mt tnh th x hi no , v vi s tng phn gia mt x hi m v mt x hi ng. (Nhiu khi nim tm l hc nh tham vng hay tnh yu c mt tnh trng tng t). Hn na, chng ta khng c b qua cc gi tr ln m ch ngha tm l ginh c do ch trng mt ch ngha c nhn phng php lun v do phn i ch ngha tp th phng php lun; v n ng h hc thuyt quan trng rng mi hin tng x hi, v c bit hot ng ca mi nh ch x hi, phi lun lun c hiu nh l kt qu t cc quyt nh, cc hnh ng, cc thi , v.v., ca cc c nhn con ngi, v rng chng ta khng bao gi c tho mn vi mt gii thch di dng ca ci gi l cc tp th (cc nh nc, dn tc, chng tc, v.v.). Sai lm ca ch ngha tm l l gi nh ca n rng ch ngha c nhn phng php lun ny trong lnh vc khoa hc x hi ng chng trnh qui mi hin tng x hi v mi s u n x hi v cc hin tng tm l hc v cc qui lut tm l hc. Mi nguy him ca gi nh ny l thin hng ca n n ch ngha lch s, nh chng ta thy. Rng n l khng mong mun c chng t bi nhu cu v mt l thuyt v cc hu qu

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khng d nh ca cc hnh ng ca chng ta, v bi nhu cu v ci ti m t nh logic ca cc tnh th x hi. Trong bo v v pht trin quan im ca Marx rng cc vn ca x hi l khng th qui v cc vn ca bn tnh con ngi, ti cho php mnh i xa hn cc l l thc s do Marx xut. Marx khng ni v ch ngha tm l, ng cng khng ph phn n mt cch c h thng; Mill cng chng phi l ngi ng ngh n trong li ni d dm c trch dn u ca chng ny. Sc mnh ca li ni d dm ny c hng, ng hn, chng li ch ngha duy tm, dng Hegelian ca n. Th nhng trong chng mc lin quan n vn bn tnh tm l hc ca x hi, ch ngha tm l ca Mill c th ni trng vi l thuyt duy tm ch ngha m Marx u tranh vi.16 Tnh c, tuy vy, n ch l nh hng ca mt yu t khc trong ch ngha Hegel, c th l ch ngha tp th Plato ho ca Hegel, l thuyt ca ng rng nh nc v quc gia l thc hn c nhn ngi hm n chng mi th, l ci dn Marx n cch nhn c trnh by chi tit chng ny. (Mt v d v s thc rng ngi ta i khi c th cht lc ra mt gi c gi tr ngay c t mt l thuyt trit hc ng ngn). Nh vy, v mt lch s, Marx pht trin cc quan im nht nh ca Hegel v tnh u vit ca x hi trn c nhn, v dng chng nh cc l l chng li cc quan im khc ca Hegel. Nhng v ti coi Mill l mt i th ng knh trng hn Hegel, ti khng bm theo lch s ca cc tng ca Marx, m th pht trin chng dng mt l l chng li Mill.

CHNG 15: CH NGHA LCH S KINH T thy Marx c trnh by theo cch ny, tc l, nh mt i th ca bt c l thuyt tm l hc no v x hi, c l c th gy ngc nhin cho mt s nh Marxist cng nh mt s nh Chng-Marxist. V dng nh c nhiu ngi tin vo mt cu chuyn hon ton khc. Marx, h ngh, dy v nh hng to khp tt thy ca ng c kinh t trong i sng con ngi; ng thnh cng gii thch sc mnh khng cng li c ca n bng chng t rng nhu cu khng kim ch c ca con ngi l kim phng tin sng1; nh th ng chng minh tm quan trng c bn ca cc phm tr nh ng c li nhun hay ng c v li ch giai cp cho cc hnh ng khng ch ca cc c nhn m c ca cc nhm x hi; v ng cho thy phi dng cc phm tr ny th no cho vic gii thch din tin lch s. Qu thc, h ngh rng bn cht thc s ca ch ngha Marx l hc thuyt cho rng cc ng c kinh t v c bit quyn li giai cp l cc ng lc ca lch s, v rng chnh xc hc thuyt ny l ci m tn din gii duy vt v lch s hay ch ngha duy vt lch s m ch, mt ci tn theo Marx v Engels th m t c trng bn cht ca gio hun ca h. Nhng kin nh vy rt ph bin; nhng ti khng nghi ng g l h din gii sai Marx. Nhng ngi hm m ng v gi cc kin y, ti c th gi l cc nh Marxist Dung tc [Vulgar] (m ch n Nh Kinh t Dung tc m Marx gn cho cc i th no ca ng2). Nh Marxist Dung tc trung bnh tin rng ch ngha Marx bc trn cc b mt nham him ca i sng x hi bng pht hin ra cc ng c b che giu v tnh tham lam v s thm kht li ch vt cht nhng ci thc y cc th lc hu trng lch s; cc th lc gy ra chin tranh, suy thoi, tht nghip, nn i gia s sung tc, v mi dng khc ca s khn kh x hi mt cch c ch v xo tr, nhm tho mn cc ham mun tin ca chng v li nhun. (V nh Marxist Dung tc i khi lo u nghim tc n vn ho gii cc i hi ca Marx vi cc i hi ca Freud v Adler; v nu ng ta khng chn mt ngi hay ngi khc trong s h, ng ta c l c th quyt nh rng i, tnh yu v s ham mun quyn lc3 l Ba ng C Ln B Che Giu ca Bn tnh Con Ngi c a ra nh sng bi Marx, Freud, v Adler, Ba Ngi V i To ra trit hc ca con ngi hin i... ) Cc quan im nh vy c ng vng c v hp dn hay khng, chng dng nh chc chn t lin quan n hc thuyt m Marx gi l

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ch ngha duy vt lch s. Phi tha nhn rng i khi ng ni v cc hin tng tm l nh s tham lam v ng c li nhun, v.v., nhng chng bao gi nhm gii thch lch s. ng din gii chng, ng hn, nh cc triu chng ca nh hng gy i bi ca h thng x hi, tc l ca mt h thng cc nh ch c pht trin trong tin trnh lch s; nh cc kt qu hn l nhng nguyn nhn ca s mc nt; nh cc hu qu hn l cc ng lc ca lch s. ng hay sai, ng thy trong cc hin tng nh chin tranh, suy thoi, tht nghip, v cnh i gia s sung tc, khng phi l kt qu ca mt m mu xo tr v pha cc hng kinh doanh ln hay bn quc hiu chin, m l cc h qu x hi khng mong mun ca cc hnh ng, c hng ti cc kt qu khc, bi cc tc nhn nhng ngi b mc vo tm li ca h thng x hi. ng nhn cc nhn vt trn sn khu lch s, k c cc nhn vt ln, ch nh nhng con ri, b git mt cch khng chng li c bi cc dy kinh t - bi cc lc lng lch s m trn h khng c s kim sot no. Sn khu lch s, ng dy, c b tr trong mt h thng x hi lm ui m tt c chng ta; n c b tr trong vng quc ca s tt yu. (Nhng mt ngy no cc con ri s ph hu h thng ny v t ti vng quc ca t do). Hc thuyt ny ca Marx b hu ht nhng ngi theo ng t b c l v cc l do tuyn truyn, c l v h khng hiu ng v mt L thuyt m mu Marxist Dung tc trn qui m ln thay th hc thuyt Marxian ti tnh v rt c o ny. Mt s sa st tr tu ng bun, y l s sa st t trnh ca Capital (T bn [lun]) xung trnh ca The Myth of the 20th Century [Huyn thoi ca Th k 20]. Tuy nhin trit hc lch s ca ring Marx l nh vy, thng c gi l ch ngha duy vt lch s. N s l ch chnh ca cc chng ny. Trong chng hin ti, ti s gii thch s nhn mnh duy vt hay kinh t ca n trong cc nt phc tho i cng; sau , ti s tho lun chi tit hn vai tr ca chin tranh giai cp v li ch giai cp v khi nim Marxist v mt h thng x hi.
I

Vic trnh by ch ngha lch s kinh t4 ca Marx c th c gn kt mt cch tin li vi s so snh ca chng ta gia Marx v Mill. Marx ng vi Mill v lng tin rng cc hin tng x hi phi c gii thch mt cch lch s, v rng chng ta phi th hiu bt c giai on lch s no nh mt sn phm lch s ca cc din tin trc. im m ng trch khi Mill, nh chng ta thy, l ch ngha tm l ca Mill

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(tng ng vi ch ngha duy tm ca Hegel). Ci ny c thay th trong gio hun ca Marx bng ci ng gi l ch ngha duy vt. Ngi ta ni nhiu v ch ngha duy vt ca Marx rng n hon ton khng ng vng c. i hi thng c lp i lp li rng Marx khng nhn ra bt c th g vt qu cc kha cnh thp hn hn hay mang tnh vt cht ca i sng con ngi l mt s bp mo nc ci c bit. (N l s lp li khc ca li ph bng c xa nht trong mi li ph bng phn ng chng li nhng ngi bo v t do, khu hiu ca Heraclitus rng h nhi y bng h nh cc con th5). Nhng theo ngha ny, Marx khng th c gi l nh duy vt mt cht no, cho d ng b nh hng mnh bi cc nh Duy vt Php th k mi tm, v cho d ng thng gi mnh l nh duy vt, ho hp kho vi kh nhiu hc thuyt ca ng. V c mt s on quan trng kh c th c din gii nh duy vt. S tht, ti ngh, l ng khng my quan tm n cc vn thun tu trit hc - t hn Engels hay Lenin chng hn v ng quan tm ch yu n mt x hi hc v phng php lun ca vn . C mt on ni ting trong T bn6, ni Marx ni rng trong li vit ca Hegel, php bin chng ng bng u; ngi ta phi lt n li theo ng cch .. Xu hng ca n l r. Marx mun chng t rng u, tc l t duy con ngi, bn thn n khng l c s ca i sng con ngi m ng hn l mt loi ca kin trc thng tng, trn mt c s c th. Xu hng tng t c biu l on: L tng khng l g khc hn vt cht khi n c i ch v c th hin ra trong u con ngi. Song, c l, khng c nhn ra rng cc on ny khng biu l mt dng cc oan ca ch ngha duy vt; ng hn, chng cho bit mt thin hng no v pha mt ch ngha nh nguyn ca thn th v tinh thn. N l mt nh nguyn lun thc tin, y l ni vy. Mc d, v l thuyt, tinh thn i vi Marx hnh nh ch l hnh thc khc (khng phi kha cnh khc, hay c l mt hin tng ph) ca vt cht, trong thc tin n khc vi vt cht, v n l mt hnh thc khc ca n. Cc on c trch biu th rng mc d chn ca chng ta phi c gi, c th ni nh vy, trn mt nn vng chc ca th gii vt cht, u ca chng ta- v Marx coi trng u con ngi- lin quan n t duy hay t tng. Theo ti, ch ngha Marx v nh hng ca n khng th c nh gi cao tr phi chng ta nhn ra nh nguyn lun ny. Marx yu t do, t do tht s (khng phi t do tht s ca Hegel). V chng mc ti c th thy ng theo cng thc t do ni ting ca Hegel vi tinh thn, trong chng mc m ng tin rng chng ta c th l t do ch vi t cch nh cc sinh vt c tinh thn. ng thi ng nhn ra

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trong thc tin (vi t cch mt nh nh nguyn thc tin) rng chng ta l tinh thn v xc tht, v, mt cch kh thc t, rng xc tht l ci c bn trong hai th ny. y l v sao ng quay sang chng Hegel, v v sao ng ni rng Hegel t cc th ln u ui. Nhng mc d ng tha nhn rng th gii vt cht v cc tnh tt yu ca n l c bn, ng khng cm thy bt c tnh yu no cho vng quc ca tt yu, nh ng gi mt x hi trong cnh l thuc vo cc nhu cu vt cht ca n. ng yu mn th gii tinh thn, vng quc ca t do, v mt tinh thn ca bn tnh con ngi, cng nhiu nh bt c nh nh nguyn C c no; v cc tc phm ca ng thm ch c cc du vt v s cm ght v khinh mit vt cht. Ci tip theo c th chng t rng din gii ny v cc quan im ca Marx c th c vn bn ring ca ng xc nhn. Trong mt on ca tp ba ca T bn7, Marx m t rt ng mt vt cht ca i sng x hi, v c bit mt kinh t ca n, mt sn xut v tiu th, nh mt s ko di ca s trao i cht ca con ngi, tc l s trao i ca con ngi v vt cht vi t nhin. ng tuyn b r rng quyn t do ca chng ta phi lun b gii hn bi cc tt yu ca s trao i cht ny. Tt c ci c th t c theo hng lm cho chng ta t do hn, ng ni, l tin hnh s trao i cht ny mt cch hp l, .. vi tiu ph ti thiu v nng lng v di cc iu kin xng ng v thch ng nht vi bn tnh con ngi. Th nhng n vn l vng quc ca tt yu. Ch c ngoi v vt xa n th s pht trin ca cc ti nng con ngi mi bt u ci bn thn n to thnh mt mc ch vng quc ca t do tht s. Nhng iu ny c th hng thnh ch trn mnh t chim gi bi vng quc ca s tt yu, ci vn l c s ca n .. Ngay trc on ny, Marx ni: Vng quc ca t do tht s bt u ch ni cng vic vt v cc nhc, do gian kh v cc mc ch bn ngoi p buc, chm dt; n nh th, kh t nhin, nm ngoi lnh vc sn xut vt cht tht s. V ng kt thc ton on bng rt ra mt kt lun thc tin cho thy r rng rng mc tiu duy nht ca ng l i m ng vo vng quc phi-vt cht ca t do cho tt c mi ngi u nhau: Vic ct ngn ngy lao ng l iu kin tin quyt c bn. Theo ti on ny khng li nghi ng g v ci ti gi l ch ngha nh nguyn ca quan im thc tin ca Marx v i sng. Ging Hegel ng ngh rng t do l mc tiu ca s pht trin lch s. Ging Hegel ng ng nht vng quc ca t do vi vng quc ca i sng tinh thn ca con ngi. Song ng tha nhn rng chng ta khng l cc sinh vt tinh thn thun tu; chng ta khng hon ton t do, cng khng c kh nng c bao gi t c t do hon ton, khng th v chng ta

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s lun mun gii phng mnh hon ton khi cc tt yu ca s trao i cht ca mnh, v nh th khi cng vic sn xut cc nhc. Tt c ci ta c th t c l ci thin cc iu kin lao ng gy kit qu v khng xng ng, lm cho chng xng ng hn vi con ngi, san bng chng, v gim cng vic cc nhc xung mc m tt c chng ta l t do cho phn no ca i sng chng ta. y, ti tin, l t tng chnh ca cch nhn v cuc sng ca Marx; cng l chnh chng mc c v i vi ti l c nh hng nht trong cc hc thuyt ca ng. Vi quan im ny, by gi chng ta phi kt hp quyt nh lun phng php lun c tho lun trn (trong chng 13). Theo hc thuyt ny, nghin cu khoa hc v x hi, v tin on lch s mt cch khoa hc, l c th ch trong chng mc x hi c quyt nh bi qu kh ca n. Nhng iu ny hm rng khoa hc ch c th i ph vi vng quc ca s tt yu. Nu gi nh l c th vi con ngi c bao gi tr thnh t do hon ton, th tin tri lch s, v cng vi n, khoa hc x hi, s i n kt thc. Hot ng tinh thn t do nh th, nu tn ti, s nm ngoi tm vi ca khoa hc, ci lun hi v cc nguyn nhn, cc yu t quyt nh. N v th c th i ph vi i sng tinh thn ch mc cc suy ngh, t tng ca chng ta c gy ra hay c quyt nh hay b i hi phi th bi vng quc ca s tt yu, bi vt cht, v c bit bi cc iu kin kinh t ca i sng chng ta, bi s trao i cht ca chng ta. Cc t tng v nim c th c x l mt cch khoa hc ch bng xem xt, mt mt, cc iu kin vt cht di chng pht sinh, tc l cc iu kin kinh t ca i sng ca nhng ngi xut chng, v mt khc, cc iu kin vt cht di chng c tiu ho, tc l cc iu kin kinh t ca nhng ngi chp nhn chng. Do t quan im khoa hc hay nhn qu, cc t tng v nim phi c i x nh cc kin trc thng tng thc h trn c s cc iu kin kinh t. Marx, ngc vi Hegel, cho rng manh mi i vi lch s, ngay c i vi lch s cc t tng, c thy s pht trin ca cc quan h gia con ngi v mi trng t nhin ca anh ta, th gii vt cht; tc l, cuc sng kinh t ca anh ta, ch khng i sng tinh thn ca anh ta. y l v sao chng ta c th m t nhn ca Marx cho ch ngha lch s nh ch ngha kinh t, ngc vi ch ngha duy tm ca Hegel hay ch ngha tm l ca Mill. Nhng n biu th mt s hiu lm hon ton nu ta ng nht ch ngha kinh t ca Marx vi loi ch ngha duy vt m n ng mt thi h thp i sng tinh thn ca con ngi. Tm nhn ca Marx v vn ca t do, tc l v mt s gii phng mt phn nhng cng bng ca con ngi khi s l

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thuc vo bn tnh vt cht ca h, ng hn c th c m t nh l tng ch ngha. Xt theo cch ny, quan im Marxist v i sng t ra kh nht qun; v ti tin rng cc mu thun v kh khn b ngoi nh thy trong quan im mt phn theo quyt nh lun v mt phn t do ch ngha ca n v cc hot ng ca con ngi s bin mt.
II

Mi lin quan ca ci ti gi l nh nguyn lun ca Marx v quyt nh lun khoa hc ca ng n quan im ca ng v lch s l r rng. Lch s mang tnh khoa hc, i vi ng l ng nht vi khoa hc x hi nh mt tng th, phi khm ph cc qui lut theo s trao i vt cht ca con ngi vi t nhin tin trin. Nhim v trung tm ca n phi l gii thch s pht trin ca cc iu kin sn xut. Cc mi quan h x hi c tm quan trng lch s v khoa hc ch t l vi mc theo chng gn b vi qu trnh sn xut- nh hng n n, hay c l b n nh hng. Ht nh ngi man r phi vt ln vi t nhin tho mn cc nhu cu ca anh ta, duy tr s sng, v sinh sn, ngi vn minh cng phi th; v anh ta phi tip tc lm vy trong mi hnh thc x hi v di mi hnh thc sn xut. Vng quc ca s tt yu ny m rng vi s pht trin ca n, v phm vi ca cc nhu cu ca con ngi cng vy. Nhng ng thi, c mt s m rng cc lc lng sn xut tho mn cc nhu cu ny.8 y, ngn gn, l quan im ca Marx v lch s ca con ngi. Cc quan im tng t c Engels trnh by. S m rng ca cc phng tin sn xut hin i, theo Engels, ln u tin to ra .. kh nng m bo cho mi thnh vin ca x hi .. mt s tn ti khng ch .. t quan im vt cht, m cng .. m bo .. s pht trin v vic s dng cc nng lc th cht v tinh thn ca anh ta.9 Vi iu ny, t do tr nn c th, tc l s gii phng khi th xc. Ti im ny .. cui cng con ngi ct mnh khi th gii ng vt, .. s tn ti ng vt li sau mnh v bc vo thn phn ngi thc s. Con ngi cn trong xing xch ng nh chng mc anh ta cn b hot ng kinh t ch ng; khi s ch ng ca sn phm ln nhng ngi sn xut bin mt .., con ngi .., ln u tin, tr thnh c thc v thnh ngi ch thc s ca t nhin, bng cch tr thnh ngi ch ca mi trng x hi ca chnh mnh .. Ch khi bn thn con ngi, vi y thc, mi lm ra lch s ring ca mnh .. N l bc nhy vt ca loi ngi t vng quc ca s tt yu sang vng quc ca t do.

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Nu by gi ta li so snh phin bn ca Marx v ch ngha lch s vi phin bn ca Mill, th ta thy rng ch ngha kinh t ca Marx c th d dng gii quyt kh khn m ti chng t l tai ho i vi ch ngha tm l ca Mill. Ti ngh ti h thng kh k qui v mt khi u ca x hi c th c gii thch v mt tm l hc - mt hc thuyt ti m t nh phin bn tm l hc ca kh c x hi. tng ny khng c ci tng t trong l thuyt ca Marx. i thay s u tin ca tm l hc bng s u tin ca kinh t hc khng to ra kh khn tng t no, v kinh t hc bao trm s trao i cht ca con ngi, s trao i vt cht gia ngi v t nhin. Liu s trao i cht ny c lun c t chc mang tnh x hi hay khng, ngay c cc thi k trccon ngi, hay liu mt thi n ph thuc ch vo c nhn hay khng, c th li nh mt vn b ng. Khng cn gi s nhiu hn rng khoa hc v x hi phi trng vi lch s v s pht trin ca cc iu kin kinh t ca x hi, thng c Marx gi l cc iu kin sn xut. C th lu , trong du ngoc, rng thut ng Marxist sn xut chc chn c c dng theo ngha rng, bao trm ton b qu trnh kinh t, k c phn phi v tiu dng. Nhng v sau nhng iu ny chng bao gi nhn c nhiu s ch t Marx v cc nh Marxist. Mi quan tm thng dng ca h vn l sn xut theo ngha hp ca t. y ng l mt th d khc v thi lch s-di truyn ngy th, v lng tin rng khoa hc phi ch hi v cc nguyn nhn, , ngay c trong lnh vc ca cc th nhn to, n phi hi Ai lm ra n? v N c lm bng g? hn l Ai s dng n? v N thch hp cho ci g?.
III

Nu by gi chng ta tin hnh mt ph phn cng nh mt nh gi v ch ngha duy vt lch s ca Marx, hay v phn ln ca n nh c trnh by cho n y, th chng ta c th phn bit hai kha cnh khc nhau. Th nht l ch ngha lch s, i hi rng lnh vc ca cc khoa hc x hi trng vi lnh vc ca phng php lch s hay tin ho, v c bit vi tin tri lch s. i hi ny, ti ngh, phi b gt b. Th hai l ch ngha kinh t (hay ch ngha duy vt), tc l i hi rng s t chc kinh t ca x hi, s t chc trao i vt cht ca chng ta vi t nhin, l c bn cho mi th ch x hi v c bit cho s pht trin lch s ca chng. i hi ny, ti tin, l hon ton ng n, chng no chng ta coi t c bn theo ngha m h thng thng, khng nhn

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mnh qu n n. Ni cch khc, khng th c nghi ng g rng gn nh mi nghin cu x hi, bt lun v mt th ch hay lch s, c th c li nu chng c tin hnh vi mt con mt [ ] n cc iu kin kinh t ca x hi. Ngay c lch s ca mt khoa hc tru tng nh ton hc cng khng phi ngoi l10. Theo ngha ny, ch ngha kinh t ca Marx c th ni i in cho mt s tin b cc k c gi tr trong cc phng php ca khoa hc. Nhng, nh ti ni trc y, chng ta khng c coi t c bn qu nghim tc. Bn thn Marx khng nghi ng g lm th. Do s gio dc Hegelian ca ng, ng b nh hng bi s phn bit c xa gia thc ti v b ngoi, v bi s phn bit tng ng gia ci l bn cht v ci l ngu nhin. S ci tin ring ca ng so vi Hegel (v Kant) ng c thin v thy s ng nht thc ti vi th gii vt cht11 (k c s trao i cht ca ngi), v s ng nht ca b ngoi vi th gii v cc t tng hay nim. Nh th mi t tng hay nim s phi c gii thch bng quy chng v thc ti bn cht nm di, tc l v cc iu kin kinh t. Quan im trit hc ny chc chn khng tt hn my12 bt c hnh thc khc no ca bn cht lun. V cc tc ng tr li ca n trong lnh vc phng php phi dn n mt s nhn mnh qu mc n ch ngha kinh t. V mc d tm quan trng chung ca ch ngha kinh t ca Marx kh c th c nh gi qu cao, rt d nh gi qu cao tm quan trng ca cc iu kin kinh t trong bt c trng hp c bit no. Hiu bit no v cc iu kin kinh t c th ng gp ng k cho, th d, lch s v cc vn ca ton hc, nhng s hiu bit v bn thn cc vn ton hc l quan trng hn nhiu cho mc ch ; v thm ch c th vit mt lch s rt hay v cc vn ton hc m khng h nhc n bi cnh kinh t ca chng. (Theo ti, cc iu kin kinh t hay cc quan h x hi ca khoa hc l cc ch c th d dng b cng iu, v chng c th thoi ho thnh tm thng). y, tuy vy, ch l mt th d khng quan trng v s nguy him ca vic qu nhn mnh ch ngha kinh t. Thng n c din gii mt cch bao qut nh hc thuyt cho rng mi din tin x hi u ph thuc vo s pht trin ca cc iu kin kinh t, v c bit vo s pht trin ca cc phng tin vt th ca sn xut. Nhng mt hc thuyt nh vy l chc chn sai. C mt s tng tc gia cc iu kin kinh t v cc t tng, v khng n gin l mt s ph thuc mt chiu ca ci sau vo ci trc. C th chng, thm ch chng ta c th khng nh rng cc t tng no , nhng ci to thnh tri thc ca chng ta, l

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c bn hn cc phng tin sn xut vt cht, nh c th thy t cn nhc sau. Hy tng tng rng h thng kinh t ca chng ta, bao gm mi my mc v mi t chc x hi, b ph hu mt ngy no , nhng tri thc k thut v khoa hc c bo ton. Trong mt trng hp nh vy c th hnh dung c rng khng mt qu nhiu thi gian trc khi n c xy dng li ( quy m nh hn, v sau khi nhiu ngi b i). Nhng hy gi s l tt c tri thc v cc vn ny bin mt, trong khi cc th vt cht c bo ton. iu ny ngang nh ci g s xy ra nu mt b lc hoang d chim mt t nc c cng nghip ho cao nhng hoang vng. N s nhanh chng dn n s bin mt hon ton di tch vt cht ca nn vn minh. Ma mai l bn thn lch s ca ch ngha Marx cho mt th d chng minh r rng ch ngha kinh t cng iu ny l sai. T tng Lao ng ca tt c cc nc, lin hip li! c tm quan trng ln nht cho n trc Cch mng Nga, v n c nh hng n cc iu kin kinh t. Nhng vi cch mng, tnh hnh tr nn rt khc, n gin v, nh Lenin th nhn, khng c tng xy dng no thm na. (Xem chng 13). Sau Lenin c vi tng c th c tm gn trong khu hiu: Ch ngha x hi l chuyn chnh v sn cng vi in kh ho ton quc. Chnh tng mi ny tr thnh c s ca mt s pht trin lm thay i ton b nn tng kinh t v vt cht ca mt phn su th gii. Trong mt cuc chin u chng li nhng kh khn gh gm, phi hi sinh vt cht khng k xit, nhm thay i, hay ng hn, xy dng cc phng tin sn xut t con s khng. V ng lc ca s pht trin ny l lng nhit tnh v mt t tng. Th d ny cho thy trong cc hon cnh nht nh, cc t tng c th cch mng ho cc iu kin kinh t ca mt nc, thay cho b cc iu kin ny nho nn. Dng thut ng ca Marx, ta c th ni rng ng nh gi thp sc mnh ca vng quc t do v cc c hi ca n chinh phc vng quc tt yu. S tng phn rnh rnh gia tin trin ca Cch mng Nga v l thuyt siu hnh ca Marx v mt thc ti kinh t v din mo thc h ca n c th thy r nht t cc on sau: Trong xem xt cc cuc cch mng nh vy, Marx vit, lun cn phi phn bit gia cch mng vt cht v cc iu kin sn xut kinh t, thuc phm vi ca quyt nh khoa hc chnh xc, v cc hnh thc din mo php l, chnh tr, tn gio, thm m, hay trit hc hay bng mt t, cc hnh thc din mo thc h ..13 Theo cch nhn ca Marx, l v vng i mong i rng c th t c bt k s thay i quan trng no bng s dng cc phng tin

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php l hay chnh tr; mt cuc cch mng chnh tr ch c th dn n mt nhm cc nh cai tr nhng ng cho mt nhm khc - ch l s thay i cc c nhn nhng ngi hot ng vi t cch cc nh cai tr. Ch c s tin ho ca bn cht nm di lm c s, thc ti kinh t, c th to ra bt c s thay i bn cht hay tht s no - mt cuc cch mng x hi. V ch khi mt cuc cch mng x hi nh vy tr thnh hin thc, ch khi mt cuc cch mng chnh tr mi c th c bt c tm quan trng no. Nhng ngay c trong trng hp ny, cch mng chnh tr ch l biu l b ngoi ca s thay i bn cht hay tht s xy ra trc ri. Ph hp vi l thuyt ny, Marx khng nh rng mi cuc cch mng x hi pht trin theo cch sau. Cc iu kin vt cht ca sn xut tng ln v chn mui cho n lc chng bt u mu thun vi cc quan h x hi v php l, pht trin nhanh hn chng nh thn th lm qun o cht, cho n lc chng b rch bung. Khi mt thi i ca cch mng x hi m ra, Marx vit. Vi s thay i v nn tng kinh t, ton b kin trc thng tng mnh mng t nhiu nhanh chng bin i .. Cc quan h mi, hu ch hn nhiu (trong phm vi kin trc thng tng) khng bao gi tr thnh hin thc trc khi cc iu kin vt cht cho s tn ti ca chng dn n s chn mui trong lng ca bn thn x hi c. Cn c vo khng nh ny, ti tin, l khng th ng nht Cch mng Nga vi cch mng x hi c Marx tin tri; thc ra, n chng h c s ging nhau no14. C th lu trong mi quan h ny rng bn ca Marx, nh th H. Heine, ngh hon ton khc v cc vn ny. iu ny, nhng con ngi hnh ng, ng vit; cc ngi chng l g ngoi cc cng c v tnh ca cc nh t tng nhng ngi, thng ni ho lnh xong xnh nht, ch nh cc ngi n nhim v khng th trnh c ca cc ngi. Maximilian Robespierre ch l cnh tay ca Jean-Jacques Rousseau ..15 (Ci g ging th c l c th ni v quan h gia Lenin v Marx). Chng ta thy rng, theo thut ng ca Marx, Heine l mt nh duy tm ch ngha, v ng p dng din gii duy tm ch ngha ca mnh v lch s i vi Cch mng Php, cuc cch mng ny l mt trong cc th d quan trng nht c Marx dng ng h ch ngha kinh t ca ng, v qu thc c v khp vi hc thuyt ny khng n ni ti - c bit nu chng ta so snh n by gi vi Cch mng Nga. Th m bt chp s d gio ny, Heine vn l bn ca Marx16; v trong nhng ngy hnh phc , vic rt php thng cng v d gio vn kh t thy gia nhng ngi chin u v x hi m, v s khoan dung vn cn c dung th.

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Ph phn ca ti i vi ch ngha duy vt lch s ca Marx nht nh khng c din gii nh s by t bt c s a thch ch ngha duy tm Hegelian hn ch ngha duy vt ca Marx; ti hi vng ti lm r rng trong cuc xung t ny gia ch ngha duy tm v ch ngha duy vt thin cm ca ti l cho Marx. Ci ti mun chng t l s din gii duy vt ch ngha v lch s, du c th c gi tr, khng c coi l qu nghim tc; rng chng ta phi coi n chng hn g mt gi c gi tr i vi chng ta xem xt cc s vt trong quan h ca chng vi nn tng kinh t ca chng.

CHNG 16: CC GIAI CP Li tuyn b Lch s ca mi x hi tn ti cho n nay l lch s ca u tranh giai cp1 ca Marx (v Engels) chim mt v tr quan trng gia cc cch trnh by khc nhau ca ch ngha duy vt lch s ca ng. Xu hng ca tuyn b ny l r. N hm rng lch s c y v s phn ca con ngi c quyt nh bi chin tranh giai cp v khng phi bi chin tranh ca cc quc gia (ngc vi quan im ca Hegel v ca a s cc s gia). Trong gii thch nhn qu ca cc din tin lch s, bao gm cc cuc chin tranh dn tc, li ch giai cp phi ly ch ca ci c coi l li ch quc gia, trn thc t, ch l li ch ca giai cp thng tr ca mt quc gia. Nhng ngoi iu ny ra, u tranh giai cp v li ch giai cp c kh nng gii thch cc hin tng m lch s truyn thng ni chung thm ch khng th gii thch. Mt th d v mt hin tng nh vy, c ngha ln i vi l thuyt Marxist l xu hng lch s tin n tng nng sut. Cho d c l n c th ghi chp mt xu hng nh vy, lch s truyn thng, vi phm tr c bn ca n v sc mnh qun s, l hon ton khng c kh nng gii thch hin tng ny. Theo Marx, li ch giai cp v chin tranh giai cp, tuy vy, c th gii thch n hon ton; qu thc, mt phn ng k ca T bn c dnh cho phn tch c ch theo mt s gia tng nng sut do cc lc ny gy ra trong mt thi k m Marx gi l ch ngha t bn. Hc thuyt v chin tranh giai cp lin h ra sao vi hc thuyt trng th ch v tnh t tr ca x hi hc c tho lun trc2? Thot nhn c v l hai hc thuyt ny mu thun nhau r rng, v trong hc thuyt v chin tranh giai cp, li ch giai cp ng mt vai tr c bn, m li ch giai cp hnh nh l mt loi ng c (motive). Nhng ti khng ngh l c bt c s thiu nht qun nghim trng no trong phn ny ca l thuyt ca Marx. V thm ch ti phi ni rng khng ai hiu Marx, v c bit hiu thnh tu chnh ca ng, phn-ch ngha tm l, m li l ngi khng thy n c th ho gii ra sao vi l thuyt v u tranh giai cp. Chng ta khng cn gi s, nh cc nh Marxist Dung tc gi s, rng li ch giai cp phi c din gii mt cch tm l. C th c vi on trong cc tc phm ring ca Marx phng pht mt cht ch ngha Marx Dung tc ny, nhng bt c u ng dng nghim tc bt c th g ging li ch giai cp, ng lun c ni mt th trong phm vi ca lnh vc x hi hc t tr, v khng phi mt phm tr tm l hc. ng ni mt s vt, mt tnh hung, v khng phi mt trng thi tinh thn,

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mt ngh, hay mt cm gic ang quan tm n mt s vt. N n gin l s vt, hay nh ch x hi hay tnh hnh thun li cho mt giai cp. Li ch ca mt giai cp n gin l tt c mi th thc y sc mnh ca n hay s pht t ca n. Theo Marx, li ch giai cp theo ngha th ch, hay khch quan ny, nu ta c th ni vy, c mt nh hng quyt nh ln tm tr con ngi. Dng bit ng Hegelian, ta c th ni rng li ch khch quan ca mt giai cp tr thnh c thc trong tm tr ch quan ca cc thnh vin ca n; n bin h thnh ngi quan tm n giai cp v gic ng giai cp, v n lm cho h hnh ng mt cch ph hp. Li ch giai cp l mt hon cnh th ch hay khch quan x hi, v nh hng ca n ln tm tr con ngi, c Marx m t li d dm m ti trch dn ( u chng 14): Khng phi thc ca con ngi l ci xc nh s tn ti ca anh ta ng hn, chnh s tn ti x hi ca anh ta l ci xc nh thc ca anh ta. i vi li d dm ny ta ch cn a thm nhn xt rng n, chnh xc hn, l v tr ni con ngi ng trong x hi, hon cnh giai cp l ci, theo ch ngha Marx, quyt nh thc ca anh ta. Marx cho ch bo no v qu trnh quyt nh ny hot ng ra sao. Nh chng ta bit t ng chng trc, chng ta c th l t do ch chng mc chng ta gii phng mnh khi qu trnh sn xut. Nhng by gi ta s thy rng, trong bt c x hi no tn ti cho n nay, chng ta khng c t do mc y. V lm sao ta c th, ng hi, gii phng mnh khi qu trnh sn xut? Ch bng khin nhng ngi khc lm cng vic bn thu thay chng ta. Nh th chng ta buc phi dng h nh cc phng tin cho cc mc ch ca mnh; chng ta phi h thp danh gi ca h. Chng ta c th mua mt mc t do ln hn ch vi ci gi bt ngi khc lm n l, bng chia tch nhn loi thnh cc giai cp; giai cp thng tr nhn c quyn t do vi ci gi ca giai cp b tr, cc n l. Nhng s thc ny c h qu rng cc thnh vin ca giai cp thng tr phi tr gi cho quyn t do ca h bng mt loi l thuc mi. H nht nh p bc v u tranh vi ngi b tr, nu h mun duy tr quyn t do ring ca h v a v ring ca h; h buc phi lm iu ny, v ngi khng lm vy s thi khng thuc v giai cp thng tr. Nh vy cc nh cai tr c tnh hnh giai cp ca h quyt nh; h khng th trn thot quan h x hi ca h vi ngi b tr; h b gn vo nhng ngi , v h b gn vo s trao i cht x hi. Nh th mi ngi, cc nh cai tr cng nh nhng k b tr, b mc vo ci li, v buc phi chin u vi nhau. Theo Marx, chnh s l thuc ny, s xc nh ny, l ci a cuc u tranh ca h vo tm vi ca phng php

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khoa hc, v ca tin tri lch s mt cch khoa hc; l ci lm cho c th xem xt lch s x hi mt cch khoa hc, nh lch s ca u tranh giai cp. Tm li x hi ny trong cc giai cp b mc vo, v buc phi u tranh vi nhau, l ci ch ngha Marx gi l cu trc kinh t ca x hi, hay h thng x hi. Theo l thuyt ny, cc h thng x hi hay cc h thng giai cp thay i vi cc iu kin sn xut, v cch m cc nh cai tr c th bc lt v chin u vi nhng ngi b tr ph thuc vo cc iu kin ny. Tng ng vi mi giai on pht trin kinh t c bit c mt h thng x hi c bit, v mt thi k lch s c m t c trng tt nht bng h thng x hi v cc giai cp ca n; y l v sao chng ta ni v ch ngha phong kin, ch ngha t bn, v.v. Ci xay tay, Marx vit3, cho ta mt x hi vi vua cha phong kin; ci xay hi nc cho ta mt x hi vi nh t bn cng nghip. Cc quan h giai cp c trng cho h thng x hi l c lp vi ch ca tng cc c nhn. H thng x hi nh th ging nh mt chic my khng l trong cc c nhn b mc vo v b nt. Trong sn xut x hi ca cc phng tin tn ti ca h, Marx vit4, con ngi tham gia vo cc mi quan h xc nh v khng trnh khi, cc quan h c lp vi ch ca h. Cc quan h sn xut ny tng ng vi giai on pht trin c bit ca cc lc lng sn xut ca h. H thng ca tt c cc quan h sn xut ny to thnh kt cu kinh t ca x hi, tc l h thng x hi. Mc d c mt loi logic ring ca n, h thng x hi ny hot ng mt cch m qung, khng hp l. Nhng ngi b mc vo c my ca n, ni chung, cng ui m- hay gn th. H thm ch khng th thy trc mt vi trong cc h qu quan trng nht ca cc hnh ng ca h. Mt ngi c th lm cho nhiu ngi khng th kim c mt mt hng sn c vi s lng ln; ng ta c th mua ch mt th lt vt v v th cn mt s gim gi nh mt thi im gay go. Ngi khc do lng nhn t c th phn pht ca ci ca mnh, nhng nh th gp phn lm gim u tranh giai cp, ng ta c th gy ra s chm tr trong gii phng nhng ngi b p bc. V l hon ton khng th thy trc cc hu qu xa hn ca cc hnh ng ca chng ta, v mi v tt c chng ta u b mc vo tm li, chng ta khng th th mt cch nghim tc i ph vi n. Hin nhin chng ta khng th nh hng n n t bn ngoi; nhng v chng ta m qung, chng ta khng th thm ch a ra bt c k hoch no ci thin n t bn trong. K thut x hi l khng th c c, v cng ngh x hi v vy l v ch. Chng ta khng th p t li ch ca chng ta ln h thng x hi; thay vo , h thng p t

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ln chng ta ci khin chng ta tin l li ch ca mnh. N lm vy bng cch buc chng ta hnh ng ph hp vi li ch giai cp ca chng ta. V ch i li v bt cng, v tnh tri o c ca cc iu kin x hi, cho c nhn, ngay c cho ring nh t bn hay nh t sn, v chnh h thng cc iu kin ny l ci buc nh t bn hnh ng nh ng ta lm. V cng v ch i hi vng rng hon cnh c th c ci thin bng ci thin con ngi; ng hn, con ngi s tt hn nu h thng trong h sng l tt hn. Ch trong chng mc, Marx vit trong T bn5, nh t bn l t bn c nhn cch ho th ng ta mi ng mt vai tr lch s .. Nhng chnh xc mc , ng c ca ng ta khng phi l nhn v hng th cc hng ho hu ch, m l tng sn xut cc hng ho cho trao i (nhim v lch s tht s ca ng ta). C thin hng cung tn m rng gi tr, ng ta nhn tm y con ngi i sn xut v mc ch sn xut .. Vi k keo kit, ng ta chia s nim say m ca ci. Nhng ci l mt loi chng cung mt k keo kit th nh t bn l kt qu ca c ch x hi trong ng ta ch l mt bnh xe pht ng .. Ch ngha t bn bt bt c c nhn nh t bn no phi l thuc vo cc qui lut ni ti ca sn xut t bn ch ngha, cc qui lut nm ngoi [h] v cng bc. Khng ngi ngh, cnh tranh buc ng ta m rng t bn ca mnh v mc ch duy tr n. y l cch trong , theo Marx, h thng x hi quyt nh cc hnh ng ca c nhn; nh cai tr cng nh k b tr; nh t bn hay t sn cng nh ngi v sn. N l mt minh ho ca ci c gi trn l logic ca hon cnh x hi. mt mc ng k, mi hnh ng ca mt nh t bn ch l mt chc nng ca t bn m, qua tnh cng c ca n, c ph cho ch v thc, nh Marx din t6, theo phong cch Hegelian ca ng. Nhng iu ny c ngha rng h thng x hi cng quyt nh c cc t tng ca h na; v cc t tng, hay cc nim, mt phn l cc cng c ca cc hnh ng, v mt phn -tc l, nu chng c biu l cng khai l mt loi quan trng ca hnh ng x hi; v trong trng hp ny, chng c hng trc tip nh hng ln cc hnh ng ca cc thnh vin khc ca x hi. Bng cch quyt nh t tng con ngi nh vy, h thng x hi, v c bit li ch khch quan ca mt giai cp, tr thnh c thc trong tm tr ch quan ca cc thnh vin ca n (nh chng ta ni trc theo bit ng Hegelian7). u tranh giai cp, cng nh cnh tranh gia cc thnh vin ca cng giai cp, l cc phng tin theo iu ny t c. Chng ta thy v sao, theo Marx, k thut x hi, v do , mt cng ngh x hi, l khng th c c; bi v chui nhn qu ca s

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ph thuc gn chng ta vo h thng x hi, ch khng phi ngc li. Nhng tuy chng ta khng th thay i h thng x hi theo mun8, cc nh t bn cng nh nhng ngi lao ng nht thit ng gp vo s bin i ca n, v vo s gii phng cui cng ca chng ta khi xing xch ca n. Bng y con ngi sn xut v mc ch sn xut9, nh t bn p buc h pht trin cc lc lng ca nng sut x hi, v to cc iu kin vt cht ca sn xut m ring chng c th to thnh c s ca mt kiu x hi cao hn m nguyn l c bn ca n l s pht trin y v t do ca mi c nhn con ngi. Theo cch ny, ngay c cc thnh vin ca giai cp t bn phi ng vai tr ca h trn sn khu lch s v thc y s n cui cng ca ch ngha x hi. Cn c vo cc l l sau, mt nhn xt ngn ng c th c a ra y v cc thut ng Marxist thng c dch bng cc t gic nggiai cp v thc giai cp. Cc t ny biu l, trc ht, kt qu ca qu trnh c phn tch trn, theo hon cnh giai cp khch quan (li ch giai cp cng nh u tranh giai cp) thu c thc trong tm tr ca cc thnh vin ca n, hay, trnh by cng t tng bng mt ngn ng t ph thuc hn vo Hegel, theo cc thnh vin ca mt giai cp tr thnh c thc v a v giai cp ca h. C thc giai cp, h bit khng ch v tr ca h m c li ch giai cp tht s ca h na. Nhng ngoi iu ny ra, t gc ting c do Marx s dng gi ci g thng b mt i trong bn dch. Thut ng bt ngun t, v m ch n, mt t ting c thng dng tr thnh mt phn bit ng ca Hegel. Mc d cch dch theo ngha en l t- thc, t gic, t ny trong s dng thng thng thm ch hi c ngha l c thc v gi tr v sc mnh ca mnh, tc l t ho v tin chc vo mnh, v thm ch t tho mn. Do thut ng c dch nh c thc giai cp trong ting c c ngha khng n gin iu ny, m ng hn, tin chc hay t ho v giai cp ca mnh, v gn vi n bi thc v s cn thit on kt. y l v sao Marx v cc nh Marxist p dng n hu nh ch cho nhng ngi lao ng, v hu nh khng bao gi cho giai cp t sn. Ngi v sn c thc giai cp y l ngi lao ng khng ch bit a v giai cp ca mnh, m cng c nim t ho giai cp, hon ton tin chc vo s mnh lch s ca giai cp ca mnh, v tin rng cuc chin u khng nao nng ca n s mang li mt th gii tt p hn. Lm sao anh ta bit rng iu ny s xy ra? V c thc giai cp, anh ta phi l mt nh Marxist. Bn thn l thuyt Marxist v tin tri mang tnh khoa hc ca n v s ra i ca ch ngha x hi l mt phn ca

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qu trnh lch s theo hon cnh giai cp ni ln thnh thc, t xc lp mnh trong tm tr ca nhng ngi lao ng.
II

Ph phn ca ti i vi l thuyt ca Marx v cc giai cp, chng mc m s nhn mnh lch s ch ngha ca n din ra, i theo cc ng hng c tip tc chng trc. Cng thc mi lch s l lch s ca u tranh giai cp l rt c gi tr vi t cch mt gi rng chng ta phi xem xt k vai tr m u tranh giai cp ng trong chnh tr quyn lc cng nh trong cc din tin khc; gi ny cng c gi tr hn v t phn tch xut sc ca Plato v vai tr ca u tranh giai cp trong lch s ca cc th quc Hy Lp ch him khi c tip tc cc thi sau. Nhng li ln na, tt nhin, chng ta khng c coi li ca Marx tt thy qu nghim tc. Ngay c lch s ca cc vn giai cp cng khng lun l lch s u tranh giai cp theo ngha Marxian, xt n vai tr quan trng do s chia r trong ni b bn thn cc giai cp. Qu thc, s khc nhau v li ch trong c giai cp thng tr v cc giai cp b tr i xa n mc l thuyt ca Marx v cc giai cp phi c coi nh mt s qu n gin ho nguy him, cho d chng ta tha nhn rng vn gia ngi giu v ngi ngho lun c tm quan trng c bn. Mt trong cc ch ln ca lch s trung c, cuc u tranh gia cc gio hong v cc hong , l mt th d v s chia r trong ni b giai cp thng tr. R rng l sai i din gii s hc hoc ny nh l u tranh gia ngi bc lt v ngi b bc lt. (Tt nhin, ngi ta c th m rng khi nim giai cp ca Marx bao hm trng hp ny v cc trng hp tng t, v thu hp khi nim lch s, cho n cui cng hc thuyt ca Marx tr thnh ng mt cch tm thng - ch cn l mt tautology [php lp tha]; nhng iu ny s tc mt ca n bt c ngha no). Mt trong nhng mi nguy him ca cng thc ca Marx l nu coi qu nghim tc, n lm lc li cc nh Marxist i n din gii mi xung t chnh tr nh cc cuc u tranh gia nhng k bc lt v nhng ngi b bc lt (hay khc i nh cc n lc che y vn tht, xung t giai cp nm di). Nh mt h qu, c cc nh Marxist, c bit c, nhng ngi din gii mt cuc chin tranh nh Chin tranh Th gii ln Th Nht nh mt cuc chin tranh gi cc nc cch mng hay cc Cng Quc Trung [u] ngho v mt lin minh ca cc nc bo th hay cc nc giu - mt loi din gii c th c dng

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bin minh cho bt c cuc xm lc no. y ch l mt th d v mi nguy him c hu trong s khi qut ho lch s ch ngha bao qut ca Marx. Mt khc, n lc ca ng dng ci c th c gi l logic ca hon cnh giai cp gii thch s hot ng ca cc nh ch ca h thng cng nghip c v i vi ti l ng ca ngi, bt chp nhng cng iu no v s b qua mt s kha cnh quan trng ca tnh hnh; ng ca ngi, ch t, vi t cch mt phn tch x hi hc v giai on ca h thng cng nghip m Marx ch yu ngh n: h thng ca ch ngha t bn v , ch ngha t bn khng b kim ch (nh ti s gi n10) ca mt trm nm trc.

CHNG 17: H THNG PHP L V H THNG X HI By gi chng ta sn sng tip cn ci c l l im ct li nht trong phn tch cng nh trong ph phn ca chng ta i vi ch ngha Marx; l l thuyt ca Marx v nh nc v - du vi mt s ngi nghe c v ngc i - v s bt lc ca mi hot ng chnh tr.
I

L thuyt ca Marx v nh nc c th c trnh by bng kt hp cc kt qu ca hai chng trc. H thng php l hay php l-chnh tr h thng cc th ch php l c nh nc thc thi - phi c hiu, theo Marx, nh mt trong cc kin trc thng tng c dng trn, v biu l cho, cc lc lng sn xut tht s ca h thng kinh t; trong mi quan h ny Marx ni1 v cc kin trc thng tng php l v chnh tr. N, tt nhin, khng phi l cch duy nht trong thc ti kinh t hay vt cht v cc quan h gia cc giai cp tng ng vi n xut hin trong th gii thc h v t tng. Mt th d khc v mt kin trc thng tng c th, theo quan im Marxist, l h thng o c thnh hnh. H thng ny, ngc li vi h thng php l, khng do nh nc thc thi, m c tha nhn bi mt thc h do giai cp thng tr to ra v kim sot. S khc bit, i th, l s khc bit gia thuyt phc v v lc (nh Plato2 c th ni); v nh nc, h thng php l hay chnh tr, l ci dng v lc. Nh Engels3 din t, n l mt v lc n p c bit nhng k cai tr p buc nhng ngi b tr. Quyn lc chnh tr, c gi ng nh th, Tuyn ngn4 ni, ch l quyn lc c t chc ca mt giai cp n p giai cp khc. Lenin5 cho mt m t tng t: Theo Marx, nh nc l mt c quan ca s thng tr giai cp, mt c quan mt giai cp n p giai cp khc; mc ch ca n l to ra mt trt t hp php ho v duy tr mi mi s n p ny .. Nh nc, tm li, ch l mt phn ca c my theo giai cp thng tr tip tc cuc u tranh ca n. Trc khi tip tc trnh by cc h qu ca cch nhn ny v nh nc, c th ch ra rng n l mt l thuyt mt phn mang tnh th ch mt phn mang tnh bn cht lun. N mang tnh th ch chng mc Marx c bit chc cc th ch php l c cc chc nng thc tin no trong i sng x hi. Nhng n mang tnh bn cht lun mc Marx

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khng thm tra tnh a dng ca cc mc ch m cc th ch ny c l c th phc v (hay khin phi phc v), cng chng gi cc ci cch th ch no l cn thit nhm lm cho nh nc phng s cc mc ch m bn thn ng c th cho l ng mong mun. Thay cho a ra cc i hi hay xut ca mnh v cc chc nng m ng mun nh nc, cc th ch php l hay chnh ph thc hin, ng hi Nh nc l g?; tc l, ng th khm ph ra chc nng bn cht ca cc th ch php l. c chng t trc6 rng mt cu hi bn cht lun in hnh nh vy khng th c tr li mt cch tho ng; th nhng cu hi ny, khng nghi ng g, ho hp vi cch tip cn bn cht lun v siu hnh hc ca Marx din gii lnh vc t tng v chun mc nh din mo (b ngoi) ca mt thc ti kinh t. Cc h qu ca l thuyt ny v nh nc l g? H qu quan trng nht l mi hot ng chnh tr, mi th ch php l v chnh tr cng nh mi cuc u tranh chnh tr, chng bao gi c th c tm quan trng hng u. Chnh tr l bt lc. Chng chng bao gi c th thay i thc ti kinh t mt cch quyt nh. Nhim v chnh, nu khng phi l duy nht, ca bt c hot ng chnh tr c soi sng no l thy rng nhng thay i v ci v bc php l-chnh tr theo kp vi nhng thay i v thc ti x hi, tc l, v t liu sn xut v v cc quan h gia cc giai cp; bng cch ny, c th trnh c cc kh khn nht thit ny sinh nu chnh tr tt hu so vi nhng tin trin ny. Hay ni cch khc, cc din tin chnh tr hoc l nng cn, khng c quyt nh bi thc ti su hn ca h thng x hi, trong trng hp n b cho l khng quan trng, v chng bao gi c th l s gip tht s cho ngi b n p v b bc lt; hoc khc i chng biu l mt s thay i v nn tng kinh t v a v giai cp, trong trng hp chng mang c tnh ca s phun tro ni la, ca cc cuc cch mng trn vn nhng ci c l c th c thy trc, v chng ny sinh t h thng x hi, v tnh d di ca chng khi c th c lm nh bt bi s khng khng c cc lc phun tro, nhng hnh ng chnh tr chng gy ra cng khng chn c cc lc . Cc h qu ny li cho thy s thng nht ca h thng t tng lch s ch ngha ca Marx. Th nhng xt rng c t phong tro lm nhiu nh ch ngha Marx kch thch s quan tm n hot ng chnh tr, th l thuyt v s bt lc c bn ca chnh tr t ra hi nghch l. (Cc nh Marxist, tt nhin, c th p ng nhn xt ny bng mt trong hai l l. Mt l, trong l thuyt c trnh by, hot ng chnh tr c chc nng ca n; v cho d bng cc hot ng ca mnh ng lao ng

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khng th ci thin nhiu cho qun chng b bc lt, cuc chin u ca n nh thc thc giai cp v v th chun b cho cch mng. y c th l l l ca cnh cp tin. L l khc, c cnh n ho dng, khng nh rng c th c cc giai on lch s trong hot ng chnh tr c th gip ch trc tip; c th l, cc giai on trong lc ca hai giai cp i lp nhau l gn cn bng. Trong cc giai on nh vy, n lc v nng lc chnh tr c th l quyt nh t nhng ci thin rt ng k cho nhng ngi lao ng. R rng l l l th hai ny hi sinh mt vi lp trng c bn ca l thuyt, nhng do khng bit iu ny, v do m khng i n gc r ca vn ). ng lu l theo l thuyt ca Marx, ng lao ng kh c th phm sai lm chnh tr quan trng no, chng no ng tip tc ng vai c phn ca n, v hng hi thc p cc yu sch ca nhng ngi lao ng. V cc sai lm chnh tr khng th nh hng thit yu n a v giai cp tht s, v thm ch cn t hn n thc ti kinh t m mi th khc cui cng u ph thuc vo. Mt h qu quan trng khc ca l thuyt l, v nguyn tc, mi chnh th, ngay c chnh th dn ch, u l mt nn chuyn chnh ca giai cp thng tr ln giai cp b tr. Hnh php ca nh nc hin i, Tuyn ngn ni7, ch l mt u ban qun l cng vic kinh t ca ton b giai cp t sn .. Ci chng ta gi l mt nn dn ch, theo l thuyt ny, chng l g m l hnh thc chuyn chnh giai cp tnh c l hnh thc thun tin nht mt tnh th lch s nht nh. (L thuyt ny khng ph hp rt tt vi l thuyt cn bng giai cp ca cnh n ho c nhc ti trn). V ht nh nh nc, di ch ngha t bn, l mt nn chuyn chnh ca giai cp t sn, cng th, sau cch mng x hi, ln u tin n s l nn chuyn chnh v sn. Nhng nh nc v sn ny phi mt chc nng ca n ngay khi s khng c ca giai cp t sn gi nua b p tan. V cch mng v sn dn n mt x hi mt giai cp, v v th n mt x hi phi giai cp trong c th khng c nn chuyn chnh giai cp. Nh th nh nc, b tc mt bt c chc nng no, phi bin mt. N teo i, nh Engels ni.8
II

Ti chng h bo v l thuyt ca Marx v nh nc mt cht no. L thuyt ca ng v s bt lc ca mi hot ng chnh tr, c bit hn, v quan im ca ng v nn dn ch, t ra i vi ti khng ch l cc sai lm, m l cc sai lm ch t. Nhng phi tha nhn rng ng ng sau

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cc l thuyt c nghit cng nh ti tnh ny, l mt kinh nghim c nghit v gy phin mun. V mc d, theo ti, Marx khng hiu tng lai m ng mun on trc mt cch sc so n vy, dng nh i vi ti ngay c cc l thuyt sai lm ca ng vn l bng chng v ci nhn thu hiu sc so ca ng vo cc iu kin ca thi ng, v v ch ngha nhn o v tri gic cng bng v ch ca ng. L thuyt ca Marx v nh nc, bt chp tnh cht tru tng v trit l ca n, r rng cung cp mt din gii soi sng v thi k lch s ca ring ng. N ch t l mt cch nhn c th ng vng rng ci gi l cch mng cng nghip u tin din tin ch yu nh mt cuc cch mng v cc phng tin vt cht ca sn xut, tc l v my mc; rng vic ny tip theo dn n mt s bin i kt cu giai cp ca x hi, v nh th n mt h thng x hi mi; v rng cc cuc cch mng chnh tr v nhng bin i khc ca h thng php l n ch nh bc th ba. Cho d din gii Marxist ny v s ni ln ca ch ngha t bn b thch thc bi cc nh lch s nhng ngi c kh nng bc trn mt s nn tng thc h nm su (nhng ci c l khng hon ton b Marx9 nghi ng, tuy mang tnh hu hoi cho l thuyt ca ng), khng c my nghi ng v gi tr ca din gii Marxist vi t cch l s gn ng u tin, v v s gip cho cc mn ca ng trong lnh vc ny. V du cho mt s din tin do Marx nghin cu c cc bin php lp php c v mt cch c ch tm, v qu thc ch lp php lm cho n c th (nh bn thn Marx ni10), chnh ng l ngi u tin tho lun nh hng ca cc din tin kinh t v cc li ch kinh t ln vic lp php, v chc nng ca cc bin php lp php nh v kh trong u tranh giai cp, v c bit nh cc phng tin to ra mt dn c d tha, v vi n, to ra giai cp v sn cng nghip. L r t nhiu on ca Marx rng nhng quan st ny chng thc cho ng v nim tin rng h thng php l-chnh tr ch l mt kin trc thng tng11 trn h thng x hi, tc l h thng kinh t; mt l thuyt, tuy r rng b bc b bi kinh nghim tip sau12, khng ch vn l l th, m, ti gi , cng cha mt cht s tht. Nhng khng ch quan im chung ca Marx v cc quan h gia h thng kinh t v h thng chnh tr b kinh nghim lch s ca ng nh hng theo cch ny; quan im ca ng, c bit hn, v ch ngha t do v nn dn ch, m ng coi chng l g ngoi bc mn che cho ch chuyn ch ca giai cp t sn, cung cp mt din gii v tnh hnh x hi ca thi ng dng nh qu hp vi, v c th ni nh vy, c cng c bi, kinh nghim ng bun. V Marx sng, c bit trong cc

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nm ng cn tr, trong mt thi k bc lt v lim s v tn bo nht. V s bc lt v lim s ny li c bo v mt cch tr tro bi nhng ngi bin h gi nhn gi ngha nhng ngi vin dn n nguyn l v quyn t do ca con ngi, n quyn ca con ngi quyt nh vn mnh ring ca mnh, v t do tham gia vo bt c hp ng no m anh ta coi l c li cho cc li ch ca mnh. Dng khu hiu cnh tranh bnh ng v t do cho mi ngi, ch ngha t bn v ca thi k ny khng c thnh cng mi php ch lao ng cho n 1833, v vic thc thi thc tin ca n cho nhiu nm na13. H qu l mt cuc sng u su v cng cc hu nh ngy nay khng th tng tng ni. c bit l s bc lt ph n v tr em dn n thng kh khng th tin c. y l hai th d, c trch t T bn ca Marx: William Wood, 9 tui, bt u lm vic khi em 7 tui v 9 thng .. Em i lm mi ngy trong tun lc 6 gi sng, v ra v khong 9 gi ti .. Mi lm gi lm vic cho mt a tr 7 tui! mt bo co chnh thc14 ca U ban Vic lm Tr em ca thn nm 1863. Cc em nh khc buc phi bt u lm vic lc 4 gi sng, hay phi lm vic sut m n 6 gi sng, v khng him i vi tr em mi ch su tui b buc lm vic cc nhc 15 gi mi ngy. Mary Anne Walkley lm vic khng ngi 26, 5 gi, cng vi su mi chu gi khc, ba chc a trong mt phng .. Mt bc s, ng Keys, c mi n qu mun, lm chng trc ban iu tra cc v cht bt thng rng Mary Anne Walkley cht v lm vic qu lu trong mt phng qu cht .. Mun ln lp cho ng ny mt cch rng lng, ban iu tra cc v cht bt thng a ra mt phn quyt v mc ch ny rng ngi qu c cht v t qu, nhng c l do e ngi rng ci cht ca chu b vic lm thm qu sc trong mt phng lm vic qu cht y nhanh thm.15 Cc iu kin lm vic ca giai cp lao ng l nh th ngay c vo nm 1863, khi Marx vit T bn; s phn i bc la ca ng chng li cc ti cc ny, m khi li c dung th, v i khi thm ch c bo v, khng ch bi cc nh kinh t chuyn nghip m c bi nhng ngi trong gio hi, s m bo cho ng mi mi mt v tr gia nhng ngi gii phng nhn loi. Cn c vo cc kinh nghim nh vy, chng ta khng cn ngc nhin rng Marx khng ngh v ch ngha t do rt cao qu, v rng ng thy nn dn ch ngh vin chng g ngoi s chuyn chnh c che y ca giai cp t sn. V l d i vi ng din gii cc s thc ny nh h tr cho phn tch ca ng v quan h gia h thng php l v h thng x hi. Theo h thng php l, bnh ng v quyn t do c xc

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lp, ch t mt cch gn ng. Nhng iu ny c ngha g trong thc t! Qu thc, chng ta khng c li cho Marx v s nhn mnh rng ch ring cc s kin kinh t l thc v h thng php l c th ch l mt kin trc thng tng n thun, mt ci mn che thc t ny, v l mt cng c ca s thng tr giai cp. S i lp gia h thng php l v h thng x hi c trnh by r nht trong T bn. mt trong cc phn l thuyt ca n (c tho lun y hn chng 20), Marx tip cn s phn tch h thng kinh t t bn ch ngha bng dng gi thit n gin ho v l tng ho rng h thng php l l hon ho trong mi kha cnh. Quyn t do, bnh ng trc php lut, cng l, tt c u c gi s c m bo cho tt c mi ngi. Khng c cc giai cp c quyn no trc php lut. Ngoi iu ra, ng gi s rng ngay c trong lnh vc kinh t khng c bt c s n cp no; ng gi s rng mt gi cng bng c tr cho mi mt hng, k c sc lao ng m cng nhn bn cho nh t bn trn th trng lao ng. Gi cho tt c cc mt hng ny l cng bng, theo ngha rng mi mt hng c mua v bn theo t l vi lng lao ng trung bnh cn cho ti sn xut ra chng (hay dng thut ng ca Marx, chng c mua v bn theo gi tr tht ca chng16). Tt nhin, Marx bit rng tt c iu ny l mt s qu n gin ho, v kin ca ng rng cc cng nhn hu nh cha tng c i x cng bng nh th; ni cch khc, h thng b la. Nhng l l t cc tin l tng ho ny, ng c gng chng minh rng ngay c di mt h thng php l tuyt vi nh vy, h thng kinh t vn hot ng theo cch m cc cng nhn khng th c kh nng hng quyn t do ca h. Bt chp tt c cng l ny, h c th khng my kh hn cc n l17. V nu h ngho, h ch c th bn bn thn h, v con h trn th trng lao ng, vi gi cn thit ti to sc lao ng ca h. Tc l, cho ton b sc lao ng ca h, h s khng nhn c nhiu hn mc sng ti thiu nht. iu ny chng t rng s bc lt khng ch l s n cp. N khng th c loi b ch bng cc phng tin php l. (V ph phn ca Proudhon rng ti sn l k trm l qu nng cn18). Do kt qu ca vic ny, dn Marx i n tin rng cc cng nhn khng th hi vng nhiu t s ci thin ca mt h thng php l m mi ngi u bit l h thng ban u nhau cho ngi giu v k ngho quyn t do ng trn gh bng [ cng vin], v e do h u nhau vi s trng pht cho n lc sng m khng c cc phng tin h tr hu hnh. Theo cch ny Marx i n ci c th c gi (bng ngn ng Hegelian) l s phn bit gia quyn t do hnh thc v quyn t do

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vt cht. Quyn t do hnh thc19 hay php l, mc d Marx khng nh gi n thp, ho ra l hon ton khng m bo cho chng ta quyn t do m ng coi l mc ch ca s pht trin lch s ca nhn loi. Ci c ngha l quyn t do tht, tc l quyn t do kinh t hay vt cht. iu ny c th t c ch bng s gii phng u nhau khi cng vic nng nhc. Cho s gii phng ny, vic ct ngn ngy lm vic l iu kin tin quyt c bn.
III

Chng ta phi ni g v phn tch ca Marx? Chng ta phi tin rng chnh tr, hay khung kh ca cc th ch php l, l thc cht bt lc cu cha mt tnh hnh nh vy, v rng ch mt cuc cch mng x hi ton din, mt s thay i hon ton v h thng x hi, mi c th cu cha? Hay chng ta phi tin nhng ngi bo v mt h thng t bn ch ngha v , nhng ngi nhn mnh (ti ngh mt cch ng n) rng li ch rt to ln phi thu c t c ch ca cc th trng t do, v h kt lun t iu ny rng mt th trng lao ng t do tht s c th c ch li ln nht cho tt c nhng ngi lin quan? Ti tin rng s bt cng v tnh v nhn o ca ch ngha t bn v do Marx m t l khng th b nghi ng; nhng n c th c din gii bng ci chng ta gi, mt chng trc20, l nghch l v quyn t do. Quyn t do, nh chng ta thy, t th tiu mnh, nu n khng b hn ch. Quyn t do v hn c ngha l mt k mnh t do c hip ngi yu v cp mt quyn t do ca anh ta. y l l do v sao chng ta i nh nc phi hn ch quyn t do mt mc nht nh, sao cho quyn t do ca mi ngi c lut php bo v. Khng ai b ph mc cho nhng ngi khc nh ot, m tt c mi ngi phi c quyn c nh nc bo v. M ti tin rng nhng cn nhc ny, khi u c p dng cho lnh vc v lc, hm do bo lc, phi c p dng c cho lnh vc kinh t na. Cho d nh nc c bo v cc cng dn ca mnh khi b bo lc c hip (nh n lm, v nguyn tc, di ch ngha t bn v ), n c th lm tiu tan cc mc ch ca chng ta do n tht bi trong bo v h khi s lm dng ca quyn lc kinh t. Trong mt nh nc nh vy, k mnh v kinh t vn t do c hip ngi yu v mt kinh t, v cp mt quyn t do ca anh ta. Trong cc hon cnh ny, quyn t do kinh t v hn c th t-tht bi ht nh quyn t do thn th v hn, v quyn lc kinh t c th cng gn nguy him nh bo lc; v nhng ngi c d

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tha thc phm c th buc nhng ngi i vo mt tnh trng n l c chp nhn mt cch t do, m khng s dng bo lc. V gi s rng nh nc gii hn cc hot ng ca n ngn chn bo lc (v bo v ti sn), mt thiu s mnh v kinh t bng cch ny c th bc lt a s nhng ngi yu v kinh t. Nu phn tch ny l ng21, th bn tnh ca vic cu cha l r. N phi l mt s cu cha chnh tr - mt s cu cha tng t nh ci ta dng chng li bo lc. Chng ta phi xy dng cc th ch x hi, c thc thi bng sc mnh ca nh nc, bo v nhng ngi yu v kinh t khi nhng k mnh v kinh t. Nh nc phi lo liu khng ai phi tham gia vo mt dn xp bt cng bng do s cht i, hay ph sn kinh t. iu ny, tt nhin, c ngha l phi t b nguyn l khng can thip ca h thng kinh t khng b kim ch [v ]; nu chng ta mun quyn t do c bo v, th chng ta phi i chnh sch v quyn t do kinh t v c thay th bng chnh sch can thip kinh t c k hoch ca nh nc. Chng ta i rng ch ngha t bn v nhng ng cho mt ch ngha can thip kinh t 22. V y chnh xc l ci xy ra. H thng kinh t do Marx m t v b ng ph phn ngng tn ti mi ni. N c thay th, khng phi bng mt h thng trong nh nc bt u mt cc chc nng ca n v do c cc du hiu teo i, m bng cc h thng can thip ch ngha khc nhau, trong cc chc nng ca nh nc trong lnh vc kinh t m rng vt xa s bo v ti sn v cc hp ng t do. (S pht trin ny s c tho lun cc chng tip).
IV

Ti mun c trng im t n y nh im quan trng trung tm nht ca phn tch ca chng ta. Ch y chng ta mi c th bt u hiu r tm quan trng ca s va chm gia ch ngha lch s v k thut x hi, v nh hng ca n ln chnh sch ca cc bn hu ca x hi m. Ch ngha Marx i l nhiu hn mt khoa hc. N lm nhiu hn l a ra mt tin tri lch s. N i l c s cho hnh ng chnh tr thc tin. N ph phn x hi hin tn, v n khng nh rng n c th dn ng n mt th gii tt hn. Nhng theo l thuyt ring ca Marx, chng ta khng th tu thay i thc ti kinh t, th d, bng cc ci cch php l. Chnh tr khng th lm nhiu hn vic ct ngn v gim nh cn au .23 y, ti ngh, l mt cng lnh chnh tr cc k ti, v

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s ngho nn ca n l h qu ca v tr th ba m n qui cho quyn lc chnh tr trong th bc quyn lc. Theo Marx, quyn lc tht s nm s tin ho ca my mc; quan trng k tip l h thng cc mi quan h giai cp v kinh t v nh hng quan trng t nht l ca chnh tr. Mt quan im i lp hon ton c ng trong lp trng m chng ta t ti trong phn tch ca mnh. N coi quyn lc chnh tr l c bn. Quyn lc chnh tr, t quan im ny, c th kim sot quyn lc kinh t. iu ny c ngha l mt s m rng bao la ca lnh vc hot ng chnh tr. Chng ta c th hi chng ta mun t ci g v t n ra sao. Chng ta c th, th d, pht trin mt cng lnh chnh tr bo v nhng ngi yu v mt kinh t. Chng ta c th a ra lut hn ch bc lt. Chng ta c th gii hn ngy lm vic; nhng chng ta c th lm nhiu hn nhiu. Bng lut, chng ta c th bo him cho ngi lao ng (hay tt hn, cho mi cng dn) phng tn tt, tht nghip v tui gi. Bng cch ny chng ta c th lm cho khng th c cc hnh thc bc lt nh da vo v th kinh t bt lc ca ngi lao ng ngi phi chu mi th khi b cht i. V khi bng lut chng ta c kh nng m bo mt k sinh nhai cho tt c mi ngi mun lm vic, v khng c l do v sao chng ta li khng t iu , th s bo v quyn t do ca cng dn khi ni s kinh t v s e do kinh t s t trn vn. T quan im ny, quyn lc chnh tr l cha kho cho s bo v kinh t. Quyn lc chnh tr v s kim sot ca n l ci quan trng bc nht. Quyn lc kinh t khng c php ch ng quyn lc chnh tr; nu cn thit, phi chin u v a n di s kim sot ca quyn lc chnh tr. T quan im t, chng ta c th ni rng thi coi r quyn lc chnh tr khng ch c ngha l ng sao lng vic pht trin mt l thuyt v cc phng tin tim nng quan trng nht ci thin s phn ca ngi yu v kinh t, m ng cng b mc mi nguy him tim tng ln nht i vi quyn t do con ngi. Quan im u tr ca ng rng, trong mt x hi phi giai cp, quyn lc nh nc s mt chc nng ca n v teo i chng t rt r l ng chng bao gi nm c nghch l v quyn t do, v ng chng bao gi hiu chc nng m quyn lc nh nc c th v phi thc hin, nhm phng s quyn t do v nhn loi. (D sao quan im ny ca Marx l bng chng cho s thc rng ng, cui cng, l mt nh c nhn ch ngha, bt chp li ku gi tp th ch ngha ca ng v gic ng giai cp). Theo cch ny, quan im Marxian l ging vi lng tin t do (liberal) rng tt c ci chng ta cn l bnh ng v c hi. Chc chn chng ta cn iu ny. Nhng n l khng

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. N khng bo v nhng ngi t c nng khiu, hay t nhn tm, hay t may mn khi tr thnh cc i tng bc lt cho nhng ngi c nng khiu hn, hay nhn tm hn, hay may mn hn. Hn na, t quan im chng ta t c, ci m cc nh Marxist m t mt cch mit th nh ch l quyn t do hnh thc tr thnh c s ca tt c mi th khc. Quyn t do hnh thc n thun ny, tc l nn dn ch, quyn ca nhn dn phn x v sa thi chnh ph ca h, l cng c c bit n duy nht theo chng ta c th th bo v chnh mnh chng li s lm dng quyn lc chnh tr24; l s kim sot ca nhng ngi b tr i vi nhng ngi cai tr. Khng c s kim sot dn ch, khng th c l do trn tc no v sao bt c chnh ph no li khng s dng quyn lc chnh tr v kinh t ca n cho cc mc ch rt khc vi s bo v quyn t do ca cc cng dn ca n.
V

Chnh vai tr c bn ca quyn t do hnh thc m cc nh Marxist b qua, h ngh rng nn dn ch hnh thc l khng v mun b sung n bng ci h thng gi l nn dn ch kinh t; mt li ni m h v hon ton hi ht lm lu m s thc rng quyn t do hnh thc n thun l m bo duy nht ca chnh sch kinh t dn ch. Marx khm ph ra tm quan trng ca quyn lc kinh t; v c th hiu c rng ng cng iu a v ca n. ng v cc nh Marxist thy quyn lc kinh t mi ni. L l ca h l: ngi c tin l ngi c quyn lc; v nu cn thit, hn c th mua sng v thm ch mua bn k cp. Nhng y l mt l l quanh co. Thc ra, n hm cha mt s th nhn rng ngi c sng l ngi c quyn lc. V nu hn k c sng li bit iu ny, th chng bao lu cho n khi hn c c sng ln tin. Nhng di ch ngha t bn v , l l ca Marx l thch hp, mc no ; v mt s cai tr ch pht trin cc th ch kim sot sng v bn k cp nhng khng kim sot quyn lc ca tin hn c th ri vo nh hng ca quyn lc ny. Trong mt nh nc nh vy, mt ch ngha k cp khng b kim sot v ca ci c th thng tr. Nhng bn thn Marx, ti ngh, c th l ngi u tin tha nhn rng iu ny khng ng vi mi nh nc; rng c cc thi k trong lch s khi, th d, mi s bc lt l s cp bc, da trc tip vo sc mnh ca bn tay st. V ngy nay s c t ngi i ng h quan im u tr rng s tin b ca lch s mt ln v mi mi chm dt nhng cch bc lt ngi trc tip hn ny, v rng, mt khi quyn t do hnh

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thc c thit lp, l khng th i vi chng ta li ri vo s thng tr ca cc hnh thc bc lt th thin nh vy. Nhng cn nhc ny c th l bc b hc thuyt gio iu rng sc mnh kinh t l c bn hn sc mnh c th, hay hn quyn lc ca nh nc. Nhng cng c cc cn nhc khc. Nh c nhn mnh ng n bi nhiu tc gi (trong s h c Bertrand Russell v Walter Lippmann25), chnh ch s can thip tch cc ca nh nc - s bo v ti sn bng lut php vi nhng trng pht v lc ng ng sau l ci lm cho ca ci l mt ngun tim tng v quyn lc; v khng c s can thip ny, mt ngi s mau chng tr nn khng c s giu c ca mnh. Quyn lc kinh t v th hon ton ph thuc vo quyn lc chnh tr v sc mnh c th. Russell cho cc th d lch s minh ho cho s ph thuc ny, v i khi ngay c tnh trng bt lc ca s giu c: Quyn lc kinh t trong phm vi nh nc, ng vit26, mc d cui cng xut pht t lut v cng lun, d dng c c mt s c lp nht nh. N c th nh hng n lut php bng hi l v n d lun bng tuyn truyn. N c th t cc chnh tr gia di nhng s chu n nhng ci cn tr quyn t do ca h. N c th e do gy ra mt khng hong ti chnh. Nhng c cc gii hn rt r rng cho ci n c th t c. Csar c cc ch n ca ng gip ln nm quyn, nhng ngi khng thy hi vng no v vic tr n tr thng qua thnh cng ca ng; nhng sau khi thnh cng ng ta mnh thch h. Charles V vay nhng ngi Fugger s tin cn mua a v Hong , nhng sau khi tr thnh Hong ng phy tay vo h v h mt s tin cho vay. Gio l rng quyn lc kinh t l gc r ca mi ci xu phi b vt b. N phi nhng ch cho mt s hiu bit v cc mi nguy him ca bt c hnh thc quyn lc khng c kim sot no. Tin nh n vn l khng c bit nguy him. N tr nn nguy him ch nu n c th mua quyn lc, hoc trc tip, hay bng n dch ho nhng ngi yu v kinh t nhng ngi phi bn bn thn mnh sng. Chng ta phi ngh v cc vn ny di dng vt cht, c th ni nh th, thm ch hn c Marx ngh. Chng ta phi nhn ra rng kim sot v lc v s bc lt th cht vn l vn chnh tr trung tm. thit lp s kim sot ny, chng ta phi thit lp quyn t do hnh thc n thun. Mt khi chng ta xc lp quyn ny, v hc c s dng n th no kim sot quyn lc chnh tr, th mi th tu thuc vo chng ta. Chng ta khng cn c li cho bt k ai khc na, cng chng c go tht chng li ma qu kinh t c c hu trng.

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V trong mt nn dn ch, chng ta nm cc cha kho kim sot l ma qu. Chng ta c th thun phc chng. Chng ta phi hiu r iu ny v s dng cc cha kho; chng ta phi xy dng cc th ch cho kim sot dn ch i vi quyn lc kinh t, v cho s bo v chng ta khi s bc lt kinh t. Cc nh Marxist ch nho nhiu v kh nng mua phiu bu, hoc trc tip hay bng tuyn truyn. Nhng xem xt k hn cho thy rng y chng ta c mt th d tt v hon cnh chnh tr-quyn lc c phn tch trn. Mt khi chng ta t c quyn t do hnh thc, chng ta c th kim sot vic mua phiu bu trong mi dng. C cc lut hn ch chi tiu v vn ng bu c, v hon ton tu thuc vo chng ta thy rng cc lut nghim ngt hn nhiu thuc loi ny c a ra27. H thng php l c th bin thnh mt cng c hng mnh bo v chnh n. Ngoi ra, chng ta c th nh hng n d lun, v nht quyt v mt quy tc o c cng nhc hn nhiu trong cc vn chnh tr. Tt c iu ny chng ta c th lm; nhng u tin chng ta phi nhn ra rng k thut x hi thuc loi ny l nhim v ca chng ta, rng n nm trong nng lc ca chng ta, v rng ta khng c i cc cuc ng t kinh t to ra mt th gii kinh t mi mt cch k diu cho chng ta, nh th tt c ci chng ta cn lm s l ko tm vi che n xung, loi b mt n chnh tr c rch.
VI

Tt nhin, trong thc tin cc nh Marxist khng bao gi da hon ton vo hc thuyt v s bt lc ca quyn lc chnh tr. Chng no h c c hi hnh ng, hay tr tnh hnh ng, h thng, ging bt k ai khc, cho rng quyn lc chnh tr c th c dng kim sot quyn lc kinh t. Nhng cc k hoch v hnh ng ca h chng bao gi da vo mt s bc b r rng l thuyt gc ca h, cng chng da vo bt c quan im c cn nhc k no v vn c bn nht ca mi hot ng chnh tr: kim sot ngi i kim sot, v s tch t nguy him ca quyn lc do nh nc i din. H chng bao gi hiu r y tm quan trng ca nn dn ch nh phng tin c bit n duy nht t c s kim sot ny. Nh mt h qu h khng bao gi nhn ra mi nguy him c hu trong mt chnh sch lm tng quyn lc ca nh nc. Mc d t nhiu h v tnh t b hc thuyt v s bt lc ca chnh tr, h gi li quan im cho rng quyn lc nh nc khng gy ra vn quan trng, v n l xu ch khi nm trong tay giai cp t sn. H khng nhn ra rng mi

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quyn lc, v quyn lc chnh tr ch t cng nhiu nh quyn lc kinh t, l nguy him. Nh th h gi li cng thc v chuyn chnh v sn. H khng hiu nguyn l (so chng 8) rng tt c cc hot ng chnh tr tm ln u phi mang tnh th ch, khng phi tnh c nhn; v khi ngu trang s m rng quyn lc nh nc (ngc vi quan im ca Marx v nh nc) h khng bao gi xt n rng cc c nhn xu mt ngy no s nm c cc quyn lc m rng ny. y l mt phn ca l do v sao, chng mc h tin hnh cn nhc s can thip ca nh nc, h tr tnh cho nh nc quyn lc hu nh v hn trong lnh vc kinh t. H gi li lng tin chnh th lun v Khng tng ca Marx rng ch mt h thng x hi mi toanh mi c th ci thin c tnh hnh. Ti ph phn cch tip cn Khng tng v Lng mn ny i vi k thut [ci bin] x hi mt chng trc (chng 9). Nhng ti mun ni thm y rng s can thip kinh t, ngay c cc phng php tng phn c ng h y, s c khuynh hng tng quyn lc ca nh nc. Ch ngha can thip v th l cc k nguy him. y khng phi l mt l l quyt nh chng li n; quyn lc nh nc hn lun vn l mt ci xu nguy him mc d cn thit. Nhng phi l mt li cnh bo rng nu chng ta li l cnh gic, v nu chng ta khng tng cng cc th ch dn ch, m li cho nh nc nhiu quyn lc hn bng k hoch ho can thip ch ngha, th chng ta c th mt quyn t do ca mnh. V nu quyn t do b mt, mi th u b mt, k c k hoch ho. V ti sao li phi thc hin cc k hoch cho phc li ca nhn dn nu nhn dn khng c quyn lc buc thc thi chng? Ch c quyn t do c th lm cho an ninh c m bo. Nh th chng ta thy rng khng ch c nghch l v t do m c nghch l v k hoch ho nh nc. Nu chng ta lp k hoch qu nhiu, nu chng ta cho nh nc qu nhiu quyn lc, th quyn t do s b mt, v s l s kt liu ca k hoch ho. Cc cn nhc nh vy dn ta quay li s bin h ca chng ta cho cc phng php k thut x hi tng phn v chng li phng php k thut x hi Khng tng hay chnh th lun. V chng a ta quay li vi i hi ca chng ta rng phi d tnh cc bin php nh lui nhng ci xu c th hn l i thit lp l tng tt no . S can thip nh nc phi c gii hn nhng ci tht s cn thit bo v quyn t do. Nhng l khng i ni rng gii php ca chng ta phi l mt gii php ti thiu; rng chng ta phi cnh gic; v rng chng ta khng c cho nh nc nhiu quyn lc hn mc cn thit bo v quyn t do. Cc nhn xt ny c th nu ra cc vn , nhng chng khng ch

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ra con ng ti mt li gii. Thm ch c th hnh dung l khng c li gii; rng vic nh nc ginh c cc quyn lc kinh t mi m cc quyn lc ca n, so vi cc quyn lc ca cng dn, l lun ln mt cch nguy him - s lm cho n khng cng ni. Cho n y, chng ta khng chng t c rng quyn t do c th c duy tr, cng chng chng t c n c th c duy tr ra sao. Trong cc hon cnh ny c th hu ch nh li nhng cn nhc ca chng ta chng 7 lin quan n vn v kim sot quyn lc chnh tr v nghch l t do.
VII

S phn bit quan trng m chng ta a ra l s phn bit gia cc c nhn v cc th ch. Chng ta ch ra rng, trong khi vn chnh tr thng nht c th i hi mt s gii quyt c nhn, tt c chnh sch di hn v c bit tt c chnh sch di hn dn ch - phi c hnh dung dng cc th ch khch quan [phi nhn tnh]. V chng ta ch ra, c bit, rng vn v kim sot nhng ngi cai tr, v v kim tra cc quyn lc ca h, ch yu l mt vn th ch - ngn gn, l vn thit k cc th ch ngn cn ngay c cc nh cai tr ti khi gy ra qu nhiu thit hi. Cc cn nhc tng t s p dng cho vn kim sot quyn lc kinh t ca nh nc. Ci chng ta s phi phng l cc c nhn v phng chng s c on ca h. Mt s loi th ch c th ban cc quyn lc c on cho mt c nhn; nhng cc loi khc s t chi chng i vi c nhn . Nu xem xt php ch lao ng ca chng ta t quan im ny, th ta s thy c hai loi th ch. Nhiu trong s cc lut ny tng thm rt t quyn lc cho cc c quan hnh php ca nh nc. C th tng tng, khng th ph nhn, rng cc lut chng lao ng tr em, th d, c th b mt cng chc lm dng, do dm, v ch ng, mt cng dn v ti. Nhng cc mi nguy him thuc loi ny hu nh khng nghim trng nu so vi cc nguy him c hu trong php ch ban cho cc nh cai tr cc quyn lc c on, nh quyn lc ch huy lao ng 28. Tng t, mt lut qui nh rng vic cng dn lm dng ti sn ca mnh phi b trng pht bng tc ti sn s v cng t nguy him hn lut ban cho cc nh cai tr, hay cc vin chc nh nc, cc quyn lc c on trng dng ti sn ca cng dn. Nh th chng ta i n mt s phn bit gia hai phng php29 hon ton khc nhau theo can thip kinh t ca nh nc c th c

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tin hnh. Loi th nht l phng php thit k mt khung php l ca cc th ch phng nga (cc lut hn ch quyn lc ca cc ch s hu gia sc, hay ca mt ch t, l cc th d). Loi th hai l phng php trao quyn cho cc c quan nh nc hnh ng trong cc gii hn nht nh nh chng thy cn thit t cc mc ch do cc nh cai tr a ra cho thi gian hin ti. Chng ta c th m t phng php th nht nh can thip th ch hay gin tip, v loi th hai nh can thip c nhn hay trc tip. (Tt nhin, c cc trng hp trung gian). Khng th c nghi ng g, t quan im kim sot dn ch, loi no trong cc phng php ny c a hn. Chnh sch hin nhin cho mi can thip dn ch l dng phng php th nht ni iu ny l c th, v hn ch dng phng php th hai cho cc trng hp m phng php th nht l khng . (C cc trng hp nh vy. Th d c in l Ngn sch y l s biu hin ca s suy xt ring v cm gic ca Th tng v ci g l hp tnh hp l v cng bng. V c th tng tng c tuy rt khng ng mong mun l mt bin php theo chu trnh ngc c th c mt c tnh tng t). T quan im ca k thut x hi tng phn, s khc bit gia hai phng php l rt quan trng. Ch c loi th nht, phng php th ch, lm cho c th a ra cc hiu chnh di nh sng ca tho lun v kinh nghim. Ch ring n lm cho c th p dng phng php th v sai cho cc hnh ng chnh tr ca chng ta. N c tm di hn; th nhng khung php l c th thay i chm, nhm tnh n cc h qu khng thy trc c v khng mong mun, n nhng thay i cc phn khc ca khung kh, v.v. Ch ring n cho php chng ta tm ra, bng kinh nghim v phn tch, ci chng ta thc s tin hnh khi chng ta can thip vi mt mc tiu no trong u. Cc quyt nh tu ca cc nh cai tr hay cc cng chc l ngoi cc phng php duy l ny. Chng l cc quyt nh ngn hn, qu , thay i tng ngy, hay nhiu nht, t nm ny qua nm khc. Theo l thng (Ngn sch l mt ngoi l ln) chng thm ch khng th c tho lun cng khai, c v thiu thng tin cn thit, ln v cc nguyn l trn quyt nh c a ra l m h. Nu chng c tn ti cht no, chng thng khng c th ch ho, m l mt phn ca mt truyn thng ni b ca c quan. Nhng khng ch theo ngha ny m phng php th nht c m t nh duy l v phng php th hai nh phi l. Cng c theo mt ngha hon ton khc v rt quan trng. Khung php l c th c c nhn cng dn bit v hiu; v n phi c thit k c th hiu c nh vy. Hot ng ca n l c th d on trc c. N mang li

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mt nhn t chc chn v an ton vo i sng x hi. Khi n c sa i, trong mt giai on qu , c th a ra nhng chiu c cho nhng c nhn ln k hoch ca h d kin s khng thay i ca n. Tri vi iu ny, phng php can thip c nhn hn a mt nhn t tng khng ngng v tnh khng th d on vo i sng x hi, v vi n s bc l mt cm gic rng i sng x hi l phi l v khng an ton. Vic s dng cc quyn t lm theo mnh hn c th tng nhanh chng, mt khi n tr thnh phng php c chp nhn, v cc iu chnh s l cn thit, v cc iu chnh vi cc quyt nh tu ngn hn kh c th c thc hin bng cc phng tin th ch. Xu hng ny phi lm tng rt nhiu tnh phi l ca h thng, gy ra trong nhiu ngi n tng l c cc th lc ngm ng sau hu trng, v lm cho h d mc vo l thuyt m mu v x hi vi mi hu qu ca n sn ui d gio, s th ch dn tc, x hi, v giai cp. Bt chp tt c iu ny, chnh sch hin nhin v a thch phng php th ch hn ni c th, ni chung cn xa mi c chp nhn. S tht bi chp nhn n, ti cho l, do cc l do khc nhau. Mt l do l n i hi mt s tch ra no i vi vic bt tay vo mt nhim v di hn v thit k li khung php l. Nhng cc chnh ph sng ln hi, v quyn t lm theo mnh thuc v li sng ny hon ton ngoi s thc rng cc nh cai tr c thin hng thch cc quyn lc v chnh n. Nhng l do quan trng nht, r rng, l ngha ca s phn bit gia hai phng php khng c hiu. Con ng hiu n b nhng ngi theo Plato, Hegel, v Marx chn ngang. H s chng bao gi thy rng cu hi c rch Ai s l cc nh cai tr? phi c thay bng cu hi thc t hn Lm sao chng ta c th thun phc c h?
VIII

Nu by gi chng ta nhn li l thuyt ca Marx v s bt lc ca chnh tr v v sc mnh ca cc lc lng lch s, th chng ta phi tha nhn rng n l mt dinh th ng b. N l kt qu trc tip ca phng php x hi hc ca ng; ca ch ngha lch s kinh t ca ng, ca hc thuyt cho rng s pht trin ca h thng kinh t, hay ca s trao i cht ca con ngi, quyt nh s pht trin x hi v chnh tr ca anh ta. Kinh nghim ca thi ng, s phn n mang tnh nhn o ca ng, v nhu cu a li s an i v mt li tin tri cho nhng ngi b p bc, hi vng, hay thm ch s chc chn, vo thng li ca h, tt c nhng th ny hp nht trong mt h thng trit hc khng l, so snh c hay thm ch cn cao hn cc h thng chnh th lun ca Plato v

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Hegel. Ch do ngu nhin m ng khng l mt k phn ng rng lch s trit hc ch v ng t n vy v cho rng ng ch yu l mt nh tuyn truyn. Nh ph bnh b T bn vit: Thot nhn .. chng ta i n kt lun rng tc gi l mt trong cc trit gia duy tm ch ngha ln nht, c, tc l, theo ngha xu ca t duy tm ch ngha. Nhng s thc tht s, ng l v cng thc tin hn bt c ai trong cc bc tin bi ca ng ..30, nh ph bnh ny ni hon ton trng. Marx l ngi cui cng trong s nhng ngi xy dng v i ca h thng chnh th lun. Chng ta phi cn thn thi c mc th, v ng thay h thng ca ng bng mt H thng V i khc. Ci chng ta cn khng phi l chnh th lun. M l k thut [ci bin] x hi tng phn. n y, ti kt thc phn tch ph phn ca ti v trit l ca Marx v phng php ca khoa hc x hi, v quyt nh lun kinh t ca ng cng nh v ch ngha lch s tin tri ca ng. Trc nghim cui cng ca mt phng php, tuy vy, phi l cc kt qu thc tin ca n. V th by gi ti tip tc mt kho st chi tit hn v kt qu chnh ca phng php ca ng, li tin tri v s ra i sp xy ra ca mt x hi phi giai cp.

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CHNG 18: S RA I CA CH NGHA X HI

I

Ch ngha lch s kinh t l phng php c Marx p dng cho mt phn tch v nhng thay i sp xy ra trong x hi ca chng ta. Theo Marx, mi h thng x hi c bit phi tiu hu chnh mnh, n gin bi v n phi to ra cc lc lng sn sinh ra thi k lch s tip theo. Mt phn tch su sc v h thng phong kin, c thc hin khng lu trc cch mng cng nghip, c th dn n pht hin ra cc lc s ph hu ch ngha phong kin, v n d on v cc c trng quan trng nht ca thi k sp ti, ch ngha t bn. Tng t, mt phn tch v s pht trin ca ch ngha t bn c th cho php chng ta khm ph ra cc lc hot ng ph hu n, v d on cc c trng quan trng nht ca thi k lch s by ra trc chng ta. V chc chn khng c l do no tin rng ch ngha t bn, mt trong tt c cc h thng x hi, s ko di mi mi. Ngc li, cc iu kin sn xut, v vi chng, cch sng ca con ngi, chng bao gi thay i nhanh n vy nh di ch ngha t bn. Bng lm thay i cc nn tng ring ca n theo cch ny, ch ngha t bn nht nh bin i chnh mnh, v to ra mt thi k mi trong lch s nhn loi. Theo phng php ca Marx, m cc nguyn l ca n c tho lun trn, cc lc c bn hay bn cht1 s th tiu hay bin i ch ngha t bn phi c tm trong s tin ho ca t liu sn xut vt cht. Mt khi cc lc c bn c khm ph ra, l c th tm du vt nh hng ca chng ln cc quan h x hi gia cc giai cp cng nh ln cc h thng php l v chnh tr. Vic phn tch cc lc kinh t c bn v cc xu hng lch s t hu hoi ca thi k m ng gi l ch ngha t bn c Marx tin hnh trong T bn, cng trnh v i ca i ng. Giai on lch s v h thng kinh t m ng cp n l h thng ca Chu u v c bit ca Anh, t khong gia th k mi tm n 1867 (nm T bn c xut bn ln u). Mc tiu cui cng ca cng trnh ny, nh Marx gii thch trong li ni u ca ng2, l bc trn qui lut kinh t v vn ng ca x hi

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hin i, nhm tin tri s phn ca n. Mt mc tiu th hai3 l bc b nhng ngi bin h cho ch ngha t bn, cc nh kinh t nhng ngi trnh by cc qui lut v phng thc sn xut t bn ch ngha c nh chng l cc qui lut khng lay chuyn c ca t nhin, nh Burke tuyn b: Cc lut thng mi l cc lut t nhin, v v th l cc lut ca Thng . Marx tng phn cc lut c cho l khng lay chuyn c ny vi cc qui lut m ng ch trng l cc qui lut khng lay chuyn c duy nht ca x hi, c th l, cc qui lut pht trin ca n; v ng th chng minh rng ci m cc nh kinh t tuyn b l cc qui lut vnh vin v khng th thay i c thc ra ch l nhng s u n tm thi, buc phi b tiu dit cng vi bn thn ch ngha t bn. Tin tri lch s ca Marx c th c m t nh mt l l cht ch. Nhng T bn ch tho lun t m ci ti s gi l bc u tin ca l l ny, phn tch cc lc c bn ca ch ngha t bn v nh hng ca chng ln cc quan h giai cp. Bc th hai, dn n kt lun rng cch mng x hi l khng th trnh khi, v bc th ba, dn n d on s ni ln ca mt x hi phi giai cp, tc l x hi ch ngha, ch c phc ho. Trong chng ny, u tin ti s gii thch r hn ci ti gi l ba bc ca l l Marxist, v sau tho lun chi tit bc th ba. Trong hai chng tip theo, ti s tho lun bc th hai v bc th nht. o ngc th t ca cc bc theo cch ny ho ra l hay nht cho mt tho lun ph phn chi tit; v u im nm s thc l khi s d hn gi s tnh ng n ca cc tin ca mi bc trong l l m khng c nh kin, v tp trung hon ton vo cu hi liu kt lun t c bc c th ny c suy ra c t cc tin ca n hay khng. y l ba bc. Trong bc th nht ca l l ca mnh, Marx phn tch phng php sn xut t bn ch ngha. ng thy rng c mt xu hng tin ti mt s gia tng v nng sut lao ng gn vi nhng ci thin k thut cng nh vi ci ng gi l s tch t gia tng ca t liu sn xut. Xut pht t y, l l dn ng n kt lun rng trong lnh vc cc quan h gia cc giai cp xu hng ny phi dn n s tch t nhiu v nhiu ca ci hn vo tay cng ngy cng t ngi hn; thc l, kt lun c rt ra l s c mt xu hng tin n mt s gia tng ca s giu c v s bn cng; ca s giu c trong giai cp thng tr, giai cp t sn, v ca s bn cng trong giai cp b tr, giai cp cng nhn. Bc ny c cp chng 20 (Ch ngha T bn v S phn ca n).

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Trong bc th hai ca l l, kt qu ca bc th nht c coi l d nhin nh vy. T , hai kt lun c rt ra; th nht, mi giai cp tr mt giai cp t sn nh b thng tr v mt giai cp lao ng to ln b bc lt, nht nh phi bin mt, hoc tr thnh khng ng k; th hai, s cng thng gia tng gia hai giai cp ny phi dn n mt cuc cch mng x hi. Bc ny s c phn tch trong chng 19 (Cch mng X hi). Trong bc th ba ca l l, cc kt lun ca bc th hai n lt chng c coi l d nhin; v kt lun cui cng c rt ra l, sau chin thng ca nhng cng nhn trn giai cp t sn, s c mt x hi bao gm ch mt giai cp, v, v th, l mt x hi phi giai cp, mt x hi khng c bc lt; tc l, ch ngha x hi.
II

By gi ti tin hnh tho lun bc th ba, li tin tri cui cng v s ra i ca ch ngha x hi. Cc tin chnh ca bc ny, s c ph phn trong chng tip theo nhng y hy c coi l nh vy, chng l: s pht trin ca ch ngha t bn dn n s loi b tt c cc giai cp tr hai giai cp, mt giai cp t sn nh v mt giai cp v sn khng l; v s gia tng ngho kh buc giai cp sau ni dy chng li nhng k bc lt h. Cc kt lun l, th nht, cng nhn phi thng cuc u tranh, th hai, bng loi b giai cp t sn, h thit lp mt x hi phi giai cp, v ch cn li mt giai cp. By gi ti sn sng tha nhn rng kt lun th nht c suy ra t cc tin (cng vi vi tin khng quan trng m chng ta khng cn nghi vn). Khng ch s lng ca giai cp t sn l nh, m s tn ti vt cht ca n, s trao i cht ca n, ph thuc vo giai cp v sn. K bc lt, k n khng ngi ri, s cht i nu khng c ngi b bc lt; trong mi trng hp nu n tiu dit ngi b bc lt th n kt liu s nghip ring ca n vi t cch mt k n khng ngi ri. Nh th n khng th thng; gii nht, n c th ko di cuc u tranh. Ngi lao ng, mt khc, v mt sinh tn vt cht li khng ph thuc vo k bc lt mnh; mt khi ngi lao ng ni dy, mt khi anh ta quyt nh thch thc trt t hin tn, k bc lt khng cn c chc nng thc cht no. Cng nhn c th tiu dit k th giai cp ca mnh m khng gy nguy him cho s tn ti ring ca anh ta. Do , ch c mt kt qu kh d. Giai cp t sn s bin mt.

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Nhng c suy ra kt lun th hai? C ng l chin thng ca nhng ngi lao ng phi dn n mt x hi phi giai cp? Ti khng ngh nh vy. T s thc rng trong hai giai cp ch cn li mt, khng th suy ra rng s c mt x hi phi giai cp. Cc giai cp khng ging cc c nhn, cho d chng ta tha nhn rng chng ng x gn ging hai c nhn chng no c hai giai cp i ch nhau trong cuc u tranh. S thng nht hay s on kt ca mt giai cp, theo phn tch ring ca Marx, l mt phn ca thc giai cp4 ca h, ci n lt n li ch yu l mt kt qu ca u tranh giai cp. Chng c l do trn tc no v sao cc c nhn to thnh giai cp v sn li vn c s thng nht ca h mt khi p lc ca cuc u tranh chng li k th giai cp chung ht. Bt c xung t tim tng no v cc li ch chc s chia giai cp v sn c thng nht trc kia thnh cc giai cp mi, v tin trin thnh mt cuc u tranh giai cp mi. (Cc nguyn l ca php bin chng gi rng mt phn mi, mt s i khng giai cp mi, phi nhanh chng ny n. Th nhng, tt nhin, php bin chng l mp m v c th thch nghi gii thch bt c th g, v nh th c mt x hi phi giai cp na, nh mt hp [synthesis] cn thit mt cch bin chng ca mt s pht trin phn 5). S pht trin c kh nng nht, tt nhin, l nhng ngi thc s nm quyn thi im chin thng cc lnh t cch mng nhng ngi sng st qua cuc u tranh v quyn lc v cc cuc thanh trng khc nhau, cng vi cc nhn vin ca h - s to thnh mt Giai cp Mi: giai cp cai tr ca x hi mi, mt loi tng lp qu tc hay quan liu mi6; v chc c kh nng nht l h s c che giu s thc ny. Vic ny h c th lm, tin li nht, bng cch gi li cng nhiu h t tng cch mng cng tt, li dng cc tnh cm ny thay cho ph thi gian ca h trong cc n lc ph hu chng (ph hp vi li khuyn ca Pareto cho mi nh cai tr). V dng nh kh chc l h s c kh nng s dng y nht h t tng cch mng nu ng thi h li dng ni s hi cc din tin phn-cch mng. Bng cch ny, h t tng cch mng s phng s h cho cc mc ch bin h: n s phng s h c nh mt s chng minh vic s dng quyn lc ca h l ng, v nh mt phng tin n nh n; tm li, nh mt loi thuc phin mi cho nhn dn. Nhng ci g thuc loi ny l cc s kin m, cn c vo cc tin ring ca Marx, rt c th xy ra. Th nhng khng phi l nhim v ca ti y a ra cc li tin tri lch s (hay din gii lch s qu kh ca nhiu cuc cch mng). Ti ch mun chng t rng kt lun ca

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Marx, li tin tri v s ra i ca mt x hi phi giai cp, khng c suy ra t cc tin . Bc th ba ca l l ca Marx phi c tuyn b l khng i n kt lun. Ti khng xc nhn nhiu hn th. c bit hn, ti khng ngh l c th tin tri rng ch ngha x hi s khng n, hay ni rng cc tin ca l l lm cho vic a ch ngha x hi vo l rt khng chc xy ra. C th xy ra, th d, l cuc u tranh ko di v s hng hi chin thng c th gp phn lm cho mt cm gic on kt mnh tip tc cho n khi cc lut ngn cn s bc lt v lm dng quyn lc c thit lp. (S thit lp cc th ch cho vic kim sot dn ch i vi cc nh cai tr ch m bo loi b bc lt). C hi xy dng mt x hi nh vy, theo ti, ph thuc rt ln vo s hin dng ca nhng ngi lao ng cho cc t tng v ch ngha x hi v quyn t do, tri vi cc li ch trc mt ca giai cp ca h. y l cc vn khng th on trc mt cch d dng; tt c ci c th ni mt cch chc chn l cuc u tranh nh vy khng lun to ra s on kt lu di gia nhng ngi b p bc. C cc th d v s on kt nh vy v s hin dng ln lao cho s nghip chung; nhng cng c cc th d v cc nhm ngi lao ng nhng ngi theo ui li ch ring ca nhm ngay c khi n mu thun cng khai vi li ch ca nhng ngi lao ng khc, v vi t tng v s on kt ca ngi b p bc. S bc lt khng nht thit mt i vi giai cp t sn, v rt c th l cc nhm ngi lao ng c th nhn c cc c quyn chng khc g mt s bc lt cc nhm t may mn hn.7 Chng ta thy rng mt lot cc din tin lch s kh d c th xy ra sau cch mng v sn thng li. Chc chn c qu nhiu kh nng p dng phng php v tin tri lch s. V c bit phi nhn mnh rng s l phi khoa hc nht i nhm mt trc mt s kh nng v chng ta khng thch chng. M tng dng nh l mt th khng th trnh c. Nhng khng c hiu lm n vi t duy khoa hc. V chng ta cng phi nhn ra rng tin tri c cho l khoa hc cung cp mt dng trn thot cho mt s rt ng ngi. N cho mt s trn thot khi cc ngha v hin thi ca chng ta vo mt thin ng tng lai; v n cho s b sung ph hp ca thin ng ny bng qu nhn mnh s bt lc ca c nhn ng trc ci c n m t nh cc lc lng kinh t p o v in cung ca thi im hin ti.

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Nu by gi chng ta xem k hn mt cht cc lc lng ny, v xem h thng kinh t hin ti ca chng ta, th ta c th thy rng ph phn l thuyt ca chng ta c kinh nghim xc minh. Nhng chng ta phi t phng kinh nghim din gii sai di nh sng ca nh kin Marxist rng ch ngha x hi hay ch ngha cng sn l la chn kh d duy nht v l ch k v kh d duy nht i vi ch ngha t bn. Marx khng v bt c ai khc cng khng bao gi chng minh rng ch ngha x hi, theo ngha ca mt x hi phi giai cp, ca mt hip hi trong s pht trin t do ca mi ngi l ci m bo cho s pht trin t do cho mi ngi8, l la chn kh d duy nht i vi s bc lt tn nhn ca h thng kinh t m ng m t u tin mt trm nm trc (nm 1845), v ng cho n ci tn ch ngha t bn9. V qu thc, nu bt c ai th chng minh rng ch ngha x hi l ch k tip kh d duy nht i vi ch ngha t bn v ca Marx, th chng ta n gin c th bc b ng ta bng ch ra cc s thc lch s. V laissez-faire bin mt khi mt t, nhng n khng c thay bng mt h thng x hi ch ngha hay cng sn ch ngha nh Marx hiu. Ch c nc Nga chim mt phn su th gii chng ta thy mt h thng kinh t ni, ph hp vi tin tri ca Marx, t liu sn xut do nh nc s hu, tuy vy sc mnh chnh tr ca n, ngc vi tin tri ca Marx, khng cho thy khuynh hng no teo i. Nhng trn ton th gii, quyn lc chnh tr c t chc bt u thc hin cc chc nng kinh t su rng. Ch ngha t bn v nhng ng cho mt thi k lch s mi, cho thi i ring ca chng ta ca ch ngha can thip chnh tr, ca s can thip kinh t ca nh nc. Ch ngha can thip c nhiu dng khc nhau. C bin th Nga; c dng pht xt ca ch ngha ton tr; v c ch ngha can thip dn ch ca nc Anh, ca Hoa K, v ca cc Nn Dn ch Nh hn, do Thu in10 dn u, ni cng ngh can thip dn ch t trnh cao nht cho n nay. S pht trin dn n s can thip ny bt u t nhng ngy ca Marx, vi php ch nh my ca Anh. N a ra nhng s ci tin quyt nh u tin vi vic qui nh 48 gi lm mt tun, v mun hn vi qui nh bo him tht nghip v cc dng bo him x hi khc. Cc k v l n th no i ng nht h thng kinh t ca cc nn dn ch hin i vi h thng m Marx gi l ch ngha t bn c th thy ch thong nhn qua, bng so snh n vi cng lnh 10 im ca ng cho cch mng cng sn. Nu chng ta b qua cc im khng my quan trng ca cng lnh ny (th

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d, 4. Tch thu ti sn ca tt c di dn v nhng k phin lon), th chng ta c th ni rng trong cc nn dn ch hu ht cc im ny c a vo thc tin, hoc hon ton, hoc mc ng k; v vi chng, rt nhiu bc quan trng hn, m Marx chng bao gi ngh n, c tin hnh theo hng an sinh x hi. Ti ch nhc n cc im sau trong cng lnh ca ng: 2. Thu thu nhp nng lu tin hay tng dn ln. ( hon thnh). 3. Xo b mi quyn tha k. (Phn ln c thc hin bng thu nng lc cht. Liu nhiu hn s c ng mong mun hay khng ch t l ng ng). 6. Nh nc kim sot tp trung cc phng tin lin lc v giao thng. (V cc l do qun s iu ny c thc hin Trung u trc chin tranh 1914, m khng c cc kt qu rt ch li. N cng c hu ht cc nn Dn ch Nh hn thc hin). 7. Tng s lng v qui m ca cc nh my v t liu sn xut do nh nc s hu .. (c thc hin cc nn Dn ch Nh hn; liu iu ny lun rt c li l ng nghi ng). 10. Gio dc khng mt tin cho tt c tr em trong cc trng cng (tc l ca nh nc). Hu b lao ng tr em trong nh my dng hin nay ca n .. (Yu sch u hon thnh cc nn Dn ch Nh hn, v mc no hu nh khp ni; yu sch th hai c vt qu). Mt s im trong cng lnh ca Marx11 (th d: 1. Xo b mi quyn s hu v t) khng c thc hin trong cc nc dn ch. y l l do v sao cc nh Marxist ng khi cho rng cc nc ny khng thit lp ch ngha x hi. Nhng nu h suy ra t iu ny rng cc nc ny vn l t bn ch ngha theo ngha ca Marx, th h ch chng t c tnh gio iu ca iu gi nh trc ca h rng khng c la chn kh d no thm. iu ny cho thy nh sng chi lo ca mt h thng c tng tng c th lm m qung n th no. Ch ngha Marx khng ch l mt ngi hng dn ti cho tng lai, n cng lm cho cc mn ca n khng c kh nng thy ci ang xy ra chnh trc mt h, trong thi k lch s ca chnh h, v i khi vi s hp tc ca chnh h.
IV

Nhng c th hi liu ph phn ny c chng t theo bt c cch no chng li phng php tin tri lch s qui m ln nh n vn l. Chng ta c th khng, v nguyn tc, cng c cc tin ca l l tin tri cho n mc nhn c mt kt lun ng n? Tt nhin chng ta c th lm iu ny. Lun lun c th nhn c bt c kt lun no chng ta thch nu chng ta lm cho cc tin mnh. Nhng tnh hnh l, i

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vi gn nh mi tin tri lch s qui m ln, chng ta s phi a ra cc gi thit lin quan n cc nhn t o c v nhn t khc thuc loi m Marx gi l thuc thc h vi t cch cc nhn t vt qu kh nng ca chng ta qui v cc nhn t kinh t. Nhng Marx c th l ngi u tin i tha nhn rng iu ny s l mt hnh ng rt phi khoa hc. Ton b phng php tin tri ca ng ph thuc vo gi thit rng cc nh hng thc h khng cn c coi l cc yu t c lp v khng th d on c, m rng chng c th c qui v, v ph thuc vo, cc iu kin kinh t c th quan st c, v v th c th on trc c. i khi c tha nhn thm ch bi cc nh Marxist khng chnh thng no rng s ra i ca ch ngha x hi khng ch l vn ca din tin lch s; tuyn b ca Marx rng chng ta c th rt ngn v lm bt cc cn au ca ch ngha x hi ang n l m h c din gii nh tuyn b rng mt chnh sch sai lm c th lm tr s ra i ca ch ngha x hi thm ch hng th k, nh so snh vi chnh sch thch hp c th rt ngn thi gian pht trin xung ti thiu. Din gii ny lm cho l c th thm ch i vi cc nh Marxist tha nhn rng s ch yu ph thuc vo chng ta liu kt qu ca mt cuc cch mng s l mt x hi x hi ch ngha hay khng; tc l, s ph thuc vo cc mc tiu ca chng ta, vo s tn tm v tnh thnh tht ca chng ta, v vo s thng minh ca chng ta, ni cch khc, vo cc nhn t o c hay thc h. Li tin tri ca Marx, h c th ni thm, l mt ngun ng vin o c to ln, v v th n chc s thc y s pht trin ca ch ngha x hi. Ci Marx thc s th chng t l ch c hai kh nng: mt th gii khng khip s tip tc mi mi, hoc mt th gii tt hn cui cng s ni ln; v hu nh khng ng ch i la chn th nht mt cch nghim tc. V th tin tri ca Marx c bin h hon ton. V con ngi cng hiu r rng l h c th t c s la chn th hai, h cng chc chn s ly mt bc nhy quyt nh t ch ngha t bn sang ch ngha x hi; nhng mt li tin tri r rng hn khng th c a ra. y l mt l l tha nhn nh hng ca cc nhn t o c v thc h bt kh qui ln din tin lch s, v vi n, tnh khng th s dng c ca phng php Marxist. Lin quan n phn l l th bo v ch ngha Marx, chng ta phi nhc li rng khng ai tng chng minh rng ch c hai kh nng, ch ngha t bn v ch ngha x hi. Ti hon ton ng vi quan im rng chng ta khng nn ph thi gian d tnh s tip tc mi mi ca mt th gii rt khng va .

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Nhng la chn kh d khc khng nht thit l i d tnh s ra i c tin tri ca mt th gii tt hn, hay i gip s ra i ca n bng tuyn truyn v cc phng tin phi l khc, c l thm ch bng v lc. N c th l, th d, s pht trin ca mt cng ngh cho s ci thin trc tip ca th gii chng ta ang sng, s pht trin ca mt phng php cho k thut ci bin x hi tng phn, cho can thip dn ch12. Cc nh Marxist tt nhin tranh lun rng loi can thip ny l khng th lm c v lch s khng th c lm cho ph hp vi cc k hoch duy l ci thin th gii. Nhng l thuyt ny c cc h qu rt l k. V nu cc th khng th c ci thin bng s dng l tr, th s qu thc l mt php mu lch s hay chnh tr nu cc quyn lc phi l ca lch s t chng to ra mt th gii tt hn v hp l hn13. Nh th chng ta b qung li vi lp trng rng cc nhn t o c v thc h khc, nhng ci khng nm trong phm vi ca tin tri khoa hc, li c nh hng su rng ln tin trnh lch s. Mt trong nhng nhn t khng on trc c ny ng l tc ng ca cng ngh x hi v ca s can thip chnh tr vo cc vn kinh t. Nh cng ngh x hi v k s tng phn c th lp k hoch xy dng cc th ch mi, hoc bin i cc nh ch c; h thm ch c th lp k hoch cch thc v cc phng tin mang li nhng thay i ny; nhng lch s khng tr nn c th d on c hn bng vic lm nh vy ca h. V h khng ln k hoch cho ton b x hi, h cng khng bit liu cc k hoch ca h s c thc hin; thc ra, chng s hu nh khng bao gi c thc hin m khng c sa i ln, mt phn v kinh nghim ca ta tng ln trong khi xy dng, mt phn v chng ta phi tho hip14. Nh th Marx hon ton ng khi ng nhn mnh rng lch s khng th c lp k hoch trn giy. Nhng cc th ch c th c lp k hoch; v chng c lp k hoch. Ch bng k hoch ho15, tng bc mt, cho cc th ch bo v quyn t do, c bit quyn t do khi b bc lt, chng ta mi c th hi vng t c mt th gii tt p hn.
V

cho thy tm quan trng chnh tr thc tin ca l thuyt lch s ch ngha ca Marx, ti c nh minh ho mi trong ba chng cp n ba bc ca l l tin tri ca ng bng vi nhn xt v cc tc ng ca li tin tri lch s ca ng ln lch s mi y ca Chu u. V cc tc ng ny l su rng, bi v nh hng do hai ng Marxist ln, nhng ngi Cng sn v cc nh Dn ch X hi, gy ra Trung v ng u.

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C hai ng ny hon ton khng c chun b cho mt nhim v bin i x hi nh vy. Nhng ngi Cng sn Nga, thy mnh l nhng ngi u tin trong tm vi n quyn lc, tin ln, hon ton khng thc c v cc vn nghim trng v mc to ln ca nhng hi sinh cng nh au kh nm pha trc, Nhng ngi Dn ch X hi ca ng u, m c hi ca h n mun hn mt cht, chn bc nhiu nm trc cc trch nhim m nhng ngi Cng sn m trch mt cch sn sng n nh vy. H nghi ng, c l mt cch ng n, liu c nhn dn no, tr nhn dn Nga b ch Sa Hong p bc mt cch man r nht, c th chu ng ni nhng au kh v hi sinh m cch mng i hi h, ni chin, v mt thi k di ca cc th nghim u tin thng khng thnh cng, hay khng. Hn na, trong cc nm nguy ngp t 1918 n 1926, kt qu ca th nghim Nga t ra i vi h l rt khng chc chn. V, qu thc, chc chn khng c c s no nh gi trin vng ca n. C th ni rng s chia r gia nhng ngi Cng sn v nhng ngi Dn ch X hi Trung u l s chia r gia nhng ngi Marxist c mt nim tin phi l vo thnh cng cui cng ca th nghim Nga, v nhng ngi Marxist hoi nghi n mt cch c l hn. Khi ti ni phi l v mt cch c l hn, ti nh gi h theo chnh tiu chun ca chnh h, theo ch ngha Marx; v theo ch ngha Marx, cch mng v sn s phi l kt qu cui cng ca cng nghip ho, ch khng phi ngc li16; v n phi xy ra u tin cc nc cng nghip ho cao, v ch mun hn nhiu Nga17. Nhn xt ny, tuy vy, khng c nh nh mt s bo v cho cc lnh t18 Dn ch X hi m chnh sch ca h c quyt nh hon ton bi li tin tri Marxist, bi nim tin ngm ngm ca h rng ch ngha x hi phi n. Nhng lng tin ny thng c kt hp, cc lnh t, vi mt ch ngha hoi nghi tuyt vng v cc chc nng v nhim v trc mt ca chnh h, v ci nm ngay pha trc19. H hc t ch ngha Marx t chc nhng ngi lao ng, v truyn cm hng cho h vi mt nim tin tht tuyt vi vo nhim v ca h, gii phng loi ngi20. Nhng h khng c kh nng chun b cho vic thc hin cc li ha ca mnh. H hc k cc sch gio khoa ca h, h bit tt c v ch ngha x hi khoa hc, v h bit rng vic chun b cc cng thc cho tng lai l Ch ngha Khng tng phi khoa hc. Chng phi bn thn Marx nho bng mt mn ca Comte ngi ph phn ng trong Revue Positiviste v s sao lng cc chng trnh thc tin ca ng? Revue Positiviste buc ti ti, Marx ni21 mt cch khinh b, v s lun bn siu hnh v kinh t hc, v hn na

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v bn kh c th on ra n v ti gii hn mnh ch mt phn tch ph phn cc s kin thc t, thay cho k cc cng thc (c l cc cng thc Comtist?) cho nh bp trong tng lai c nu. Nh th cc lnh t Marxist bit k hn l i ph thi gian ca h v cc vn cng ngh nh vy. Lao ng tt c cc nc lin hip li! l ci vt kit cng lnh thc tin ca h. Khi nhng ngi lao ng ca cc nc ca h lin hip li, khi c mt c hi lnh trch nhim ca chnh ph v t nn mng cho mt th gii tt p hn, khi gi ca h im, h b mc nhng ngi lao ng b v. Cc lnh t khng bit phi lm g. H i s t vn c ha ca ch ngha t bn. Sau s sp khng th trnh khi ca ch ngha t bn, khi cc s vic i n hon ton sai, khi mi th tan r v ri ro mt uy tn v h thn i vi bn thn h gim i ng k, th h hi vng tr thnh cc v cu tinh ca nhn loi. (V, qu thc, chng ta phi nh s thc rng thnh cng ca nhng ngi Cng sn Nga r rng c lm cho kh d, mt phn, bi cc th kinh khng xy ra trc khi h ln nm quyn). Nhng khi i suy thoi, m u tin h hoan nghnh nh s sp c ha trc, tri qua, h bt u nhn ra rng nhng ngi lao ng ngy cng mt mi v b nhi nht v ha hn ln la vi nhng din gii lch s22; rng khng i bo h rng theo ch ngha x hi khoa hc khng th sai lm ca Marx th ch ngha pht xt r rng l trm cui cng ca ch ngha t bn trc s sp sp xy ra ca n. Qun chng au kh cn thiu hn th. Dn dn cc lnh t bt u nhn ra cc h qu khng khip ca chnh sch ch i v hi vng vo php mu chnh tr to ln. Nhng qu mun. C hi ca h tri qua. Cc nhn xt ny l rt s si. Nhng chng cho ch bo no v cc h qu thc tin ca li tin tri ca Marx v s ra i ca ch ngha x hi.

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Bc th hai ca l l tin tri ca Marx c gi thit rng ch ngha t bn phi dn n mt s gia tng giu c v khn kh; s giu c ca giai cp t sn c s lng gim dn, v s khn kh ca giai cp lao ng c s lng tng ln, nh tin thch ng nht ca n. Gi thit ny s c ph phn chng tip nhng y c cho l nh vy. Cc kt lun rt ra t n c th chia lm hai phn. Phn th nht l mt li tin tri v s pht trin ca cu trc giai cp ca ch ngha t bn. N khng nh rng ngoi giai cp t sn v giai cp v sn tt c cc giai cp khc, c bit l ci gi l cc giai cp trung lu, nht thit bin mt, v rng, do kt qu ca s cng thng gia tng gia giai cp t sn v giai cp v sn, giai cp sau s tr nn ngy cng c thc giai cp v thng nht. Phn th hai ca li tin tri l s cng thng ny c l khng th c loi b, v n s dn n mt cuc cch mng x hi v sn. Ti tin rng chng kt lun no trong hai kt lun ny c suy ra t tin . Ph phn ca ti, ch yu, s tng t nh ph phn c xut chng trc; tc l, ti s th chng t rng l l ca Marx b qun rt nhiu din tin kh d.
I

Hy xem xt ngay kt lun th nht, tc l li tin tri rng tt c cc giai cp nht thit bin mt, hay tr nn khng ng k, tr giai cp t sn v giai cp v sn m thc giai cp v s on kt ca n phi tng ln. Phi tha nhn rng tin , l thuyt ca Marx v s gia tng ca ci v s khn kh, qu thc chun b cho s bin mt ca tng lp trung lu no , ca cc nh t bn yu hn v giai cp tiu t sn. Mi nh t bn st pht nhiu ng nghip ca mnh, nh Marx din t1; v cc bn ng nghip t bn ny qu thc c th b ging xung a v ca nhng ngi n lng, m vi Marx cng ht nh nhng ngi v sn. S vn ng ny l mt phn ca s tng ln ca s giu c, s tch t ngy cng nhiu vn (t bn), v s tp trung vo tay ca ngy cng t ngi. Mt s phn tng t c ban pht cho cc tng lp thp hn ca giai cp trung lu, nh Marx ni2. Nhng ngi bun bn nh, cc

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ch hiu, v cc thng gia v hu ni chung, cc th th cng v cc nng dn, tt c nhng ngi ny dn dn st xung thnh v sn; mt phn v vn ca h nh, c nh tnh hnh ny th khng cho qui m theo cng nghip hin i c qun l, b ln t trong cnh tranh vi cc nh t bn ln hn; mt phn bi v k nng chuyn bit ca h b t liu sn xut mi lm cho v dng. Nh th giai cp v sn c tuyn m t mi giai cp ca dn c. M t ny hn l kh chnh xc, c bit chng mc lin quan n cc ngh th cng; v cng ng rng nhiu ngi v sn xut thn t nng dn. Nhng du cho nhng quan st ca Marx c ng phc n u, bc tranh c khuyt tt. S vn ng ng nghin cu l mt s vn ng cng nghip; nh t bn ca ng l nh t bn cng nghip, ngi v sn ca ng l cng nhn cng nghip. V bt chp s thc rng nhiu cng nhn cng nghip xut thn t nng dn, iu ny khng c ngha rng cc ch trang tri v nng dn, th d, tt c dn dn u bin thnh a v ca cng nhn cng nghip. Thm ch nhng ngi lao ng nng nghip khng nht thit c lin hip li vi cc cng nhn cng nghip bi mt cm nhn chung v on kt v thc giai cp. S phn tn ca nhng ngi lao ng nng thn trn cc vng rng ln, Marx tha nhn3, ph v sc mnh phn khng ca h chnh khi s tp trung vn vo tay t ngi lm tng sc mnh phn khng ca nhng ngi lao ng th. iu ny hu nh khng gi s thng nht v mt gic ng giai cp y . N chng t, ng hn, rng ch t c mt kh nng chia r, v ngi lao ng nng nghip i khi c th qu ph thuc vo ngi ch ca anh ta, ch trang tri hay nng dn, thc hin s nghip chung vi giai cp v sn cng nghip. Nhng cc ch tri v nng dn c th d dng chn ng h giai cp t sn hn l cc cng nhn nh bn thn Marx ni n4; v mt cng lnh ca cc cng nhn nh cng lnh ca Tuyn ngn5, m yu sch u tin ca n l xo b mi ti sn t ai, l hu nh khng c d kin chng li xu hng ny. iu ny chng t rng ch t c kh nng l cc tng lp trung lu nng thn c th khng bin mt i, v rng giai cp v sn nng thn c th khng ho nhp vi giai cp v sn cng nghip. Nhng y khng phi l tt c. Phn tch ring ca Marx chng t rng i vi giai cp t sn l ti quan trng xi by s chia r gia nhng ngi n lng; v nh bn thn Marx thy, iu ny c th t c t nht bng hai cch. Mt cch l to ra mt tng lp trung lu mi, mt nhm nhng ngi n lng c c quyn nhng ngi cm thy mnh cao hn ngi lao ng chn tay6 v ng thi ph thuc vo n hu ca cc nh cai tr.

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Cch khc l s dng tng lp thp nht ca x hi m Marx t tn l v sn lu manh. y, nh Marx ch ra, l to c s cho nhng k ti phm nhng k sn sng bn mnh cho k th giai cp. S khn kh gia tng hn c khuynh hng, nh ng th nhn, lm tng s lng ca giai cp ny; mt din tin s hu nh khng ng gp cho s on kt ca tt c nhng ngi b p bc. Nhng ngay c s on kt ca giai cp cng nhn cng nghip khng l mt kt qu tt yu ca s kh cc gia tng. Phi tha nhn, s kh cc gia tng hn to ra s phn khng, v thm ch chc gy ra cc cuc ni lon. Nhng gi thit ca l l ca chng ta l s kh cc khng th c lm du i cho n khi ginh c thng li trong cch mng x hi. iu ny ng rng cc cng nhn phn khng s b nh bi khng bit bao nhiu ln trong cc n lc khng c kt qu ci thin s phn ca h. Song mt din tin nh vy khng nht thit lm cho cc cng nhn c thc giai cp theo ngha ca Marx7, tc l t ho v giai cp ca h v tin chc vo s mnh ca h; n, ng hn, c th lm cho h gic ng giai cp theo ngha c thc v s thc rng h thuc v mt i qun b nh. V c l s l nh vy, nu cc cng nhn khng tm thy sc mnh trong vic nhn ra rng s lng cng nh nng lc kinh t tim tng ca h lin tc tng ln. iu ny c th ng nh th nu, nh Marx tin tri, mi giai cp, ngoi giai cp ring ca h v giai cp cc nh t bn, c xu hng bin mt. Nhng v, nh ta thy, iu tin tri ny khng nht thit ng, c kh nng l s on kt ca ngay c cc cng nhn cng nghip c th b ch ngha ch bi lm xi mn. Nh th, tri vi li tin tri ca Marx nhn mnh rng phi c mt s phn chia r rt gia hai giai cp, chng ta thy rng da vo cc gi thit ca chnh ng, cu trc giai cp sau c l c th ny n: (1) giai cp t sn, (2) cc i a ch, (3) cc ch t khc, (4) nhng ngi lao ng nng thn, (5) giai cp trung lu mi, (6) cc cng nhn cng nghip, (7) giai cp v sn lu manh. (Tt nhin, bt k s kt hp no ca cc giai cp ny cng u c th bc l). V, hn na, chng ta thy rng mt s tin trin nh vy c l c th lm xi mn s thng nht ca (6), giai cp cng nhn cng nghip. V th, c th ni rng khng suy ra c kt lun th nht ca bc th hai trong l l ca Marx. Nhng nh trong ph phn ca ti vi bc th ba, y ti cng phi ni rng ti khng c nh thay li tin tri ca Marx bng mt li tin tri khc. Ti khng khng nh rng li tin tri khng th tr thnh ng, hoc rng cc din tin kh d khc m ti va m t s xy ra nh d kin. Ti ch khng nh rng chng c th

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xy ra. (V, qu thc, kh nng ny kh c th b ph nhn bi cc thnh vin Marxist ca cc cnh cp tin nhng ngi dng li buc ti v s phn bi, s mua chuc, v thiu on kt giai cp nh cc cng c a chung thanh minh cho cc din tin khng ph hp vi s tin tri). Rng cc th nh vy c th xy ra phi l r vi bt c ai quan st s pht trin dn n ch ngha pht xt, trong tt c cc kh nng ti va ni n ng mt phn. Nhng ch kh nng l tiu hu kt lun u tin t c bc th hai ca l l ca Marx. iu ny tt nhin nh hng n kt lun th hai, tin tri v s n ca cch mng x hi. Nhng trc khi ti c th bc vo ph phn cch trong ng i n li tin tri ny, cn phi tho lun vi mt s chi tit vai tr do n ng trong ton b l l, cng nh cch Marx dng t cch mng x hi.
II

Ci Marx c nh khi ng ni v cch mng x hi thot nhn c v l r. Cch mng x hi ca giai cp v sn ca ng l mt khi nim lch s. N biu hin s qu t nhiu nhanh chng t thi k lch s ca ch ngha t bn sang thi k lch s ca ch ngha x hi. Ni cch khc, n l tn ca thi k qu ca cuc u tranh giai cp gia hai giai cp chnh, n thng li cui cng ca nhng ngi lao ng. Khi c hi liu t cch mng x hi c ng mt cuc ni chin gia hai giai cp hay khng, Marx tr li8 rng n khng nht thit ng , tuy vy, ng ni thm rng cc trin vng trnh ni chin, ng tic, l khng tht sng sa. V ng c th ni thm rng, t quan im tin tri lch s, cu hi dng nh c l khng phi hon ton khng thch hp, song d sao i na ch c tm quan trng th yu. i sng x hi l d di, cc nh Marxist nhn mnh, v chin tranh giai cp gy ra cc nn nhn mi ngy.9 Ci tht s quan trng l kt qu, ch ngha x hi. t c kt qu ny l c trng thit yu ca cch mng x hi. M nu chng ta c th coi n nh c xc lp, hay nh chc chn mt cch trc gic, rng ch ngha x hi s k tip ch ngha t bn, th s gii thch ny ca t cch mng x hi c th l kh tho mn. Nhng v chng ta phi s dng hc thuyt v cch mng x hi nh mt phn ca l l khoa hc theo chng ta th chng minh s ra i ca ch ngha x hi, th qu thc li gii thch l rt khng tho mn. Nu trong mt l l nh vy chng ta c m t c trng cch mng x hi nh qu sang ch ngha x hi, th l l tr nn vng vo nh l l ca bc s ngi phi bin minh cho d on ca ng v ci cht ca mt

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bnh nhn, v phi th nhn rng ng khng bit cc triu chng cng chng bit g khc v chng bnh - ch bit rng n s bin thnh mt chng bnh cht ngi. (Nu bnh nhn khng cht, th n vn cha l chng bnh cht ngi; v nu mt cuc cch mng khng dn n ch ngha x hi, th n vn cha l cch mng x hi). Chng ta cng c th cho ph phn ny hnh thc n gin rng chng trong bc no ca ba bc ca l l tin tri chng ta phi gi thit bt c ci g c suy ra ch mt bc mun hn. Nhng cn nhc ny chng t rng, khi phc ng n l l ca Marx, chng ta phi tm mt m t c trng v cch mng x hi m m t khng dn chiu n ch ngha x hi, v cho php cch mng x hi ng vai tr ca mnh trong l l ny cng kho cng tt. Mt m t c trng tho mn cc iu kin ny c th l th ny. Cch mng x hi l mt n lc ca mt giai cp v sn phn ln thng nht ot quyn lc chnh tr, c thc hin vi quyt tm vng chc khng chn bc trc vic dng v lc nu v lc l cn thit t mc tiu ny, v chng li bt c n lc no ca cc i th ca n nhm ly li nh hng chnh tr. M t c trng ny khng b nhng kh khn va ni n; n khp vi bc th ba ca l l chng mc bc th ba ny l hp l, cn c vo mc hp l m bc ny r rng c; v, nh s c chng t, n ph hp vi ch ngha Marx, v c bit vi xu hng lch s ch ngha ca n trnh mt tuyn b dt khot10 v liu v lc s thc s c dng hay khng trong giai on ny ca lch s. Nhng cho d c coi nh mt tin tri lch s, s m t c trng ny l bt nh v vic s dng v lc, quan trng nhn ra rng n khng vy nhn t quan im o c hay php l. Xem xt t quan im nh vy, m t c trng v cch mng x hi c kin ngh y r rng bin n thnh mt cuc khi ngha bo lc; v vn liu v lc c thc s c dng hay khng l t quan trng hn nh; v chng ta gi s mt quyt tm vng chc khng chn bc trc vic dng v lc nu v lc l cn thit t cc mc tiu ca phong tro. Ni rng quyt tm khng chn bc trc vic dng v lc c tnh quyt nh cho c tnh ca cch mng x hi nh mt khi ngha bo lc l ph hp khng ch vi quan im o c hay php l, m cng ph hp vi quan im bnh thng v vn . V nu mt ngi quyt tm dng v lc nhm t cc mc tiu ca mnh, th chng ta c th ni rng anh ta hu nh chp nhn mt thi hung d, bt lun v lc c thc s c dng hay khng trong mt trng hp c bit. Phi tha nhn, khi th tin on hnh ng tng lai ca con ngi ny, chng ta phi khng dt khot

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ht nh ch ngha Marx, tuyn b rng chng ta khng bit liu anh ta s thc s dng n v lc hay khng. (Nh th m t c trng ca chng ta thng nht vi quan im Marxist im ny). Nhng s thiu dt khot ny r rng bin mt nu chng ta khng th a ra mt tin tri lch s, m c gng m t c trng thi ca anh ta mt cch bnh thng. M ti mun lm tht r rng chnh s tin tri v mt cuc cch mng c th d di ny l ci ti coi, t quan im ca thc tin chnh tr, l yu t tai hi nht trong ch ngha Marx; v ti ngh s tt hn nu ti gii thch ngn gn l do cho kin ca mnh trc khi ti tip tc phn tch ca mnh. Ti khng phn i mt cuc cch mng bo lc trong mi trng hp v di mi hon cnh. Ti tin cng vi cc nh t tng trung c v C c gio thi Phc hng no nhng ngi dy tnh c th chp nhn c ca s git bo cha, di mt ch chuyn ch, vic qu thc l khng c kh nng no khc, v rng mt cuc cch mng bo lc c th c bin minh. Nhng ti cng tin rng bt c mt cuc cch mng no nh th phi c mc tiu duy nht ca n thit lp mt nn dn ch; v di nn dn ch ti khng c ni ci g m h nh s cai tr ca nhn dn hay s cai tr ca a s, m l mt tp cc th ch (trong c bit l cc cuc tng tuyn c, tc l quyn ca nhn dn sa thi chnh ph ca h) nhng th ch cho php nhng ngi b tr kim sot cng khai nhng k cai tr v vic ph trut h, v chng lm cho nhng ngi b tr c th t c cc cuc ci cch m khng dng n v lc, thm ch ngc vi ch ca nhng k cai tr. Ni cch khc, vic dng v lc ch c bin minh di mt ch chuyn ch, ch lm cho cc ci cch khng dng n v lc l khng th, v n phi c mt mc tiu duy nht, tc l, to ra mt tnh th lm cho cc ci cch l c th m khng dng n v lc. Ti khng tin rng c bao gi chng ta phi c gng t nhiu hn vy bng cc phng tin v lc. V ti tin rng mt c gng nh vy s ko theo ri ro ph hu mi trin vng v ci cch hp l. Vic s dng v lc ko di cui cng c th dn n s mt quyn t do, v n hn khng to ra mt s cai tr v t ca l tr, m to ra s cai tr ca k mnh. Mt cuc cch mng bo lc toan t nhiu hn vic ph hu ch chuyn ch ch t cng c kh nng to ra mt nn chuyn ch khc nh c kh nng t cc mc tiu tht s ca n. C mt s s dng v lc thm duy nht na trong cc tranh chp chnh tr m ti coi l c bin minh. ti mun ni n s khng c,

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mt khi nn dn ch t c, i vi bt c tn cng no (bt lun bn trong hay ngoi nh nc) chng li hin php dn ch v vic s dng cc phng php dn ch. Bt c cuc tn cng nh vy no, c bit nu n t chnh ph ang nm quyn, hay c n dung tng, phi b tt c cc cng dn trung thnh phn khng, ngay c dng v lc. Thc ra, s hot ng ca nn dn ch da ch yu vo s hiu bit rng mt chnh ph th lm dng quyn lc ca n v xc lp mnh nh mt ch chuyn ch (hay dung tng bt c ai khc xc lp mt ch chuyn ch) l t t mnh ra ngoi vng php lut, v cc cng dn khng ch c quyn m cn c ngha v coi hnh ng ca chnh ph nh vy l mt ti c, v cc thnh vin ca n nh mt bn ti phm nguy him. Song ti tin rng s phn khng d di nh vy i vi cc mu toan lt nn dn ch phi l t v mt cch r rng. Khng th c mt cht nghi ng no rng mc tiu duy nht ca s phn khng l bo v nn dn ch. Mt e do v li dng tnh hnh thit lp mt mt nn phn-chuyn ch cng l ti c ht nh mu toan ban u a ra mt nn chuyn ch; vic s dng mt e do nh vy, cho d c tin hnh vi ch tht th cu nn dn ch bng cch lm nht ch cc k th ca n, v th s l mt phng php rt ti bo v nn dn ch; qu thc, mt e do nh vy s gy ln xn hng ng ca nhng ngi bo v n trong gi pht him nguy, v v th chc s gip k th. Nhng nhn xt ny biu th rng mt chnh sch dn ch thnh cng i hi nhng ngi bo v phi tun th cc quy tc nht nh. Vi quy tc nh th s c lit k mun hn chng ny; y ti ch mun lm r v sao ti coi thi Marxist i vi bo lc l mt trong cc im quan trng nht cn c cp trong bt c nghin cu no v Marx.
III

Theo din gii ca h v cch mng x hi, chng ta c th phn bit hai nhm chnh ca cc nh Marxist, mt cnh cp tin v mt cnh n ho (tng ng i th, nhng khng chnh xc11, vi cc ng Cng sn v Dn ch X hi). Cc nh Marxist thng khng chu tho lun vn liu mt cuc cch mng bo lc c c bin minh hay khng; h ni rng h khng phi l cc nh o c, m l cc nh khoa hc, v h khng i ph vi cc suy on v ci g nn l, m vi cc s thc v ci g ang l hay s l. Ni cch khc, h l cc nh tin tri lch s t gii hn mnh

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vn v ci g s xy ra. Nhng hy gi s l chng ta thuyt phc c h tho lun v s bin minh ca cch mng x hi. Trong trng hp ny, ti tin rng chng ta s thy tt c cc nh Marxist ng , v nguyn tc, vi quan im c rng cc cuc cch mng bo lc ch c bin minh nu chng hng ti chng mt ch chuyn ch. T y tr i, kin ca hai cnh l khc nhau. Cnh cp tin khng khng rng, theo Marx, mi s thng tr giai cp u nht thit l mt nn c ti, tc l mt ch chuyn ch12. Mt nn dn ch thc s v th c th t c ch bng thit lp mt x hi phi giai cp, bng lt ch c ti t bn ch ngha, mt cch d di nu cn. Cnh n ho khng ng vi quan im ny, m nhn mnh rng nn dn ch mc no c th c thc hin ngay c di ch ngha t bn, v rng v th l c th tin hnh cch mng x hi bng cc cuc ci cch ho bnh v t t. Nhng ngay c cnh n ho ny vn nhn mnh rng mt din tin ho bnh nh vy l khng chc chn; n ch ra rng chnh giai cp t sn l giai cp chc s s dng v lc, nu i mt vi trin vng b cc cng nhn nh bi trn chin trng dn ch; v n cho rng trong trng hp ny cc cng nhn s c bin minh v tr a, v v thit lp s cai tr ca h bng cc phng tin bo lc13. C hai cnh u nhn l i din cho ch ngha Marx chn chnh ca Marx, v chng mc no y, c hai u ng. V, nh nhc ti trc, cc quan im ca Marx v vn ny l hi m h, v cch tip cn lch s ch ngha ca ng; ngoi iu ny ra, dng nh ng thay i quan im ca mnh trong cuc i ng, khi u nh mt ngi cp tin v mun hn chp nhn mt lp trng n ho hn14. u tin ti s kho st lp trng cp tin, v dng nh i vi ti n l lp trng duy nht khp vi T bn v ton b khuynh hng ca l l tin tri ca Marx. V hc thuyt chnh ca T bn cho rng s i khng gia nh t bn v cng nhn nht thit phi tng ln, v khng c kh nng tho hip no, cho nn ch ngha t bn ch c th b tiu dit, khng th c ci thin. Tt nht i trch on c bn ca T bn trong Marx cui cng tng kt xu hng lch s ca tch t t bn ch ngha. ng vit15: Cng vi s gim u n v s lng cc trm t bn nhng ngi chim ot v c quyn cc li th ca s pht trin ny, mc khn kh, p bc, n l, thoi ho v bc lt tng ln; nhng ng thi, cng tng s cm phn chng i ca giai cp lao ng c s lng tng ln u n, v l giai cp c k lut, c thng nht, v c t chc bi chnh c ch ca phng php sn xut t bn ch

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ngha. Cui cng, s c quyn t bn tr thnh xing xch trn phng thc sn xut hng thnh vi n, v di n. C s tp trung t liu sn xut vo tay t ngi, ln s t chc x hi ca lao ng, t n mt im ni ci o chong t bn ch ngha ca chng tr nn cht chi, tri buc. N v tung ra tng mnh. Gi ca ti sn t nhn t bn ch ngha im. Nhng k chim ot b tc ot. Xt v on c bn ny, c th c t nghi ng rng ci li ca gio hun trong T bn l tnh khng th c c ca ci cch ch ngha t bn, v s tin tri v s lt d di ca n; mt hc thuyt khp vi l l tin tri ca chng ta kho nh c th. V nu chng ta cng nhn khng ch tin ca bc th hai m cng nhn c kt lun th nht na, th s tin tri v cch mng x hi qu thc c suy ra, ph hp vi on va c trch dn t T bn. (V cng suy ra chin thng ca nhng ngi cng nhn, nh c ch ra chng trc). Qu thc, dng nh kh tng tng ni mt giai cp lao ng thng nht v gic ng hon ton, giai cp y cui cng li khng a ra mt n lc kin quyt lt trt t x hi, nu s khn cng ca h khng th c lm du bt bng bt c phng tin khc no. Nhng iu ny, tt nhin, khng cu c kt lun th hai. V chng ta chng t ri rng kt lun th nht l khng hp l; v t ch ring tin , t l thuyt v s gia tng ca ci v s khn kh, khng th suy ra c tnh khng th trnh khi ca cch mng x hi. Nh c ch ra trong phn tch ca chng ta v kt lun th nht, tt c ci chng ta c th ni l s bng n chng i c th khng trnh khi; nhng v chng ta khng th chc chn c v s thng nht giai cp ln v tnh gic ng giai cp gia cc cng nhn, chng ta khng th ng nht nhng s bng n nh vy vi cch mng x hi. (Chng cng khng nht thit thng li, cho nn gi thit rng chng i din cho cch mng x hi s khng khp vi bc th ba). Tri vi lp trng cp tin m t nht cng khp kh tt vi l l tin tri, lp trng n ho ph hu n hon ton. Nhng nh chng ta ni trc, n cng c uy quyn ca Marx ng h. Marx sng lu thy cc ci cch c thc hin m, theo l thuyt ca ng, phi l khng th c c. Nhng ng chng h ny ra ngh rng nhng ci thin ny v s phn ca cc cng nhn ng thi l nhng s bc b l thuyt ca ng. Cch nhn lch s ch ngha m h ca ng v cch mng x hi cho php ng din gii nhng ci cch ny nh khc do u16 hay thm ch nh khi u ca n. Nh Engels bo chng ta17, Marx i n kt lun rng nc Anh, d sao i na, cch mng x hi khng

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th trnh khi c th c thc hin hon ton bng cc phng tin ho bnh v php l. ng chc chn khng bao gi qun ni thm rng ng hu nh khng k vng giai cp thng tr Anh li quy phc cuc cch mng ho bnh v hp php ny, m khng c s ni lon ng h ch n l. Tng thut ny ph hp vi mt l th18 trong Marx vit, ch ba nm trc khi ng mt: ng ca ti .. coi mt cuc cch mng Anh l khng tt yu song theo cc tin l lch s - l c th. Nn lu rng ch t trong phn u ca tuyn b ny, l thuyt ca cnh n ho c by t r rng; l thuyt, c th, rng nu giai cp thng tr khng quy phc, v lc s l khng th trnh khi. Cc l thuyt n ho ny dng nh i vi ti ph hu hon ton l l tin tri19. Chng ng kh nng v mt s tho hip, v mt ci cch t t ca ch ngha t bn, v v th, v mt s i khng giai cp gim i. Nhng c s c nht ca l l tin tri l gi thit v mt s i khng giai cp tng ln. Khng c tt yu logic no v sao mt ci cch t t, t c bng tho hip, li dn n s ph hu hon ton h thng t bn ch ngha; v sao cc cng nhn, nhng ngi hc bng kinh nghim rng h c th ci thin s phn ca mnh bng ci cch t t, li khng thch gn b vi phng php ny, cho d n khng mang li thng li hon ton, tc l s quy phc ca giai cp thng tr; v sao h li khng tho hip vi giai cp t sn v cho n c quyn s hu v t liu sn xut hn l chu ri ro mt ton b li lc bng cc yu sch c th dn n cc ng bo lc. Ch nu chng ta tha nhn rng nhng ngi v sn chng c g mt tr xing xch ca h20 l ng, ch nu chng ta cho rng qui lut v s khn kh tng ln l ng, hoc rng ch t n lm cho cc ci thin l khng th c c, th ch khi chng ta c th tin tri rng cc cng nhn buc phi tin hnh mt n lc lt ton b h thng. Mt din gii tin ho v cch mng x hi nh th ph hu ton b l l Marxist, t bc u n bc cui; tt c ci cn li ca ch ngha Marx s l cch tip cn lch s ch ngha. Nu mt tin tri lch s vn c c th, th n phi da trn mt l l hon ton mi. Nu ta th xy dng mt l l c sa i nh vy ph hp vi cc quan im mun hn ca Marx v vi cc quan im ca cnh n ho, bo ton l thuyt ban u cng nhiu cng tt, th chng ta i n mt l l da hon ton vo li khng nh rng giai cp cng nhn hin nay i din, hay mt ngy no s i din cho a s nhn dn. L l s c k ging th ny. Ch ngha t bn s c bin i bi mt cuc cch mng x hi, ci m hin ti chng ta mun ni khng l g ngoi s tin

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ti ca u tranh giai cp gia cc nh t bn v cc cng nhn. Cuc cch mng ny c th c tin hnh hoc bng cc phng php t t v dn ch, hay n c th l bo lc, hay n c th l t t v bo lc trong cc giai on xen k nhau. Tt c iu ny s ph thuc vo s khng c ca giai cp t sn. Nhng trong mi trng hp, v c bit nu s pht trin l mt din tin ho bnh, n phi kt thc vi cc cng nhn nm v tr ca giai cp thng tr21, nh Tuyn ngn ni; h phi thng trn nh dn ch; v phong tro v sn l phong tro c lp t gic ca tuyt i a s, v li ch ca tuyt i a s. Quan trng nhn ra rng ngay c dng n ho v c sa i ny, s tin on l khng th ng vng. L do l th ny. L thuyt v s khn kh tng ln phi b t b nu tha nhn kh nng v ci cch t t; nhng vi vic t b n, th ngay c v b ngoi ca mt s bin minh cho khng nh, rng cc cng nhn cng nghip mt ngy no phi to thnh tuyt i a s, s bin mt. Ti khng mun ng rng khng nh ny thc s c suy ra t l thuyt Marxist v s khn kh gia tng, v l thuyt ny chng bao gi ch n cc ch trang tri v nng dn. Nhng nu qui lut v s khn kh gia tng, gi s ging tng lp trung lu xung mc ca giai cp v sn, l hp l, th chng ta phi sn sng thy rng mt giai cp trung lu ng k tip tc tn ti (hay mt giai cp trung lu mi ni ln) v n c th hp tc vi cc giai cp phi-v sn khc chng li mt c gng t quyn lc ca cc cng nhn; v khng ai c th ni chc kt qu ca mt cuc tranh ua nh vy s l th no. Qu thc, cc s liu thng k khng cn cho thy bt c xu hng no v tng s lng ca cc cng nhn cng nghip trong quan h vi cc giai cp khc trong dn c. C, ng hn, mt xu hng ngc li, bt chp s thc l s tch t t liu sn xut tip tc. Ch ring s thc ny bc b tnh hp l ca l l tin tri c sa i. Tt c ci cn li ca n l nhn xt quan trng (tuy vy, n khng xng ng vi cc tiu chun kiu cng ca mt li tin tri lch s ch ngha) rng cc ci cch x hi c tin hnh ch yu22 di sc p ca nhng ngi b p bc, hay di sc p ca u tranh giai cp (nu thch t ny hn); tc l, s gii phng ca nhng ngi b p bc s ch yu l thnh tu ca bn thn nhng ngi b p bc23.
IV

L l tin tri l khng th ng vng, v khng th sa li c, trong mi din gii ca n, bt lun cp tin hay n ho. Nhng c mt s

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hiu bit y v tnh hnh ny, s l khng i bc b s tin tri c sa i; cng cn kho st thi mp m i vi vn v lc m chng ta c th quan st thy c cc ng Marxist cp tin ln n ho. Thi ny, ti qu quyt, c mt nh hng ng k ln vn liu cuc chin u dn ch s thng hay khng; v bt c u cnh Marxist n ho thng mt cuc tng tuyn c, hay n gn chin thng, mt trong cc l do dng nh l h thu ht c cc b phn ln ca giai cp trung lu. iu ny c c l nh ch ngha nhn o ca h, nh lp trng ca h ng h t do v chng p bc. Nhng tnh m h c h thng ca thi ca h i vi v lc khng ch c khuynh hng v hiu ho s hp dn ny, m cn thc y trc tip li ch ca nhng k chng dn ch, nhng k chng nhn o ch ngha, bn pht xt. C hai s m h lin h mt thit vi nhau trong hc thuyt Marxist, v c hai u quan trng nhn t quan im ny. Mt ci l thi m h, nhp nhng i vi v lc, da trn cch tip cn lch s ch ngha. Ci khc l cch m h theo cc nh Marxist ni v s chinh phc quyn lc chnh tr bi giai cp v sn, nh Tuyn ngn din t24. iu ny c ngha l g? N c th c ngha, v i khi c din gii nh vy, rng ng ca nhng ngi lao ng c mt mc tiu v hi v hin nhin ca mi ng dn ch, mc tiu nhn c a s, v lp mt chnh ph. Nhng n c th c ngha, v thng c cc nh Marxist m ch rng n c ngha th, rng mt khi nm quyn ng c khuynh hng c th mnh v tr ny; tc l, ng s dng a s phiu ca mnh theo cch lm cho rt kh i vi cc ng khc ly li quyn lc bng cc cng c dn ch thng thng. S khc bit gia hai din gii ny l quan trng nht. Nu mt ng thi im no cn tnh trng thiu s li d nh cm ng khc, bt lun bng bo lc hay bng a s phiu, th bng ng n tha nhn ng hin ang chim a s cng c quyn lm vy. N mt bt c quyn o c no phn nn v s p bc; v, qu thc, n lm li cho cc nhm trong ni b ng cm quyn hin ti nhng ngi mun cm s i lp bng v lc. Ti c th gi hai s mp m ny ngn gn l s mp m v bo lc v s mp m v chim quyn. C hai c gc r khng ch tnh mp m ca cch tip cn lch s ch ngha, m c l thuyt Marxist v nh nc. Nu nh nc, v c bn, l nn chuyn ch giai cp, th, mt mt, bo lc l c php, v mt khc, tt c ci c th c lm l thay ch c ti ca giai cp t sn bng ch c ti ca giai cp v sn. Lo lng qu nhiu v nn dn ch hnh thc ch chng t thiu thc lch

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s; xt cho cng nn dn ch .. ch l mt trong cc giai on trong tin trnh pht trin lch s, nh Lenin ni25. Hai s mp m ng vai tr ca chng trong cc hc thuyt chin thut ca c cnh cp tin ln cnh n ho. iu ny c th hiu c, v vic s dng c h thng s mp m cho php h m rng lnh a t cc mn trin vng c th c tuyn m. y l li th chin thut, tuy vy, n c th d dn n mt bt li thi im nguy cp nht; n c th dn n mt s chia r mi khi cc thnh vin cp tin nht ngh rng gi im cho vic thc hin hnh ng bo lc. Cch, theo cnh cp tin c th li dng s mp m v bo lc mt cch c h thng, c th c minh ho bng cc on trch sau y ly t phn tch ph phn k lng mi y v ch ngha Marx ca Pakes26. V ng Cng sn Hoa K gi y tuyn b khng ch rng hin nay n khng ch trng cch mng, m cng tuyn b rng n cha bao gi ch trng cch mng, c th thch hp trch vi cu t cng lnh ca Quc t Cng sn (d tho nm 1928). Sau Parkes trch gia nhng th khc cc on sau y t cng lnh ny: S chinh phc quyn lc bi giai cp v sn khng c ngha l chim nh nc t sn c sn mt cch ho bnh bng cc phng tin a s ngh vin... S chinh phc quyn lc .. l s lt mnh lit quyn lc t sn, l s ph hu b my nh nc t bn ch ngha ng .. i mt vi nhim v lnh o qun chng n mt cuc tn cng trc tip ln nh nc t sn. iu ny c thc hin bng .. tuyn truyn .. v hnh ng qun chng Hnh ng qun chng ny bao gm .. cui cng, tng bi cng cng vi khi ngha v trang Hnh thc sau .. l hnh thc cao nht, phi c tin hnh theo cc qui tc chin tranh .. T cc trch dn ny, ta thy rng phn ny ca cng lnh l kh mp m; nhng n khng ngn cn ng li dng tnh mp m v bo lc mt cch c h thng, rt lui, nu tnh hnh chin thut27 i hi, hng v mt din gii phi-bo lc ca t cch mng x hi; v iu ny bt chp on kt ca Tuyn ngn28 (m cng lnh nm 1928 gi li): Nhng ngi Cng sn khng thm che giu cc quan im v mc tiu ca h. H tuyn b cng khai rng cc mc tiu ca h c th t c ch bng s lt mi iu kin x hi hin thi bng v lc Nhng cch theo cnh n ho s dng tnh mp m v bo lc cng nh s mp m v chinh phc quyn lc l thm ch quan trng hn. N c p dng c bit bi Engels, da vo cc quan im n ho hn ca Marx c trch trn, v n tr thnh mt hc thuyt chin thut c nh hng ln n nhng din tin sau . Hc thuyt

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m ti ngh n c th c trnh by nh sau29: Chng ta cc nh Marxist thch hn nhiu mt din tin ho bnh v dn ch n ch ngha x hi, nu chng ta c th c n. Nhng vi t cch l nhng ngi c u c thc t chnh tr chng ta on trc kh nng rng giai cp t sn s khng ng yn khi chng ta trong tm vi t a s. H, ng hn, s mu toan ph hu nn dn ch. Trong trng hp ny, chng ta khng c chn bc, m phi nh tr, v chim quyn lc chnh tr. V v din tin ny l din tin c kh nng, chng ta phi chun b nhng ngi lao ng cho vic y; khc i th chng ta s phn bi s nghip. y l mt trong cc on30 ca Engels v vn ny: Hin ti .. tnh hp php .. hot ng rt tt ng h chng ta nn chng ta c in mi b ri n chng no n cn ko di. Cn phi xem liu khng phi l giai cp t sn .. giai cp s t b n u tin hay khng nhm nghin nt chng ta bng bo lc. Hy bn pht sng u tin i, cc ngi t sn! ng bao gi nghi ng iu , h s l ngi bn u tin. Mt ngy p tri .. giai cp t sn s pht chn .. vic theo di sc mnh gia tng nhanh chng ca ch ngha x hi, v s phi cu vin n s bt hp php v bo lc. Ci g s xy ra sau c b mc mt cch mp m. V s mp m ny c dng nh mt s e do; v cc on mun hn, Engels ni vi cc ngi t sn theo cch sau: Nu .. cc ngi vi phm hin php .. th ng Dn ch X hi s t do hnh ng, hay kim ch khng hnh ng, chng li cc ngi - bt k th g n thch nht. Ci m n s lm, tuy vy, n s kh tit l cho cc ngi hm nay! L th thy hc thuyt ny khc xa n th no vi quan nim ban u ca ch ngha Marx, ch ngha tin on rng cch mng s n nh kt qu ca p lc gia tng ca ch ngha t bn ln nhng ngi lao ng, ch khng phi nh kt qu ca p lc gia tng ca mt phong tro giai cp cng nhn thnh cng ln cc nh t bn. S thay i chiu hng (tr mt) ni bt nht ny31 cho thy nh hng ca din tin x hi tht s, din tin ho ra l mt s gim bt cng kh. Nhng hc thuyt mi ca Engels, cho giai cp cai tr sng kin cch mng, hay chnh xc hn, sng kin phn cch mng, l ng ngn v chin thut, v chu s phn tht bi. L thuyt Marxist ban u dy rng cch mng ca nhng ngi lao ng s n ra ch su ca mt suy thoi, tc l thi im khi h thng chnh tr b s v ca h thng kinh t lm yu i, mt tnh th s ng gp to ln cho thng li ca nhng ngi lao ng. Nhng nu mi cc ngi t sn n pht sng u tin, th c th hnh dung rng h s khng qu ngu ngc khng chn thi im ca h

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mt cch khn ngoan? H s khng chun b thch ng cho cuc chin tranh m h s tin hnh? V v, ph hp vi l thuyt, h nm gi quyn lc, mt s chun b nh vy khng phi c ngha l s huy ng cc lc lng m chng li chng nhng ngi lao ng chng c th c c hi mong manh nht v thng li? S ph phn nh vy khng th c tho mn bng sa i l thuyt sao cho nhng ngi lao ng khng ch i cho n khi i phng tn cng m th lng trc h, v, da vo gi thit ring ca n, s lun lun d dng cho nhng ngi nm quyn i trc trong cc cng vic chun b ca h - chun b sng trng, nu cc cng nhn chun b gy gc, i bc nu h chun b sng trng, v nm bom nu h chun b i bc, v.v.
V

Nhng ph phn ny, du c thc tin, v c kinh nghim cng c, ch l hi ht. Cc thiu st ca hc thuyt nm su hn. Ph phn m by gi ti mun a ra th chng t rng c gi nh trc ca hc thuyt ln cc h qu chin thut ca n l chng chc to ra chnh xc phn ng chng-dn ch ca giai cp t sn m l thuyt tin on, nhng li cho l kinh tm (vi s mp m): s cng c yu t chng dn ch trong giai cp t sn, v, kt qu l, trong ni chin. V chng ta bit rng iu ny c th dn n tht bi, v n ch ngha pht xt. Ph phn m ti ngh ti, ngn gn, l hc thuyt chin thut ca Engels, v, tng qut hn, nhng s mp m v bo lc v v chim quyn, lm cho hot ng ca nn dn ch l khng th c c, mt khi chng c mt ng chnh tr quan trng chp nhn. Ti t c s cho ph phn ny trn lun im rng nn dn ch c th hot ng ch nu cc ng chnh tn trng trit quan im v cc chc nng ca n nhng ci c th c tm tt trong mt s qui tc nh th ny (so c mc II ca chng 7): (1) Nn dn ch khng th c c trng hon ton nh s cai tr ca a s, mc d th ch v tng tuyn c l quan trng nht. V mt a s c th cai tr theo cch chuyn ch. (a s ca nhng ngi thp hn 6 b [feet] c th quyt nh rng thiu s nhng ngi cao hn 6 b s np mi loi thu). Trong mt nn dn ch, quyn lc ca nhng ngi cai tr phi b hn ch; v tiu chun ca mt nn dn ch l th ny: Trong mt nn dn ch, cc nh cai tr -tc l, chnh ph - c th b sa thi bi nhng ngi b tr m khng c mu. Nh th nu nhng ngi nm quyn khng bo v cc th ch m chng m bo cho thiu

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s kh nng hot ng cho mt s thay i ho bnh, th s cai tr ca h l mt ch chuyn ch. (2) Chng ta ch cn phn bit gia hai dng chnh ph, tc l loi chnh ph c cc th ch thuc loi ny, v tt c cc loi khc, tc l cc nn dn ch v cc ch chuyn ch. (3) Mt hin php dn ch nht qun phi loi tr ch mt loi thay i trong h thng php l, c th l mt s thay i c th gy nguy him cho c tnh dn ch ca n. (4) Trong mt nn dn ch, s bo v hon ton ca cc thiu s khng c m rng ra cho nhng ngi vi phm php lut, v c bit khng cho nhng ngi kch ng ngi khc lt nn dn ch32 bng bo lc. (5) Mt chnh sch to khung kh cc th ch bo v nn dn ch phi lun lun c tin hnh trn gi thit rng c th c cc xu hng chng dn ch tim n gia nhng ngi b tr cng nh gia nhng nh cai tr. (6) Nu nn dn ch b ph hu, mi quyn u b ph hu. D l cc li ch kinh t no , m nhng ngi b tr c hng, vn cn tn ti, chng c th vn cn ch v bt c d phi chp nhn33. (7) Nn dn ch cung cp mt chin trng v gi cho bt c ci cch hp l no, v n cho php ci cch m khng c bo lc. Nhng nu s duy tr nn dn ch khng bin thnh cn nhc u tin trong bt c cuc chin u no c u tranh n cng trn chin trng ny, th cc xu hng chng dn ch tim tng lun lun hin din (v chng li cun nhng ngi chu ng cng thng ca nn vn minh, nh chng ta gi n chng 10) c th gy ra mt s v ca nn dn ch. Nu mt s hiu bit v cc nguyn l ny vn cha c pht trin, phi chin u v s pht trin ca n. Chnh sch ngc li c th ho ra tai ho; n c th gy ra s tht bi ca cuc chin u quan trng nht, cuc chin u v bn thn nn dn ch. Tri vi mt chnh sch nh vy, chnh sch ca cc ng Marxist c th c c trng nh chnh sch lm cho nhng ngi lao ng nghi ng nn dn ch. Trong thc t nh nc ch l, Engels ni34, mt b my n p ca mt giai cp i vi mt giai cp khc, v iu ny ng cho mt nn dn ch cng ho khng km cho mt nn qun ch. Nhng cc quan im nh vy phi to ra: (a) Mt chnh sch buc ti nn dn ch v mi xu xa m n khng ngn cn c, thay cho tha nhn rng cc nh dn ch phi b ln n,

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v phe i lp thng khng km phe a s. (Mi phe i lp c a s n xng ng). (b) Mt chnh sch gio dc nhng ngi b tr coi nh nc khng phi l ca h, m nh l ca nhng ngi cai tr. (c) Mt chnh sch ni vi h rng ch c mt cch ci thin tnh hnh, l cch chim quyn lc hon ton. Nhng iu ny b qua mt th tht s quan trng ca nn dn ch, rng n kim ch v cn bng (check and balance) quyn lc. Mt chnh sch nh vy chng khc g lm cng vic ca nhng k th ca x hi m; n v tnh cung cp cho h mt i qun th nm (i qun ni gin). V ngc li vi Tuyn ngn ni35 mt cch r rng rng: Bc u tin trong cuc cch mng ca giai cp cng nhn l a giai cp v sn ln a v giai cp thng tr - chin thng cuc chin cho nn dn ch, ti qu quyt rng nu iu ny c chp nhn nh bc u tin, th cuc chin u cho nn dn ch s b bi. y l nhng h qu chung ca cc hc thuyt chin thut ca Engels, v ca nhng s mp m da vo l thuyt v cch mng x hi. Rt cuc, chng ch n thun l cc hu qu ca cch t vn v hot ng chnh tr ca Plato bng cch hi ai phi cai tr nh nc? (so vi chng 7). n lc chng ta hc rng cu hi ai l ngi nm v s dng quyn lc trong nh nc? chng my quan trng khi so snh vi cu hi quyn lc c nm v s dng th no? v bao nhiu quyn lc c nm? Chng ta phi hc rng v di hn, tt c cc vn chnh tr l cc vn th ch, cc vn v khung kh php lut hn l cc vn v c nhn, v rng s tin b v hng bnh ng hn c th c bo v ch bng kim sot th ch ca quyn lc.
VI

Nh chng trc, by gi ti s minh ho bc th hai bng cho thy mt cht cch m theo li tin tri nh hng n cc din tin lch s mi y. Tt c cc ng chnh tr u c loi c li no trong cc nc i khng c a chung ca i th ca h. H kim sng bng chng v v th c th ch , nhn mnh, v thm ch mong i chng. H c th thm ch khuyn khch cc sai lm chnh tr ca cc i th ca h chng no h c th lm vy m khng b dnh lu trch nhim. iu ny, cng vi l thuyt ca Engels, dn mt s ng Marxist mong i cc nc i chnh tr do cc i th ca h tin hnh chng li dn ch. Thay cho chin u c lit vi cc nc i nh vy, h

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vui mng ni cho nhng ngi i theo mnh: Hy xem bn ngi lm g. l ci h gi l dn ch. l ci h gi l t do v bnh ng! Hy nh n khi n ngy tnh s. (Mt li ni m h c th nhc n ngy bu c hay ngy cch mng). Chnh sch ny, chnh sch cho cc i th t phi by, phi dn ti thm ho, nu m rng ra cho cc nc i chng li dn ch. N l chnh sch ni ln v chng lm g trc mi nguy him thc v ngy cng tng i vi cc th ch dn ch. l chnh sch ni chin tranh v hnh ng ho bnh; v n dy bn pht xt phng php v gi v ni ho bnh v lm chin tranh. Khng c nghi ng g v cch theo tnh mp m va c ni n lm li cho cc nhm pht xt nhng ngi mun ph hu nn dn ch. V chng ta phi tnh n kh nng rng s c cc nhm nh vy, v rng nh hng ca h trong ci gi l giai cp t sn s ph thuc ch yu vo chnh sch do cc ng ca nhng ngi lao ng thng qua. Th d, hy xem xt t m hn vic s dng, c dng trong u tranh chnh tr, v e do cch mng hay thm ch e do bi cng chnh tr (tri vi cc tranh chp v lng, v.v.). Nh c gii thch trn, cu hi quyt nh y l liu cc phng tin nh vy c dng nh cc v kh tn cng hay ch bo v nn dn ch. Trong mt nn dn ch, chng c th c bin minh vi t cch mt v kh thun tu t v, v khi c p dng mt cch kin quyt trong quan h vi mt yu sch t v v r rng, chng c dng thnh cng theo cch ny. (Hy nh li s sp nhanh chng ca cuc o chnh ca Kapp). Nhng nu c dng nh mt v kh tn cng chng phi dn n mt s tng cng cc xu hng chng dn ch trong phe i th, v chng r rng lm cho nn dn ch khng th hot ng c. Hn na, cch s dng nh vy hn lm v kh khng c hiu qu cho phng th. Nu anh dng roi da khi con ch cn ngoan, th n s khng c tc dng khi anh cn chn n khi tr nn xu. Bo v nn dn ch phi ct lm cho cc th nghim chng dn ch l qu tn km i vi nhng ngi th chng; tn km hn nhiu so vi mt tho hip dn ch Vic cc cng nhn s dng bt c loi p lc phi-dn ch no chc s dn n mt phn-p lc tng t, hay thm ch phn-dn ch - khiu khch mt nc i chng li nn dn ch. Mt nc i phn-dn ch nh vy t pha nhng ngi cai tr, tt nhin, l nghim trng hn nhiu so vi nc i tng t t pha nhng ngi b tr. Phi l nhim v ca nhng ngi lao ng chin u vi nc i nguy him ny mt cch kin quyt, chn n khi u khng d thy ca n. Nhng lm sao by gi h c th chin

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u di danh ngha dn ch? Hnh ng chng-dn ch ca chnh h phi to cho k th ca h, v k th ca nn dn ch, mt c hi. Cc s kin ca din bin c m t, nu ta mun, c th c din gii khc i; chng c th dn n kt lun rng dn ch l khng tt. y qu thc l kt lun m nhiu nh Marxist rt ra. Sau khi b nh bi trong ci h tin l cuc u tranh dn ch (m h thua thi im h trnh by hc thuyt chin thut ca mnh), h ni: Chng ta qu hin hu, qu nhn o - ln ti chng ta s lm mt cuc cch mng tht m mu! C nh l mt ngi thua mt trn u box i kt lun: m box l khng tt ti s phi dng mt cy gy S thc l cc nh Marxist dy nhng ngi lao ng v chin tranh giai cp, nhng li tp luyn n cho nhng k phn ng ht sc ngoan c ca giai cp t sn. Marx ni v chin tranh. Cc i th ca ng chm ch nghe; ri chng bt u ni ho bnh v t co nhng ngi lao ng v tnh trng giao tranh; s buc ti ny cc nh Marxist khng th phn i, v chin tranh giai cp l khu hiu ca h. V bn pht xt hnh ng. Cho n y, phn tch ch yu bao gm cc ng Dn ch X hi cp tin hn no nhng ngi t c s cho chnh sch ca h ln hc thuyt chin thut m h ca Engels. Cc kt qu thm khc ca cc chin thut ca Engels tng ln trong trng hp ca h do thiu mt cng lnh thc tin c tho lun chng trc. Nhng nhng ngi Cng sn cng chp nhn cc chin thut c ph phn y trong cc nc nht nh v nhng giai on nht nh, c bit ni cc ng khc ca nhng ngi lao ng, th d cc ng Dn ch X hi hay ng Lao ng, tn trng nhng qui tc dn ch. Nhng lp trng l khc vi nhng ngi Cng sn chng mc h c mt cng lnh. l: Sao chp nc Nga! iu ny lm cho h r rng hn trong cc hc thuyt cch mng ca h cng nh trong khng nh ca h rng nn dn ch ch c ngha l ch c ti ca giai cp t sn36. Theo khng nh ny, chng c th mt my v c th c ci g nu s c ti b che giu tr thnh cng khai, r rnh rnh cho tt c mi ngi; v iu ny c th ch a cch mng n gn hn37. H thm ch cn hi vng rng mt ch c ti ton tr Trung u c th y nhanh s vic. Rt cuc, v cch mng nht thit s n, ch ngha pht xt c th ch l mt trong cc phng tin dn n n; v iu ny c bit l nh th v cch mng r rng qu hn t lu. Nc Nga c ri bt chp cc iu kin kinh t lc hu ca n. Ch cc hi vng ho huyn do nn dn ch gy ra38 ngn n li cc nc tin tin hn. Nh th ph hu nn dn ch thng qua bn pht xt c th ch thc y

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cch mng do to ra s v mng cui cng ca nhng ngi lao ng v cc phng php dn ch. Vi iu ny, cnh cp tin ca ch ngha Marx39 cm thy rng n khm ph ra bn cht v vai tr lch s tht ca ch ngha pht xt. Ch ngha pht xt, v c bn, l v tr cui cng ca giai cp t sn. Do , nhng ngi Cng sn khng chin u khi bn pht xt tm quyn. (Chng ai k vng nhng ngi Dn ch X hi chin u). V nhng ngi Cng sn chc chn rng cch mng v sn qu thi hn v rng khc do u pht xt, cn thit tng tc cho n40, khng th ko di hn vi thng. Nh th khng c hnh ng no c i hi t nhng ngi Cng sn. H l v hi. chng bao gi c mt nguy c cng sn cho vic chinh phc quyn lc pht xt. Nh Einstein mt ln nhn mnh, trong tt c cc nhm c t chc ca cng ng, ch c Nh th, hay ng hn mt khu vc ca Nh th, l khng c tht s.

CHNG 20: CH NGHA T BN V S PHN CA N

Theo hc thuyt Marxist, ch ngha t bn lm vic di cc mu thun ni ti cc mu thun e do gy ra s suy sp ca n. Mt cht phn tch v cc mu thun ny v v thi im lch s m chng p ln x hi to thnh bc u tin ca l l tin tri ca Marx. Bc ny khng ch l quan trng nht trong ton b l thuyt ca ng, n cng l mt bc m ng dnh hu ht cng sc ca mnh, v hu nh ton b ba tp ca T bn (hn 2.200 trang ln xut bn u tin1) c dnh cho vic trau chut n. N cng l bc t tru tng nht ca l l v n da vo mt phn tch m t, c h tr bi cc s liu thng k, v h thng kinh t ca thi ng h thng kinh t ca ch ngha t bn v [ch ngha t bn khng b kim ch]2. Nh Lenin din t: Marx suy din ra tnh khng th trnh khi ca s bin i x hi t bn ch ngha sang ch ngha x hi hon ton v ch ring t qui lut kinh t v s vn ng ca x hi ng thi. Trc khi tin hnh gii thch chi tit mt cht bc u tin ca l l tin tri ca Marx, ti s th m t cc tng chnh ca n dng mt phc ho rt ngn gn. Marx tin rng cnh tranh t bn ch ngha p nh t bn lm nhng vic khng mun. N buc nh t bn tch t vn. Bng cch lm nh vy, ng ta hnh ng chng li cc li ch kinh t di hn ca chnh mnh (v tch t vn c th dn n mt s sa st li nhn ca ng ta). Nhng du cho hot ng chng li li ch c nhn ca ring mnh, ng hot ng v li ch ca s pht trin lch s; ng ta lm vic, khng ch tm, cho tin b kinh t, v cho ch ngha x hi. iu ny l do s thc rng tch t vn (t bn) c ngha l (a) nng sut tng ln; tng ca ci; v tp trung ca ci vo tay s t ngi; (b) tng tnh trng bn cng v ngho kh; cc cng nhn vn c gi lng sng hay ng lng cht i, ch yu bi s thc rng nhng ngi lao ng d tha, c gi l

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i qun d b cng nghip, gi lng mc thp nht c th. Chu k thng mi, trong bt c khong thi gian no, ngn cn cng nghip gia tng thu ht cng nhn d tha. Cc nh t bn khng th thay i iu ny, cho d h mun lm vy; v s sa st sut li tc ca h lm cho a v kinh t ca chnh h qu bp bnh cho bt c hnh ng c kt qu no. Theo cch ny, s tch t t bn ch ngha ho ra l mt qu trnh t st v t mu thun, cho d n nui dng tin b k thut, kinh t, v lch s tin n ch ngha x hi.
I

Cc tin ca bc th nht l cc qui lut v cnh tranh t bn ch ngha, v v tch t t liu sn xut. Kt lun l qui lut v tng ca ci v ngho kh. Ti bt u tho lun ca mnh vi mt gii thch v cc tin v kt lun ny. Di ch ngha t bn, s cnh tranh gia cc nh t bn ng mt vai tr quan trng. Cuc chin cnh tranh, nh c Marx phn tch trong T bn3, c thc hin bng bn cc hng ho c sn xut ra, nu c th vi gi thp hn gi i th cnh tranh c th c sc chp nhn. Nhng s r ca mt mt hng, Marx gii thch, n lt n li ph thuc, cc th khc ngang nhau, vo nng sut lao ng; v ci ny, li, ph thuc vo qui m sn xut. V sn xut qui m rt ln ni chung c kh nng s dng my mc chuyn dng hn, v mt s lng my ln hn; iu ny lm tng nng sut ca cc cng nhn, v cho php nh t bn sn xut, v bn, vi gi thp hn. Cc nh t bn ln, v th, thng cc nh t bn nh Cnh tranh lun lun kt thc vi s suy sp ca nhiu nh t bn b hn v vi vic chuyn vn ca h vo tay k chinh phc. (S vn ng ny, nh Marx ch ra, c h thng tn dng lm tng tc). Theo phn tch ca Marx, qu trnh c m t, tch t nh cnh tranh, c hai kha cnh khc nhau. Mt l, nh t bn buc phi tch t hay tp trung nhiu v nhiu vn hn, sng st; iu ny trong thc tin c ngha l u t nhiu v nhiu vn hn vo nhiu v nhiu my mc hn cng nh my mc mi v mi hn, nh th lin tc lm tng nng sut ca cc cng nhn ca ng ta. Kha cnh th hai ca tch t t bn l s tp trung (concentration) nhiu v nhiu ca ci hn vo tay ca cc nh t bn khc nhau, v ca giai cp t bn; v i cng vi n l s gim bt s lng cc nh t bn, mt s vn ng m Marx gi l s tp trung ho (centralization)4 t bn (tng phn vi tch t hay tp trung [concentration] n thun).

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M ba trong cc thut ng ny, cnh tranh, tch t, v nng sut tng ln, biu th cc xu hng c bn ca mi s sn xut t bn ch ngha, theo Marx; chng l cc xu hng m ti m ch n khi ti m t tin ca bc th nht nh cc qui lut v cnh tranh t bn ch ngha v v tch t. Thut ng th t v th nm, s tp trung [concentration] v tp trung ho [centralization], tuy vy, biu th mt xu hng ci to thnh mt phn ca kt lun ca bc th nht; v chng m t mt xu hng tin ti mt s tng ca ci lin tc, v s tp trung ho ca n vo tay ngy cng t ngi. Phn khc ca kt lun, qui lut s ngho kh tng ln, tuy vy, ch c th t c bng mt lp lun phc tp hn nhiu. Nhng trc khi bt u mt s gii thch v l l ny, u tin ti phi gii thch bn thn kt lun th hai ny. Thut ng s ngho kh tng ln, nh c Marx dng, c th c ngha l hai th khc nhau. N c th c dng m t phm vi ngho kh, biu th rng n tri ra mt s lng ngi ngy cng tng; hay n c th c dng biu th mt s tng ln v cng au kh ca ngi dn. Marx r rng tin l s ngho kh tng ln c v phm vi v v cng . iu ny, tuy vy, l nhiu hn ci ng cn thuyt phc ngi ta chp nhn l l ca ng. Cho mc ch ca l l tin tri, mt din gii rng hn ca thut ng s ngho kh tng ln c th lm tt ht nh vy (nu khng tt hn5); mt din gii, c th l, theo phm vi nho kh tng ln, trong khi cng ca n c th hay c th khng tng, nhng d sao i na khng cho thy bt c s gim r rt no. Nhng cn a ra mt nhn xt thm na v quan trng hn nhiu. S ngho kh tng ln, i vi Marx, v c bn ko theo mt s bc lt tng ln ca cc cng nhn lm thu; khng ch v s lng m c v cng . Phi tha nhn rng ngoi ra n ko theo mt s tng ln v s au kh cng nh v s lng ca nhng ngi tht nghip, m Marx gi l6 dn c d tha (tng i) hay i qun d b cng nghip. Nhng chc nng ca nhng ngi tht nghip, trong qu trnh ny, l to p lc ln cc cng nhn lm thu, nh th gip cc nh t bn trong cc n lc ca h kim li nhun t cc cng nhn lm thu, bc lt h. i qun d b cng nghip, Marx vit7, thuc v ch ngha t bn ht c nh th l cc thnh vin ca n c cc nh t bn nui nng vi chi ph ring ca h. Cho cc nhu cu thay i ca chnh n, t bn to ra mt cung lun lun sn sng v vt liu ngi c th bc lt c Trong cc giai on suy thoi hay na-phn vinh, i qun d b cng nghip gi vng p lc ln hng ng cc cng nhn lm thu; v trong cc giai on sn xut qu mc v hng thnh, n c dng kim ch

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cc kht vng ca h. S ngho kh gia tng, theo Marx, v c bn l s bc lt gia tng ca sc lao ng; v bi v sc lao ng ca nhng ngi tht nghip khng b bc lt, h c th phc v trong qu trnh ny ch nh nhng ngi gip vic khng c tr lng ca cc nh t bn trong vic bc lt cc cng nhn lm thu. im ny l quan trng v mun hn cc nh Marxist thng nhc n s tht nghip nh mt trong cc s thc kinh nghim nhng ci xc nhn li tin tri rng s ngho kh c xu hng tng ln; nhng s tht nghip c th c cho l xc nhn l thuyt ca Marx ch nu n xy ra cng vi s bc lt gia tng ca cc cng nhn lm thu, tc l vi s gi lm vic di v vi lng thc t thp. iu ny c th gii thch thut ng s ngho kh tng ln. Nhng vn cn gii thch qui lut v s ngho kh tng ln m Marx t cho l khm ph ra. Bng ci ny ti mun ni n hc thuyt ca Marx m trn ton b l l tin tri ph thuc vo; c th l, hc thuyt cho rng ch ngha t bn khng th c l c sc gim s ngho kh ca cc cng nhn, v c ch ca tch t t bn ch ngha t nh t bn di mt p lc kinh t mnh m ng ta buc phi chuyn cho cc cng nhn nu ng ta khng chu thua. y l v sao cc nh t bn khng th tho hip, v sao h khng th tho mn bt c i hi quan trng no ca cc cng nhn, cho d h mun lm vy; y l v sao ch ngha t bn khng th c ci cch m ch c th b tiu dit8. R rng qui lut ny l kt lun quyt nh ca bc th nht. Kt lun khc, qui lut v s giu c tng ln, s l mt vn v hi, gi m cc cng nhn c th chia s s gia tng ca ci. Lun im ca Marx rng iu ny l khng th c c, v th, s l ti chnh ca phn tch ph phn ca chng ta. Nhng trc khi tin hnh mt trnh by v ph phn cc l l ca Marx ng h cho lun im ny, ti c th bnh lun ngn gn v phn u ca kt lun, l thuyt v s giu c gia tng. Xu hng tin ti tch t v tp trung ca ci, m Marx quan st thy, kh c th b nghi ng. L thuyt ca ng v nng sut tng ln cng vy, nhn chung, l khng th bt b c. Mc d c th c cc gii hn i vi cc tc ng tt do s tng trng ca mt doanh nghip mang li cho nng sut ca n, hu nh khng c bt c gii hn no i vi cc tc ng tt ca s ci thin v tch t my mc. Nhng v xu hng tin n tp trung ho t bn vo tay ngy cng t ngi hn, vn khng hon ton n gin nh vy. Khng nghi ng g, c mt xu hng theo chiu , v chng ta c th tha nhn rng di h thng t bn ch ngha v , khng b kim ch, c t lc chng li. Chng c th ni

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my chng li phn phn tch ny ca Marx vi t cch mt m t v mt ch ngha t bn v . Nhng xt nh mt li tin tri, n t c th ng vng hn. V chng ta bit rng by gi c nhiu phng tin m php lut c th dng can thip. nh thu v thu lc cht [sau ny l thu tha k N.D.] c th c dng hiu qu nht chng li tp trung ho, v chng c s dng theo cch y. V lut php chng-c quyn [anti-trust] cng c th c dng, tuy c l vi kt qu t hn. nh gi sc thuyt phc ca l l tin tri ca Marx chng ta phi xem xt kh nng v nhng ci thin to ln theo hng ny; v nh trong cc chng trc, ti phi tuyn b rng l l trn Marx t c s cho li tin tri ny v s tp trung ho hay v s gim bt s lng ca cc nh t bn l khng i n kt lun. Sau khi gii thch cc tin v nhng kt lun chnh ca bc th nht, v bc b kt lun u tin, by gi chng ta c th hon ton tp trung ch vo suy din ca Marx ra cc kt lun khc, ra qui lut tin tri v s ngho kh tng ln. Ba xu hng t duy khc nhau c th c phn bit trong cc n lc ca ng thit lp li tin tri ny. Chng s c cp bn mc tip ca chng ny di cc tiu : II: l thuyt v gi tr; III: tc ng ca dn c d tha ln lng; IV: chu k thng mi; V: cc tc ng ca t sut li nhun gim st.
II

L thuyt gi tr ca Marx, thng c cc nh Marxist cng nh nhng ngi chng-Marxist coi nh mt hn tng ca tn iu Marxist, theo ti l mt trong cc phn hi khng quan trng; qu thc, l do duy nht v sao ti s cp n n, thay cho tin hnh ngay mc tip theo, l n ni chung c coi l quan trng, v rng ti khng th bo v cc l do ca ti v khc cc kin ny m khng tho lun l thuyt y. Nhng ti mun lm r ngay lp tc rng coi l thuyt gi tr l phn tha ca ch ngha Marx, ti bo v Marx hn l tn cng ng. V c t nghi ng rng nhiu nh ph bnh nhng ngi chng t l thuyt gi tr bn thn n l rt yu nhn chung l hon ton ng. Nhng ngay cho d gi nh h sai, n s ch cng c a v ca ch ngha Marx nu c th chng minh rng cc hc thuyt lch s-chnh tr quyt nh ca n c th c pht trin hon ton c lp vi mt l thuyt c th gy tranh ci nh vy [l thuyt gi tr]. tng v ci gi l l thuyt lao ng v gi tr 9, c Marx ci bin cho cc mc ch ca ng t cc gi ng thy cc bc tin bi

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ca mnh (ng c bit nhc n Adam Smith v David Ricardo), l kh n gin. Nu bn cn mt th mc, bn phi tr ng ta theo gi. Nu bn hi ng ta v sao mt cng vic no li t hn cng vic khc, ng ta s ch ra rng n tn nhiu cng hn. Ngoi lao ng, tt nhin bn phi tr tin g. Nhng nu bn xem xt vic ny t m hn, th bn thy l mnh tr tin, mt cch gin tip, cho lao ng gn vi vic trng rng, n cy, chuyn ch, ca, v.v. S cn nhc ny gi mt l thuyt tng qut rng bn phi tr cho mt cng vic, hay cho bt c mt hng no bn c th mua, i th t l vi khi lng lao ng trong n, tc l vi s gi lao ng cn thit cho vic sn xut ra n. Ti ni i th bi v cc gi thc t ln xung. Nhng lun lun, hay ch t c v th, c ci g n nh hn ng sau nhng gi ny, mt loi gi trung bnh m quanh n gi thc t dao ng10, c t tn l gi tr trao i hay, ngn gn, l gi tr ca th y. Dng tng tng qut ny, Marx nh ngha gi tr ca mt mt hng nh s gi lao ng trung bnh cn thit sn xut ra n (hay cn cho s ti sn xut ra n). T tng tip theo, tng v l thuyt v gi tr thng d, cng gn n gin nh th. N cng c Marx ci bin t cc tin bi ca ng. (Engels khng nh11 c l sai, nhng ti s i theo trnh by ca ng v vn - rng ngun ch yu ca Marx l Ricardo). L thuyt v gi tr thng d l mt c gng, trong cc gii hn ca l thuyt lao ng v gi tr, tr li cu hi: Nh t bn kim li nhun th no? Nu chng ta gi s rng cc mt hng c sn xut trong nh my ca ng ta c bn trn th trng vi gi tr tht ca chng, tc l theo s gi lao ng cn thit cho vic sn xut ra chng, th cch duy nht theo nh t bn c th kim li nhun l tr cc cng nhn ca mnh t hn gi tr y ca sn phm ca h. Nh vy lng m cng nhn nhn c, i din cho mt gi tr khng bng vi s gi anh ta lm. V do chng ta c th chia ngy lm vic ca anh ta thnh hai phn, thi gian anh ta tn sn xut ra gi tr tng ng vi lng ca mnh v thi gian anh ta dng to ra gi tr cho nh t bn12. V v l , chng ta c th chia ton b gi tr do cng nhn to ra thnh hai phn, gi tr bng vi lng ca anh ta, v phn cn li, c gi l gi tr thng d. Gi tr thng d ny b nh t bn chim ot v l c s duy nht cho li nhun ca ng ta. Cho n y, cu chuyn l kh n gin. Nhng by gi ni ln mt kh khn l thuyt. Ton b l thuyt gi tr c a vo nhm gii thch gi c thc t ti mi hng ho c trao i; v vn gi thit

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rng nh t bn c kh nng nhn c trn th trng gi tr y ca sn phm ca mnh, tc l gi tng ng vi tng s gi tn cho n. Nhng c v c nh l cng nhn khng nhn c y gi ca mt hng m anh ta bn cho nh t bn trn th trng lao ng. C v c nh l anh ta b la, hay b ly trm; du sao i na, c nh l anh ta khng c tr ph hp vi qui lut chung c l thuyt gi tr cho l ng, c th l, tt c gi thc t c tr, ch t ngha gn ng u tin, c quyt nh bi gi tr ca mt hng. (Engels ni rng vn c cc nh kinh t thuc ci m Marx gi l trng phi Ricardo nhn ra; v ng khng nh13 rng s bt lc ca h gii quyt n dn n s sp ca trng phi ny). Dng nh c li gii c v l mt gii php kh hin nhin cho kh khn ny. Nh t bn chim mt c quyn v t liu sn xut, v quyn lc kinh t u vit ny c th c dng c hip cng nhn vo mt tho thun vi phm qui lut gi tr. Nhng gii php ny (m ti coi l mt m t kh hp l v tnh hnh) hon ton ph hu l thuyt lao ng v gi tr. V by gi ho ra l mt s gi nht nh, c th l lng, hay gi lao ng khng tng ng vi gi tr ca chng, khng ngay c php gn ng u tin. V iu ny m ra kh nng rng iu ny c th ng vi cc gi khc v cc l do tng t. Tnh hnh l nh th khi Marx bc ln sn khu nhm cu vt l thuyt lao ng v gi tr khi b ph hu. Vi s gip ca mt tng khc n gin nhng xut chng, ng thnh cng chng t rng l thuyt v gi tr thng d khng nhng tng thch vi l thuyt lao ng v gi tr m rng n c th c suy din mt cch cng nhc t ci sau. Nhm t c suy din ny, chng ta ch cn hi chnh mnh: ci g, chnh xc, l mt hng m cng nhn bn cho nh t bn? Cu tr li ca Marx l: khng phi l cc gi lao ng ca anh ta, m l ton b sc lao ng ca anh ta. Ci m nh t bn mua hay thu trn th trng lao ng l sc lao ng ca cng nhn. Chng ta hy gi s, khng qu quyt, rng hng ho ny c bn gi tr tht ca n. Gi tr ca n l g? Theo nh ngha ca gi tr, gi tr ca sc lao ng l s gi lao ng trung bnh cn thit cho vic to ra n hay ti to ra n. Nhng ci ny, r rng, khng l g ngoi s gi cn thit to ra cc phng tin sinh tn ca cng nhn (v ca gia nh anh ta). Nh th Marx i n kt qu sau y. Gi tr tht ca ton b sc lao ng ca cng nhn bng vi s gi lao ng cn thit to ra cc phng tin sinh tn ca anh ta. Sc lao ng c bn vi gi ny cho nh t bn. Nu cng nhn c kh nng lm vic di hn th, th lao ng

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thng d ca anh ta thuc v ngi mua hay ngi thu sc lao ng ca anh ta. Nng sut lao ng cng cao, cng nhn c th sn xut cng nhiu mi gi, s gi cn to ra s m bo s tn ti ca anh ta cng t, v s gi cn li cho s bc lt cng nhiu. iu ny cho thy rng c s ca s bc lt t bn ch ngha l nng sut cao ca lao ng. Nu trong mt ngy cng nhn c th sn xut khng nhiu hn nhu cu hng ngy ca chnh anh ta, th s bc lt l khng th c m khng c s vi phm qui lut gi tr; n s ch c th bng cch la gt, n cp, hay git ngi. Nhng mt khi nng sut lao ng, do a my mc vo, tng cao n mc mt ngi c th sn xut nhiu hn nhu cu ca anh ta nhiu, th s bc lt t bn ch ngha tr nn c th. N l c th ngay c trong mt x hi t bn ch ngha l tng theo ngha rng mi hng ho, k c sc lao ng, c mua v bn gi tr tht ca n. Trong mt x hi nh vy, s bt cng v bc lt khng nm s thc l cng nhn khng c tr mt gi thch ng cho sc lao ng ca anh ta, m ng hn s thc rng anh ta ngho n mc buc phi bn sc lao ng ca mnh, trong khi nh t bn l giu mua sc lao ng vi s lng ln, v kim li nhun t . Bng cch dn ra ny14 ca l thuyt gi tr thng d, Marx trc mt cu l thuyt lao ng v gi tr khi b ph hu; v bt chp s thc rng ti coi ton b vn gi tr (theo ngha ca mt gi tr tht s khch quan m quanh gi c dao ng) l khng lin quan, ti rt sn sng tha nhn rng y l mt thnh cng l thuyt bc u tin. Nhng Marx lm nhiu hn vic cu mt l thuyt ban u do cc nh kinh t t sn a ra. Vi mt nt bt, ng cho mt l thuyt v bc lt v mt l thuyt gii thch v sao lng ca cng nhn c khuynh hng dao ng xung quanh mc sinh tn (hay mc cht i). Nhng thnh cng ln nht l ng c th cho mt gii thch, mt gii thch ho hp vi l thuyt kinh t ca ng v h thng php l, v s thc rng phng thc sn xut t bn ch ngha c khuynh hng chp nhn ci o khoc php l ca ch ngha t do. V l thuyt mi dn ng n kt lun rng mt khi vic a my mc mi vo lm tng nng sut lao ng ln nhiu ln, th ny sinh kh nng v mt hnh thc bc lt mi, hnh thc dng mt th trng t do hn l dng v lc tn bo, v da trn s tn trng hnh thc ca cng l, s cng bng trc lut, v quyn t do. H thng t bn ch ngha, ng khng nh, khng ch l mt h thng cnh tranh t do, m cng c duy tr bi s bc lt lao ng ca nhng ngi khc, nhng, theo ngha hnh thc, l lao ng t do15.

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L khng th i vi ti y i vo mt tng thut chi tit v s lng tht s ng kinh ngc ca cc ng dng khc thm na m Marx s dng l thuyt gi tr ca ng. Nhng cng khng cn thit, v ph phn ca ti v l thuyt ny s ch ng theo l thuyt gi tr c th c loi b khi tt c nhng kho st ny. By gi ti s trnh by ph phn ny; ba im chnh ca n l (a) l thuyt gi tr ca Marx khng gii thch s bc lt, (b) cc gi thit thm, nhng ci cn thit cho mt s gii thch nh vy ho ra l , cho nn l thuyt gi tr ho ra l tha, (c) l thuyt gi tr ca Marx l mt l thuyt mang tnh bn cht lun hay siu hnh hc. (a) Qui lut c bn ca l thuyt gi tr l qui lut cho rng cc gi ca hu nh tt c cc hng ho, k c lng, c xc nh bi gi tr ca chng, hay chnh xc hn, ch t trong php gn ng u tin chng t l vi s gi lao ng cn thit sn xut ra chng. M qui lut gi tr ny, nh ti c th gi n, ngay lp tc gy ra mt vn . V sao n ng? Hin nhin, c ngi mua ln ngi bn mt hng y, bng ci nhn thong qua, khng th nhn ra cn bao nhiu gi sn xut ra n; v cho d h c th bit, n cng s khng gii thch qui lut gi tr. V r rng l ngi mua n gin mua cng r cng tt, v ngi bn i mc ti a anh ta c th i. y, hnh nh, phi l mt trong nhng gi thit c bn ca bt c l thuyt no v gi c th trng. nhm gii thch l thuyt gi tr, s phi l nhim v ca chng ta chng minh v sao ngi mua khng chc thnh cng trong mua di, v ngi bn khng chc thnh cng bn trn, gi tr ca mt hng ho. Vn ny c nhng ngi tin vo l thuyt lao ng v gi tr nhn ra t nhiu r rng, v cu tr li ca h l th ny. V mc ch n gin ho, v nhm t c mt gn ng bc mt [bc th nht], chng ta hy gi thit s cnh tranh t do hon ho, v v cng l do hy xem xt ch cc hng ho c th c sn xut vi hu nh s lng khng gii hn (gi nh c sn lao ng). By gi chng ta hy gi s rng gi ca mt mt hng nh vy l trn gi tr ca n; iu ny s c ngha rng c th kim nhng li nhun qu ng trong ngnh sn xut c bit ny. N s khuyn khch cc nh sn xut khc nhau sn xut mt hng ny, v cnh tranh s ko gi xung. Qu trnh ngc li s dn n mt s tng gi ca mt hng c bn di gi tr ca n. Nh th s c s thng ging ca gi, v cc dao ng ny s c khuynh hng xoay quanh gi tr ca cc mt hng. Ni cch khc, l c ch ca cung v cu, c ch, di cnh tranh t do, c khuynh hng to sc thuyt phc16 cho qui lut gi tr.

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Nhng cn nhc nh nhng cn nhc ny c th thy thng xuyn Marx, th d, trong tp ba ca T bn17, ni ng c gng gii thch v sao c mt xu hng i vi tt c li nhun trong cc ngnh ch tc khc nhau xp x, v iu chnh bn thn chng, n mt li nhun trung bnh nht nh. V chng cng c dng trong tp mt, c bit nhm chng minh v sao lng c gi thp, gn mc sinh tn, hay, ci rt cuc cng chng khc g vy, ch trn mc cht i. R rng l vi lng di mc ny, cc cng nhn c th tht s cht i, v cung v sc lao ng trn th trng lao ng s bin mt. Nhng chng no con ngi cn sng, h s sinh sn; v Marx c gng chng minh mt cch chi tit (nh chng ta s thy mc IV), v sao c ch tch t t bn ch ngha phi to ra mt dn c d tha, mt i qun d b cng nghip. Nh th chng no lng ch va trn mc cht i, th s lun lun c cung v sc lao ng khng ch m thm ch qu mc m, theo Marx, cung v sc lao ng ny cn tr s tng lng18: i qun d b cng nghip duy tr p lc ca n ln hng ng cc cng nhn lm thu; .. nh th dn c d tha l hu trng m trc mt n cc qui lut v cung v cu lao ng hot ng. Dn c d tha hn ch di trong qui lut ny c cho php hot ng cc gii hn thch hp nht vi thi tham lam t bn ch ngha v bc lt v thng tr. (b) M on ny cho thy rng bn thn Marx nhn ra tnh cn thit ca h tr l thuyt gi tr bng mt l thuyt c th hn; mt l thuyt, trong bt c trng hp c bit no, cho thy lm th no qui lut cung v cu gy ra tc ng cn c gii thch; th d, ng lng cht i. Nhng nu cc qui lut ny l gii thch cc tc ng ny, th chng ta chng h cn n l thuyt lao ng v gi tr mt cht no, bt lun n c ng vng hay khng vi t cch l mt gn ng bc mt (m ti khng ngh n l). Hn na, nh Marx nhn ra, cc qui lut cung v cu l cn thit gii thch tt c cc trng hp trong khng c t do cnh tranh; th d, ni c quyn c th c dng gi gi c lin tc trn cc gi tr ca chng. Marx coi cc trng hp nh vy nh cc ngoi l, m hu nh khng phi l cch nhn ng; nhng d cho iu ny c th no i na, trng hp ca cc c quyn chng t rng cc qui lut cung v cu khng ch l cn thit b sung cho qui lut gi tr ca ng, m cng cho thy rng chng c th c p dng mt cch tng qut hn. Mt khc, r rng rng cc qui lut cung v cu khng ch l cn thit m cng l gii thch tt c cc hin tng v bc lt m Marx quan st thy cc hin tng, chnh xc hn, v s ngho kh ca cc

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cng nhn cng bn cnh s giu c ca cc ch doanh nghip - nu chng ta gi s, nh Marx lm, mt th trng lao ng t do cng nh mt cung lao ng qu ng mt cch kinh nin. (L thuyt ca Marx v cung qu ng ny s c tho lun y hn mc IV di y). Nh Marx chng t, kh r rng cc cng nhn, di nhng hon cnh nh vy, s buc phi lm vic thi gian di vi ng lng thp, ni cch khc, cho php nh t bn chim ot phn tt nht ca thnh qu ca lao ng ca h. V trong l l tm thng ny, l l l mt phn ca chnh Marx, thm ch khng c nhu cu no nhc n gi tr. Nh th l thuyt gi tr ho ra l mt phn hon ton tha ca l thuyt ca Marx v bc lt; v iu ny ng mt cch c lp vi vn liu l thuyt gi tr c ng hay khng. Nhng phn ca l thuyt ca Marx v s bc lt phn cn li sau khi loi b l thuyt gi tr r rng l ng n, vi iu kin chng ta chp nhn hc thuyt v dn c d tha. R rng ng l (khi khng c mt s ti phn phi ca ci thng qua nh nc) s tn ti ca mt dn c d tha phi dn n ng lng cht i, v dn n nhng khc bit khiu khch v tiu chun sng. (Ci khng tht r, v cng chng c Marx gii thch, l v sao cung lao ng phi tip tc vt cu. V nu c li nhun n vy bc lt lao ng, th, lm sao cc nh t bn li khng b buc phi, do cnh tranh, tng li nhun ca h bng cch s dng nhiu lao ng hn? Ni cch khc, v sao h khng cnh tranh chng li nhau trn th trng lao ng, v v th lm tng lng ln n im ni h tr thnh khng cn c li nhun na, cho khng cn c th ni v s bc lt na? Marx s c th tr li xem mc V, di y Bi v cnh tranh buc h u t ngy cng nhiu vn vo my mc, cho nn h khng th tng phn vn ca h m h dng cho lng. Nhng cu tr li ny l khng tho mn v cho d h dng vn ca mnh vo my mc, h c th lm vy ch bng mua lao ng xy dng my mc, hay bng khin nhng ngi khc mua lao ng nh vy, nh th lm tng cu lao ng. Dng nh, v cc l do nh vy, cc hin tng bc lt m Marx quan st thy l khng do, nh ng tin, c ch ca mt th trng cnh tranh hon ho, m do cc nhn t khc c bit do mt hn hp ca nng sut lao ng thp v cc th trng cnh tranh khng hon ho. Nhng mt gii thch chi tit v tho mn19 v cc hin tng y hnh nh vn cn thiu).

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(c) Trc khi ngng tho lun ny v l thuyt gi tr v phn do n ng trong phn tch ca Marx, ti mun bnh lun ngn gn v kha cnh khc ca cc kha cnh ca n. Ton b tng ci khng phi l s pht minh ca Marx - rng c ci g ng sau cc gi, mt gi tr khch quan hoc thc t hoc tht m cc gi ch l hnh thc b ngoi20, cho thy r rng nh hng ca Ch ngha Duy tm Platonic vi s phn bit ca n gia mt thc ti c bn hay tht b che giu, v mt v b ngoi khng ch yu hay ho huyn. Phi ni rng, Marx ht sc c gng21 trit ph c tnh thn b ny ca gi tr khch quan, nhng ng khng thnh cng. ng th l thc tin, chp nhn ch ci g c th quan st c v quan trng nhng gi lao ng- nh thc ti ci xut hin dng ca gi; v khng th nghi ng rng s gi lao ng cn thit sn xut ra mt hng ho, tc l gi tr Marxian ca n, l mt th quan trng. V theo mt cch no , chc chn l vn thun tu ngn t liu chng ta phi gi cc gi lao ng ny l gi tr ca mt hng ho hay khng. Nhng mt thut ng nh vy c th tr thnh lm lc nht v phi thc tin mt cch l thng, c bit nu chng ta gi thit cng vi Marx rng nng sut lao ng tng ln. V c ch ra bi bn thn Marx22 rng, vi nng sut tng ln, gi tr ca tt c cc hng ho gim i, v rng v th mt s tng ln l c th v lng thc t cng nh v li nhun thc t, tc l v cc hng ho do cc cng nhn v cc nh t bn tiu th mt cch tng ng, cng vi mt s gim v gi tr ca lng v ca li nhun, tc l v s gi tiu tn ln chng. Nh th bt c u chng ta thy s tin b thc t, nh gi lm vic ngn hn v mt tiu chun sng ca cc cng nhn c ci thin to ln (ngoi mt thu nhp cao hn v tin23 ra, cho d c tnh bng vng), th cc cng nhn ng thi c th phn nn mt cch chua cht rng gi tr Marxian, bn cht thc hay bn cht ca thu nhp ca h, teo i dn, v gi lao ng cn thit cho s ti to ra n gim xung. (Mt phn nn tng t c th c cc nh t bn a ra). Tt c nhng th ny c bn thn Marx tha nhn; v n chng t thut ng gi tr hn gy lm lc n th no, v n i din cho kinh nghim x hi thc t ca cc cng nhn t n th no. Trong l thuyt lao ng v gi tr, bn cht Platonic tr nn hon ton xa ri khi kinh nghim24
III

Sau khi loi b l thuyt lao ng v gi tr ca Marx v l thuyt ca ng v gi tr thng d, chng ta c th, tt nhin, vn gi li phn tch

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ca ng (xem cui ca (a) mc II) v p lc do dn c d tha tc ng ln lng ca cc cng nhn lm thu. Khng th ph nhn rng, nu c mt th trng lao ng t do v mt dn c d tha, tc l nn tht nghip rng ri v kinh nin (v khng c nghi ng g rng nn tht nghip ng vai tr ca n thi ca Marx v sut t ), th lng khng th tng hn lng cht i; v di cng gi thit cng vi hc thuyt v tch t c trnh by trn, mc d khng c bin minh trong tuyn b mt qui lut v s ngho kh tng ln, Marx ng v khng nh rng, trong mt th gii li nhun cao v s giu c tng ln, ng lng cht i v mt cuc sng ngho kh c th l s phn thng xuyn ca cc cng nhn. Ti ngh rng, cho d phn tch ca Marx c thiu st, n lc ca ng gii thch hin tng bc lt xng ng s knh trng ln nht. (Nh c nhc ti cui ca (b) trong mc ni trn, dng nh khng tn ti l thuyt thc s tho mn no ngay c ngy nay). Tt nhin, phi ni rng Marx sai khi ng tin tri rng cc iu kin m ng quan st l vnh vin th nu khng c mt cuc cch mng thay i, v cn hn na khi ng tin tri rng chng s tr nn ti hn. Cc s thc bc b nhng li tin tri ny. Hn th na, cho d chng ta c th tha nhn tnh hp l ca phn tch ca ng cho mt h thng khng b kim ch, khng theo ch ngha can thip, ngay c khi l l tin tri ca ng cng l khng i ti kt lun. V xu hng ti s ngho kh tng ln hot ng, theo phn tch ca chnh Marx, ch di mt h thng trong th trng lao ng l t do trong mt ch ngha t bn hon ton khng b kim ch. Nhng mt khi chng ta tha nhn kh nng ca cc nghip on, ca mc c tp th, ca cc cuc bi cng, th cc gi thit ca phn tch khng cn p dng c na, v ton b l l tin tri sp . Theo phn tch ca chnh Marx, chng ta s phi k vng rng mt din tin nh vy s hoc l b n p, hoc n s tng ng vi mt cuc cch mng x hi. V mc c tp th c th i chi vi t bn bng thit lp mt loi c quyn v lao ng; n c th ngn nh t bn khi s dng i qun d b cng nghip cho mc ch gi cho lng khng ln; v bng cch ny n c th buc cc nh t bn t bng lng vi nhng li nhun thp hn. Chng ta thy y v sao li ku gi Nhng ngi lao ng, lin hip li!, t quan im Marxian, qu thc l tr li kh d duy nht cho mt ch ngha t bn v . Nhng chng ta cng thy, v sao li ku gi ny phi m ra ton b vn v can thip nh nc, v v sao n chc dn n kt thc ca h thng khng b kim ch, v dn n mt h thng mi, ch ngha can

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thip25, ch ngha c th pht trin theo cc hng rt khc nhau. V hu nh khng th trnh khi rng cc nh t bn s khng tha nhn quyn ca cc cng nhn lin hip li, ch trng rng cc hip hi hn gy nguy him cho quyn t do cnh tranh trn th trng lao ng. Ch ngha khng can thip nh th i mt vi vn (n l mt phn ca nghch l quyn t do26): Nh nc phi bo v quyn t do no? Quyn t do ca th trng lao ng, hay quyn t do ca ngi ngho lin hip li? Bt c quyt nh no c ly, n dn n s can thip ca nh nc, n s dng quyn lc chnh tr c t chc, ca nh nc cng nh ca cc hip hi, trong lnh vc cc iu kin kinh t. N dn, trong mi trng hp, n mt s m rng trch nhim kinh t ca nh nc, bt lun trch nhim ny c chp nhn mt cch c thc hay khng. V iu ny c ngha rng cc gi thit trn phn tch ca Marx da vo phi bin mt. Vic suy din ra qui lut lch s v s ngho kh tng ln nh th l khng c cn c. Tt c ci cn li l mt m t cm ng v s ngho kh ca cc cng nhn thnh hnh mt trm nm trc, v mt n lc dng cm gii thch n vi s gip ca ci chng ta, cng vi Lenin27, c th gi l qui lut kinh t v s vn ng ca x hi ng thi ca Marx (tc l, ca ch ngha t bn v ca mt trm nm trc). Nhng chng mc m n c ngha nh mt li tin tri lch s, v chng mc n c dng suy din ra tnh khng th trnh khi ca nhng pht trin lch s no , th s dn xut l khng c cn c.
IV

Tm quan trng ca phn tch ca Marx da mc rt ln vo s thc rng mt dn c d tha thc s tn ti thi ng, v cho n tn thi nay ca chnh chng ta (mt s thc hu nh vn khng nhn c mt s gii thch tho ng, nh ti ni trn). Tuy vy, cho n nay chng ta vn cha tho lun l l ca Marx ng h lun ca ng rng chnh bn thn c ch sn xut t bn ch ngha l ci lun lun sn sinh ra dn c d tha m n cn gi cho lng ca cc cng nhn lm thu khng tng ln. Nhng l thuyt ny khng ch ti tnh v l th trong bn thn n; n ng thi bao gm l thuyt v chu k thng mi v v cc cuc suy thoi tng qut ca Marx, mt l thuyt r rng c lin quan n li tin tri v s sp ca h thng t bn ch ngha v s ngho kh khng th chu ng ni m n hn gy ra. nhm lm cho l thuyt ca Marx nh mt v vic vng mnh mc ti c th, ti sa i n mt cht28 (c th l, bng a ra mt s phn bit gia hai

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loi my mc, mt loi cho m rng n thun, v loi khc cho cng sn xut). Nhng s sa i ny khng cn thit gy ra s nghi ng ca cc nh Marxist; v ti s khng ph phn l thuyt mt cht no. L thuyt c sa i v dn c d tha v v chu k thng mi c th c phc ho nh sau. S tch t t bn c ngha rng nh t bn tiu mt phn li nhun ca mnh cho my mc mi; iu ny cng c th c trnh by bng ni rng ch mt phn ca li nhun thc ca ng ta l hng ho cho tiu dng, trong khi mt phn ca n l my mc. Cc my mc ny, ln lt, c th dnh hoc cho m rng ngnh kinh doanh, cho cc nh my mi, v.v., hay chng c th c dnh cho tng cng sn xut bng lm tng nng sut lao ng trong cc ngnh kinh doanh hin tn. Loi my mc trc lm cho mt s tng cng n vic lm l c th, loi sau c tc ng lm cho cc cng nhn tr nn khng cn thit, lm cho cc cng nhn rnh rang nh qu trnh ny c gi trong thi ca Marx. (Ngy nay n i khi c gi l tht nghip v mt cng ngh). By gi c ch sn xut t bn ch ngha, nh c l thuyt Marxist c sa i v chu k thng mi hnh dung, hot ng i th nh th ny. Nu chng ta gi s, khi ng, rng v l do no hay l do khc c mt s m rng ngnh, th mt phn ca i qun d b cng nghip s c hp thu, p lc ln th trng lao ng s c nh bt, v lng s cho thy mt chiu hng tng ln. Mt thi k hng thnh bt u. Nhng thi im lng tng ln, nhng ci thin c kh no nhng ci tng cng sn xut v trc y khng sinh li v lng thp c th tr thnh sinh li (cho d chi ph ca my mc nh vy s bt u tng ln). Nh th nhiu my mc hn, thuc loi lm cho cc cng nhn rnh rang, s c sn xut. Chng no cc my mc ny vn cn trong qu trnh c sn xut, s hng thnh tip tc, hay tng ln. Nhng mt khi bn thn cc my mc mi ny bt u sn xut, bc tranh thay i. (S thay i ny, theo Marx, c lm ni bt bi mt s st gim t sut li nhun, s c tho lun mc (V), di y). Cc cng nhn s b lm cho rnh rang, tc l b buc phi i. Nhng s bin mt ca nhiu ngi tiu dng phi dn n mt s suy sp ca th trng trong nc. Hu qu l, s lng rt ln cc my mc trong cc nh my c m rng tr thnh v dng (u tin l my mc t hiu qu), v iu ny dn n mt s tng tht nghip thm na v mt s suy sp hn na ca th trng. S thc rng nhiu my mc by gi nm v dng c ngha l phn ln t bn tr thnh v gi tr, rng nhiu nh t bn khng th thc hin cc ngha v ca h; nh th bc l mt khng hong ti chnh, dn n s tr tr hon

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ton v sn sinh ra t liu sn xut, v. v. Nhng trong khi suy thoi (hay, nh Marx gi n, l khng hong) tin trin nh thng l, cc iu kin chn mui cho mt s phc hi. Nhng iu kin ny ct s tng trng ca i qun d b cng nghip v s sn sng ca cc cng nhn chp nhn ng lng cht i nh hu qu. Vi ng lng rt thp, sn xut tr nn c li ngay c vi gi c thp ca th trng b suy thoi; v mt khi sn xut khi ng, nh t bn li bt u tch t, mua my mc. V lng l rt thp, ng ta thy rng vn cha sinh li dng my mc mi (c l c sng ch ra gia chng) thuc loi lm cho cc cng nhn rnh rang. u tin ng hn ng ta s mua my mc vi k hoch m rng sn xut. iu ny dn dn dn n mt s m rng cng n vic lm v n mt s phc hi ca th trng trong nc. S hng thnh li n mt ln na. Nh th chng ta quay tr li im khi u ca mnh. Chu k khp kn, v qu trnh c th bt u mt ln na. y l l thuyt Marxist c sa i v tht nghip v v chu k thng mi. Nh ti ha, ti s khng i ph phn n. L thuyt v cc chu k thng mi l mt vn rt kh, v chng ta chc chn vn khng bit v n (t nht ti khng bit). Rt c th l l thuyt c phc ho l khng y , v, c bit, l cc kha cnh nh s tn ti ca mt h thng tin t da mt phn trn h thng tn dng, v cc tc ng ca tch tr, khng c tnh n mt cch tho ng. Nhng du cho iu ny c th ra sao, chu k thng mi l mt s thc khng th b pht l mt cch d dng, v n l mt trong nhng cng trng v i nht ca Marx nhn mnh tm quan trng ca n nh mt vn x hi. Nhng mc d tt c iu ny phi c tha nhn, chng ta c th ph phn li tin tri m Marx c gng t c s trn l thuyt ca ng v chu k thng mi. Trc ht, ng khng nh rng cc cuc suy thoi s tr nn ngy cng ti t, khng ch qui m ca chng m c cng ca s au kh ca cc cng nhn. Nhng ng khng a ra l l no h tr cho iu ny (ngoi, c l, l thuyt v s suy gim t sut li nhun, s c tho lun ngay by gi). V nu chng ta ng ti cc din tin thc t, th chng ta phi ni rng d cc tc ng, c bit l cc tc ng tm l ca nn tht nghip trong cc nc m hin nay cc cng nhn c bo him chng li n, c kinh khng n u, khng c nghi ng g rng trong thi ca Marx s au kh ca cc cng nhn ti t hn mt cch khng th so snh ni. Nhng y khng phi l im chnh ca ti. Trong thi ca Marx, chng c ai bao gi ngh v k thut ca s can thip nh nc m by gi chng ta gi l chnh sch phn chu k-

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counter cycle policy; v qu thc, mt ngh nh vy phi l hon ton xa l i vi mt h thng t bn ch ngha v . (Nhng ngay c trc thi Marx, chng ta thy khi u ca s nghi ng v, v thm ch v nhng iu tra nghin cu, s sng sut ca chnh sch tn dng ca Ngn hng Anh trong mt suy thoi29). Bo him tht nghip, tuy vy, c ngha l can thip, v v th l mt s gia tng v trch nhim ca nh nc, v n chc dn ti cc th nghim v chnh sch phn chu k. Ti khng ch trng l cc th nghim ny nht thit phi thnh cng (mc d ti khng tin rng cui cng vn c th t ra l khng kh n vy, v rng Thu in30, c bit, chng t ri ci c th c lm trong lnh vc ny). Nhng ti mun khng nh dt khot nht, nim tin rng l khng th th tiu nn tht nghip bng cc bin php t t l cng trn bnh din ca ch ngha gio iu nh nhiu chng minh vt l (c ngh bi nhng ngi sng thm ch mun hn Marx) rng cc vn hng khng s lun lun vn l khng th gii c. Khi cc nh Marxist ni, nh i khi h lm vy, rng Marx chng minh tnh v dng ca mt chnh sch phn chu k v ca cc bin php dn dn tng t, th n gin h khng ni s tht; Marx nghin cu mt ch ngha t bn v , v ng chng bao gi m tng v ch ngha can thip. V th ng chng bao gi nghin cu kh nng v mt s can thip c h thng vi chu k thng mi, ng cng khng ngh mt chng minh v tnh bt kh thi ca n. L k thy l cng nhng ngi i ca thn v s v trch nhim ca cc nh t bn ng trc s au kh ca con ngi, li kh v trch nhim i phn i, vi nhng khng nh gio iu thuc loi ny, cc cuc th nghim t chng ta c th hc lm th no c th gim bt s au kh ca con ngi (lm sao tr thnh ch nhn ca mi trng x hi ca chng ta, nh Marx c th ni), v lm sao kim sot nhng hu qu x hi khng mong mun ca cc hnh ng ca chng ta. Nhng nhng ngi bin h cho ch ngha Marx hon ton khng bit v s thc rng nhn danh cc li ch ca chnh h, h ang chin u chng li s tin b; h khng nhn ra rng mi nguy him ca bt c phong tro no nh ch ngha Marx l n nhanh chng i din cho mi loi c quyn, v rng c cc khon u t tr tu, cng nh cc khon u t vt cht. Mt im khc phi ni r y. Marx, nh chng ta thy, tin rng nn tht nghip v c bn l mt dng c ca c ch t bn ch ngha vi chc nng gi ng lng thp, v lm cho vic bc lt cc cng nhn lm thu c d hn; s ngho kh tng ln lun lun ko theo i vi anh ta s ngho kh tng ln ca c cc cng nhn lm thu na; v y

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chnh l ton b vn m mu. Nhng cho d chng ta gi s rng quan im ny c bin minh thi ca ng, vi t cch mt li tin tri n r rng b kinh nghim mun hn bc b. Mc sng ca cc cng nhn lm thu tng ln khp ni k t thi Marx; v (nh Parkes31 nhn mnh trong ph phn ca ng i vi Marx) lng thc t ca cc cng nhn lm thu thm ch c xu hng tng ln trong mt suy thoi (chng l vy, th d sut i suy thoi va qua), do mt s gim st nhanh hn v gi so vi v lng. y l mt s bc b Marx rnh rnh, c bit v n chng minh rng gnh nng ch yu ca bo him tht nghip khng phi do cc cng nhn gnh chu, m do cc ch doanh nghip nhng ngi v th mt mt mt cch trc tip qua tht nghip, thay cho kim c li mt cch gin tip, nh trong s ca Marx.
V

Chng l thuyt Marxist no c tho lun cho n nay c thm ch n lc nghim tc chng minh im quyt nh nht trong bc th nht; c th l, s tch t gi nh t bn di mt p lc mnh m ng ta buc, v nguy c v s b tiu dit ca chnh ng ta, chuyn cho cc cng nhn; cho nn ch ngha t bn ch c th b tiu dit, nhng khng th c ci cch. Mt n lc chng minh im ny c bao hm trong l thuyt ca Marx, l thuyt nhm ti thit lp qui lut rng t sut li nhun c xu hng gim st. Ci Marx gi l t sut li nhun tng ng vi li sut; n l s phn trm ca li nhun trung bnh hng nm ca nh t bn trn ton b vn c u t. T sut ny, Marx ni, c xu hng gim st do s tng nhanh ca cc khon u t vn; v cc khon ny phi tch t nhanh hn li nhun c th tng ln. L l theo Marx c gng chng minh iu ny li kh ti tnh. Cnh tranh t bn ch ngha, nh ta thy, buc cc nh t bn tin hnh cc khon u t lm tng nng sut lao ng. Marx thm ch tha nhn rng bng s tng ln v nng sut h c mt ng gp to ln cho nhn loi32: Mt trong cc kha cnh vn minh ca ch ngha t bn l n vt gi tr thng d theo mt cch v di hon cnh thun li hn nhiu so vi cc dng trc kia (nh n l, nng n, v.v.) i vi s pht trin cc lc lng sn xut, cng nh i vi cc iu kin x hi cho mt s xy dng li x hi trn mt bnh din cao hn. V iu ny, n thm ch to ra cc yu t; .. v s lng cc hng ho hu ch c sn xut trong bt c khong thi gian cho trc no ph thuc vo nng sut lao ng. Song cng lao ng gp ny i vi nhn loi khng ch c tin hnh

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m khng c bt c ch no t cc nh t bn; hnh ng m cnh tranh buc h lm ngc vi cc li ch ca chnh h, v l do sau. Vn ca bt k nh cng nghip no c th c chia lm hai phn. Mt phn c u t vo t ai, my mc, nguyn liu, v.v. Phn khc dng cho lng. Marx gi phn th nht l vn bt bin v phn th hai l vn kh bin; nhng v ti coi thut ng ny l kh lm cho lc li, ti s gi hai phn ny l vn c nh v vn tin lng. Nh t bn, theo Marx, c li nhun ch bng bc lt cc cng nhn; ni cch khc, bng dng vn tin lng ca ng ta. Vn c nh l mt loi trng lng b [cht] m cnh tranh buc ng ta phi mang theo, v thm ch tng thm lin tc. S tng ln ny, tuy vy, khng km theo mt s tng ln tng ng v li nhun ca ng ta; ch mt s m rng vn tin lng c th c kt qu lnh mnh ny. Nhng xu hng ti mt s tng ln v nng sut c ngha rng phn vt cht ca vn tng tng i so vi phn tin lng. V th, tng vn cng tng, v khng c mt s tng ln b v li nhun; tc l, t sut li nhun phi gim st. M l l ny thng xuyn b nghi ng; qu thc, n b tn cng, bng ng , trc xa Marx33. Bt chp cc tn cng ny, ti tin rng c th c ci g trong l l ca Marx; c bit nu chng ta xem xt n vi l thuyt ca ng v chu k thng mi. (Ti s quay li im ny mt cch ngn gn chng tip theo). Nhng ci ti mun t thnh vn y l s lin quan ca l l ny n l thuyt v s ngho kh tng ln. Marx thy quan h ny nh sau. Nu sut li nhun c xu hng gim, th nh t bn i mt vi s tiu dit. Tt c ci ng ta c th lm l th rt ht sc ca cc cng nhn, tc l tng s bc lt. iu ny ng ta c th lm bng ko di gi lm vic; y nhanh cng vic; h lng; tng chi ph sinh hot ca cng nhn (lm pht); bc lt nhiu ph n v tr em hn. Cc mu thun ni ti ca ch ngha t bn, da vo s thc rng cnh tranh v kim li nhun l mu thun, pht trin y ln nh im. Th nht, chng buc nh t bn tch t v tng nng sut, v nh th gim sut li nhun. Tip theo, chng buc ng ta tng s bc lt n mt mc khng th chu ni, v vi n l s cng thng gia cc giai cp. Nh th tho hip l khng th. Cc mu thun khng th c loi b. Chng cui cng phi nh ot s phn ca ch ngha t bn. y l l l chnh. Nhng n c th i n kt lun? Chng ta phi nh rng nng sut tng ln l c s chnh ca s bc lt t bn ch ngha; ch nu cng nhn c th to ra nhiu hn nhiu so vi mc anh ta cn cho mnh v gia nh th nh t bn c th chim ot lao ng thng d. Nng sut tng ln, theo thut ng ca Marx, c ngha l lao ng thng

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d tng ln; n c ngha c l mt s tng s gi sn c cho nh t bn, ln pha trn iu ny, l mt s tng s hng ho c sn xut mi gi. N c ngha, ni cch khc, mt li nhun tng ln rt nhiu. iu ny c Marx tha nhn34. ng khng cho rng li nhun teo i; ng ch cho rng tng vn tng nhanh hn li nhun nhiu, cho nn t sut li nhun gim st. Nhng nu iu ny l nh vy, khng c l do v sao nh t bn li b p lc kinh t dy v, p lc m ng ta buc phi chuyn sang cho cc cng nhn, bt lun ng ta thch n hay khng. C l, ng l ng ta khng thch thy mt s gim st v t sut li nhun ca mnh. Nhng chng no thu nhp ca ng ta khng gim, m, ngc li, tng ln, th khng c nguy him tht s no. Tnh hnh cho mt nh t bn thnh cng trung bnh s l th ny: ng ta thy thu nhp ca mnh tng nhanh, v vn ca ng ta cn tng nhanh hn; ni cch khc, cc khon tit kim ca ng ta tng nhanh hn phn thu nhp m ng ta tiu dng. Ti khng ngh rng tnh hnh ny phi buc ng ta tuyt vng v cc phng k, hay lm cho mt s tho hip vi cc cng nhn l khng th c. Ngc li, n dng nh i vi ti l hon ton c th chu c. Tt nhin, ng l tnh hnh c cha mt yu t nguy him. Cc nh t bn nhng ngi suy xt trn gi thit v mt t sut li nhun khng i hay tng ln c th b rc ri; v cc s vic nh nhng th ny c th qu thc ng gp cho chu k thng mi, lm ni bt suy thoi. Nhng iu ny chng lin quan my vi cc hu qu cc k su rng m Marx tin tri. iu ny kt thc phn tch ca ti v l l th ba v l l cui cng, c Marx kin ngh chng minh qui lut v s ngho kh tng ln.
VI

Nhm chng minh Marx hon ton sai ra sao trong cc li tin tri ca ng, v ng thi ng c bin minh th no v s phn i si ni ca ng chng li a ngc ca mt ch ngha t bn v cng nh v i hi Nhng ngi lao ng, lin hip li! ca ng, ti s trch vi on t mt chng ca T bn trong ng tho lun Qui lut Chung ca Tch t T bn Ch ngha35. Trong cc nh my .. cc cng nhn nam tr a s c dng cho n kit sc trc khi h n tui trng thnh; sau , ch c mt phn rt nh cn hu ch cho cng nghip, cho nn h lin tc b sa thi vi s lng ln. Sau h to thnh mt phn ca dn c d tha l lng tng ln vi s tng trng cng nghip .. Sc lao ng b t bn vt kit nhanh n mc cng nhn tui trung nin

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thng l mt ngi kit sc .. Dr. Lee, quan chc y t v sc kho, tuyn b khng lu trc y rng tui khi cht ca tng lp trung lu bc trn Manchester l 38, trong khi tui trung bnh khi cht ca giai cp lao ng l 17; cn Liverpool cc con s l 35 i vi 15 .. .. S bc lt tr em thuc giai cp lao ng t mt khon tin li ln sn lng ca h Nng sut lao ng cng cao .. cc iu kin sinh tn ca cng nhn tr nn cng bp bnh Trong khun kh h thng t bn ch ngha, tt c mi phng php lm tng nng sut lao ng x hi .. c bin thnh cc cng c thng tr v bc lt; chng lm qu qut cng nhn thnh mt mu ca mt con ngi, chng lm anh ta thoi ho thnh mt ci (bnh) rng trong gung my, chng bin cng vic thnh mt s tra tn, .. v ko l v con anh ta di cc bnh xe ca Juggernaut [Sc mnh tn ph] t bn ch ngha .. Suy ra rng theo mc t bn tch t, iu kin ca cng nhn phi xu i, bt lun lng ca anh ta c th l bao nhiu .. ca ci x hi, lng t bn hot ng, qui m v nng lc tng trng ca n cng ln, .. th dn c d tha cng ln ln ca i qun d b cng nghip tng ln theo sc mnh ca s giu c tng ln. Nhng .. i qun d b cng nghip cng ln, s lng cc cng nhn, m s ngho kh ca h c gim nh ch bng mt s tng ln v s au n cc ca cng vic cc nhc, cng ln; v .. s nhng ngi c chnh thc cng nhn nh nhng ngi cng kh cng ln. y l qui lut tuyt i v tng qut v tch t t bn ch ngha S tch t ca ci mt cc ca x hi ng thi ko theo mt s tch t ca s ngho kh, ca s au n cc ca cng vic cc nhc, ca cnh n l, ngu dt, hung bo, v ca tha ho o c, cc i lp .. Bc tranh khng khip ca Marx v nn kinh t ca thi ng l qu ng. Nhng qui lut ca ng, rng s ngho kh phi tng ln cng vi tch t, khng ng. T liu sn xut c tch t v nng sut lao ng tng ln t thi ng n mt qui m m ngay c ng cng hu nh khng ngh l c th. Nhng lao ng tr em, s gi lm vic, s au n cc ca cng vic cc nhc, v s bp bnh ca s tn ti ca cc cng nhn, khng tng ln; chng gim xung. Ti khng ni l qu trnh ny phi tip tc. Khng c qui lut no v tin b, v tt c mi th s ph thuc vo chnh chng ta. Nhng tnh hnh thc t c Parkes36 tm tt ngn gn v thng thn trong mt cu: Lng thp, gi lm vic di, v lao ng tr em l c trng ca ch ngha t bn khng tui gi ca n, nh Marx tin on, m tui th u ca n.

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Ch ngha t bn v , khng b kim ch, qua. T thi Marx, ch ngha can thip dn ch c nhng tin b khng l, v nng sut lao ng c ci thin - mt h qu ca tch t t bn lm cho c th thc s dp s ngho kh. iu ny chng t rng t c nhiu, bt chp cc sai lm nghim trng r rng, v n phi c v chng ta tin rng c th lm c nhiu hn. V vn cn nhiu vic phi lm v phi g. Ch ngha can thip dn ch c th cui cng lm cho n l c th. Tu thuc vo chng ta thc hin n. Ti khng c o tng no v sc thuyt phc ca cc l l ca ti. Kinh nghim chng t rng cc li tin tri ca Marx sai. Nhng kinh nghim c th lun lun c thanh minh. V, qu thc, bn thn Marx, v Engels, bt u vi vic dng ln mt gi thuyt ph c d nh gii thch v sao qui lut v s ngho kh tng ln li khng hot ng nh h k vng n phi hot ng. Theo gi thuyt ny, khuynh hng tin ti mt t sut li nhun sa st, v vi n, s ngho kh tng ln, c trung ho bi cc tc ng ca bc lt thuc a, hay, nh n thng c gi, bi ch ngha quc hin i. Bc lt thuc a, theo l thuyt ny, l mt phng php chuyn p lc kinh t sang cho giai cp v sn thuc a, mt giai cp m, v mt kinh t cng nh v mt chnh tr, vn cn yu hn giai cp v sn cng nghip trong nc. Vn c u t cc thuc a, Marx vit37, c th mang li mt t sut li nhun cao hn v l do n gin rng t sut li nhun l cao hn ni s pht trin t bn ch ngha vn cn mt giai on lc hu, v v l do thm rng cc n l, cc cu li (phu), v.v., cho php mt s bc lt lao ng kho hn. Ti khng thy l do v sao cc t sut li nhun cao hn ny .., khi c gi v nc, li khng tham gia nh cc yu t vo t sut li nhun trung bnh, v theo t l, ng gp gi vng n. (ng ni n l tng chnh ng ng sau l thuyt ny v ch ngha quc hin i c th truy nguyn li hn 160 nm trc, n Adam Smith, ngi ni v thng mi thuc a rng n nht thit ng gp gi vng t sut li nhun). Engels i thm mt bc na hn Marx trong s pht trin ca ng v l thuyt ny. Buc phi tha nhn rng Vng quc Anh xu hng thnh hnh khng dn n mt s tng ln v ngho kh m ng hn n mt s ci thin ng k, ng m ch rng iu ny c th l do s thc rng Vng quc Anh bc lt ton b th gii; v ng xng vo tn cng mt cch y kinh b giai cp cng nhn Anh giai cp, thay cho chu au kh nh ng k vng h phi th, li thc s ngy cng tr thnh t sn hn. V ng tip tc38: Dng nh l ngi t sn nht trong mi quc gia ny mun lm cho

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vn xy ra y nh c mt tng lp qu tc t sn v mt giai cp v sn t sn cnh nhau vi giai cp t sn. M s thay i chiu ny pha Engels t nht cng ni bt nh s tr mt khc ca ng m ti nhc ti chng trc39; v ging vic , n c tin hnh di nh hng ca mt din tin x hi ci ho ra l mt s gim ngho kh. Marx trch ch ngha t bn v v sn ho tng lp trung lu v giai cp t sn bc thp, v v lm cho cc cng nhn thnh nhng ngi cng kh. Engels by gi li cho h thng n vn b trch mc- v bin cc cng nhn thnh t sn. Nhng chi tit th v nht trong li phn nn ca Engels l s cm phn khin ng gi ngi Anh, nhng ngi c x thiu thn trng n vy chng minh cc li tin tri Marxist l sai, l ngi t sn nht trong mi quc gia ny. Theo hc thuyt Marxist, chng ta phi ch i t ngi t sn nht trong mi quc gia mt s m rng ngho kh v cng thng giai cp n mt mc khng th chu c; thay vo , chng ta nghe rng iu ngc li xy ra. Nhng tc ca ngi Marxist tt bng dng ngc ln khi anh ta nghe v tnh c hi khng th tin c ca mt h thng t bn ch ngha, h thng bin nhng ngi v sn tt thnh cc t sn xu xa; hon ton quyn mt l Marx chng t rng tnh c c ca h thng ct duy nht trong s thc rng n hot ng theo cch ngc li. Nh th chng ta c phn tch ca Lenin40 v cc nguyn nhn xu xa v cc kt qu khng khip ca ch ngha quc Anh hin i: Cc nguyn nhn: (1) nc ny bc lt ton th gii; (2) a v c quyn ca n trn th trng th gii; (3) s c quyn thuc a ca n. Cc kt qu: (1) t sn ho mt phn giai cp v sn Anh; (2) mt b phn ca giai cp v sn t mnh b lnh o bi nhng ngi b giai cp t sn mua, hay ch t c n tr tin. Sau khi gn mt ci tn Marxist p nh vy, t sn ho giai cp v sn, cho mt khuynh hng ng cm ght ng cm ght ch yu bi v n khng khp vi cch th gii phi din ra ph hp vi Marx- Lenin hin nhin tin rng n tr thnh mt xu hng Marxist. Bn thn Marx cho rng ton b th gii c th tri qua giai on lch s tt yu v cng nghip ho t bn ch ngha cng nhanh cng tt, v ng v th c thin v ng h41 cc din tin quc ch ngha. Nhng Lenin i n mt kt lun rt khc. V s chim hu thuc a ca nc Anh l l do v sao cng nhn trong nc li i theo cc nh lnh o b giai cp t sn mua thay cho nhng ngi Cng sn, ng thy ch thuc a mt ci c sng hay kp n tim nng. Mt cuc cch mng s lm cho qui lut v s ngho kh

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tng ln hot ng mu quc, v mt cuc cch mng mu quc s tip theo. Nh th cc thuc a l ch t ngn la c th lan ra Ti khng tin rng gi thuyt ph m lch s ca n ti va phc ho c th cu qui lut v s ngho kh tng ln; v gi thuyt ny bn thn n b kinh nghim bc b. C cc nc, th d cc nn dn ch Bc u, Czechoslovakia, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, chng ni g v Hoa K, trong mt ch ngha can thip dn ch m bo cho cc cng nhn mt mc sng cao, bt chp s thc rng s bc lt thuc a khng c nh hng no , hay d sao i na qu khng quan trng xc nhn gi thit. Hn na, nu ta so snh cc nc no , cc nc bc lt cc thuc a, nh H Lan v B, vi an Mch, Thu in, Na Uy, v Czechoslovakia cc nc khng bc lt cc thuc a, ta khng thy rng cc cng nhn c li t chim hu cc thuc a, v tnh hnh ca giai cp lao ng tt c cc nc ging nhau mt cch ng ch . Hn na, mc d s ngho kh p t ln cc th dn thng qua thuc a ho l mt trong cc chng en ti nht trong lch s ca nn vn minh, khng th khng nh rng s ngho kh ca h c khuynh hng tng ln k t thi Marx. Chnh xc l ngc li; s vic rt c ci thin. V tuy th, s ngho kh tng ln s phi l rt ni bt nu gi nh c hai gi thuyt ph v l thuyt ban u l ng.
VII

Nh ti lm vi bc th hai v bc th ba cc chng trc, by gi ti s minh ho bc th nht ca l l tin tri ca Marx bng cho thy mt cht v nh hng thc tin ca n ln chin thut ca cc ng Marxist. Nhng ngi Dn ch X hi, di p lc ca cc s thc hin nhin, ngm t b l thuyt rng cng ngho kh tng ln; nhng ton b chin thut ca h vn da vo gi thit rng qui lut v quy m ngho kh tng ln l ng, tc l s lng ca giai cp v sn cng nghip phi lin tc tng ln. y l l do v sao h t c s chnh sch ca h ch ring i din cho cc li ch ca cc cng nhn cng nghip, ng thi tin vng chc rng h ang i din cho, hay rt mau s i din cho, tuyt i a s dn c42. H khng bao gi nghi ng khng nh ca Tuyn ngn rng Tt c cc phong tro lch s trc y l cc phong tro ca cc thiu s Phong tro v sn l phong tro t gic, c lp ca tuyt i a s, v quyn li ca tuyt i a s. V th, mt cch t tin h i ngy khi s gic ng giai cp v s t tin giai cp ca cc cng nhn cng nghip s mang li thng li cho h trong cc

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cuc bu c. Khng th c nghi ng g v phn ai s l ngi thng cui cng vi k bc lt, hay tuyt i a s, cc cng nhn. H khng thy rng chng u cc cng nhn cng nghip to thnh mt a s, t hn nhiu mt tuyt i a s, v rng cc s liu thng k khng cn cho thy bt c xu hng no tin n mt s tng ln v s lng ca h. H khng hiu rng s tn ti ca mt ng ca nhng ngi lao ng dn ch c bin minh hon ton ch chng no mt ng nh vy sn sng tho hip hay thm ch hp tc vi cc ng khc, th d vi ng no i din cho cc nng dn, hay cc tng lp trung lu. V h khng nhn ra rng, nu h mun cai tr nh nc mt mnh nh nhng i din cho a s nhn dn, th h phi thay i ton b chnh sch ca mnh v thi khng i din ch yu hay ch ring cho cc cng nhn cng nghip. Tt nhin, khng phi l ci thay th cho s thay i ny v chnh sch i khng nh mt cch u tr rng chnh sch v sn nh n vn l c th n gin a (nh Marx ni43) nhng ngi sn xut nng thn di s lnh o tr tu ca cc th trn trung tm ca cc khu vc ca h, m bo cho h, ngi cng nhn cng nghip, ngi c u thc t nhin ca cc li ch ca h Lp trng ca cc ng Cng sn l khc. H tn trng hon ton l thuyt v s ngho kh tng ln, tin vo s tng ln khng ch ca quy m m c ca cng ca n, mt khi cc nguyn nhn ca s t sn ho tm thi ca cc cng nhn c loi b. Lng tin ny ng gp ng k cho ci Marx c th gi l cc mu thun bn trong ca chnh sch ca h. Tnh hnh chin thut c v kh n gin. Nh li tin tri ca Marx, nhng ngi Cng sn tin chc rng s ngho kh phi nhanh chng tng ln. H cng bit rng ng c th khng ly c s tin cy ca cc cng nhn m khng u tranh v h, v vi h, cho mt s ci thin s phn ca h. Hai gi thit c bn ny r rng quyt nh cc nguyn tc v cc chin thut chung ca h. Lm cho cc cng nhn i phn ca h, ng h h trong mi tnh tit c bit trong cuc u tranh khng ngng ca h v ming cm v ch . u tranh ngoan cng cng vi h cho vic hon thnh cc yu sch thc tin ca h, bt lun kinh t hay chnh tr. Nh th s ly c s tin cy ca h. ng thi, cc cng nhn s hc c rng l khng th i vi h ci thin s phn ca mnh bng cc cuc u tranh nh nhoi ny, v rng chng c g ngoi mt cuc cch mng trn vn mi c th mang li mt s ci thin. V tt c cc cuc u tranh nh nhoi ny nht nh khng thnh cng; chng ta bit t Marx rng cc nh t bn n gin khng th tip tc tho hip v

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rng, cui cng, s ngho kh phi tng ln. Do , kt qu duy nht nhng l mt kt qu c gi tr - ca u tranh hng ngy ca cc cng nhn chng li nhng k p bc h l mt s tng ln v gic ng giai cp ca h; l cm gic v s thng nht l ci c th thu c ch trong cuc chin u, cng vi s nhn bit tuyt vng rng ch cch mng c th gip h trong cnh ngho kh ca h. Khi giai on ny t n, th, gi im cho cuc chin u cui cng. y l l thuyt v nhng ngi Cng sn hnh ng ph hp vi n. u tin h ng h cc cng nhn trong cuc u tranh ca h ci thin s phn ca h. Nhng, ngc li vi mi mong i v li tin tri, cuc u tranh thnh cng. Cc yu sch c cng nhn. Hin nhin, l do l chng qu khim tn. Cho nn phi i nhiu hn. Nhng cc yu sch li c cng nhn44. V khi s ngho kh gim i, cc cng nhn tr nn t cay ng hn, sn sng cho mc c v lng hn l i mu tnh cho cch mng. By gi nhng ngi Cng sn thy rng chnh sch ca h phi c o ngc. Phi lm ci g a qui lut v s ngho kh tng ln vo hot ng. Th d, phi khuy ng tnh trng ri ren thuc a (ngay c ni khng c c hi cho mt cuc cch mng thnh cng), v vi mc ch chung v lm v hiu ho s t sn ho cc cng nhn, mt chnh sch xi by tai ho thuc mi loi phi c chp nhn. Nhng chnh sch mi ny ph hu s tin cy ca cc cng nhn. Nhng ngi Cng sn mt thnh vin ca h, vi ngoi l ca nhng ngi khng c kinh nghim v cc cuc u tranh chnh tr thc s. H mt chnh xc nhng ngi m h m t l qun tin phong ca giai cp lao ng; nguyn tc ngm ng ca h: Cc th cng ti t, cng tt, v s ngho kh phi y nhanh cch mng, lm cho cc cng nhn nghi ng nguyn tc ny cng c p dng, s nghi ng do cc cng nhn p cng ti t. V h l nhng ngi thc t; ly c s tin cy ca h, phi hot ng ci thin s phn ca h. Nh th chnh sch li phi o ngc: buc phi chin u v s ci thin trc mt ca s phn ca cc cng nhn v ng thi hi vng iu ngc li. Vi iu ny, cc mu thun ni b ca l thuyt to ra giai on cui cng ca s ln ln. N l giai on khi kh bit ai l k phn bi, v s phn bi c th l s trung thnh v s trung thnh l phn bi. N l giai on khi nhng ngi i theo ng khng n gin bi v n t ra i vi h (mt cch ng n, ti e) nh phong tro mnh m duy nht vi cc mc ch nhn o, m c bit bi v n l mt phong tro

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da vo mt l thuyt khoa hc, phi hoc t b n, hoc phi hi sinh tnh nht qun tr tu ca h; v by gi h phi hc tin m qung vo mt uy quyn no . Cui cng, h phi tr thnh nhng ngi thn b th ch vi l l c l tr. Dng nh l, khng ch ch ngha t bn l nn nhn ca cc mu thun ni ti cc mu thun e do gy ra s suy sp ca n

CHNG 21: MT NH GI V TIN TRI Cc l l lm c s cho tin tri lch s ca Marx l khng c cn c. Nhng c gng ti tnh ca ng rt ra cc kt lun tin tri t nhng quan st v cc xu hng kinh t ng thi tht bi. L do cho s tht bi ny khng nm bt c s khng no v c s kinh nghim ca l l. Cc phn tch x hi hc v kinh t ca ng v x hi ng thi c th hi mt chiu, nhng bt chp cc thnh kin ca chng, chng l tuyt vi chng mc chng l cc phn tch m t. L do ca tht bi ca ng vi t cch mt nh tin tri hon ton nm s ngho nn ca ch ngha lch s nh n vn l, s thc n gin rng cho d chng ta quan st ngy hm nay ci c v l mt xu hng hay khuynh hng lch s, chng ta khng th bit liu n s c cng din mo hay khng vo ngy mai. Chng ta phi tha nhn rng Marx thy nhiu th di nh sng ng. Nu chng ta ch xem xt li tin tri ca ng rng h thng ca ch ngha t bn v , nh ng bit n, s khng ko di lu hn na, v rng cc nh bin h ca n nhng ngi ngh n s ko di mi mi sai, th chng ta phi ni l ng ng. ng cng ng, khi cho rng ch yu l u tranh giai cp, tc l s lin kt ca cc cng nhn, l ci s gy ra s bin i ca n thnh mt h thng kinh t mi. Nhng chng ta khng c i xa n mc ni rng Marx tin on rng h thng mi, ch ngha can thip1, di ci tn khc, ch ngha x hi. S thc l ng khng c nim m h no v ci ang nm trc. Ci ng gi l ch ngha x hi l rt khng ging vi bt c hnh thi no ca ch ngha can thip, ngay c hnh thi Nga; v ng tin tng mnh m rng din tin sp xy ra s thu nh nh hng, chnh tr cng nh kinh t, ca nh nc, trong khi ch ngha can thip lm tng n mi ni. V ti ph phn Marx v, mc no y, ca ngi ch ngha can thip dn ch tng phn (c bit loi th ch c gii thch mc VII ca chng 17), ti mun lm r l ti c nhiu cm tnh vi hi vng ca Marx cho mt s gim nh hng ca nh nc. Khng nghi ng g mi nguy him ln nht ca ch ngha can thip c bit ca bt c s can thip trc tip no l n dn n mt s tng ln v quyn lc nh nc v v quan liu. Hu ht nhng ngi theo ch ngha can thip khng

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n iu ny, hay h nhm mt vi n, lm tng mi nguy him. Nhng ti tin rng mt khi mi nguy him c i mt trc tip, phi l c th lm ch n. V iu ny li ch l mt vn v cng ngh x hi v v k thut x hi tng phn. Nhng quan trng x tr n sm, v n to thnh mt mi nguy him cho nn dn ch. Chng ta phi ln k hoch cho quyn t do, v khng ch cho an ninh, nu khng phi v l do no khc hn l ch quyn t do mi c th lm cho an ninh m bo. Nhng hy quay li vi li tin tri ca Marx. Mt trong cc xu hng lch s m ng cho l khm ph ra dng nh c c tnh dai dng hn cc xu hng khc; ti mun ni xu hng tch t t liu sn xut, v c bit xu hng tng nng sut lao ng. Qu thc c v l xu hng ny s tip tc mt thi gian, tt nhin, vi iu kin l chng ta gi nn vn minh tin trin. Nhng Marx khng ch nhn ra xu hng ny v cc kha cnh vn minh ca n, ng cng thy cc mi nguy him vn c ca n. c bit hn, ng l mt ngi u tin (mc d ng c cc tin bi no ca mnh, th d, Fourier2) i nhn mnh quan h gia s pht trin cc lc lng sn xut trong ng thy3 s mnh lch s v s bin h ca t bn, v rng hin tng hu hoi nht ca h thng tn dng - mt h thng c v khuyn khch s ni ln nhanh ca ch ngha cng nghip l chu k thng mi. L thuyt ca ring Marx v chu k thng mi (c tho lun mc IV ca chng trc) c l c th c din gii di dng nh sau: cho d ng l cc qui lut vn c ca th trng t do to ra mt xu hng ti cng n vic lm y , cng ng l mi cch tip cn n l n cng n vic lm y , tc l n thiu lao ng, kch thch cc nh pht minh v cc nh u t to ra v a vo my mc mi tit kim lao ng, v th gy ra (u tin mt t hng thnh ngn v sau ) mt ln sng mi v tht nghip v suy thoi. Liu c bt c s tht no, v bao nhiu, trong l thuyt ny hay khng, ti khng bit. Nh ti ni chng trc, l thuyt v chu k thng mi l mt ti kh kh, v l mt ti m ti khng c nh lao vo. Nhng v lun ca Marx rng tng nng sut l mt trong cc nhn t ng gp cho chu k thng mi c v i vi ti l quan trng, ti c th c php pht trin vi cn nhc hin nhin ng h n. Danh mc sau v cc din tin kh d, tt nhin, l hon ton khng y ; nhng n c xy dng theo cch sao cho mi khi nng sut lao ng tng ln, th t nht mt trong cc din tin sau, v c th nhiu din tin cng mt lc, phi bt u v phi tip din mt mc cn bng s tng ln v nng sut.

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(A) Cc khon u t tng ln, tc l, t tiu sn xut c to ra nhm tng cng kh nng sn xut ra cc hng ho khc. (V iu ny dn n mt s tng thm na v nng sut, ring n khng th cn bng cc nh hng ca n trong bt c khong thi gian no). (B) Tiu dng tng ln - mc sng tng ln: (a) cho ton b dn c; (b) cho nhng phn no ca dn c (th d, giai cp no ). (C) Gim thi gian lm vic. (a) s gi lm vic hng ngy c rt ngn; (b) s ngi khng l cng nhn cng nghip tng ln, v c bit (b1) s cc nh khoa hc, bc s, ngh s, nh kinh doanh, v.v., tng ln .. (b2) s cng nhn tht nghip tng ln. (D) S lng hng ho c sn xut nhng khng c tiu th tng ln. (a) hng ho tiu dng b ph hu; (b) t liu sn xut khng c dng (cc nh my khng); (c) hng ho, khc vi hng ho tiu dng hay thuc loi (A), c sn xut, th d, v kh; (d) lao ng c dng ph hu t liu sn xut (v v th lm gim nng sut). Ti lit k cc din tin ny danh mc, tt nhin, c th c chi tit thm theo cch sao cho xung n ng chm chm, tc l xung n (C, b1), cc din tin nh vy thng c cng nhn l ng ao c, trong khi t (C, b2) tr i cc din tin thng c coi l khng ng mong mun; chng biu th suy thoi, sn xut v kh, v chin tranh. By gi r rng l v ring (A) khng th khi phc cn bng mi mi, mc d n c th l mt nhn t rt quan trng, mt hay vi din tin khc phi bt u. Hn na, c v c l gi thit rng nu khng tn ti cc th ch m bo rng cc din tin ng mong mun tin trin mc cn bng nng sut c tng ln, th cc din tin khng mong mun no s bt u. Nhng tt c cc th ny, c l vi ngoi l ca sn xut v kh, c c tnh l chng chc dn n mt s gim t ngt ca (A), iu hn lm trm trng tnh hnh mt cch gay gt. Ti khng ngh rng cc cn nhc nh cc cn nhc trn c kh nng gii thch s v trang hay chin tranh theo bt c ngha no ca t,

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mc d chng c th gii thch thnh cng ca cc nh nc ton tr trong u tranh chng tht nghip. Ti cng khng ngh l chng c kh nng gii thch chu k thng mi, mc d c l chng ng gp ci g cho mt gii thch nh vy, trong cc vn v tn dng v tin chc ng mt vai tr rt quan trng; v s gim bt ca (A), th d, c th tng ng vi tch tr cc khon tit kim m khc i c l c th c u t - mt nhn t c tho lun nhiu v quan trng4. V khng phi hon ton khng th l qui lut Marxist v sut li nhun gim (nu qui lut ny c th ng vng cht no5) cng c th cho mt gi cho vic gii thch tch tr; v gi thit rng mt thi k tch t nhanh c th dn n mt s i xung nh vy, iu ny c th lm nn lng u t v khuyn khch tch tr, v lm gim (A). Nhng tt c th ny c th khng l mt l thuyt v chu k thng mi. Mt l thuyt nh vy s c nhim v khc. Nhim v chnh ca n s l gii thch v sao th ch th trng t do, nh vn l mt cng c rt hu hiu cn bng cung v cu, li khng ngn nga cc cuc suy thoi6, tc l sn xut tha hay tiu th di mc. Ni cch khc, chng ta phi chng t rng vic mua bn trn th trng to ra chu k thng mi, nh mt trong cc hu qu x hi khng mong mun7 ca nhng hnh ng ca chng ta. L thuyt Marxist v chu k thng mi c chnh xc mc tiu ny trc mt; v nhng cn nhc c phc ho y v cc nh hng ca mt xu hng chung n nng sut tng ln, nhiu nht, c th ch b sung cho l thuyt ny. Ti s khng i tuyn b nh gi v cng trng ca tt c cc suy xt ny ln chu k thng mi. Nhng dng nh i vi ti kh r l chng c gi tr nht cho d theo nh sng ca cc l thuyt hin i by gi chng hon ton c thay th. S thc n thun rng Marx x l vn ny mt cch bao qut l rt ln cho danh ting ca ng. t nht ngn y ca li tin tri ca ng tr thnh ng, trong thi gian hin nay; xu hng tin n mt s tng ln v nng sut tip tc: chu k thng mi cng tip tc, v s tip tc ca n chc dn n cc bin php i ph can thip ch ngha v v th n mt s hn ch na ca h thng th trng t do; mt din tin ph hp vi li tin tri ca Marx rng chu k thng mi s l mt trong cc nhn t phi gy ra s sp ca h thng ch ngha t bn v . V chng ta phi ni thm vo iu ny rng mt mu khc ca li tin tri thnh cng, c th l, s lin hip ca cc cng nhn l mt nhn t quan trng khc trong qu trnh ny. Cn c vo danh mc ny ca cc li tin tri quan trng v phn ln thnh cng, liu c th bin minh c ni v s ngho nn ca ch

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ngha lch s? Nu cc li tin tri lch s ca Marx thnh cng thm ch mt phn, th chng ta phi chc chn khng gt b phng php ca ng mt cch nng ni. Nhng mt xem xt k lng hn cc thnh cng ca Marx cho thy rng khng u phng php lch s ch ngha ca ng dn ng ti thnh cng, m lun lun l cc phng php ca phn tch th ch. Nh th khng phi mt phn tch lch s ch ngha m l mt phn tch th ch in hnh l ci dn n kt lun rng nh t bn b cnh tranh buc tng nng sut. Chnh l mt phn tch th ch trn Marx t c s cho l thuyt ca mnh v chu k thng mi v v dn c d tha. V ngay c l thuyt v u tranh giai cp l mang tnh th ch; n l phn ca c ch theo s phn phi ca ci cng nh quyn lc c kim sot, mt c ch lm cho mc c tp th l kh d theo ngha rng nht. Khng u trong cc phn tch ny cc qui lut v pht trin lch s, hay cc giai on, hay cc thi k, hay cc xu hng lch s ch ngha in hnh c ng bt k vai tr no. Mt khc, chng c ci no trong s cc kt lun lch s ch ngha tham vng hn ca Marx, khng ci no trong cc qui lut khng th lay chuyn ni v pht trin ca ng v cc giai on lch s khng th nhy qua ca ng, bao gi ho ra l mt tin on thnh cng. Marx thnh cng ch trong chng mc m ng phn tch cc th ch v cc chc nng ca chng. V iu ngc li cng ng: khng li tin tri no trong cc li tin tri lch s tham vng hn v su rng hn ca ng nm trong phm vi phn tch th ch. Bt c u c n lc ng h chng bng mt phn tch nh vy, vic rt ra l khng c cn c. Qu thc, so vi cc tiu chun cao ca chnh Marx, cc li tin tri su rng hn ny mt mc tr tu kh thp. Chng cha khng ch nhiu m tng, chng cng thiu sc tng tng chnh tr. Ni i th, Marx chia s nim tin ca nh cng nghip tin b, ca giai cp t sn ca thi ng: nim tin vo mt qui lut v tin b. Nhng ch ngha lc quan lch s ch ngha u tr ny, ca Hegel v Comte, ca Marx v Mill, l khng t m tn hn mt ch ngha lch s bi quan nh ca Plato v Spengler. V n l mt b ngh rt ti cho mt nh tin tri, v n hn kim ch sc tng tng lch s. Qu thc, cn phi nhn ra nh mt trong cc nguyn tc ca bt c quan im khng thin v no v hot ng chnh tr rng mi th u l c th trong cc cng vic ca con ngi; v c bit hn rng khng din tin c th tng tng no c th b loi tr trn c s l n c th vi phm ci gi l xu hng tin b ca loi ngi, hay bt c qui lut khc no ca ci c cho l cc qui lut v bn tnh con ngi. S kin v tin b, H. A. L. Fisher vit8, c vit r rng v to trn

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trang ca lch s; nhng s tin b khng phi l mt qui lut ca t nhin. t m mt th h ginh c c th b mt bi th h sau. Ph hp vi nguyn l rng tt c mi th u c th, c l ng ch ra rng cc li tin tri ca Marx rt c th tr thnh tht. Mt nim tin ging nh ch ngha lc quan theo thuyt tin b ca th k mi chn c th l mt lc lng chnh tr hng mnh; n c th gip gy ra ci n tin on. Nh th ngay c mt tin on ng khng c php chp nhn qu d dng nh mt s xc nhn ca mt l thuyt, v ca c tnh khoa hc ca n. N ng hn c th l mt h qu ca c tnh tn gio ca n v mt chng minh v sc mnh ca nim tin tn gio ci c th gy cm hng cho con ngi. V c bit hn trong ch ngha Marx yu t tn gio l khng th nhm ln. Trong lc ngho kh v mt danh gi cng cc nht ca h, li tin tri ca Marx cho cc cng nhn mt nim tin y cm hng vo s mnh ca h, v vo tng lai rc r m phong tro ca h chun b cho ton nhn loi. Nhn li din tin ca cc s kin t 1864 n 1930, ti ngh rng nu gi nh khng c s kin hi ngu nhin l Marx lm nn lng vic nghin cu cng ngh x hi, th c l cng vic chu u c th pht trin, di nh hng ca tn ngng tin tri ny, n mt ch ngha x hi thuc loi phi-tp th. Mt s chun b chu o cho k thut x hi, cho lp k hoch v quyn t do, v pha nhng ngi Cng sn Nga cng nh ca nhng ngi Cng sn Trung u, rt c th dn n mt thnh cng r rng, thuyt phc tt c cc bn b ca x hi m. Nhng iu ny s khng phi l mt s xc nhn ca mt s tin tri khoa hc. N c th l kt qu ca mt phong tro tn gio - kt qu ca nim tin vo ch ngha nhn vn, kt hp vi vic s dng l tr ca chng ta mt cch ph phn cho mc ch thay i th gii. Nhng s vic din tin khc i. Yu t tin tri trong tn iu ca Marx tri hn trong u c ca nhng ngi theo ng. N qut tt c cc th khc sang mt bn, xua ui nng lc ca s phn xt im tnh v ph phn v hu dit nim tin rng bng dng l tr chng ta c th thay i th gii. V tt c ci cn li ca gio hun ca Marx l trit hc sm truyn ca Hegel, trit hc m di xim o Marxist ca n e do lm t lit cuc u tranh v x hi m.

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CHNG 22: L THUYT O C CA CH NGHA LCH S Nhim v Marx t cho mnh trong T bn l khm ph ra cc qui lut khng th lay chuyn c v pht trin x hi. Khng phi l khm ph ra cc qui lut kinh t c th hu ch cho nh cng ngh x hi. Cng khng phi l phn tch cc iu kin kinh t c th cho php thc hin cc mc tiu x hi ch ngha nh gi c xc ng, phn phi u ca ci, an ton, lp k hoch hp l cho sn xut v, trn ht, quyn t do, n cng chng phi l mt n lc phn tch v lm r cc mc tiu ny. Nhng d Marx phn i mnh m cng ngh Khng tng cng nh bt c n lc no v bin h o c ca cc mc tiu x hi ch ngha, cc tc phm ca ng cha, bng n , mt l thuyt o c. iu ny ng trnh by ch yu bng cc nh gi o c v cc th ch x hi. Rt cuc, s ln n ch ngha t bn ca Marx v c bn l mt s buc ti o c. H thng b ln n, v s bt cng tn nhn vn c n c kt hp vi cng l v tnh chnh ng hnh thc y . H thng b ln n, bi v bng buc ngi bc lt n dch ngi b bc lt n tc quyn t do ca c hai. Marx khng chin u chng s giu c, ng cng khng tn dng s ngho nn. ng cm ght ch ngha t bn, khng phi v s tch t ca ci ca n, m v c tnh u s ca n; ng cm ght n v trong h thng ny ca ci c ngha l quyn lc chnh tr theo ngha v quyn lc trn nhng ngi khc. Sc lao ng c bin thnh mt hng ho; iu c ngha l con ngi phi bn mnh trn th trng. Marx cm ght h thng bi v n ging vi cnh n l. Bng cch t nhn mnh nh vy ln kha cnh o c ca cc th ch x hi, Marx nhn mnh trch nhim ca chng ta i vi cc hu qu x hi xa hn ca cc hnh ng ca chng ta; th d, ca cc hnh ng nh ko di i sng ca cc th ch bt cng v mt x hi. Nhng mc d T bn, thc ra, ch yu l mt chuyn lun v o c hc x hi, cc tng o c ny khng bao gi c trnh by nh chng vn l. Chng ch c trnh by bng n , nhng khng km mnh lit hn v l do y, v cc ng l rt hin nhin. Ti tin, Marx trnh mt l thuyt o c tng minh, bi v ng ght rao ging. Khng tin su sc v nh o c, ngi thng khuyn ung nc cn mnh th ung ru, Marx khng sn lng trnh by cc xc tn o c ca ng mt cch tng minh. Cc nguyn l v nhn tnh v tnh ng n i vi ng l cc vn khng cn bn ci, nhng vn

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c coi l d nhin. (C lnh vc ny, ng l mt ngi lc quan). ng tn cng cc nh o c bi v ng thy h nh nhng ngi bin h nnh b ca mt trt t x hi m ng thy l tri o c; ng tn cng nhng ngi tn dng ch ngha t do v s t mn ca h, v h ng nht quyn t do vi t do hnh thc tn ti khi trong mt h thng x hi, h thng ph hu quyn t do. Nh th, bng n , ng tha nhn tnh yu t do ca mnh; v vi t cch mt trit gia, bt chp thnh kin ca ng cho chnh th lun, ng chc chn khng l mt nh tp th ch ngha, v ng hi vng rng nh nc s teo i. Nim tin ca Marx, ti tin, c bn l mt nim tin vo x hi m. Thi ca Marx vi o C c c quan h mt thit vi cc xc tn ny, v vi s thc rng mt s bo v bc lt t bn ch ngha thi ng l mt c tnh ca o C c chnh thc. (Thi ca ng khng khc thi ca Kierkegaard ngi cng thi ng, nh ci cch v i ca o c hc C c, ngi bc trn1 o c C c chnh thc ca thi ng l o c gi phn-C c v phn-nhn vn). Mt i din in hnh ca loi o C c ny l linh mc High Church [phi gio hi Anh chung nghi thc] J. Towsend, tc gi ca A Dissertation on the Poor Laws, by a Wellwisher of Mankind, mt nh bin h cc k th l cho s bc lt ngi b Marx bc trn. Tnh trng i, Townsend bt u bi tn dng2 ca mnh, khng ch l mt p lc yn bnh, im lng, lin tc nhng, vi t cch ng lc t nhin nht ca cng nghip v lao ng, n pht huy ht cc n lc mnh m nht. Trong trt t th gii C c ca Townsend, mi th ph thuc vo (nh Marx quan st) vic lm cho tnh trng i thng xuyn trong giai cp cng nhn; v Townsend tin y qu thc l ch nh thn thnh ca nguyn l v tng dn s; v ng tip tc: Dng nh l mt qui lut t nhin rng mc no ngi ngho phi khng bit lo xa, cho nn lun lun c th c ai thc hin cc vic tin nht, bn thu nht, nhc nht trong cng ng. Nn tng hnh phc ca con ngi do tng ln nhiu, cn nhng ngi t nh hn .. c t do m khng b gn on theo ui cc ngh nghip ph hp vi cc thin hng khc nhau ca h. V v thy tu t nh nnh ht, nh Marx gi ng ta v nhn xt ny, ni thm l cc Lut T bn [Poor Laws], bng gip ngi i, c thin hng ph hu s hi ho v v p, s i xng v trt t, ca h thng m Cha v t nhin thit lp trn th gii. Nu loi ny ca o C c ngy nay bin mt khi phn ln b mt tri t chng ta, l nh khng t vo s ci cch o c do Marx gy ra. Ti khng gi rng s sa i thi ca Gio hi i vi

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ngi ngho Anh khng bt u lu trc khi Marx c bt c nh hng no Anh; nhng ng nh hng n din tin ny c bit Chu Lc, v s ni ln ca ch ngha x hi c tc ng cng c n c Anh. nh hng ca ng ln o C c c l c th so vi nh hng ca Luther ln Gio hi La M. C hai l mt thch thc, c hai dn n mt phn-ci cch trong phe cc k th ca h, n mt s xt li v nh gi li cc tiu chun o c ca h. o C c nh n nh hng ca Marx khng t nu ngy nay n trn mt con ng khc vi ng n theo ui ch ba mi nm trc. Thm ch mt phn nh nh hng ca Marx m Gio hi lng nghe li ca Kierkegaard, ngi, trong cun Book of the Judge ca mnh, m t hnh ng ca chnh ng nh sau3: Ngi m nhim v l to ra mt tng sa cha, ch phi nghin cu, mt cch chnh xc v su sc, cc phn thi nt ca trt t hin tn v sau , theo cch thin v nht c th, i nhn mnh ci i lp vi n. (V nh th, ng ni thm, mt ngi c v thng minh s d dng phn i tnh thin v tng phn vi tng sa cha v anh ta s lm cho cng chng tin rng y l ton b s tht v n). Theo ngha ny ta c th ni l ch ngha Marx ban u, vi tnh nghim khc o c ca n, s nhn mnh ca n v vic lm thay cho li ni sung, c l l tng sa cha quan trng nht ca thi i chng ta4. iu ny gii thch nh hng o c to ln ca n. i hi rng con ngi phi chng minh bn thn mnh bng hnh ng l c bit ni bt trong mt vi tc phm sm hn ca Marx. Thi ny, thi c th c m t nh ch ngha hnh ng ca ng, c trnh by r nht trong lun cng cui cng trong cc Lun cng v Feuerbach5 ca ng: Cc trit gia ch din gii th gii theo nhng cch khc nhau; iu quan trng tuy vy l i thay i n. Nhng c nhiu on khc cho thy cng xu hng hot ng ch ngha; c bit l cc on trong Marx ni v ch ngha x hi nh vng quc ca t do, mt vng quc trong con ngi s tr thnh ngi ch ca mi trng x hi ca chnh mnh. Marx hnh dung v ch ngha x hi nh mt giai on trong mc ln chng ta thot khi cc lc lng phi l m hin nay quyt nh i sng ca chng ta, v l tr con ngi c th kim sot cc cng vic con ngi mt cch tch cc. nh gi bng tt c iu ny, v bng thi o c v xc cm chung ca Marx, ti khng th nghi ng l, nu i mt vi la chn chng ta l ngi to ra s phn ca mnh, hay chng ta s tho mn l cc nh tin tri ca n? ng c th quyt nh l mt ngi to ra v khng l mt nh tin tri n thun.

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Nhng nh ta bit ri, cc xu hng hnh ng ch ngha mnh ny ca Marx b ch ngha lch s ca ng chng li. Di nh hng ca n, ng ch yu tr thnh mt nh tin tri. ng quyt nh rng, t nht di ch ngha t bn, chng ta phi phc tng cc qui lut khng th lay chuyn c v s thc l tt c ci chng ta c th lm l rt ngn v lm nh cc cn au ca cc pha t nhin ca s tin ho ca n6. C mt h su, rng gia ch ngha hnh ng v ch ngha lch s ca Marx, v h su ny cn b lm cho rng hn bi hc thuyt ca ng rng chng ta phi phc tng cc lc phi l thun tu ca lch s. V ng ln n bt c n lc no dng l tr ca chng ta nhm ln k hoch cho tng lai l Khng tng, l tr khng c vai tr no trong to ra mt th gii hp l hn. Ti tin l mt quan im nh vy khng th c bin h, v phi dn n ch ngha thn b. Nhng ti phi tha nhn c v c mt kh nng l thuyt bc cu qua h su ny, mc d ti khng coi cy cu l vng chi. Cy cu ny, m v n ch c cc s phc ho trong cc tc phm ca Marx v Engels, ti gi l l thuyt o c lch s ch ngha ca h7. Khng mun tha nhn rng cc tng o c ca ring h theo bt c ngha no l cui cng v t-bin minh, Marx v Engels thch coi cc mc tiu nhn o ca h di nh sng ca mt l thuyt gii thch chng nh cc sn phm, hay phn chiu, ca hon cnh x hi. L thuyt ca h c th c m t nh sau. Nu mt nh ci cch x hi, hay mt nh cch mng, tin l ng ta c truyn cm hng bi mt s cm th bt cng, v bi mt tnh yu cng l, th ng ta phn ln l mt nn nhn ca o tng (ging bt c ai khc, th d cc nh bin h ca trt t c). Hay, din t n chnh xc hn, cc tng ca ng ta v cng l v bt cng l cc sn phm ph ca s pht trin x hi v lch s. Song chng l cc sn phm ph loi quan trng, v chng l phn ca c ch theo s pht trin t y mnh. minh ho im ny, lun c ch t hai tng v cng l (hay v t do hay v bnh ng), v qu thc hai tng ny khc nhau rt xa. Mt l tng v cng l nh giai cp thng tr hiu n, ci khc, l cng tng nh giai cp b tr hiu n. Cc tng ny, tt nhin, l sn phm ca tnh hnh giai cp, nhng ng thi chng ng mt vai tr quan trng trong u tranh giai cp chng phi cung cp cho c hai pha lng tm tt m h cn tin hnh cuc chin u ca h. L thuyt ny v o c c th c c trng nh lch s ch ngha v n cho rng mi phm tr o c l ph thuc vo tnh hung lch s; n thng c gi l ch ngha tng i lch s trong lnh vc o c

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hc. T quan im ny, c mt cu hi khuyt hi: C l ng hnh ng theo cch ny? Cu hi y c th nh th ny: Theo ngha ca o c phong kin th k mi lm, c l ng i hnh ng theo cch ny? Hay, c l: Theo ngha ca o c v sn th k mi chn, c l ng i hnh ng theo cch ny? Ch ngha tng i lch s ny c Engels trnh by nh sau8: o c no c rao ging cho chng ta ngy nay? u tin c o c C c-phong kin, c tha k t cc th k qua; v o c ny li c hai phn nhnh chnh, o c Cng gio La M v Tin lnh, mi th li khng thiu cc phn nhnh thm na, t Cng gio dng Jesuit [Tn] v Tin lnh Chnh thng n cc o c tin tin lng lo. K bn cc th ny, chng ta thy o c t sn hin i, v vi n, c o c v sn ca tng lai na .. Nhng ci gi l ch ngha tng i lch s ny khng h vt cn c tnh lch s ch ngha ca l thuyt o c Marxist. Hy tng tng ta c th hi nhng ngi tin mt l thuyt nh vy, th d bn thn Marx: V sao ngi li hnh ng theo cch ngi lm? V sao ngi coi, th d, vic nhn t lt t giai cp t sn ngng cc hot ng cch mng ca ngi l kh chu v gh tm? Ti khng ngh rng Marx li thch tr li mt cu hi nh vy; c l ng s c trnh n, khng nh c l rng ng hnh ng ng nh ng thch, hay nh ng cm thy buc phi th. Nhng tt c iu ny khng ng chm n vn ca chng ta. Chc chn l trong cc quyt nh thc tin ca cuc i mnh Marx theo mt o l rt nghim khc; cng chc chn rng ng i hi mt tiu chun o c cao t nhng ngi cng tc ca ng. Bt lun thut ng c dng cho cc th ny c th l g, vn i mt vi chng ta l tm ra mt cu tr li m c l ng a ra cho cu hi: V sao ngi hnh ng theo cch nh vy? Th d, v sao ngi gng sc gip nhng ngi b p bc? (Bn thn Marx khng thuc giai cp ny, c do dng di hay do gio dc hay do cch sng ca ng). Nu b p theo cch ny, ti ngh, Marx c th trnh by nim tin o c ca ng di dng sau, ci to thnh li ca ci ti gi l l thuyt o c lch s ch ngha. Vi t cch mt nh khoa hc x hi (ng c th ni) ti bit rng cc tng o c ca chng ta l v kh trong u tranh giai cp. V vi t cch mt nh khoa hc, ti c th xem xt m khng chp nhn chng. Nhng vi t cch mt nh khoa hc ti cng thy rng mnh khng th n trnh ng v phe no trong cuc u tranh ny; rng bt c thi no, ngay c xa lnh, c ngha l ng v pha ny hay pha kia. Vn ca ti nh th c dng: Ti s ng v pha no? Khi ti chn mt pha no , th tt nhin, ti cng

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quyt nh v o c ca mnh. Ti s phi chp nhn h thng o c nht thit gn b vi cc li ch ca giai cp m ti quyt nh ng h. Nhng trc khi ly quyt nh c bn ny, ti khng chp nhn h thng o c no c, vi iu kin ti c th gii thot mnh khi truyn thng o c ca giai cp mnh; nhng iu ny, tt nhin, l iu kin tin quyt a ra bt c quyt nh c thc v hp l no v cc h thng o c cnh tranh. M v mt quyt nh l c o c ch trong quan h vi qui tc o c c chp nhn trc no , nn quyt nh c bn ca ti c th khng h l quyt nh c o c g c. Song n c th l mt quyt nh khoa hc. V vi t cch mt nh khoa hc x hi, ti c kh nng thy ci g sp xy ra. Ti c kh nng thy rng giai cp t sn, v vi n l h thng o c ca n, nht thit phi bin mt, v giai cp v sn, v vi n mt h thng o c mi, nht thit thng. Ti thy rng s pht trin ny l khng th trnh khi. S l in r i th cng li n, ht nh in r i th cng li qui lut hp dn. y l v sao quyt nh c bn ca ti l ng h giai cp v sn v o c ca n. V quyt nh ny ch da trn s thy trc khoa hc, da trn s tin tri lch s khoa hc. Mc d bn thn n khng l mt quyt nh o c, v n khng da vo mt h thng o c no, n dn n vic chp nhn mt h thng o c no . Tm li, quyt nh c bn ca ti khng l quyt nh tnh cm (nh anh nghi) gip nhng ngi b p bc, m l quyt nh khoa hc v duy l ng c a ra khng c v ch i vi cc qui lut pht trin ca x hi. Ch sau khi ti ra quyt nh ny ti mi sn sng chp nhn, v tn dng y , cc tnh cm o c nhng th l v kh cn thit trong cuc u tranh v ci nht thit s n trong mi trng hp. Theo cch ny, ti chp nhn cc s thc ca giai on ang ti nh cc tiu chun ca o c ca mnh. V theo cch ny, ti gii nghch l hin nhin rng mt th gii hp l hn s n m khng c l tr ln k hoch; v theo cc tiu chun o c ca ti c chp nhn by gi, th gii tng lai phi tt p hn, v v th hp l hn. V ti cng lp c ci h ngn cch gia ch ngha hnh ng v ch ngha lch s ca ti. V r rng l cho d ti khm ph ra qui lut t nhin quyt nh s vn ng ca x hi, ti khng th sp xp li cc pha t nhin ca s tin ho ca th gii bng mt nt bt. Nhng ngn y ti c th lm. Ti c th gip mt cch tch cc rt ngn v lm nh cc cn au ca n. y, ti ngh, c th l cu tr li ca Marx, v cu tr li ny i vi ti l cu tr li trnh by dng quan trng nht ca ci ti gi l l thuyt o c lch s ch ngha. Chnh l thuyt ny l l thuyt m

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Engels m ch n khi ng vit9: Chc chn, o c c nhiu yu t nht cc yu t s ko di l o c m, trong khun kh hin thi, i din cho s o ln ca thi k hin nay, chnh l o c i din cho tng lai; l o c v sn Theo quan nim ny, nguyn nhn cui cng ca mi s thay i x hi v cch mng chnh tr khng phi l s thu hiu ngy cng tng v cng l; chng phi c tm khng phi trit hc m nn kinh t ca thi i lin quan. S hiu r ngy cng tng rng cc th ch x hi l phi l v bt cng ch l mt triu chng .. N l l thuyt m mt nh Marxist hin i ni: Do t cc kht vng x hi ch ngha trn c s mt qui lut kinh t duy l v s pht trin x hi, thay cho bin h chng trn c s o c, Marx v Engels tuyn b ch ngha x hi l mt tt yu lch s.10 N l mt l thuyt c tin mt cch rt rng ri; nhng him khi c trnh by r rng v tng minh. S ph phn n v th l quan trng hn thot nhn c th nhn ra. Th nht, l r rng l thuyt ph thuc ch yu vo kh nng tin tri lch s chnh xc. Nu iu ny b nghi ng - v chc chn phi b nghi ng - th l thuyt mt hu ht sc thuyt phc ca n. Nhng cho mc ch phn tch n, u tin ti s gi s rng s bit trc lch s l mt s thc c xc minh; v ti s ch t iu kin rng s bit trc lch s ny l hn ch; ti t iu kin l chng ta c s bit trc, th d, cho 500 nm tip, mt iu kin s khng hn ch cc i hi thm ch to bo nht ca ch ngha lch s Marxist. By gi u tin hy xem xt yu sch ca l thuyt o c lch s ch ngha rng quyt nh c bn ng h, hay chng, mt trong cc h thng o c c ni n, bn thn n khng phi l mt quyt nh o c; rng n khng da trn bt c cn nhc o c hay tnh cm no, m da trn mt s tin on lch s v khoa hc. i hi ny, ti ngh, l khng th ng vng. lm cho iu ny hon ton r, s l i lm cho mnh lnh, hay nguyn tc o c, bao hm trong quyt nh c bn ny, c tng minh. N l nguyn tc sau: Hy chp nhn h thng o c ca tng lai! hay: Hy chp nhn h thng o c ca nhng ngi m hnh ng ca h gip ch nht mang li tng lai! By gi c v r i vi ti rng ngay c vi gi s l chng ta bit chnh xc ci 500 nm ti s ging th no, khng cn thit cht no i vi chng ta chp nhn mt nguyn tc nh vy. cho mt th d, ch t c th tng tng c rng mn nhn vn ch ngha no ca Voltaire ngi vo nm 1764 thy trc din tin ca nc Php n, th d, 1864, c th ght vin cnh y; ch t c th tng tng c rng ng c th quyt nh rng din tin ny l hi ng ght v ng

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ta khng i chp nhn cc tiu chun o c ca Napoleon III nh ca ring mnh. Ti s trung thnh vi cc tiu chun o c ca mnh, ng ta c th ni, ti s dy chng cho cc hc tr ca mnh; c l h s sng st qua giai on ny, c l mt ngy no h s thng. Cng nh th ch t c th tng tng c l (ti thi im ny ti khng khng nh nhiu hn) mt ngi hm nay nhn thy trc chc chn rng chng ta s tin n mt giai on n l, chng ta ang quay li ci chung ca mt x hi b ngng, hay thm ch chng ta sp sa quay li thnh th vt, tuy nhin c th quyt nh khng chp nhn cc tiu chun o c ca thi k sp xy ra ny m i ng gp cho s sng cn ca cc l tng nhn vn ca ng ta, tt mc ng ta c th, hi vng c l cho mt s hi sinh ca o c ca ng ta trong tng lai l m no . Tt c cc th , ch t, l c th tng tng c. C l c th khng phi l quyt nh sng sut nht ly. Nhng s thc l, mt quyt nh nh vy khng b s bit trc loi tr cng khng b bt k qui lut x hi hc hay tm l hc no loi tr, chng t l i hi u tin ca l thuyt o c lch s ch ngha l khng th ng vng c. Liu chng ta phi chp nhn o c ca tng lai chnh v n l o c ca tng lai, bn thn iu ny ng l mt vn o c. Quyt nh c bn khng th c dn ra t bt c hiu bit no v tng lai. Trong cc chng trc ti nhc n ch ngha thc chng o c (c bit ca Hegel), l thuyt cho rng khng c tiu chun o c no ngoi tiu chun ang tn ti; rng ci tn ti, l hp l v tt; v v th, l phi thuc v k mnh. Kha cnh thc tin ca l thuyt ny l th ny. Mt ph phn hon cnh ang tn ti l khng th c, v bn thn tnh trng ny quyt nh tiu chun o c ca cc th. M l thuyt o c lch s ch ngha chng ta ang xem xt khng l g ngoi mt dng khc ca ch ngha thc chng o c. V n cho rng l phi thuc v k mnh ang n. y tng lai thay th cho hin ti - tt c ch c th. V kha cnh thc tin ca l thuyt l th ny. Mt ph phn tnh trng ang n l khng th c, v bn thn tnh trng ny quyt nh tiu chun o c ca cc th. S khc bit gia hin ti v tng lai y, tt nhin, ch l vn v mc . Ta c th ni rng tng lai bt u ngy mai, hay trong 500 nm, hay trong 100 nm na. Trong cu trc l thuyt ca chng khng c s khc bit no gia ch ngha bo th o c, ch ngha hin i o c, v ch ngha v lai o c. Cng chng c my chn gia chng v cc tnh cm o c. Nu nh o c v lai ph phn tnh nht gan ca nh o c bo th ngi ng v pha quyn lc tn ti, th nh o c bo th c th

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buc ti tr li; ng ta c th ni nh o c tng lai l mt k hn nht v ng v pha quyn lc s tn ti, vi cc nh cai tr tng li. Ti cm thy chc chn, gi nh ng cn nhc cc h lu ny, c th Marx t b l thuyt o c lch s ch ngha. Nhiu nhn xt v nhiu hnh ng chng t rng khng phi mt phn x khoa hc m l mt xung lc tnh cm, mong mun gip ngi b p bc, mong mun gii phng nhng ngi b bc lt mt cch v lim s v cc cng nhn cng kh, l ci dn ng n ch ngha x hi. Ti khng nghi ng rng chnh s quyn r o c ny l b quyt ca nh hng ca gio hun ca ng. V sc thuyt phc ca s quyn r ny c tng cng gh gm bi s thc l ng khng thuyt ging o c tru tng. ng khng i hi bt c quyn g lm vy. Ai, hnh nh ng hi chnh mnh, sng theo tiu chun ring ca ngi y, min l n khng phi l mt tiu chun rt thp? Chnh cm gic ny l ci dn ng, trong cc vn o c, i da vo nhng li ni gim nh, v dn ng th tm trong khoa hc x hi tin tri mt uy quyn v cc vn o c tin cy hn ng cm thy mnh c. Chc chn, trong o c hc thc tin ca Marx cc phm tr nh t do v bnh ng ng vai tr ln. Rt cuc, ng l mt trong nhng ngi cho cc l tng ca 1789 l nghim tc. V ng thy mt khi nim nh quyn t do li c th b b cong mt cch v lim s n th no. y l l do v sao ng khng thuyt ging t do bng li ni v sao ng thuyt ging n bng hnh ng. ng mun ci thin x hi v s ci thin i vi ng c ngha l t do hn, bnh ng hn, cng bng hn, an ton hn, mc sng cao hn, v c bit l s ct ngn ngy lm vic l ci ngay lp tc cho cc cng nhn quyn t do no . Chnh l s cm ght ca ng i vi thi o c gi, s min cng ca ng ni v cc l tng cao qu ny, cng vi ch ngha lc quan gy sng st ca ng, s tin tng ca ng rng tt c cc iu ny s c thc hin trong tng lai gn, l ci dn ng i giu kn cc nim tin o c ca ng ng sau nhng trnh by lch s ch ngha. Marx, ti xc nhn, c th khng bo v ch ngha thc chng o c mt cch nghim tc dng ch ngha v lai o c nu gi nh ng thy rng n hm s tha nhn sc mnh tng lai nh l phi. Song c nhng ngi khc khng c tnh thng nhn loi tha thit ca ng, nhng ngi l cc nh v lai o c chnh v cc hm ny, tc l nhng k c hi mun bn thng. Ch ngha v lai o c l ph bin ngy nay. C s su hn, phi c hi ch ngha, ca n c l l lng tin rng ci thin cui cng phi thng ci c. Nhng cc nh v lai o c

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qun rng chng ta s khng sng c chng kin kt qu cui cng ca cc s kin hin thi. Lch s s l quan to ca chng ta! iu ny c ngha l g? L thnh cng s phn x. S tn sng thnh cng v sc mnh tng lai l tiu chun cao nht ca nhiu ngi nhng ngi c th khng bao gi tha nhn rng l phi thuc k mnh hin thi. (H hon ton qun rng hin ti l tng lai ca qu kh). C s ca tt c iu ny l s tho hip min cng gia mt ch ngha lc quan o c v mt ch ngha hoi nghi o c. C v kh tin vo lng tm ca ta. V c v kh cng li s thi thc bn thng. Tt c cc nhn xt ph phn ny nht qun vi gi s l ta c th tin on tng lai cho, th d, 500 nm ti. Song nu b gi s h cu hon ton ny i, th l thuyt o c lch s ch ngha mt ton b v hp l ca n. V chng ta phi b n. V khng c x hi hc tin tri no gip ta la chn mt h thng o c. Chng ta khng th chuyn trch nhim v mt s la chn nh vy cho bt c ai, ngay c cho tng lai. Tt nhin, l thuyt o c lch s ch ngha ca Marx ch l kt qu ca cch nhn ca ng v phng php ca khoa hc x hi, ca quyt nh lun x hi hc ca ng, mt quan im kh thi thng ngy nay. Mi kin ca chng ta, ngi ta ni, k c cc tiu chun o c ca chng ta, ph thuc vo x hi v trng thi lch s ca n. Chng l cc sn phm ca x hi hay ca tnh hnh giai cp no . Gio dc c nh ngha nh mt qu trnh c bit theo cng ng c truyn vn ho ca n k c cc tiu chun m n mun h sng11 cho cc thnh vin ca n, v tnh tng i ca l thuyt v thc hnh gio dc i vi mt trt t thnh hnh c nhn mnh. Khoa hc, cng th, c cho l ph thuc vo giai tng x hi ca nh khoa hc, v.v. Mt l thuyt loi ny, loi nhn mnh s ph thuc x hi hc ca cc kin, i khi c gi l ch ngha x hi hc; nu s ph thuc lch s c nhn mnh, n c gi l thuyt lch s [historism]. (Tt nhin thuyt lch s khng c ln ln vi ch ngha lch s [historicism]). C ch ngha x hi hc v thuyt lch s, chng mc chng cho l x hi hay lch s quyt nh tri thc khoa hc, s c tho lun hai chng tip. chng mc ch ngha x hi hc lin quan ti l thuyt o c, c th a thm vi nhn xt y. Nhng trc khi i vo bt c chi tit no, ti mun lm r hon ton kin ca mnh v cc l thuyt Hegel ho ny. Ti tin l chng ni huyn thuyn cc iu tm thng khoc o bit ng ca trit hc sm truyn. Hy xem xt ch ngha x hi hc o c ny. Rng con ngi, v cc nh ca anh ta, theo mt ngha no l sn phm ca x hi, l

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kh ng. Nhng cng ng rng x hi l sn phm ca con ngi v cc nh ca anh ta v n c th d dng tr thnh th. Cu hi chnh l: Ci no trong hai kha cnh ny ca quan h gia con ngi v x hi l quan trng hn? Cn nhn mnh ci no? Ta s hiu ch ngha x hi hc tt hn nu so n vi quan im t nhin ch ngha tng t coi con ngi v nh ca anh ta l sn phm ca di truyn v mi trng. Ta li phi tha nhn l iu ny kh ng. Song cng hon ton chc chn l, mi trng ca con ngi mc ngy cng tng l sn phm ca anh ta v cc nh ca anh ta ( mc hn ch, cng c th ni th ngay c v s di truyn ca anh ta). Ta li phi hi: ci no trong hai kha cnh l quan trng hn, mu m hn? Cu tr li c th d hn nu ta t cu hi dng sau, thc tin hn. Chng ta, th h ang sng, v tm tr, kin ca chng ta, phn ln l sn phm ca cha m chng ta, v ca cch h nui dy chng ta. Song th h tip theo s, mc tng t, l sn phm ca chnh chng ta, ca cc hnh ng ca chng ta v cch ta nui dy chng. Ci no trong hai kha cnh l quan trng hn vi chng ta hm nay? Nu ta xem xt nghim tc cu hi ny, th ta thy rng im quyt nh l tm tr, cc kin ca chng ta, d ch yu ph thuc vo s nui dy ca chng ta l khng hon ton th. Nu chng hon ton ph thuc vo s nui dy, nu gi nh chng ta khng c nng lc v t ph, v hc t cch chnh chng ta xem xt cc s vt, t kinh nghim, th, tt nhin, cch chng ta c th h trc nui dy s quyt nh cch chng ta nui dy th h tip theo. Nhng hon ton chc chn rng iu ny khng phi vy. Do , chng ta c th tp trung cc nng lc ph phn ca mnh vo vn kh v nui dy th h tip, theo cch m chng ta coi l tt hn cch m chnh chng ta c nui dy. Tnh hnh c ch ngha x hi hc nhn mnh nhiu th c th c gii quyt chnh xc theo cch tng t. Rng tm tr, quan im ca chng ta, theo cch no l sn phm ca x hi l ng mt cch tm thng. Phn quan trng nht ca mi trng ca ta l phn x hi ca n; c bit l t duy, ph thuc rt nhiu vo giao thip x hi; ngn ng, phng tin ca t duy, l mt hin tng x hi. Song khng th n gin ph nhn rng chng ta c th xem xt cc tng, c th ph phn chng, ci thin chng, v hn na c th thay i v ci thin mi trng vt l ca chng ta theo cc tng thay i, ci thin ca chng ta. V cng ng vy vi mi trng x hi ca chng ta. Tt c nhng cn nhc ny l hon ton c lp vi vn v ch t do siu hnh. Ngay c nh quyt nh lun tha nhn mt mc ph thuc

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no vo di truyn v vo nh hng mi trng, c bit l x hi. Mt khc, nh quyt nh lun phi ng rng cc quan im v hnh ng ca chng ta c quyt nh khng hon ton v ring bi di truyn, gio dc, v cc nh hng x hi. ng ta phi tha nhn rng c cc nhn t khc, th d, cc kinh nghim tnh c hn tch t trong i, v cc th ny cng c nh hng ca chng. Quyt nh lun hay bt nh lun, chng no chng vn bn trong cc ranh gii siu hnh ca chng, khng nh hng n vn ca chng ta. Nhng vn l chng c th vi phm vt qu cc ranh gii ny; l quyt nh lun siu hnh, th d, c th khuyn khch quyt nh lun x hi hc hay ch ngha x hi hc. Nhng dng ny, l thuyt c th c i cht vi kinh nghim. V kinh nghim cho thy n chc chn sai. ly mt th d t lnh vc m hc, lnh vc c s tng t no vi o c hc, Beethoven mc no chc chn l sn phm ca gio dc v truyn thng m nhc, v nhiu ngi quan tm n ng s b n tng bi kha cnh ny ca tc phm ca ng. Kha cnh quan trng nht, tuy vy, l ng cng l ngi to ra nhc, v v vy to ra truyn thng v gio dc nhc. Ti khng mun ci ln vi nh quyt nh lun siu hnh khng khng l mi nhp m Beethoven vit c quyt nh bi t hp no ca cc nh hng di truyn v mi trng. Mt qu quyt nh vy l hon ton khng quan trng v mt kinh nghim, v khng ai c th thc s gii thch mt nhp duy nht ca tc phm ca ng theo cch ny. Ci quan trng l mi ngi tha nhn rng ci ng vit khng th c gii thch bng cc tc phm m nhc ca cc tin bi ca ng cng chng bng mi trng x hi m ng sng, hay bng bnh ic ca ng, cng chng bng thc n qun gia nu cho ng n; ni cch khc, khng th gii thch c bng bt c tp hu hn no ca cc nh hng hay hon cnh x hi m ra cho kho st kinh nghim, hay bng bt c th g ta c l c th bit v di truyn ca ng. Ti khng ph nhn rng c cc kha cnh x hi hc l th no trong tc phm ca Beethoven. Nhiu ngi bit, th d, rng qu t mt dn giao hng nh n ln, theo cch no , c quan h vi mt din tin x hi-chnh tr. Cc dn nhc thi khng ch l s thch ring ca cc hong thn, v ch t c ng h mt phn bi tng lp trung lu m s quan tm n m nhc ca h tng ln rt nhiu. Ti sn sng nh gi cao bt c gii thch x hi hc no v loi ny, v ti tha nhn l cc kha cnh nh vy c th xng ng cho nghin cu khoa hc. (Rt cuc, chnh ti th nhng vic tng t trong cun sch ny, th d, lun bn ca ti v Plato).

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Th th, chnh xc hn, i tng ca s tn cng ca ti l g? l s phng i v khi qut ho ca bt c kha cnh no thuc loi ny. Nu ta gii thch bn giao hng ca Beethoven theo cch gi trn, ta gii thch rt t. Nu m t Beethoven nh i din cho giai cp t sn trong qu trnh t gii phng mnh, chng ta din t rt t, cho d n ng. Mt chc nng nh vy c th hu nh chc chn c kt hp vi vic to ra nhc ti (nh ta thy t Wagner). Ta khng th c gii thch thin ti ca Beethoven theo cch ny, hay theo bt c cch no. Ti ngh l cc quan im ring ca Marx c th c dng cng th cho mt s bc b v mt kinh nghim quyt nh lun x hi hc. V nu ta xem xt di nh sng ca hc thuyt ny hai l thuyt, ch ngha hnh ng v ch ngha lch s, v s u tranh ca chng v uy th trong h thng ca Marx, th s phi ni rng ch ngha lch s l cch nhn hp cho mt nh bin h bo th hn l cho mt nh cch mng hay thm ch nh ci cch. V, qu thc, ch ngha lch s c Hegel dng vi chiu hng . S thc rng Marx khng ch tip qun n t Hegel, m cui cng cho php n ht cng ch ngha hnh ng ring ca ng, nh th c th chng t rng pha m mt ngi ng trong u tranh x hi khng nht thit lun xc nh cc quyt nh tr tu ca ng ta. Cc quyt nh ny c th c xc nh, nh trng hp ca Marx, khng phi l bi li ch tht ca giai cp ng ng h m bi cc nhn t ngu nhin, nh nh hng ca mt tin bi, hay c l bi tnh thin cn. Nh vy trng hp ny, ch ngha x hi hc c th y mnh s hiu bit ca chng ta v Hegel, song th d ca bn thn Marx phi by n nh mt khi qut ho khng c bin h. Trng hp tng t l Marx nh gi thp tm quan trng ca cc t tng o c ca ring ng; v khng th nghi ng rng b quyt ca nh hng tn gio ca ng l s quyn r o c ca n, rng ph phn ch ngha t bn ca ng c hiu qu ch yu nh mt ph phn o c. Marx chng t rng mt h thng x hi nh vn l c th l bt cng; rng nu h thng l xu, th mi tnh chnh ng ca cc c nhn thu li t n ch l mt s chnh ng gi mo, ch l o c gi. V trch nhim ca chng ta m rng ra h thng, ra cc th ch m chng ta cho php tn ti dai dng. Chnh ch ngha cp tin o c ny ca Marx l ci gii thch nh hng ca ng; v t n l mt s thc y ha hn. Ch ngha cp tin o c ny vn cn sng. Nhim v ca chng ta l gi cho n sng, ngn n khi i theo ng m ch ngha cp tin chnh tr ca ng s phi i. Ch ngha Marx khoa hc cht. Cm xc v trch nhim x hi v tnh yu t do ca n phi tip tc sng.

HU QU

Tnh duy l, theo ngha ca mt ku gi hng ti mt tiu chun ph qut v phi c tnh v chn l, l ti quan trng .., khng ch trong cc thi i trong n d thnh hnh, m c, thm ch nhiu hn, cc thi k t may mn hn trong n b khinh mit v b bc b nh m c ho huyn ca nhng ngi thiu can m git khi h khng th ho thun. BERTRAND RUSSELL

CHNG 23: X HI HC TRI THC Hu nh khng th nghi ng rng cc trit hc lch s ch ngha ca Hegel v ca Marx l cc sn phm c trng ca thi i cc ng - mt thi i chuyn bin x hi. Ging cc trit hc ca Heraclitus v Plato, v ging cc trit l ca Comte v Mill, Lamarck v Darwin, chng l cc trit hc v chuyn bin, v chng lm bng chng cho n tng gh gm v r rng hi khip s do mi trng x hi thay i gy ra ln tm tr ca nhng ngi sng trong mi trng ny. Plato phn ng li tnh hnh ny bng c gng lm ngng mi thay i. Cc nh trit hc x hi hin i hn dng nh phn ng rt khc nhau, v h chp nhn, v thm ch cho n, s thay i; th nhng s yu thch thay i ny i vi ti c v l hi nc i. V cho d h t b mi hi vng v lm ngng thay i, vi t cch cc nh lch s ch ngha h th tin on n, v nh th t n di s kim sot duy l; v iu ny chc chn c v nh mt c gng thun ho n. Nh th c v l, vi nh lch s ch ngha, s thay i khng hon ton mt ni kinh hong ca n. Trong thi i ca chnh chng ta, ca thay i cn nhanh hn na, thm ch chng ta thy c mong mun khng ch tin on s thay i, m kim sot n bng k hoch ho tp trung qui m ln. Cc quan im chnh th lun ny (m ti ph phn trong S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s) i din cho mt tho hip, c th ni nh vy, gia cc l thuyt Platonic v Marxian. mun ca Plato ngng thay i, c kt hp vi hc thuyt ca Marx v tnh khng th trnh c ca n, to ra, nh mt loi hp Hegelian, i hi rng v n khng th b ngng hon ton, s thay i ch t phi c lp k hoch, v kim sot bi nh nc m quyn lc ca n phi c m rng bao la. Mt thi nh th, thot u, c th c v l mt loi ca ch ngha duy l; n c quan h mt thit vi m c ca Marx v vng quc ca t do ni ln u tin con ngi lm ch s phn ca chnh mnh. Song,

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nh mt thc t, n xut hin trong lin minh mt thit nht vi mt hc thuyt dt khot i lp vi ch ngha duy l (v c bit vi thuyt v s thng nht duy l ca loi ngi; xem chng 24), mt hc thuyt ho hp vi cc xu hng phi duy l v thn b ca thi i chng ta. Ti c ni v hc thuyt Marxist rng kin ca chng ta, k c kin o c v khoa hc ca chng ta, c quyt nh bi li ch giai cp, v tng qut hn bi tnh hnh x hi v lch s ca thi i chng ta. Di ci tn x hi hc tri thc hay ch ngha x hi hc, hc thuyt ny c pht trin mi y (c bit bi M. Scheler v K. Mannheim1) nh mt l thuyt v s quyt nh x hi ca tri thc khoa hc. X hi hc tri thc lp lun rng t duy khoa hc, v c bit t duy v cc vn x hi v chnh tr, khng din tin trong chn khng, m trong mt bu khng kh tu thuc vo x hi. N b nh hng ch yu bi cc yu t v thc hay tim thc. Cc yu t ny vn b che giu khi con mt quan st ca nh t tng bi v chng to thnh, c th ni nh vy, chnh ch m ng ta , mi trng x hi [social habitat] ca ng ta. Mi trng x hi ca nh t tng quyt nh ton b h thng kin v cc l thuyt nhng ci vi ng ta t ra l ng khng th nghi ng hay l hin nhin. Chng t ra vi ng ta c nh l chng ng v mt logic v tm thng, nh, th d, cu tt c nhng ci bn l nhng ci bn. y l v sao thm ch ng ta khng bit l a ra bt c gi thit no c. Nhng s thc, l ng ta a ra cc gi thit, c th thy c nu ta so ng vi mt nh t tng sng trong mt mi trng x hi thc s khc; v ng y cng th s tin hnh t mt h thng cc gi thit hnh nh khng th nghi ng, nhng l mt h thng rt khc; v n c th khc n mc khng th c cu ni tr tu no hay tho hip no kh d gia hai h thng ny. Mi trong cc h thng khc nhau c quyt nh v mt x hi ny ca cc gi thit c cc nh x hi hc tri thc gi l mt thc h ton b [total ideology]. X hi hc tri thc c th c coi nh mt phin bn Hegelian ca l thuyt ca Kant v tri thc. V n tip tc theo cc ng li ph phn ca Kant v ci chng ta c th gi l l thuyt th ng ch ngha v tri thc. Vi tn ny ti mun ni n l thuyt ca cc nh kinh nghim ch ngha xung n v gm c Hume, mt l thuyt c th c m t, i th, nh cho rng tri thc chy vo chng ta qua cc gic quan, v rng li l do chng ta quy nhiu vt liu gic quan cung cp, hay do cc lin tng pht trin bn trong n; cch tt nht trnh li l gi nguyn tnh trng hon ton th ng v tip nhn. Chng li l thuyt ch cha ny v tri thc (ti thng gi n l l thuyt thng tm tr), Kant2 lp

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HU QU

lun rng tri thc khng phi l mt su tp cc qu tng do gic quan ca chng ta nhn c v c lu tr trong u c nh l mt vin bo tng, m phn rt ln n l kt qu ca hot ng tinh thn ca chnh chng ta; rng chng ta phi tham gia tch cc nht vo tm kim, so snh, hp nht, khi qut ho, nu chng ta mun t tri thc. Chng ta c th gi l thuyt ny l l thuyt tch cc ch ngha v tri thc. Lin quan vi n, Kant t b l tng khng th ng vng c v mt khoa hc thot khi bt k loi no ca cc gi nh trc. (Rng l tng ny thm ch l t mu thun s c chng t chng tip). ng lm rt r l chng ta khng th xut pht t con s khng, v chng ta phi tip cn nhim v ca mnh c trang b mt h thng cc gi nh trc, h thng ta cho l ng m khng kim chng chng bng cc phng php kinh nghim ca khoa hc; mt h thng nh vy c th c gi l mt b my phm tr3. Kant tin rng c kh nng khm ph ra mt b my phm tr ng v bt bin, ci i din cho, c th ni nh vy, khung kh bt bin cn thit ca b ngh tr c ca chng ta, tc l l tnh con ngi. Phn ny ca l thuyt ca Kant b Hegel t b, ng, ngc vi Kant, khng tin vo s thng nht ca nhn loi. ng dy rng b ngh tr tu ca con ngi lin tc thay i, v rng n l mt phn ca di sn x hi; do s pht trin ca l tnh con ngi phi trng vi s pht trin lch s ca x hi ca anh ta, tc l ca dn tc m anh ta thuc v. L thuyt ny ca Hegel, v c bit hc thuyt ca ng rng mi tri thc v mi chn l l tng i theo ngha l c lch s quyt nh, i khi c gi l thuyt lch s (tng phn vi ch ngha lch s, nh c ni ti chng trc). X hi hc tri thc hay ch ngha x hi hc hin nhin l c quan h rt mt thit hay gn nh ng nht vi n, s khc bit duy nht l, di nh hng ca Marx, n nhn mnh rng s pht trin lch s khng to ra mt tinh thn dn tc ng u, nh Hegel tin, m ng hn nhiu thc h ton b i khi tri ngc nhau bn trong mt dn tc, theo giai cp, phn tng x hi, hay mi trng x hi, ca nhng ngi tin vo chng. Nhng s ging Hegel cn i xa hn na. Ti ni trn rng theo x hi hc tri thc, khng c cu ni hay tho hip tr tu no gia cc thc h ton b l c th. Song ch ngha hoi nghi trit ny khng thc s c hiu hon ton nghim ngt nh n c v. C mt li ra cho n, con ng l tng t nh phng php Hegelian v thay th cc mu thun c trc ng trong lch s trit hc. Hegel, mt ngi thng bng t do trn xoy nc ca cc trit hc bt ng nhau, bin tt c chng thnh cc thnh phn n thun ca cc hp (synthesis, s tng

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hp) cao nht, ca h thng ring ca ng. Tng t, cc nh x hi hc tri thc tin rng tr c thng bng t do ca mt tng lp tr thc ch b neo lng lo vo cc truyn thng x hi c th c kh nng trnh cc cm by ca cc thc h ton b; rng n thm ch c th c kh nng nhn sut, v bc trn, cc thc h ton b khc nhau v cc ng c n giu v cc yu t quyt nh khc nhng ci truyn cm hng cho h. Nh th x hi hc tri thc tin rng mc cao nht ca tnh khch quan c th t c bi tr c thng bng t do, phn tch cc thc h b che giu khc nhau v ch neo u ca chng trong v thc. Con ng n tri thc tht c v l i b bc mn che ca cc gi thit v thc, mt loi tm l tr liu, c th ni nh vy, hoc nu ti c th ni nh vy, mt x hi-tr liu. Ch ngi c x hi-tr liu hay ngi x hi-tr liu cho chnh mnh, v ngi thot khi phc cm x hi ny, tc l thot khi thc h x hi ca mnh, mi c th t c s tng hp cao nht ca tri thc khch quan. Trong chng trc, khi cp n Ch ngha Marx Thng thc ti ni n mt xu hng c th quan st c mt nhm cc trit hc hin i, xu hng bc trn cc ng c n giu ng sau cc hnh ng ca chng ta. X hi hc tri thc thuc nhm ny, cng vi phn tm hc v cc trit l no i bc trn s v ngha ca cc gio l ca cc i th ca h4. Tnh ph bin ca cc quan im ny, ti tin, nm s d dng m chng c th c p dng, v s tho mn m chng ban cho nhng ngi nhn thu sut cc s vt, v thu sut cc s ng nghch ca ngi cha c khai sng. Nim khoi lc ny s l v hi, gi nh khng phi l tt c cc tng ny chc hn ph hu c s tr tu ca bt c tho lun no, bng thit lp ci ti gi5 l mt ch ngha gio iu c tng cng. (Qu thc, y l ci g kh ging mt thc h ton b). Ch ngha Hegel thc hin n bng tuyn b tnh c th chp nhn c v thm ch tnh mu m ca cc mu thun. Song nu cc mu thun khng cn phi loi tr, th bt c ph phn no v bt c tho lun no u tr thnh khng th c v ph phn lun ct ch ra cc mu thun hoc bn trong l thuyt cn c ph phn, hay gia n v mt s thc t kinh nghim. Tnh hnh vi phn tm hc l tng t: nh phn tm hc lun c th thanh minh bt c phn bc no bng cho thy rng chng l do s ngn chn ca nh ph bnh. V cc nh trit hc y ngha, li, ch cn ch ra rng, ci m cc i th ca h cho l ng, l v ngha, iu s lun ng, v tnh v ngha c th c nh ngha l bt c tho lun no v n theo nh ngha l khng c ngha6. Cc nh Marxist, theo cch a thch, c thi quen gii

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thch s bt ng ca mt i th bng nh kin giai cp ca hn, v cc nh x hi hc tri thc gii thch bng thc h ton b ca hn. Cc phng php nh vy l c d vn dng ln vui th cho nhng ngi vn dng chng. Song chng r rng ph hu c s ca tho lun duy l, v, cui cng, phi dn n ch ngha phn duy l v ch ngha thn b. Bt chp cc nguy him ny, ti khng thy v sao ti phi hon ton b tr tiu khin v vn dng cc phng php ny. V ht nh cc nh phn tm hc, nhng ngi m phn tm hc p dng vo tt nht7, cc nh phn tch-x hi mi gi s p dng cc phng php ring ca h cho chnh h vi mt lng mn m hu nh khng cng li c. V chng phi s m t ca h v mt tng lp tr thc ch b neo ko vo truyn thng mt cch lng lo l mt m t rt rnh mch v nhm x hi ring ca h sao? V chng phi cng r rng, gi s l thuyt v cc thc h ton b l ng, l mt phn ca mi thc h ton b tin rng nhm ca chnh h l khng c thnh kin, v qu thc hi ng c chn , ch ring n l c kh nng khch quan sao? Chng phi, v th, k vng, lun gi s s ng n ca l thuyt ny, rng nhng ngi tin n s la di chnh mnh mt cch v thc bng to ra mt s sa i l thuyt nhm xc lp tnh khch quan ca cc quan im ring ca h sao? Liu chng ta, khi , c th coi i hi ca h, rng bng s t-phn tch x hi hc ca mnh, h t mt mc cao hn ca tnh khch quan; v i hi ca h rng phn tch-x hi c th ui mt thc h ton b ra, l nghim tc chng? Nhng chng ta thm ch c th hi liu ton b l thuyt chng phi n gin l s by t li ch giai cp ca nhm c bit ny; ca mt tng lp tr thc ch gn b lng lo vi truyn thng, mc d vng vng ni ting Hegelian nh ting m ca h hay khng. Cc nh x hi hc tri thc thnh cng t n nhng no trong x hi-tr liu ca h, tc l, trong xo b thc h ton b ca ring h, s c bit r nu chng ta xem xt quan h ca h vi Hegel. V h khng c tng no, m h ch lp li ng; ngc li, h khng ch tin rng h vt ln ng, m cn tin rng h nhn thu ng mt cch thnh cng, khng phi t bt c mi trng x hi c bit no, m t mt tm cao hn, mt cch khch quan. S tht bi rnh rnh ny trong t-phn tch ni cho chng ta. Nhng, ni mt cch nghim chnh, c cc phn bc nghim trng hn. X hi hc tri thc khng ch l t-hu hoi, khng ch l mt mc tiu kh lm hi lng ca phn tch x hi, n cng cho thy mt s tht bi gy sng s hiu chnh xc ch chnh ca n, cc kha cnh x

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hi ca tri thc, hay ng hn, ca phng php khoa hc. N coi khoa hc hay tri thc nh mt qu trnh trong tr c hay thc ca c nhn nh khoa hc, hay c l nh sn phm ca mt qu trnh nh vy. Nu c xem xt theo cch ny, ci m chng ta gi l tnh khch quan khoa hc phi qu thc l hon ton khng th hiu c, hay thm ch khng th c c; v khng ch trong cc khoa hc x hi v chnh tr, ni cc li ch giai cp v cc ng lc n giu c th ng mt vai tr, m cng ng th trong cc khoa hc t nhin. Bt c ai ngi c nim l m v lch s cc khoa hc t nhin u bit v s kin quyt mnh lit c trng cho nhiu trong cc cuc tranh ci ca n. Khng c mc thin v chnh tr no c th nh hng n cc l thuyt chnh tr mnh hn tnh thin v ca cc nh khoa hc t nhin no ng h cho a con tr tu ca h. Nu gi nh tnh khch quan, nh l thuyt x hi hc tri thc gi thit mt cch u tr, da trn tnh v t hay tnh khch quan ca c nhn nh khoa hc, th chng ta phi cho t bit n. Thc vy, chng mc no y chng ta phi hoi nghi trit hn x hi hc tri thc; v khng nghi ng g rng tt c chng ta u chu au kh di h thng cc thnh kin (hay cc thc h ton b, nu thch t ny hn) ca chnh chng ta; rng tt c chng ta u coi nhiu th l hin nhin, rng chng ta chp nhn chng mt cch khng ph phn v thm ch vi nim tin u tr v cc k kiu ngo rng ph phn l hon ton khng cn thit; v cc nh khoa hc khng l ngoi l i vi qui tc ny, cho d h c th thanh lc mnh mt cch hi ht khi mt s thnh kin ca h trong lnh vc c bit ca h. Song h khng thanh lc mnh bng phn tch x hi hay bt c phng php tng t no; h khng th leo ln mt bnh din cao hn m t h c th hiu, phn tch x hi, v ct b nhng iu ng ngn thc h ca h. V bng lm cho u c h khch quan hn, h c l khng th t ci m chng ta gi l tnh khch quan khoa hc. Khng, ci chng ta thng hiu di t ny da vo cc c s khc8. N l mt vn v phng php khoa hc. V, kh ma mai, tnh khch quan gn cht ch vi kha cnh x hi ca phng php khoa hc, vi s thc rng khoa hc v tnh khch quan khoa hc khng (v khng th) l kt qu t cc c gng ca mt c nhn nh khoa hc l khch quan, m t s hp tc thn thin-th ch ca nhiu nh khoa hc Tnh khch quan khoa hc c th c m t nh tnh linch quan (inter-subjectivity) ca phng php khoa hc. Nhng kha cnh x hi ny ca khoa hc hu nh b sao lng hon ton bi nhng ngi t gi mnh l cc nh x hi hc tri thc.

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Hai kha cnh ca phng php ca cc khoa hc t nhin l quan trng trong mi quan h ny. Cng nhau chng to ra ci ti c th gi l c tnh cng khai ca phng php khoa hc. Th nht, c ci g ti gn ph phn t do. Mt nh khoa hc c th a l thuyt ca mnh ra vi nim tin chc hon ton rng n l khng th bc b c. Song ch ny khng gy n tng i vi nh khoa hc ng nghip v cc i th ca ng ta; ng hn n thch thc h: h bit rng thi khoa hc c ngha l ph phn mi th, v h t b cn tr ngay c bi uy quyn. Th hai, cc nh khoa hc c trnh chuyn hiu lm nhau. (Ti xin nhc nh bn c l ti ang ni v cc khoa hc t nhin, nhng c th k c mt phn ca kinh t hc hin i). H c gng rt nghim tc ni mt v cng ngn ng, cho d h dng cc ngn ng m khc nhau. Trong cc khoa hc t nhin iu ny t c bng cng nhn kinh nghim nh trng ti v t ca nhng tranh ci ca h. Khi ni v kinh nghim ti mun ni kinh nghim c c tnh cng khai, nh cc quan st, v th nghim, tri vi kinh nghim theo ngha m hc ring t hn hay kinh nghim tn gio; v kinh nghim l cng khai nu mi ngi, nhng ngi chu kh, c th lp li n. Nhm trnh ni chuyn hiu lm nhau, cc nh khoa hc c trnh by cc l thuyt ca h dng sao cho chng c th c kim nghim, tc l c th b bc b (hay khc i th c cng c) bi kinh nghim nh vy. y l ci to thnh tnh khch quan khoa hc. Tt c mi ngi, nhng ngi hc k thut v hiu v kim nghim cc l thuyt khoa hc, c th lp li th nghim v nh gi cho bn thn mnh. Bt chp iu ny, s lun c ai i n nhng nh gi thin v, hay thm ch k quc. iu ny l khng th trnh khi, song n khng lm xo ng nghim trng hot ng ca cc th ch x hi khc nhau d nh thc y tnh khch quan khoa hc v ph phn; th d cc phng th nghim, cc tp ch khoa hc, cc hi ngh. Kha cnh ny ca phng php khoa hc cho thy ci g c th t c bng cc th ch c d nh lm cho kim sot cng khai l c th, v bng pht biu d lun cng khai, cho d iu ny ch gii hn cho mt gii chuyn gia. Ch c quyn lc chnh tr, khi c dng cm ph phn t do, hay khi tht bi bo v n, c th lm suy yu hot ng ca cc th ch ny, m mi tin b, khoa hc, cng ngh, v chnh tr, cui cng u ph thuc vo chng. lm sng t hn na kha cnh vn b sao lng mt cch ng bun ny ca phng php khoa hc, chng ta c th xem xt tng l nn c trng khoa hc bng phng php hn l bng cc kt qu ca n.

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u tin hy gi s rng mt nh thu th (clairvoyant) to ra mt cun sch do m thy n, hay c l bng vit t ng. Hy gi s, thm na, rng cc nm mun hn, nh mt kt qu ca cc pht minh khoa hc mi v cch mng, mt nh khoa hc ln (ngi cha bao gi thy cun sch ) to ra mt cun sch chnh xc y ht vy. Hay din t khc i, ta gi s nh thu th thy mt cun sch khoa hc m khi khng c vit ra bi mt nh khoa hc do s thc l nhiu pht minh quan trng vn cha c bit n thi im y. By gi chng ta hi: c nn ni l nh thu th to ra mt cun sch khoa hc? Chng ta c th gi s rng, nu n c a cho cc nh khoa hc c trnh khi nh gi, n c th c m t nh mt phn l khng th hiu ni, v mt phn l k qui; nh th chng ta s phi ni rng cun sch ca nh thu th khng l mt cng trnh khoa hc khi n c vit, v n khng l sn phm ca phng php khoa hc. Ti s gi mt kt qu nh vy, ci, d ph hp vi mt s kt qu khoa hc, khng l sn phm ca phng php khoa hc, (m) l mt mu ca khoa hc c tit l [khoa hc thin khi]. Nhm p dng nhng cn nhc ny cho vn v tnh cng khai ca phng php khoa hc, hy gi s rng Robinson Crusoe thnh cng xy dng cc phng th nghim vt l v ho hc, cc i thin vn, v.v. trn hn o ca mnh, v vit rt nhiu bi bo, da hon ton vo quan st v th nghim. Thm ch hy gi s rng ng c v hn thi gian, v ng thnh cng trong xy dng v m t cc h thng khoa hc nhng ci thc s trng vi cc kt qu hin nay c cc nh khoa hc ca chnh chng ta chp nhn. Xem xt c tnh ca khoa hc Crusonian ny, mi s ngi, thot nhn, s thin v khng nh rng n l khoa hc thc s ch khng phi khoa hc c tit l. V, khng nghi ng g, n rt ging khoa hc hn nhiu so vi cun sch c tit l cho nh thu th, v Robinson Crusoe p dng kh nhiu phng php khoa hc. Th m, ti qu quyt rng khoa hc Crusonian ny vn thuc loi c tit l; rng c mt yu t ca phng php khoa hc b thiu, v do , s thc rng Crusoe i n cc kt qu ca chng ta gn ngu nhin v huyn diu nh trng hp ca nh thu th. V chng c ai ngoi chnh ng kim tra cc kt qu ca ng; khng ai ngoi chnh ng hiu chnh cc nh kin nhng ci l hu qu khng th trnh khi ca lch s tinh thn ring bit ca ng; khng ai gip ng thot khi s m qung l k v cc kh nng vn c ca cc kt qu ca ring chng ta m l hu qu ca s thc rng hu ht trong s chng t c thng qua nhng cch tip cn tng i khng thch hp. V v cc bi

220

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bo khoa hc ca ng, n ch l c gng gii thch cng trnh ca ng cho ai ngi khng tin hnh n ng c th t c k lut v giao thip r rng v hp l, ci cng l mt phn ca phng php khoa hc. Trong mt im - mt im tng i khng quan trng m c tnh c tit l ca khoa hc Crusonian l c bit hin nhin; ti ni v s pht minh ca Crusoe ra phng trnh c nhn ca ng (v chng ta phi gi s rng ng a ra pht minh ny) v thi gian phn ng c trng c nhn nh hng n cc quan st thin vn ca ng. Tt nhin c th tng tng rng ng, th d, khm ph ra cc thay i v thi gian phn ng ca ng, v, theo cch ny, dn ng n a ra cc b tr cho n. Song nu chng ta so snh cch tm ra thi gian phn ng ny vi cch theo n c pht hin ra trong khoa hc cng khai thng qua mu thun gia cc kt qu ca cc nh quan st khc nhau th c tnh c tit l ca khoa hc ca Robinson Crusoe bc l. tng kt cc cn nhc ny, c th ni rng ci ta gi l tnh khch quan khoa hc khng phi l sn phm ca tnh v t ca c nhn cc nh khoa hc, m l mt sn phm ca c tnh x hi hay cng khai ca phng php khoa hc; v tnh khch quan ca c nhn cc nh khoa hc, chng mc n tn ti, khng phi l ngun m ng hn l kt qu ca tnh khch quan c t chc v mt x hi hay v mt th ch ny ca khoa hc. C9 cc nh Kantian ln Hegelian u phm cng sai lm v gi thit rng cc tin gi nh ca chng ta (v chng, trc ht, l cc cng c r rng khng th b qua m chng ta cn trong vic tch cc thc hin cc th nghim ca mnh) khng th b thay i bi quyt nh cng chng th b bc b bi kinh nghim; rng chng l trn v vt xa hn cc phng php khoa hc v kim nghim cc l thuyt, to thnh cc tin gi nh ca mi t duy nh h ngh. Nhng y l mt s cng iu, da trn mt s hiu lm cc quan h gia l thuyt v kinh nghim trong khoa hc. L mt trong cc thnh tu v i nht ca thi i chng ta khi Einstein, trong th nghim v nh sng, cho thy l chng ta c th nghi ng v xt li cc tin gi nh ca chng ta ngay c v khng gian v thi gian, cc tng c cho l cc tin gi nh cn thit ca mi khoa hc, v thuc v b my phm tr ca n. Nh th, s tn cng hoi nghi ln khoa hc do x hi hc tri thc khi xng, sp di nh sng ca phng php khoa hc. Phng php kinh nghim chng t l hon ton c kh nng t lo liu. Nhng n lm vy khng phi bng xo b cc thnh kin ca chng ta ngay mt lc; n c th loi b chng tng ci mt. V d in hnh c

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in li l khm ph ca Einstein v cc nh kin ca chng ta v thi gian. Einstein khng bt tay i khm ph cc nh kin; ng thm ch khng bt tay i ph phn cc khi nim ca chng ta v khng gian v thi gian. Vn ca ng l mt vn c th ca vt l hc, tho li mt l thuyt b sp v cc th nghim khc nhau, di nh sng ca l thuyt, c v mu thun vi nhau. Einstein cng hu ht cc nh vt l nhn ra rng iu ny c ngha l l thuyt sai. V ng thy rng nu chng ta thay i n mt im, m cho n nay c mi ngi cho l hin nhin v v vy tut khi s ch , th kh khn c th c loi b. Ni cch khc, ng ch p dng cc phng php v ph phn khoa hc v v pht minh v loi b cc l thuyt, v th v sai. Nhng phng php ny khng dn chng ta n t b mi thnh kin ca mnh; ng hn, chng ta c th pht hin ra s thc rng chng ta c mt nh kin ch sau khi thot khi n. Song chc chn phi tha nhn rng, bt c thi im cho trc no, cc l thuyt khoa hc ca chng ta s ph thuc khng ch vo cc th nghim, v.v. c tin hnh cho n thi im , m cng ph thuc vo cc nh kin c coi l d nhin, cho nn chng ta khng c thc v chng (mc d p dng cc phng php logic nht nh c th gip ta d ra chng). D sao i na, chng ta c th ni v vn kt thnh v cng ny rng khoa hc c kh nng v hc hi, v p v mt phn ca cc v cng ca n. Qu trnh c th chng bao gi hon thin, nhng khng c ro cn c nh no m trc ro cn y n t nhin phi dng li. Bt c gi thit no, v nguyn tc, c th b ph phn. V, rng bt c ai c th ph phn, to thnh tnh khch quan khoa hc. Cc kt qu khoa hc l tng i (nu t ny cn c dng cht no) ch chng mc chng l cc kt qu ca mt giai on no ca s pht trin khoa hc v chc s b thay th trong tin trnh tin b khoa hc. Nhng iu ny khng c ngha rng chn l l tng i. Nu mt khng nh l ng, n mi mi l ng10. N ch c ngha rng hu ht cc kt qu khoa hc c c tnh ca cc gi thuyt, tc l cc tuyn b m bng chng l khng i n kt lun, v v th c kh nng b xem xt li bt c lc no. Nhng cn nhc ny (m ti cp y hn ni khc11), d khng cn thit cho mt ph phn cc nh x hi hc, c l c th gip thc y s hiu bit cc l thuyt ca h. Chng cng ri mt cht nh sng, quay li ph phn chnh ca ti, ln vai tr quan trng m s hp tc, tnh lin-ch quan, v tnh cng khai ca phng php ng trong ph phn khoa hc v tin b khoa hc.

222

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ng l cc khoa hc x hi vn cha t hon ton tnh cng khai ny v phng php. iu ny mt phn l do nh hng ph hu tr c ca Aristotle v Hegel, mt phn c l do c s tht bi ca chng tn dng cc cng c x hi ca tnh khch quan khoa hc. Nh th chng thc s l cc thc h ton b, hay din t n khc i, mt s nh khoa hc x hi khng c kh nng, v thm ch khng mun, ni mt ngn ng chung. Nhng l do khng phi l li ch giai cp, v cch iu tr khng phi l mt s tng hp bin chng Hegelian, cng chng phi t-phn tch. Con ng duy nht m ra cho cc khoa hc x hi l qun ton b li ni sung v gii quyt cc vn thc tin ca thi i chng ta vi s gip ca cc phng php l thuyt, m c bn l nh nhau trong mi khoa hc. ti ni cc phng php v th v sai, v to ra cc gi thuyt c th c kim nghim v mt thc tin, v v a chng ra th nghim thc tin. Cn n mt cng ngh x hi m cc kt qu ca n c th c kim nghim bng k thut x hi tng phn. Cch cha tr c gi y cho khoa hc x hi l hon ton tri vi cch cha tr do x hi hc tri thc gi . Ch ngha x hi hc tin rng khng phi c tnh phi thc tin ca chng, m ng hn l s thc rng cc vn thc tin v l thuyt qun vi nhau qu nhiu trong lnh vc hiu bit x hi v chnh tr, l ci to ra nhng kh khn phng php lun ca cc khoa hc ny. Nh th chng ta c th c cng trnh chnh v x hi hc tri thc12: Tnh c bit ca tri thc chnh tr, tri vi tri thc chnh xc, nm s thc rng tri thc v ch, hay yu t duy l v phm vi phi l, l khng th tch ri v v c bn qun vi nhau. V iu ny chng ta c th tr li rng tri thc v ch, theo mt ngha no , l lun lun khng th tch ri; v s thc ny khng cn thit dn n bt c s ri rm nguy him no. Khng nh khoa hc no c th bit, m khng c n lc, m khng c mt li ch; v trong n lc ca ng ta thm ch thng dnh n mt lng t li no . K s nghin cu cc th ch yu t mt quan im thc tin. Nng dn cng vy. Thc tin khng phi l k th ca s hiu bit, m l khuyn khch c gi tr nht i vi n. Mc d mt mc xa lnh no c th thch hp vi nh khoa hc, c nhiu th d chng t rng khng phi lun lun quan trng cho mt nh khoa hc l khng v li nh vy. Song l quan trng i vi ng ta vn gi lin lc vi thc t, vi thc tin, bi v nhng ngi b qua n phi tr gi bng vic b sa vo ch ngha kinh vin. p dng thc tin nhng khm ph ca chng ta nh th l cng c theo chng ta c th loi tr ch ngha phi duy l

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khi khoa hc x hi, v khng phi bt c n lc no tch tri thc ra khi ch. Tri vi iu ny, x hi hc tri thc hi vng ci cch cc khoa hc x hi bng khin cc nh khoa hc c thc v cc lc lng v thc h x hi, nhng ci bao vy h mt cch v thc. Nhng rc ri chnh v cc nh kin l, khng c cch trc tip nh vy thot khi chng. V lm sao chng ta bit rng c bt c tin b no trong n lc ca mnh thot khi thnh kin? Chng phi mt kinh nghim chung l, nhng ngi tin chc nht rng h thot khi nh kin ca mnh, l nhng ngi c thnh kin nht sao? tng, rng mt nghin cu x hi hc hay tm l hc hay nhn loi hc hay bt c nghin cu no v cc nh kin c th gip chng ta thot khi chng, l hon ton sai lm; v nhiu ngi theo ui cc nhin cu ny l y thnh kin; v t-phn tch khng ch khng gip chng ta khc phc tnh qu quyt v thc ca cch nhn ca chng ta, m n thm ch thng dn n s t la di t nh hn. Nh th chng ta c th c trong cng cng trnh v x hi hc tri thc13 cc dn chiu sau n cc hot ng ring ca n: C mt xu hng ngy cng tng c thc v cc nhn t, m cho n nay vn cai tr chng ta mt cch v thc Nhng ngi s rng s hiu bit ngy cng tng ca chng ta v cc nhn t quyt nh c th lm t lit cc quyt nh ca chng ta v e do quyn t do phi u c ca h ngh ngi. V ch ngi tht s c quyt tm, l ngi khng bit v cc nhn t quyt nh c bn nht nhng hnh ng ngay lp tc di p lc ca cc yu t quyt nh khng c nhn ra i vi anh ta. M y r rng ch l mt s lp li mt tng yu thch ca Hegel m Engels lp li mt cch u tr khi ng ni14: T do l s nhn thc v tnh tt yu. V n l mt thnh kin phn ng. V nhng ngi hnh ng di p lc ca cc nhn t quyt nh m ai cng bit, th d, v mt ch chuyn ch chnh tr, li c s hiu bit ca h bin thnh t do? Ch c Hegel c th k cho chng ta nhng truyn nh vy. Song x hi hc tri thc duy tr thnh kin c bit ny, cho chng ta thy mt cch r rng, rng khng c con ng tt kh d no lm cho chng ta thot khi cc thc h ca mnh. (Mt ln l nh Hegelian, th lun lun l mt nh Hegelian). T phn tch khng phi l ci thay th cho cc hnh ng thc tin cn thit thit lp cc th ch dn ch, ch c chng mi c th m bo quyn t do t duy ph phn, v tin b khoa hc.

CHNG 24: TRIT HC SM TRUYN V CUC NI LON CHNG LI L TR Marx l mt nh duy l. Cng vi Socrates, v vi Kant, ng tin vo l tr con ngi nh c s ca s thng nht ca nhn loi. Nhng hc thuyt ca ng rng kin ca chng ta c xc nh bi li ch giai cp y nhanh s suy sp ca lng tin ny. Ging hc thuyt ca Hegel rng cc tng ca chng ta c quyt nh bi cc li ch v truyn thng dn tc. Hc thuyt ca Marx c khuynh hng lm xi mn nim tin duy l vo l tr. Nh th b e do c t pha hu ln pha t, mt thi duy l ch ngha i vi cc vn x hi v kinh t hu nh khng th cng li khi s tin tri lch s ch ngha v ch ngha phi duy l sm truyn tn cng chnh din n. y l l do v sao xung t gia ch ngha duy l v ch ngha phi duy l tr thnh vn tr tu, v c l o c, quan trng nht, ca thi i chng ta.
I

V cc thut ng l tr, l tnh v ch ngha duy l l m h, s cn gii thch i th cch m chng c dng y. Th nht, chng c dng theo mt ngha rng1; chng c dng bao ph khng ch hot ng tr tu m c quan st v th nghim. Cn phi nh nhn xt ny, v l tr v ch ngha duy l thng c dng theo mt ngha khc v hp hn, i lp khng vi ch ngha phi duy l m vi ch ngha kinh nghim; nu dng theo ngha ny, ch ngha duy l tn dng tr thng minh cao hn quan st v th nghim, v v th c l c th c m t kho hn nh thuyt duy l tr - intellectualism. Nhng khi ti ni y v ch ngha duy l - racionalism, ti dng t lun theo ngha bao gm ch ngha kinh nghim cng nh thuyt duy l tr; ht nh khoa hc s dng cc th nghim cng nh t duy. Th hai, ti dng t ch ngha duy l nhm by t, i th, mt thi tm cch gii quyt cng nhiu vn cng tt bng mt s ku gi n l tr, tc l n t duy r rng v kinh nghim hn l mt s cu khn n xc cm v s say m. Gii thch ny, tt nhin, l khng hon ton tho mn, v tt c cc t nh l tr hay s say m u l m h; chng ta khng c l tr hay s say m theo ngha trong chng ta c cc c quan vt l no , th d, c hay tim, hay theo ngha chng ta c cc nng lc no , th d, kh nng ni, hay nghin rng. V vy chnh xc hn mt cht, c l hay hn gii thch ch ngha duy l di dng cc thi hay ng x thc

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tin. Khi ta c th ni rng ch ngha duy l l mt thi sn sng nghe cc l l ph phn v hc t kinh nghim. N v c bn l mt thi tha nhn l ti c th sai v bn c th ng, v bng mt n lc, chng ta c th n gn chn l hn. N l mt thi khng t b d dng hi vng rng bng cc cng c nh l l v quan st chu o, ngi ta c th t loi tho thun no v nhiu vn quan trng; v, ngay c ni cc i hi v li ch ca h va chm nhau, thng c th tranh lun v cc i hi v kin ngh khc nhau, v t c l bng trng ti - mt tho hip m, v tnh cng bng ca n, c th chp nhn c cho hu ht, nu khng phi cho tt c. Tm li, thi duy l ch ngha, hay, nh ti c th gi n, thi hp l, l rt ging vi thi khoa hc, vi lng tin rng trong tm kim chn l chng ta cn hp tc, v rng, vi s gip ca l l, chng ta c th vi thi gian t ci g ging tnh khch quan. C li ch no phn tch s ging nhau ny gia thi hp l ny v thi ca khoa hc y hn. chng trc, ti th gii thch kha cnh x hi ca phng php khoa hc vi s gip ca chuyn h cu v mt Robinson Crusoe khoa hc. Mt cn nhc chnh xc tng t c th cho thy c tnh x hi ca tnh hp l, tri vi nng khiu tr tu, hay tnh thng minh. L tr, ging ngn ng, c th ni l mt sn phm ca i sng x hi. Mt Robinson Crusoe (b b trn o hoang t khi cn th u) c th thng minh lm ch nhiu tnh hung kh khn; nhng anh ta s khng sng ch ra ngn ng cng khng ra ngh thut tranh lun. Phi th nhn, chng ta thng tranh lun vi chnh mnh; nhng chng ta quen lm vy ch v chng ta hc tranh lun vi nhng ngi khc, v bi v bng cch ny chng ta hc c rng tranh lun c gi tr, hn l ngi tranh lun. (Cn nhc cui ny, tt nhin, khng th lm nghing cn cn khi chng ta tranh lun vi chnh mnh). Nh th chng ta c th ni rng chng ta c l tr, nh c ngn ng, l nh s giao thip vi nhng ngi khc. S thc rng thi duy l coi tranh lun hn ngi tranh lun l c tm quan trng su rng. N dn n quan im rng chng ta phi chp nhn tt c mi ngi m chng ta giao thip vi nh mt ngun tim nng v tranh lun v thng tin c l; nh th n xc lp ci c th c m t nh tnh thng nht duy l ca loi ngi. Trong chng mc no , phn tch ca chng ta v l tr c th ni ging mt cht phn tch ca Hegel v cc nh Hegelian, nhng ngi coi l tr nh mt sn phm x hi v qu thc nh mt loi lnh vc ca linh hn hay tinh thn x hi (th d, ca dn tc, hay giai cp) v nhng

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ngi nhn mnh, di nh hng ca Burke, s mang n ca chng ta i vi di sn x hi, v s ph thuc gn nh hon ton vo n. Phi th nhn, c s tng t no . Nhng cng c cc khc bit rt ng k. Hegel v cc nh Hegelian l cc nh tp th ch ngha. H l l rng v chng ta c l tr nh x hi hay nh mt x hi no nh mt dn tc x hi l tt c v c nhn khng l g c; hay bt c gi tr no m c nhn c c dn xut ra t tp th, ci mang thc s ca mi gi tr. Tri vi iu ny lp trng c trnh by y khng gi thit s tn ti ca tp th; nu ti ni, th d, rng chng ta c l tr nh x hi, th ti lun hiu rng chng ta c n nh cc c nhn c th no tuy c l nh mt s ng k cc c nhn n danh v nh s giao thip tr tu vi h. V th, khi ni v mt l thuyt x hi ca l tr (hay v phng php khoa hc), ti hiu chnh xc hn rng n l mt l thuyt lin[gia]-c nhn, v khng bao gi l mt l thuyt tp th. Chc chn chng ta mang n truyn thng rt nhiu, v truyn thng l rt quan trng, song t truyn thng cng phi c phn tch thnh cc quan h c nhn c th2. V nu lm vic ny, th chng ta c th thot khi thi coi mi truyn thng l ch thnh, hay l c gi tr t n, thay ci ny bng mt thi coi cc truyn thng c gi tr hay c hi, tu trng hp, ph hp vi nh hng ca chng ln cc c nhn. Nh th chng ta c th nhn ra rng mi chng ta c th ng gp (bng cch nu ging v ph phn) cho s pht trin hay chn cc truyn thng nh vy. Lp trng c chp nhn y l rt khc vi quan im ph bin, khi u mang tnh Platonic, v l tr nh mt loi nng khiu, m nhng ngi khc nhau c th c v pht trin theo cc mc rt khc nhau. Phi th nhn, cc ti nng tr tu c th khc nhau theo cch ny, v chng c th ng gp cho tnh hp l; song chng khng cn thit. Ngi thng minh c th rt v l, rt khng bit iu; h c th bm vo cc nh kin ca h v khng k vng nghe bt c th g ng gi t nhng ngi khc. Theo cch nhn ca chng ta, tuy vy, chng ta c l tr khng ch nh nhng ngi khc, m chng ta khng bao gi c th tri hn nhng ngi khc v tnh hp l ca mnh theo cch c th thit lp mt i hi n uy quyn; ch ngha c on v ch ngha duy l theo ngha ca chng ta l khng th dung ho, v tranh lun, bao gm ph phn, v ngh thut lng nghe ph phn, l c s ca tnh hp l. Nh th ch ngha duy l theo ngha ca chng ta l tri ngc hon ton vi mi m c Platonic hin i v cc th gii mi p lng ly trong s pht trin ca l tr c th c kim sot hay lp k hoch bi l tnh cao cp no . L tr, ging khoa hc, tng ln bng con ng ph phn

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ln nhau; con ng kh d duy nht ca lp k hoch cho s tng ln ca n l i pht trin cc th ch bo v quyn t do ph phn ny, tc l, quyn t do t tng. C th nhn xt rng Plato, d cho l thuyt ca ng l c on, v i hi s kim sot cht ch l tr con ngi trong nhng ngi bo v ca ng (nh c thy c bit chng 8), t lng ngng m, do cch vit ca ng, i vi l thuyt lin-c nhn ca chng ta v l tr; v hu ht cc i thoi sm hn ca ng m t cc l l c tin hnh theo mt tinh thn rt hp l. Cch dng t ch ngha duy l ca ti c th r hn mt cht, c l, nu chng ta phn bit gia mt ch ngha duy l tht s v mt ch ngha duy l gi hay sai. Ci ti gi l ch ngha duy l ch thc l ch ngha duy l ca Socrates. N l s nhn bit cc gii hn ca mnh, l tnh khim tn tr tu ca nhng ngi bit h thng sai lm ra sao, v h ph thuc nhiu n th no vo nhng ngi khc thm ch cho s hiu bit ny. N l s hiu r l chng ta khng c k vng qu nhiu vo l tr; rng l l him khi gii quyt vn , du cho n l cch duy nht hc tp khng phi thy r rng, m thy r hn trc. Ci ti gi l ch ngha duy l gi l ch ngha trc gic ca Plato. N l lng tin tr tro vo cc nng khiu tr tu cao cp ca mnh, i hi l c khai tm, l bit vi s chc chn, v vi thm quyn. Theo Plato, kin ngay c kin ng, nh ta c th c Timaeus3 c mi ngi chia s; nhng l tr (hay trc gic tr tu) ch c cc thn, v rt t ngi chia s. Thuyt duy l tr c on ny, lng tin ny vo s chim hu mt cng c khng th sai c v khm ph, hay mt phng php khng th sai c, s tht bi ny phn bit gia nng lc tr tu ca mt ngi v s mc n ca anh ta vi nhng ngi khc v mi th anh ta c th bit v hiu, ch ngha duy l gi ny thng c gi l ch ngha duy l, nhng n hon ton tri ngc vi ci chng ta gi bng ci tn ny. Phn tch ca ti v thi duy l ch ngha r rng l rt khng y , v ti sn sng tha nhn, hi m h; nhng n s l cho mc ch ca chng ta. Theo mt cch tng t by gi ti s m t ch ngha phi duy l, ng thi cho bit mt nh phi duy l chc s bo v n th no. Thi phi duy l ch ngha c th c trnh by theo cch sau y. Mc d nhn r l tr v l l khoa hc nh cc cng c c th l tt nu chng ta mun bn lun hi ht v cc th, hay nh cc phng tin phc v mt mc ch phi duy l no , nh phi duy l s khng khng rng bn tnh con ngi v ch yu l khng duy l. ng ta cho rng con ngi l hn mt ng vt duy l, v cng km hn. thy

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HU QU

rng anh ta km hn, chng ta ch cn xem xt s ngi c kh nng tranh lun l nh bit nhng no; y l l do v sao, theo nh phi duy l, a s ngi s lun phi c x tr bng mt s ku gi n cc cm xc v nim say m ca h hn l bng mt s ku gi n l tr ca h. Nhng con ngi cng nhiu hn ch mt ng vt duy l, v tt c cc th tht s quan trng trong i anh ta vt qu l tr. Ngay c s t nh khoa hc nhng ngi coi l tr v khoa hc l nghim tc gn vi thi duy l ch v h thch n. Nh th trong cc trng hp him hoi ny, chnh thnh phn xc cm ca con ngi ch khng phi l tr ca anh ta l ci quyt nh thi ca anh ta. Hn na, chnh trc gic ca anh ta, s nhn thu thn b ca anh ta vo bn tnh ca cc s vt, hn l l l ca anh ta l ci lm nn mt nh khoa hc ln. Nh th ch ngha duy l khng th cho mt gii thch tho ng thm ch v hot ng dng nh duy l ca nh khoa hc. Nhng v lnh vc khoa hc l c bit thun li cho mt din gii duy l, chng ta phi k vng rng ch ngha duy l s tht bi thm ch mt cch c thc hn na khi n th gii quyt cc lnh vc khc ca hot ng con ngi. V s k vng ny, nh th nh phi duy l s tip tc l l ca mnh, t ra l kh chnh xc. B sang bn cc kha cnh thp hn ca bn tnh con ngi, chng ta c th lu n kha cnh cao nht ca n, n s thc rng con ngi c th l sng to. Chnh thiu s nh sng to l nhng ngi tht s quan trng; nhng ngi to ra cc tc phm ngh thut hay t tng, cc nh sng lp ca cc tn gio, v cc chnh khch ln. S t cc c nhn c bit ny cho php chng ta nhn thong qua s v i tht s ca con ngi. Nhng mc d cc nh lnh o ny ca nhn loi bit dng l tr ca h th no cho cc mc ch ca h, h chng bao gi l nhng ngi ca l tr. Gc r ca h nm su hn su cc bn nng v xung ng ca h, v cc bn nng v xung ng ca x hi m h l mt phn. Tnh sng to l mt nng lc hon ton phi duy l, mt nng lc huyn b
II

Vn gia ch ngha duy l v ch ngha phi duy l tn ti lu. Mc d trit hc Hy Lp r rng bt u nh mt cng vic duy l, c cc vt ca ch ngha thn b ngay c khi u ca n. N (nh c m ch chng 10) l s khao kht i vi s thng nht v ch che ch mt ca ch ngha b lc, ci t by t cc yu t thn b ny bn trong mt cch tip cn v c bn duy l4. Mt xung t cng khai gia ch ngha duy l v ch ngha phi duy l n ra ln u tin

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Thi Trung C, nh s tri ngc gia ch ngha kinh vin v ch ngha thn b. (C l khng phi khng l th rng ch ngha duy l hng thnh cc lnh th La M xa, cn nhng ngi t cc nc man r ni bt gia nhng ngi thn b). Trong cc th k mi by, mi tm, v mi chn, khi tro lu ca ch ngha duy l, ca thuyt duy l tr, v ca ch ngha duy vt ni ln, cc nh phi duy l phi ch mt cht ti n, tranh lun chng li n; v bng ph by cc hn ch ca n, v bc trn cc i hi thiu khim tn v cc mi nguy him ca ch ngha duy l gi (m h khng phn bit vi ch ngha duy l theo ngha ca chng ta), mt s trong cc nh ph bnh ny, nht l Burke, ginh c lng bit n ca tt c nhng ngi duy l chn chnh. Nhng tro lu by gi i hng, v cc li m ch .. v bng gi ht sc quan trng (nh Kant din t) tr thnh mt thi thng. Mt ch ngha phi duy l sm truyn (c bit vi Bergson v a s cc trit gia v tr thc c) a vo thi quen b qua hoc may nht thng hi s tn ti ca mt sinh vt thp km nh vy nh mt nh duy l. i vi h cc nh duy l hay cc nh duy vt, nh h thng gi v c bit, nh khoa hc duy l, l nhng ngi ngho nn v tinh thn, theo ui cc hot ng v hn v a phn my mc5, v hon ton khng bit v cc vn su hn v vn mnh con ngi v v trit l ca n. V cc nh duy l thng phn li bng gt b ch ngha phi duy l nh hon ton v ngha. Trc y s tuyt giao cha bao gi trn vn nh vy. V s tuyt giao trong mi quan h x giao ca cc trit gia chng t tm quan trng ca n khi theo sau n l s tuyt giao trong quan h ngoi giao ca cc nh nc. V vn ny, ti hon ton ng v pha ch ngha duy l. Tnh th ny li cng vy, ngay c ni ti cm thy ch ngha duy l i qu xa ti vn cm tnh vi n, v ti cho rng mt s thi qu theo hng ny (chng no chng ta loi tr tnh thiu khim tn ca ch ngha duy l gi ca Plato) l v hi qu thc khi so vi s thi qu pha kia. Theo kin ti, cch duy nht theo ch ngha duy l thi qu chc s t ra c hi l n c thin hng lm xi mn v tr ca chnh n v nh th thc y mt phn ng phi duy l. Duy nht mi nguy him ny l ci khin ti xem xt cc i hi ca ch ngha duy l thi qu mt cch t m hn v ch trng mt ch ngha duy l khim tn v t ph, ch ngha tha nhn cc hn ch nht nh. Do , phn tip theo ti s phn bit gia hai lp trng duy l, m ti gn cho ci nhn ch ngha duy l ph phn v ch ngha duy l khng ph phn hay ch ngha duy l ton din. (S phn bit ny c lp vi s phn bit trc gia ch ngha duy l

230

HU QU

chn chnh v gi, cho d mt ch ngha duy l chn chnh theo ngha ca ti s hu nh khng khc ch ngha duy l ph phn). Ch ngha duy l khng ph phn hay ton din c th c m t nh thi ca ngi ni rng ti khng sn sng chp nhn bt c ci g khng th c bo v bng l l hay kinh nghim. Cng c th pht biu iu ny dng ca nguyn l rng bt c gi thit no khng th c tr bi hoc l l hoc kinh nghim u phi b loi b6. By gi c th d thy rng nguyn l ny ca ch ngha duy l khng ph phn l khng nht qun; v, n lt n, n khng th c tr bi l l hay kinh nghim, n ng rng bn thn n phi b loi b. (N ging nh nghch l v k ni di7, tc l mt cu khng nh iu la di ca chnh n). Ch ngha duy l ton din v th khng th ng vng v mt logic; v v mt l l logic thun tu c th chng t iu ny, ch ngha duy l khng ph phn c th b v kh c chn ca chnh n, l l, nh bi. Ph phn ny c th c khi qut ho. V mi l l phi c tin hnh t gi thit, r rng l khng th i hi rng mi gi thit phi da vo l l. i hi do nhiu trit gia a ra rng chng ta phi xut pht vi khng gi thit no v khng bao gi gi s bt c th g v l tr thch ng, v thm ch i hi yu hn rng chng ta phi xut pht vi mt tp rt nh ca cc gi thit (cc phm tr), dng ny c hai u khng nht qun. V bn thn chng da vo mt gi thit tht s khng l rng c th xut pht m khng c, hay vi ch t gi thit, v vn nhn c cc kt qu ng gi. (Qu thc, nguyn l ny v trnh mi gi nh trc khng phi, nh ai c th ngh, l mt li khuyn v s tuyt m, m l mt dng ca nghch l v k ni di8). M tt c cc th ny l hi tru tng, song n c th c pht biu li trong quan h vi vn v ch ngha duy l theo mt cch t hnh thc hn. Thi duy l c c trng bi tm quan trng n gn cho l l v kinh nghim. Nhng c l l logic ln kinh nghim u khng th thit lp thi duy l; v ch nhng ngi sn sng xem xt l l hay kinh nghim, v v th chp nhn thi ny ri, mi s b chng gy n tng. Tc l, mt thi duy l trc tin phi c chp nhn nu bt c l l hay kinh nghim no c hiu lc, v v th n khng th da vo l l hay kinh nghim. (V cn nhc ny l hon ton c lp vi cu hi liu c tn ti hay khng bt c l l duy l thuyt phc no, l l ng h s chp nhn thi duy l ch ngha). Chng ta phi kt lun t iu ny rng khng l l duy l no s c hiu lc duy l ln mt ngi khng mun chp nhn mt thi duy l. Nh th ch ngha duy l ton din l khng th ng vng c.

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Nhng iu ny c ngha rng bt c ai chp nhn mt thi duy l anh ta lm th bi v anh ta chp nhn, mt cch c thc hay khng c thc, kin ngh, hay quyt nh, hay lng tin, hay ng x no ; mt s chp nhn c th c gi l phi duy l. D s chp nhn ny l ngp ngng hoc dn n mt thi quen n nh, chng ta c th m t n nh mt nim tin phi duy l vo l tr. Nh th ch ngha duy l nht thit l cn xa mi ton din hay c lp. iu ny thng xuyn b cc nh duy l b qua nhng ngi nh th t phi mnh ra chu n trong chnh lnh vc ca h bi chnh v kh a thch nht ca h mi khi mt nh phi duy l chu kh quay n chng li h. V tht vy n khng thot khi s ch ca mt s k th ca ch ngha duy l rng ta lun lun c th t chi chp nhn cc l l, hoc tt c hoc cc l l thuc loi no ; v rng mt thi nh vy c th c hon thnh m khng tr nn khng nht qun v mt logic. iu ny dn h n thy rng nh duy l khng ph phn, ngi tin rng ch ngha duy l l c lp v c th c thit lp bng l l, hn phi sai. Ch ngha phi duy l v mt logic l u vit hn ch ngha duy l khng ph phn. Th th v sao khng chp nhn ch ngha phi duy l? Nhiu ngi khi u nh cc nh duy l, song b v mng bi s khm ph rng mt ch ngha duy l qu ton din t tht bi, qu thc hu nh u hng ch ngha phi duy l. (y l ci xy ra vi Whitehead9, nu ti khng hon ton lm). Song hnh ng hong lon nh vy l hon ton khng cn. Cho d mt ch ngha duy l khng ph phn v ton din khng ng vng c v mt logic, v cho d mt ch ngha phi duy l ton din c th ng vng v mt logic, y khng phi l l do v sao ta phi chp nhn ci sau. V c cc thi c th ng vng khc, c bit l thi ca ch ngha duy l ph phn tha nhn s thc rng thi duy l c bn l kt qu t mt c tin (ch t ngp ngng) - t nim tin vo l tr. Do , s la chn ca chng ta l ng. Ta c th chn dng no ca ch ngha phi duy l, thm ch dng trit hay ton din no . Nhng ta cng t do chn mt dng ph phn ca ch ngha duy l, dng th nhn thng thn xut x ca n mt quyt nh phi duy l (v, mc , n tha nhn u th nht nh ca ch ngha phi duy l).
III

S la chn trc chng ta khng n gin l mt vn tr tu, hay mt vn s thch. N l mt quyt nh o c10 (theo ngha ca chng 5). V cu hi liu chng ta chp nhn dng t nhiu trit ca ch ngha phi duy l, hay liu chng ta chp nhn s nhn nhng ti

232

HU QU

thiu i vi ch ngha phi duy l m ti gi l ch ngha duy l ph phn, s nh hng su sc n ton b thi ca chng ta i vi nhng ngi khc, v i vi cc vn v i sng x hi. ni n ri l ch ngha duy l quan h mt thit vi nim tin vo s thng nht ca nhn loi. Ch ngha phi duy l, khng b b buc bi bt c quy tc nht qun no, c th kt hp vi bt k loi nim tin no, k c lng tin vo tnh anh em ca con ngi; nhng s thc rng n c th d dng kt hp vi mt nin tin rt khc, v c bit s thc rng n d dng thch hp vi s ng h mt nim tin lng mn vo s tn ti ca mt hi ng c bu, vo s phn chia ngi thnh nhng ngi lnh o v nhng ngi b lnh o, thnh cc ch nhn t nhin v cc n l t nhin, cho thy r rng rng mt quyt nh o c dnh vo s la chn gia n v ch ngha duy l ph phn. Nh thy trc y ( chng 5), v by gi li ln na trong phn tch ca chng ta v phin bn khng ph phn ca ch ngha duy l, cc l l khng th xc nh mt quyt nh o c c bn nh vy. Nhng iu ny khng hm rng s la chn ca chng ta khng th c bt c loi l l no gip . Ngc li, mi khi chng ta i mt vi mt quyt nh o c thuc loi tru tng hn, hu ch nht i phn tch t m cc hu qu chc s xy ra t cc la chn kh d m chng ta phi la. V ch khi no chng ta c th hnh dung c cc hu qu ny mt cch c th v thc tin, chng ta mi bit thc s quyt nh ca chng ta l g; khc i th chng ta quyt nh mt cch m qung. minh ho im ny, ti c th trch mt on t Saint [Thnh] Joan ca Shaw. Ch to l Cha tuyn u; ng kin quyt i ci cht ca Joan; nhng khi ng thy c b tri cc [ b thiu sng], ng sp : Ti khng c hi ai. Ti khng bit n s ging ci g .. Ti khng bit ti lm g .. Gi nh ti bit, ti ging c khi tay h. Ngi ta khng bit. Ngi ta khng hiu r: d th ni khi ngi ta khng bit. Ngi ta lm mnh in ln vi cc li ni .. Nhng khi n lm cho ngi ta thy r; khi thy vic mnh lm; khi n lm ui m mt ta, lm nght l mi ta, x nt tim ta, th Tri i, hy dp cnh ny i khut mt ta! Tt nhin, c cc nhn vt khc trong v kch ca Shaw nhng ngi bit chnh xc h ang lm ci g, th m vn quyt nh lm iu ; v l nhng ngi khng hi hn sau y. Mt s ngi ght thy ng bo h chy trn cc thiu, v nhng ngi khc th khng. im ny (b nhiu ngi lc quan thi Victoria b qua) l quan trng, v n cho thy rng mt phn tch duy l v cc hu qu ca mt quyt nh khng lm cho quyt nh l duy l; cc hu qu khng xc nh quyt nh ca

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chng ta; lun chnh chng ta l ngi ra quyt nh. Nhng mt phn tch v cc hu qu c th, v s nhn thc r chng trong ci chng ta gi l s tng tng ca chng ta, to s khc bit gia mt quyt nh m qung v mt quyt nh c a ra vi con mt m; v v ta dng tr tng tng ca mnh rt t11, chng ta qu thng xuyn quyt nh mt cch m qung. iu ny c bit vy nu ta b u c bi mt trit hc sm truyn, mt trong cc cng c hng mnh nht v lm in u chnh chng ta bng cc li ni dng cch din t ca Shaw. Phn tch duy l v sng to v cc hu qu ca mt l thuyt o c c s tng t nht nh trong phng php khoa hc. V c trong khoa hc na, chng ta khng chp nhn mt l thuyt tru tng bi v t thn n l thuyt phc; ng hn chng ta quyt nh chp nhn hay loi b n sau khi chng ta iu tra nghin cu cc hu qu c th v thc tin c th c kim nghim trc tip bng th nghim. Nhng c s khc bit c bn. Trong trng hp ca mt l thuyt khoa hc, quyt nh ca chng ta ph thuc vo cc kt qu th nghim. Nu chng xc nhn l thuyt, chng ta c th chp nhn n cho n khi tm ra mt l thuyt tt hn. Nu chng mu thun vi l thuyt, ta loi b n. Nhng trong trng hp ca mt l thuyt o c, chng ta ch c th i chiu cc hu qu ca n vi lng tm ca chng ta. V trong khi li phn quyt ca cc th nghim khng ph thuc vo bn thn chng ta, li phn quyt ca lng tm chng ta ph thuc v bn thn chng ta. Ti hi vng ti lm r theo ngha no s phn tch cc hu qu c th nh hng n quyt nh ca chng ta m khng xc nh n. V trong trnh by cc hu qu ca hai la chn kh d m chng ta phi quyt nh, ch ngha duy l v ch ngha phi duy l, ti cnh bo bn c l ti s thin v. Cho n y, khi trnh by hai la chn kh d ca quyt nh o c trc mt chng ta theo nhiu ngha, n l quyt nh c bn nht trong lnh vc o c ti c gng khng thin v, mc d ti khng che giu cm tnh ca ti. Nhng by gi ti sp trnh by nhng cn nhc v cc hu qu ca hai la chn kh d m chng t ra vi ti l ch ng nht, v chng nh hng n ti trong loi b ch ngha phi duy l v chp nhn nim tin vo l tr. u tin hy kho st cc hu qu ca ch ngha phi duy l. Nh phi duy l khng khng rng cc xc cm v ham m hn l l tr l cc ng lc chnh ca hnh ng con ngi. i vi cu tr li ca nh duy l rng, tuy iu ny c th nh vy, phi lm ci chng ta c th cu cha n, v phi c lm cho l tr ng vai tr cng ln cng tt, nh phi duy l s ci li (nu anh ta h c cho vic tho lun) rng thi ny l

234

HU QU

phi thc t mt cch v vng. V n khng xt n im yu ca bn tnh con ngi, ti nng tr tu yu ui ca hu ht mi ngi v s ph thuc hin nhin ca h vo cc xc cm v ham m. Nim tin chc chn ca ti rng s nhn mnh phi duy l ny n xc cm v ham m dn cui cng ti ci ti ch c th m t nh ti c. Mt l do cho kin ny l thi ny, may nht l thi cam chu i vi bn tnh phi duy l ca con ngi, ti nht l thi khinh b l tr con ngi, phi dn ti mt s cu khn n tnh th bo v bo lc nh trng ti cui cng trong bt c tranh ci no. V nu mt tranh ci ni ln, th iu ny c ngha rng cc xc cm v ham m mang tnh xy dng hn nhng ci v nguyn l c th gip khc phc n, knh trng, yu thng, hin dng cho mt s nghip, v.v. t chng t rng khng c kh nng gii quyt vn . Nhng nu l nh vy, th ci g s cn li i vi nh phi duy l tr s cu khn n cc xc cm v am m khc t xy dng hn, n s hi, cm th, ghen t, v cui cng, n bo lc? Xu hng ny c tng cng rt nhiu bi mt thi khc thm ch quan trng hn m, theo ti, cng l vn c trong ch ngha phi duy l, c th l, s nhn mnh n s khng bnh ng ca con ngi. Tt nhin, khng th ph nhn rng cc c nhn con ngi, ging mi th khc trong th gii chng ta, rt nhiu kha cnh l rt khng u nhau. Cng chng th nghi ng rng tnh khng u ny l ht sc quan trng v thm ch nhiu kha cnh l rt ng ao c12. (Ni s hi rng s pht trin sn xut hng lot v tp th ho c th tc ng tr li con ngi bng ph hu s khng bng nhau hay c tnh ca h l mt trong cc cn c mng13 ca thi i chng ta). Nhng tt c iu ny n gin khng lin quan g n vn liu chng ta phi quyt nh i x vi con ngi, c bit v cc vn chnh tr, ngang bng nhau, hay cng bnh ng cng tt, hay khng; tc l, nh c cc quyn ngang nhau, v c cc i hi c i x ngang nhau; v n khng lin quan g n vn ta nn xy dng cc th ch chnh tr ph hp vi iu hay khng. Bnh ng trc php lut khng phi l mt s thc m l mt yu sch14 chnh tr da trn mt quyt nh o c; v n hon ton c lp vi l thuyt c l sai - rng tt c mi ngi sinh ra u bnh ng. By gi ti khng c nh ni rng s chp nhn thi nhn o ch ngha ny v tnh v t l mt h qu trc tip ca mt quyt nh ng h ch ngha duy l. Nhng mt xu hng ti tnh khng thin v c lin quan mt thit vi ch ngha duy l, kh c th b loi tr khi tn iu duy l ch ngha. Ln na, ti khng c ni rng mt nh phi duy l khng th chp nhn mt cch nht qun mt thi bnh ng

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ch ngha hay v t; v cho d ng ta khng th lm vy mt cch nht qun, ng ta khng nht thit phi l nht qun. Nhng ti mun nhn mnh s thc rng thi phi duy l kh c th trnh vng vo thi tri vi ch ngha bnh ng. S thc ny lin quan n s nhn mnh ca n n cc xc cm v ham m; v chng ta khng th c cng cm xc i vi mi ngi. V mt xc cm, tt c chng ta u chia con ngi thnh nhng ngi gn, v nhng ngi xa chng ta. S phn chia loi ngi thnh bn v th l mt s chia r xc cm nht; v s chia r ny thm ch c tha nhn trong iu rn C c gio, Hy yu cc k th ca ngi! Ngay c ngi C c tt nht ngi thc s sng theo li rn ny (khng c nhiu, nh c chng t bi thi ca mt ngi C c tt trung bnh i vi cc nh duy vt v nhng ngi v thn), ngay c anh ta khng th cm thy tnh thng yu ngang nhau cho mi ngi. Chng ta khng th thc s thng yu mt cch tru tng; chng ta c th thng yu ch nhng ngi chng ta bit. Nh th s cu khn n cc xc cm tt nht ca chng ta, tnh thng yu v lng trc n, ch c th c thin hng chia nhn loi thnh cc loi khc nhau. V iu ny s cn ng hn nu s cu khn c a ra vi cc cm xc v am m nh hn. Phn ng t nhin ca chng ta s l i chia nhn loi thnh bn v th; thnh nhng ngi thuc v b lc chng ta, cng ng xc cm ca chng ta, v nhng ngi ng ngoi n; thnh nhng ngi tin v nhng ngi khng tin; thnh ng bo v nhng ngi nc ngoi; thnh giai cp ca cc ng ch v giai cp ca cc k th; v thnh nhng ngi lnh o v b lnh o. Ti nhc ti trc l cc tng v kin ca ta ph thuc vo tnh hnh giai cp ca chng ta, hay vo cc li ch dn tc ca chng ta, phi dn n ch ngha phi duy l. By gi ti mun nhn mnh s thc rng iu i lp cng ng. S t b thi duy l, t b s tn trng l tr v l l v quan im ca ng bn khc, s nhn mnh n cc tng su hn ca bn tnh con ngi, tt c iu ny phi dn n quan im rng t duy ch l s biu l hi nng cn ca ci nm bn trong cc su phi duy l ny. Ti tin, n gn nh lun phi to ra mt thi lu n con ngi nh t tng thay cho n t tng ca ng ta. N phi to ra nim tin rng chng ta t duy vi huyt thng chng ta hay vi di sn dn tc ca chng ta, hay vi giai cp chng ta. Cch nhn ny c th c trnh by mt dng duy vt hay theo cch rt linh thing; tng rng chng ta t duy vi chng tc mnh c l c th c thay bng tng v linh hn c chn hay truyn hng, ngi t duy do n sng ca Cha. Trn c s o c, ti t chi b n tng bi cc

236

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khc bit ny; v s ging nhau dt khot gia tt c cc quan im tr tu khim nh ny l chng khng nh gi mt t tng trn cc gi tr ring ca n. Bng t b l tr nh vy, chng chia nhn loi thnh bn v th; thnh t ngi chia s l tr vi cc thn, v s ng khng c (nh Plato ni); thnh t ngi ng gn v s ng ng xa; thnh nhng ngi ni ngn ng khng th phin dch c ca cc xc cm v ham m ring ca chng ta v nhng ngi m ting ca h khng phi l ting ca chng ta. Mt khi chng ta lm iu ny, ch ngha bnh ng chnh tr trn thc tin tr thnh khng th c c. M s chp nhn mt thi phn-bnh ng trong i sng chnh tr, tc l lnh vc cc vn lin quan n quyn lc ca con ngi ln con ngi, l ci ti phi gi l ti c. V n bin minh cho thi rng cc loi ngi khc nhau c cc quyn khc nhau; ch c quyn n dch n l; mt s ngi c quyn dng ngi khc nh cng c ca h. Cui cng, n s c dng, nh Plato15, bin minh cho ti git ngi. Ti khng b qua s thc rng c cc nh phi duy l thng yu nhn loi, v rng khng phi mi dng ca ch ngha phi duy l gy ra ti c. Song ti cho rng ai dy rng khng phi l tr m tnh thng phi cai tr l ngi m ng cho nhng ngi cai tr bng hn th. (Socrates, ti tin, nhn thy ci g nh th ny khi ng gi 16 rng s khng tin hay s cm th l l c quan h vi s khng tin hay cm th con ngi). Nhng ngi khng thy mi quan h ny ngay lp tc, ngi tin vo mt s cai tr trc tip ca tnh yu xc cm, phi cn nhc rng tnh yu nh n vn l chc chn khng thc y tnh v t. V n cng khng th gt b xung t. Rng tnh yu thng nh n vn l c th khng c kh nng gii quyt mt xung t c th c chng t bng xem xt mt trng hp trc nghim v hi, ci c th c chp nhn nh i din ca cc trc nghim nghim tc hn. Tom thch nh ht v Dick thch nhy ma. Tom khng khng mt cch thng yu v vic i nhy cn Dick mun i nh ht v Tom. Xung t ny khng th c gii quyt bng tnh yu; ng hn, tnh yu cng ln, xung t cng mnh. Ch c th c hai gii php; mt l dng xc cm, v cui cng dng bo lc, v gii php khc l dng l tr, tnh v t, v tho hip hp l. Tt c iu ny khng c biu th rng ti khng thy r s khc bit gia yu thng v cm th, hoc ti ngh rng cuc i l ng sng m khng c tnh yu. (V ti hon ton sn sng tha nhn rng tng C c v tnh yu khng c ngha theo cch xc cm thun tu). Nhng ti khng nh rng khng xc cm no, ngay c tnh yu, c th thay th s cai tr ca cc th ch c l tr kim sot.

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y, tt nhin, khng phi l l l duy nht chng li tng v s cai tr ca tnh yu. Yu mt ngi c ngha l mun lm cho ngi y hnh phc. (y, nhn tin, l nh ngha tnh yu ca Thomas Aquinas). Song trong tt c cc l tng chnh tr, l tng v lm cho ngi dn hnh phc c l l nguy him nht. N lun dn n th p t thang gi tr cao hn ca chng ta ln nhng ngi khc, nhm lm cho h nhn ra ci c v vi chng ta l quan trng nht cho hnh phc ca h; nhm, c th ni nh vy, cu linh hn h. N dn n Ch ngha Khng tng v Ch ngha Lng mn. Tt c chng ta u cm thy chc chn l mi ngi s hnh phc trong cng ng tt p, hon m ca cc c m ca chng ta. V khng nghi ng g, s l thin ng trn mt t nu chng ta u c th yu thng ln nhau. Song nh ti ni trc ( chng 9), mu toan to thin ng trn tri t lun to ra a ngc. N dn ti bt khoan dung. N dn ti cc cuc chin tranh tn gio, v ti cu ri linh hn qua to d gio. V, ti tin, n da vo mt s hiu lm hon ton v cc ngha v o c ca chng ta. Bn phn ca chng ta l gip nhng ngi cn chng ta gip ; nhng khng th l ngha v ca chng ta lm cho nhng ngi khc hnh phc, v iu ny khng ph thuc vo chng ta, v v n s qu thng xuyn ch c ngha l xm phm s ring t ca nhng ngi m chng ta c nh t t nh vy i vi h. i hi chnh tr cho cc phng php tng phn (tri vi Khng tng) tng ng vi quyt nh rng u tranh chng au kh phi c coi l mt ngha v, cn quyn lo cho hnh phc ca ngi khc phi c coi l mt c quyn gii hn cho nhm bn thn ca h. Trong trng hp , c l c th c quyn no th p t thang gi tr ca chng ta - s thch ca chng ta v m nhc, chng hn. (V ta thm ch c th cm thy bn phn ca mnh l m ra cho h mt th gii gi tr m, chng ta tin, c th ng gp rt nhiu cho hnh phc ca h). Quyn ny ca chng ta, tn ti ch khi no, v bi v, h c th thot khi chng ta; bi v tnh bn c th chm dt. Nhng s dng cc cng c chnh tr p t thang gi tr ca chng ta ln nhng ngi khc l mt vn thc s khc. S au n, au kh, bt cng, v vic ngn chn chng, y l cc vn mun thu ca o c chung, l chng trnh ngh s ca chnh sch cng (nh Bentham c th ni). Cc gi tr cao hn mc rt ln c coi l khng thuc chng trnh ngh s, v phi cho a ht ca laissez-faire. Nh th ta c th ni: gip k th ca mi; gip nhng ngi b au kh, cho d h ght mi; nhng hy ch yu cc bn ca mi.

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y l phn duy nht ca v chng ch ngha phi duy l, v ca cc hu qu khin ti chp nhn thi i lp, tc l, mt ch ngha duy l ph phn. Thi sau vi nhn mnh ca n n l l v kinh nghim, vi chm ngn ca n ti c th sai v bn c th ng, v bng mt n lc, chng ta c th n gn chn l hn, nh nhc n trc, l rt ging vi thi khoa hc. N gn b vi tng l mi ngi u c kh nng mc sai lm, m bn thn anh ta, hay nhng ngi khc, hay vi s gip ph phn ca nhng ngi khc anh ta c th tm ra. N v th xut tng rng khng ai nn l quan to ca chnh mnh, v n xut tng v tnh v t. (iu ny quan h mt thit vi tng v tnh khch quan khoa hc nh c phn tch chng trc). Nim tin ca n vo l tr khng ch l nim tin vo l tr ca chnh chng ta, m cng - thm ch nhiu hn vo l tr ca nhng ngi khc. Nh th mt nh duy l, cho d anh ta tin l mnh u vit v tr tu hn nhng ngi khc, s t chi mi i hi n uy quyn17 v anh ta thc c rng, nu tr c ca anh ta l cao hn tr c ca nhng ngi khc (iu kh i vi anh ta nh gi), n l th ch chng mc anh ta c kh nng hc t s ph phn cng nh t cc sai lm ca ring mnh v ca nhng ngi khc, v ta c th hc theo ngha ny ch nu ta coi nhng ngi khc v l l ca h mt cch nghim tc. Ch ngha duy l v th gn b vi tng rng ng loi c quyn cho kin ca mnh c lng nghe, v bo v cc l l ca mnh. N nh th hm s cng nhn i hi khoan dung, ch t18 ca nhng ngi m bn thn h khng l ngi c chp. Ta khng git mt ngi khi ta chp nhn thi lng nghe cc l l ca anh ta trc tin. (Kant ng khi ng t c s cho Qui tc Vng ln tng v l tr. Thc ra, khng th chng minh tnh ng n ca bt c nguyn l o c no, hay thm ch tranh ci ng h n ng theo cch m chng ta tranh ci ng h mt tuyn b khoa hc. o c hc khng phi l mt khoa hc. Song mc d khng c c s khoa hc duy l ca o c hc, li c mt c s o c ca khoa hc, ca ch ngha duy l). tng v tnh v t cng dn n tng v trch nhim; chng ta khng ch phi lng nghe cc l l, m c ngha v p li, tr li, khi cc hnh ng ca chng ta nh hng n nhng ngi khc. Cui cng, theo cch ny, ch ngha duy l ni lin vi s cng nhn tnh tt yu ca cc th ch x hi bo v quyn t do ph phn, t do t tng, v nh th quyn t do ca con ngi. V n thit lp ci g ging mt ngha v o c i vi s ng h cc th ch ny. y l v sao ch ngha duy l ni lin mt thit vi yu sch chnh tr cho k thut x hi thc tin tt nhin, l k thut

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x hi tng phn theo ngha nhn o, vi yu sch cho hp l ho x hi19, cho lp k hoch v t do, v cho s kim sot n bi l tr; khng bi khoa hc, khng phi bi uy quyn Platonic, gi-duy l, m bi l tr Socratic thc r v cc hn ch ca n, v v th tn trng ngi khc v khng khao kht p h - ngay c p hnh phc. Chp nhn ch ngha duy l hm , hn na, l c mt phng tin truyn thng chung, mt ngn ng chung ca l tr; n xc lp ci g ging mt ngha v o c i vi ngn ng , ngha v gi cc tiu chun ca n v tnh sng sa20 v dng n theo cch c th gi li cc chc nng ca n nh phng tin ca l l. Tc l, dng n mt cch dn d; dng n nh mt cng c v truyn thng hp l, v thng tin quan trng, hn l nh mt cng c t-din t, nh bit ng lng mn i bi ca hu ht cc nh gio dc hc ca chng ta. (L c trng ca chng cung lng mn hin i rng n kt hp mt ch ngha tp th Hegelian v l tr vi mt ch ngha c nhn thi qu v xc cm: nh th nhn mnh n ngn ng nh mt cng c t-din t thay cho cng c truyn thng. C hai thi , tt nhin, l cc phn ca cuc ni lon chng l tr). V n ng s tha nhn rng nhn loi l thng nht bi s thc rng cc ting m khc nhau ca chng ta, chng mc chng l duy l, c th c dch sang nhau. N tha nhn s thng nht ca l tr con ngi. C th thm vi nhn xt v quan h ca thi duy l vi thi sn sng dng ci thng c gi l tr tng tng. Thng c gi thit l tr tng tng c quan h thn thuc vi xc cm v v th vi ch ngha phi duy l, v rng ch ngha duy l hi c thin hng ti ch ngha kinh vin kh khan khng c sc tng tng. Ti khng bit liu mt quan im nh vy c th c c s tm l hc no khng, v ti kh nghi iu . Song mi quan tm ca ti l v th ch hn l v tm l, v t quan im th ch (cng nh t quan im phng php) c v l ch ngha duy l phi khuyn khch s dng tr tng tng bi v n cn n, cn ch ngha phi duy l hn c thin hng ngn cn n. Chnh s thc rng ch ngha duy l mang tnh ph phn, cn ch ngha phi duy l hn c thin hng ti ch ngha gio iu (ni khng c l l, chng c g cn li tr s chp nhn hon ton hoc t chi thng thng), dn theo hng ny. S ph phn lun i hi mt mc no v sc tng tng, cn ch ngha gio iu cm on n. Tng t, nghin cu khoa hc, xy dng v sng ch k thut l khng th tng tng ni m khng dng ng k tr tng tng; ngi ta phi a ra ci g mi cc lnh vc ny (tri vi lnh vc trit hc sm truyn ni s lp li v tn cc t gy n tng dng nh t yu cu). Ch t cng quan trng

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l vai tr do tr tng tng ng trong p dng thc tin ca ch ngha bnh ng v ca tnh v t. Thi c bn ca nh duy l, ti c th sai v anh c th ng i hi mt n lc tht s v tr tng tng, khi a vo thc tin, v c bit khi dnh n cc xung t con ngi. Ti tha nhn rng cc xc cm v tnh yu v lng trc n i khi c th dn n mt n lc tng t. Song ti cho rng v mt con ngi l khng th i vi chng ta yu, hay chu au kh vi, mt s lng ln ngi; n i vi ti cng khng c v rt ng mong rng chng ta phi th, v n cui cng c th ph hu hoc kh nng ca chng ta gip hoc cng ca chnh cc xc cm ny. Nhng l tr, c tr tng tng h tr, lm cho ta c kh nng hiu rng nhng ngi xa, nhng ngi chng ta cha bao gi thy, l ging bn thn chng ta, v cc quan h ca h vi nhau l ging cc quan h ca chng ta vi nhng ngi chng ta yu. Mt thi xc cm trc tip hng v ci ton b tru tng ca nhn loi i vi ti c v kh c th. Ta c th yu nhn loi ch trong cc c nhn c th no . Nhng bng dng t duy v tr tng tng, ta c th sn sng gip tt c nhng ngi cn s gip ca chng ta. Tt c cc cn nhc ny, ti tin, cho thy rng mi lin kt gia ch ngha duy l v ch ngha nhn vn l rt mt thit, v chc chn mt thit hn nhiu s vng vu tng ng ca ch ngha phi duy l v thi chng-bnh ng v chng-nhn o. Ti tin l chng mc c th kt qu ny c kinh nghim chng thc. Mt thi duy l c v thng c kt hp vi mt cch nhn v c bn bnh ng v nhn o; mt khc, ch ngha phi duy l trong hu ht cc trng hp biu l ch t mt s xu hng chng-bnh ng nh c m t, cho d n thng c th cng kt hp vi ch ngha nhn vn. Quan im ca ti l mi quan h sau hon ton khng c t nn mng vng.
IV

Ti phn tch cc hu qu ca ch ngha duy l v ch ngha phi duy l ci khin ti quyt nh nh ti lm. Ti mun lp li rng quyt nh ny ch yu l mt quyt nh o c. N l quyt nh th coi l l l nghim tc. y l s khc bit gia hai quan im; v ch ngha phi duy l cng s dng l tr, song khng c bt c cm nhn no v bn phn; n s dng n hay loi b n khi n thch. Song ti tin thi duy nht m ti c th coi l ng v o c l thi tha nhn chng ta c n nh nhng ngi khc i x vi chng v vi chng ta nh duy l. Xem xt theo cch ny, s phn cng ca ti ln ch ngha phi duy l l mt tn cng o c. Nh duy l tr, ngi thy ch ngha duy l ca

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chng ta qu tm thng cho s thch ca anh ta, v ngi i ch mt tr tu b truyn mi nht, m anh ta khm ph ra trong s cm phc ch ngha b truyn trung c, ti e, l ngi khng lm trn bn phn vi ng bo mnh. Anh ta c th ngh v mnh v v s thch tinh t ca mnh cao hn thi i khoa hc, hn thi i cng nghip ho ca chng ta, thi i mang s phn chia n n ca n v lao ng v s c gii ho v vt cht ho ca n thm ch vo lnh vc t tng con ngi21. Song anh ta ch chng t l anh ta khng c kh nng hiu r gi tr ca cc lc lng o c vn c trong khoa hc hin i. Thi m ti tn cng c l c th c minh ho bi on sau ly t A. Keller22; mt on i vi ti c v l mt din t in hnh ca s th ch lng mn ny i vi khoa hc: Chng ta dng nh ang bc vo mt thi i mi ni linh hn con ngi ang ly li cc nng lc thn b v tn gio ca n, v, bng h cu ra cc thn thoi mi, ang phn i s vt cht ho v c gii ho i sng. Tm tr b au kh khi n phi phc v loi ngi nh k thut vin, nh ngi li xe; n tnh ng li vi t cch thi s v nh tin tri, tun theo mnh lnh v s lnh o ca cc m c m c v hon ton sng sut v tin cy nh, nhng gy cm hng v phn khch hn, s sng sut tr tu v cc chng trnh khoa hc. Huyn thoi v cch mng l mt phn ng chng li s tm thng khng sng to v tnh t mn kiu ngo ca x hi t sn v ca mt nn vn ho nhm chn c k. N l cuc phiu lu ca nhng k mt ht an ton v ang lao vo cc m c thay cho cc s thc c th. Trong phn tch on ny u tin ti mun, nhng ch thong qua, lu n c tnh lch s ch ngha in hnh ca n v n ch ngha v lai o c23 ca n ( ang bc vo mt thi i mi, nn vn ho nhm chn c k, v.v.). Nhng thm ch cn quan trng hn vic hiu r k thut v o thut ngn t m on ny dng, l i hi liu ci n ni c ng khng. C ng l linh hn chng ta phn i s vt cht ho v c gii ho i sng chng ta, rng n phn i s tin b m chng ta t c trong cuc chin chng li s au kh khng k xit v i v dch hch c trng cho Thi Trung c? C ng l tm tr b au kh khi n phi phc v loi ngi nh mt k thut vin, v c hnh phc hn phc v nh mt nng n hay mt n l? Ti khng c coi nh vn rt nghim trng v cng vic c gii thun tu, ca vic nng nhc cm thy v ngha, v l ci hu hoi nng lc sng to ca cc cng nhn; nhng hi vng thc tin duy nht nm, khng vic quay li ch n l v nng n, m mt n lc lm cho my mc tip qun cng vic c gii nng nhc ny. Marx ng trong khng nh rng nng sut tng ln l hi

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vng c l duy nht v nhn bn ho lao ng, v v ct ngn thm ngy lm vic. (V li, ti khng ngh rng tm tr lun au kh khi n phi phc v loi ngi nh mt k thut vin; ti nghi cc k thut vin, gm c cc nh sng ch v cc nh khoa hc ln, thng rt khoi n, v h cng phiu lu nh cc nh thn b). V ai tin rng mnh lnh v s lnh o ca cc m c, nh c cc nh tin tri, nhng ngi m mng, v cc nh lnh o ng thi m tng, l thc s hon ton sng sut v tin cy nh s sng sut tr tu v cc chng trnh khoa hc? Song ch cn r sang huyn thoi v cch mng, v.v., thy r hn ci chng ta i mt y. N l s biu l in hnh ca chng cung lng mn v ch ngha cp tin do s v mng v b lc v do s cng thng ca nn vn minh to ra (nh ti m t chng 10). Loi C c gio ny, kin ngh to ra huyn thoi nh ci thay th cho bn phn C c, l mt o C c b lc. N l mt o C c t chi mang cy thnh gi lm ngi. Hy coi chng cc nh tin tri gi ny! Ci h l sau , m khng thc c v n, l s thng nht mt ca ch ngha b lc. V s quay li x hi ng m h ch trng l s quay li ci chung, v quay li thnh th vt24. C th hu ch xem cc mn ca loi ch ngha lng mn ny chc s phn ng li ra sao vi ph phn nh vy. Cc l l s hu nh khng c a ra; v l khng th tho lun nhng s uyn thm nh vy vi mt nh duy l, phn ng c kh nng nht s l mt s rt lui kiu cng, kt hp vi khng nh rng khng c ngn ng chung no cho nhng ngi m linh hn ca h vn cha ly li c cc nng lc thn b ca h, v nhng ngi m linh hn h c cc nng lc nh vy. M phn ng ny l tng t nh phn ng ca nh phn tm hc (c ni n chng trc) ngi nh bi cc i th ca mnh khng bng p li cc l l ca h m bng ch ra rng cc km nn ca h ngn h chp nhn phn tm hc. N cng tng t nh phn ng ca nh phn tch x hi ngi ch ra rng cc thc h ton b ca cc i th ca ng ta ngn h chp nhn x hi hc tri thc. Phng php ny, nh ti th nhn trc, l tr vui a hay cho nhng ngi thc hnh n. Song y chng ta c th thy r hn l n phi dn n s phn chia phi duy l con ngi thnh nhng ngi gn chng ta v nhng ngi xa chng ta. S phn chia ny hin din mi tn gio, nhng n tng i v hi o Hi, o C c, hay nim tin duy l, tt c chng u coi mi ngi l mt ngi ci o tim nng, v c th ni cng th v phn tm hc, thy trong mi ngi mt i tng iu tr (ch c iu l trong trng hp sau ph hon ci bin thnh mt tr ngi nghim trng).

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Nhng s phn chia tr nn t v hi hn khi chng ta theo ui x hi hc tri thc. Nh phn tch x hi i hi rng ch cc nh tr thc nht nh mi c th thot khi thc h ton b ca h, c th thot khi t duy vi giai cp ca h; nh th anh ta t b tng v s thng nht duy l tim nng ca con ngi, v giao th xc v linh hn mnh cho ch ngha phi duy l. V tnh hnh ny tr nn ti hn nhiu khi ta theo ui phin bn sinh hc hoc t nhin ch ngha ca l thuyt ny, hc thuyt chng tc rng chng ta t duy vi huyt thng chng ta hoc chng ta t duy vi chng tc chng ta. Nhng t nht cng nguy him, v tinh t hn, l cng tng khi n hin ra di s i lt ca mt ch ngha thn b tn gio; khng di ch ngha thn b ca nh th hay nhc s, m di ch ngha thn b ca nh duy l tr Hegel-ho ngi thuyt phc bn thn mnh v nhng ngi theo mnh rng cc t tng ca h c ph cho, bi v c n sng c bit, vi cc nng lc thn b v tn gio m nhng ngi khc khng c, v nhng ngi nh th i hi rng h t duy bi n Cha. i hi ny vi m ch nh nhng ca n n nhng ngi khng c n sng ca Cha, s tn cng ny ln s thng nht tinh thn tim nng ca nhn loi, theo ti, cng kiu cng, h v phn-C c, nh n tin bn thn mnh l khim tn, ngoan o, v C c. Tri vi s v trch nhim tr tu ca mt ch ngha thn b trn trnh vo cc gic m v ca mt trit hc sm truyn trn vo li ni huyn thuyn, khoa hc hin i p buc k lut v kim nghim thc tin ln tr nng ca chng ta. Cc l thuyt khoa hc c th c kim nghim bng cc h qu thc tin ca chng. Nh khoa hc, trong lnh vc ring ca mnh, chu trch nhim v ci ng ta ni; ta c th bit ng bng cc thnh qu ca ng, v nh th phn bit ng ta vi cc nh tin tri gi25. Mt trong s t ngi nh gi ng kha cnh ny ca khoa hc l trit gia C c J. Macmurray (m ti rt khng ng vi cc quan im v tin tri lch s ca ng, nh s thy chng tip): Bn thn khoa hc, ng ni26, trong cc lnh vc nghin cu ring ca n, p dng mt phng php hiu bit, khi phc tnh ton vn ca l thuyt v thc tin. y, ti tin, v sao khoa hc l mt s xc phm nh vy trong con mt ca ch ngha thn b, ln trnh thc tin bng to ra cc thn thoi thay th. Khoa hc, trong lnh vc ring ca n, Macmurray ni mt ch khc, l sn phm ca C c gio, v s din t tho ng nht ca n cho n nay; .. nng lc ca n cho s tin b hp tc, ci khng bit bin gii no v chng tc, dn tc hay gii tnh, kh nng tin on ca n, v kh nng kim sot ca n, l cc biu l y

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nht ca o C c m Chu u tng thy. Ti hon ton ng vi im ny, v ti cng tin rng nn vn minh Phng Ty ca chng ta c ch ngha duy l ca n, nim tin ca n vo tnh thng nht duy l ca con ngi v vo x hi m, v c bit cch nhn khoa hc ca n, l nh lng tin Socratic v C c c xa vo tnh anh em ca tt c mi ngi, v vo tnh trung thc v trch nhim tr tu. (Mt l l thng xuyn chng li o c khoa hc l nhiu kt qu ca n c dng cho cc mc ch xu, th d, trong chin tranh. Song l l ny hu nh khng ng xem xt nghim tc. Chng c g trn i ny li khng th b lm dng, v khng b lm dng. Ngay c tnh yu c th tr thnh mt cng c git ngi; v ch ngha ho bnh c th tr thnh mt trong nhng v kh ca mt cuc chin tranh xm lc. Mt khc, qu hin nhin rng chnh ch ngha phi duy l v khng phi ch ngha duy l l ci chu trch nhim v mi s th ch dn tc v xm lc. c qu nhiu chin tranh tn gio xm lc, c trc v sau cc cuc Thp t chinh, nhng ti khng bit v bt c cuc chin tranh no c tin hnh v mt mc ch khoa hc, v c cc nh khoa hc xi gic). Phi quan st thy l trong cc on trch, Macmurray nhn mnh rng ci ng nh gi cao l khoa hc trong lnh vc nghin cu ring ca n. Ti ngh s nhn mnh ny l c bit c gi tr. V ngy nay ngi ta thng nghe, thng thng trong mi quan h vi ch ngha thn b ca Eddington v Jeans, rng khoa hc hin i, tri vi khoa hc ca th k mi chn, tr nn khim tn hn, bi v by gi n tha nhn cc b n ca th gii ny. Nhng kin ny, ti tin, l hon ton nhm ng. Darwin v Faraday, th d, tm kim chn l cng khim tn nh bt c ai, v ti khng nghi ng rng h khim tn hn nhiu so vi hai nh thin vn ln ng thi c ni ti. V du c v i nh h l trong lnh vc nghin cu ring ca mnh, ti tin, h khng chng minh s khim tn ca h bng m rng cc hot ng ca mnh sang lnh vc ca ch ngha thn b trit hc27. Ni tng qut hn, tuy vy, c th qu thc ng l cc nh khoa hc tr nn khim tn hn, v s tin b ca khoa hc ch yu l bng cch pht hin ra cc sai lm, v v, nhn chung, chng ta bit cng nhiu, chng ta cng nhn r hn ci chng ta khng bit. (Tinh thn khoa hc l tinh thn ca Socrates28). Mc d ti ch yu quan tm n kha cnh o c ca xung t gia ch ngha duy l v ch ngha phi duy l, ti cm thy phi cp ngn gn n kha cnh trit hc hn ca vn ; song ti mun lm r l y ti coi kha cnh ny c tm quan trng th yu. Ci ti ngh n l s thc rng nh duy l ph phn cng c th ginh li u th so vi nh

CHNG 24: S NI LON CHNG LI L TR

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phi duy l theo cch khc. ng ta c th cho rng nh phi duy l ngi t ho v s knh trng cc b n su sc ca th gii v s hiu bit ca h v chng (tri vi nh khoa hc ch co b mt ca n) thc ra khng knh trng cng chng hiu cc b n, m t mn vi s duy l ho r tin. V thn thoi l ci g nu khng phi l mt n lc duy l ho ci phi duy l? V ai chng t s tn knh ln hn i vi b n, nh khoa hc hin dng bn thn mnh cho khm ph n tng bc mt, lun sn sng phc tng s tht, v lun thc rng ngay c thnh qu to bo nht ca mnh chng bao gi nhiu hn mt bn p cho nhng ngi n sau mnh, hay nh thn b khi phi duy tr bt c th g bi v ng ta khng cn s bt c kim nghim no? Nhng bt chp quyn t do ng ng ny, cc nh thn b lp li cng th mt cch bt tn. (N lun l huyn thoi v thin ng b lc mt, s t chi cung lon mang cy thnh gi ca nn vn minh29). Tt c cc nh thn b, nh F. Kafka, nh th thn b, vit30 trong tuyt vng, bt u ni .. rng ci khng th hiu ni l khng th hiu ni, v chng ta bit iu t trc. V nh phi duy l khng ch th duy l ho ci khng th duy l ho, m ng ta cng c ngh hon ton lm. V n l c nhn c bit, duy nht v c th, ci khng th tip cn c bng cc phng php duy l, v khng phi l ci chung [universal] tru tng. Khoa hc c th m t cc loi chung ca phong cnh, th d, hay ca con ngi, nhng n khng bao gi vt cn mt phong cnh ring bit c nht, hay mt ngi ngi ring bit c nht. Ci chung, ci in hnh, khng ch l lnh vc ca l tr, m n cng ch yu l sn phm ca l tr, chng mc n l sn phm ca s tru tng ho khoa hc. Nhng c nhn n nht v cc hnh ng v kinh nghim n nht v quan h vi cc c nhn khc ca anh ta chng bao gi c th c duy l ho hon ton31. V c v l chnh vng quc phi duy l ny v tnh cht c nhn n nht l ci lm cho cc quan h con ngi l quan trng. Hu ht ngi dn s cm thy, th d, rng ci lm cho cuc i h ng sng s b ph hu phn ln nu bn thn h v i h, khng n nht theo bt c ngha no m trong tt c v mi kha cnh l in hnh ca mt giai cp, cho h lp li chnh xc tt c cc hnh ng v kinh nghim ca tt c nhng ngi khc thuc giai cp ny. Chnh tnh n nht ca cc kinh nghim ca chng ta, theo ngha ny, l ci lm cho i chng ta ng sng, kinh nghim n nht v mt phong cnh, v mt hong hn, v s din cm ca mt khun mt ngi. Song k t thi Plato, l c trng ca mi ch ngha thn b rng n chuyn cm gic ny v tnh phi duy l ca c nhn n nht, v ca cc quan h n nht ca chng ta vi cc c nhn,

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sang cho mt lnh vc khc, c th l, sang lnh vc ca cc ci chung tru tng, mt lnh vc ng l thuc v phm vi ca khoa hc. Rng cm gic ny m nh thn b c chuyn l hu nh khng th nghi ng. Mi ngi u bit rng thut ng ca ch ngha thn b, s kt hp thn b, trc gic thn b v ci p, tnh yu thn b, trong mi thi i u c vay mn t lnh vc ca cc quan h gia nhng con ngi ring bit, v c bit t kinh nghim yu ng tnh dc. Cng khng th nghi ng rng cm gic ny c ch ngha thn b chuyn sang cho nhng ci chung tru tng, cho cc bn cht, cho cc Hnh thc hay nim. N li l s thng nht mt ca b lc, mong mun tr li ch n nu ca mt t m gia trng v lm cho cc gii hn ca n l cc gii hn ca th gii chng ta, ci ng ng sau thi thn b ny. Cm gic v th gii nh mt ci ton th c gii hn l cm gic thn b, Wittgenstein ni32. Nhng ch ngha phi duy l chnh th lun v ph qut ny c khng ng ch. Th gii v ci ton th v t nhin, tt c u l tru tng ho v l cc sn phm ca l tr chng ta. (iu ny lm nn s khc bit gia trit gia thn b v ngh s ngi khng duy l ho, khng dng cc tru tng, m l ngi, trong s tng tng ca mnh, sng to ra cc c nhn c th v cc kinh nghim n nht). Tm li, ch ngha thn b c duy l ho ci phi duy l, v ng thi n tm kim s b n nhm ch; v n lm vy bi v n m tng v tp th33, v lin hip ca ngi c chn, v n khng dm i mt vi cc nhim v kh v thc tin m vi chng ngi phi i mt l nhng ngi hiu r rng mi c nhn l mt mc ch t n. Xung t th k mi chn gia khoa hc v tn gio i vi ti c v b thay th34. V mt ch ngha duy l khng ph phn l khng nht qun, vn khng th l s la chn gia tri thc v nim tin, m ch l gia hai loi nim tin. Vn mi l: nim tin no l ng v nim tin no sai? Ci ti c chng t l s la chn m chng ta i mt l gia mt nim tin vo l tr v vo cc c nhn con ngi v mt nim tin vo cc nng lc thn b ca con ngi theo anh ta hp nht vi mt tp th; v s la chn ny ng thi l mt s la chn gia mt thi tha nhn tnh thng nht ca nhn loi v mt thi phn chia ngi thnh bn v th, thnh ch v n l. ni , cho mc ch hin ti, gii thch cc t ch ngha duy l v ch ngha phi duy l, cng nh cc ng c ca ti trong quyt nh ng h ch ngha duy l, v l do v sao ti thy thuyt duy l tr phi duy l v thn b, hin nay rt thi thng, l cn bnh tr tu t nh ca thi i chng ta. N l mt cn bnh khng cn coi l qu nghim trng,

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v n khng hn vt xc nh. (Cc nh khoa hc, vi rt t ngoi l, l c bit khng b nhim). Nhng bt chp tnh hi ht ca n, n l mt cn bnh nguy him, bi v nh hng ca n trong lnh vc t duy x hi v chnh tr.
V

minh ho mi nguy him ny, ti s ph phn ngn gn hai trong cc nh phi duy l quyn uy c nh hng nht ca thi i chng ta. Ngi th nht trong s h l A. N. Whitehead, ni ting v cng trnh ca ng trong ton hc, v v s cng tc ca ng vi trit gia duy l v i nht ng thi, Bertrand Russell35. Whitehead cng t coi mnh l mt nh trit hc duy l; nhng Hegel cng lm th, ngi m Whitehead mang n rt nhiu; tht vy, ng l mt trong t nh TnHegelian ngi bit h hm n Hegel36 (cng nh Aristotle) nhiu ra sao. Khng nghi ng g, ng tha nhn do Hegel rng ng c dng kh, bt chp s phn i mnh lit ca Kant, xy dng cc h thng siu hnh hc khng l vi mt s khinh mit vng gi i vi l l. Hy xem xt l l u tin trong vi l l m Whitehead a ra trong Process and Reality [Qu trnh v Thc ti] ca ng, l l m vi n ng bo v phng php trit hc t bin ca mnh (mt phng php m ng gi l ch ngha duy l). c s phn i trit hc t bin, ng vit37, rng n qu tham vng. Ch ngha duy l, phi th nhn, l phng php qua s tin b t c trong cc gii hn ca cc khoa hc c bit. Tuy vy, ngi ta cho rng thnh cng hn ch ny khng cn phi c v cc n lc dng ln cc s biu hin bn tnh chung ca cc s vt. Mt bin minh c vin dn ca s ph phn ny l s khng thnh cng; t tng chu u c trnh by nh y ry cc vn siu hnh hc, b rung b v khng c ho gii .. (Song) cng tiu chun s gn s khng thnh cng cho khoa hc. Chng ta khng cn gi li vt l hc ca th k mi by nh chng ta lm vi trit hc ca Descartes th k y .. Th nghim thch hp khng phi l th thch v tnh cui cng, m v s tin b. M bn thn iu ny chc chn l mt l l hon ton c l v thm ch hp l; nhng n c vng chc khng? L do phn i hin nhin chng li n l trong khi vt l hc tin b, cn siu hnh hc th khng. Trong vt l hc, c mt kim nghim thch hp v s tin b, c th l s kim nghim ca th nghim, ca thc tin. Chng ta c th ni v sao vt l hc hin i l tt hn vt l hc th k mi by. Vt l hc hin i ng vng vi rt nhiu kim nghim thc tin nhng ci hon ton nh bi cc h thng

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c hn. V l do phn i hin nhin chng li cc h thng siu hnh t bin l s tin b m chng t nhn c v ng cng l tng tng ht nh bt c th g khc v chng. S phn i ny l rt c xa; n c t Bacon, Hume, v Kant. Chng ta c, chng hn, trong Proglegomea [Tho lun s b] ca Kant38, cc nhn xt sau y v ci c cho l s tin b ca siu hnh hc: Khng nghi ng g c nhiu ngi nhng ngi, ging nh ti, khng c kh nng thy rng khoa hc ny tin b thm ch mt t ngn tay bt chp rt nhiu th p c xut bn t lu v ch ny. Phi tha nhn, chng ta c th thy mt n lc mi sc mt nh ngha, hay cung cp mt chng minh qu qut vi cc ci nng mi, v nh th v vu ci chn p ca siu hnh hc, hay cho n mt hoa vn mi; nhng y khng phi l ci thin h cn. Chng ta chn ngy cc khng nh siu hnh. Chng ta mun c cc tiu chun r rng theo chng ta c th phn bit nhng iu tng tng bin chng .. vi chn l. Whitehead c l bit v s phn i c in v hin nhin ny; v c v c nh ng nh li n khi trong cu tip sau cu c trch trc ng vit: Nhng s phn i chnh k t th k th mi su v nhn c cch trnh by cui cng t Francis Bacon, l s v dng ca t bin trit hc. V l s v dng th nghim v thc tin ca trit hc m Bacon phn i, c v c nh y Whitehead nh n vn ca chng ta. Nhng ng khng bm st n. ng khng tr li s trch c rng tnh v dng thc tin ny ph hu im chnh ca ng rng trit hc t bin, ging nh khoa hc, c bin h bi s tin b n t c. Thay vo , ng t tho mn vi vic chuyn sang mt vn hon ton khc, c th l, vn c mi ngi bit r rng khng c thc t th bo, c lp, v rng mi khoa hc phi li dng t duy, v n phi khi qut ho, v din gii, cc s kin. V s cn nhc ny ng t c s cho s bo v cc h thng siu hnh hc: Nh th s hiu bit s kin th trc tip cn n s din gii siu hnh hc ca n ... M iu ny c th l th, hay c th khng th. Nhng n chc chn l mt l l hon ton khc vi l l ng bt u vi. Kim nghim thch ng l .. s tin b, trong khoa hc cng nh trong trit hc: y l ci ban u chng ta ta nghe t Whitehead. Nhng chng thy c tr li no cho s phn i hin nhin ca Kant. Thay vo , l l ca Whitehead, mt ln theo vn v tnh ph qut v tnh tng qut, li lc sang cc vn nh l thuyt tp th ch ngha (Platonic) v o c39: o c ca quan im kt hp khng th tch ri vi tnh tng qut ca quan im. Phn gia li ch chung v quyn li ring

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c th b hu b ch khi c nhn nh n vn l sao cho li ch ca n l li ch chung ... M y l mt v d tiu biu ca l l duy l. Nhng cc l l duy l qu thc l him. Whitehead hc t Hegel lm sao trnh ph phn ca Kant rng trit hc t bin ch cung cp nhng chic nng cho cc chng minh qu qut. Phng php Hegelian ny l kh n gin. Chng ta c th trnh cc chic nng min l chng ta hon ton trnh cc chng minh v l l. Trit hc Hegelian khng tranh lun; n ra lnh. Phi tha nhn rng, tri vi Hegel, Whitehead khng gi b a ra chn l cui cng. ng khng phi l mt trit gia gio iu theo ngha rng ng trnh by trit hc ca mnh nh mt gio iu khng th bn ci; ng thm ch nhn mnh s khng hon chnh ca n. Nhng ging tt c cc nh Tn-Hegelian, ng chp nhn phng php gio iu v ra trit hc ca mnh m khng c l l. Chng ta c th chp nhn n hay gt b n. Song chng ta khng th tho lun n. (Chng ta tht s i mt vi cc s thc th; khng phi vi cc s thc th v kinh nghim ca Bacon, m vi cc s thc th ca cm hng siu hnh hc ca mt con ngi). minh ho phng php v chp nhn n hay gt b n ny, ti s trch ng mt on t Process and Reality; nhng ti phi cnh bo bn c rng, mc d ti c chn on ny mt cch cng bng, chng khng c to thnh mt kin m khng c bn thn cun sch. Phn cui ca n, c tiu Final Interpretations Nhng Din gii Cui cng, gm hai chng, The Ideal Opposites Cc i lp L tng (ni, th d, S vnh cu [Permanence] v Dng chy [Flux] xut hin, mt ming v ni ting t h thng ca Plato; chng ta cp n n di ci tn S thay i v ng yn), v chng God and the World Cha v Th gii. Ti trch t chng sau. on c dn nhp bng hai cu: Tm tt cui cng ch c th c trnh by di dng mt nhm cc phn , m s mu thun hin nhin ca chng ph thuc vo s sao lng v cc phm tr khc nhau ca tn ti. Trong mi phn c mt s dch chuyn ngha, bin i s i lp thnh ci tng phn. y l dn nhp. N chun b chng ta cho mt mu thun hin nhin, v ni cho ta rng iu ny ph thuc vo s sao lng no . iu ny c v ng l bng cch trnh s lao nhng chng ta c th trnh mu thun. Nhng vic ny t c ra sao, hay chnh xc hn, tc gi ngh n ci g, li khng c ni cho chng ta. Chng ta phi ch chp nhn n hay gt b n. By gi ti trch hai phn u trong cc phn hay cc mu thun hin nhin c cng b, chng cng c pht biu m khng c mt ci bng no ca l l: Cng ng

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ni rng Cha l vnh cu v Th gii tri chy nh Th gii l vnh cu v Cha tri chy. Cng ng ni rng Cha l mt v Th gii l nhiu, nh Th gii l mt v Cha l nhiu40. By gi ti s khng i ph phn cc ting vng ny ca nhng iu tng tng trit hc Hy Lp; chng ta c th qu thc coi chng l d nhin rng mt [cu] l ng nh [cu] khc. Nhng chng ta c ha mt t-mu thun hin nhin; v ti mun bit y mu thun xut hin u. V i vi ti ngay c v ca mt mu thun cng khng r rng. Mt t-mu thun, th d, c th l cu: Plato hnh phc v Plato khng hnh phc, v tt c cc cu c cng dng logic (tc l tt c cc cu nhn c t cu trn bng thay mt tin ring cho Plato v mt t ch tnh cht thay cho hnh phc). Nhng cu sau r rng khng phi l mt mu thun: Cng ng ni rng hm nay Plato hnh phc nh ni rng hm nay ng khng hnh phc (v Plato cht, mt cu cng ng nh cu khc); v khng cu khc no c cng dng hay dng tng t c th c gi l t-mu thun, cho d n tnh c l sai. y ch t ra v sao ti li bi ri v kha cnh logic thun tu ca vn , cc t-mu thun hin nhin. V ti cm thy nh th sut ton b cun sch. Ti hon ton khng hiu tc gi ca n mun truyn t ci g. Rt c th, y l li ca ti v khng phi ca ng ta. Ti khng thuc v s nhng ngi c chn, v ti e rng nhiu ngi khc cng cng a v. y chnh l v sao ti cho rng phng php ca cun sch ny l phi duy l. N phn chia nhn loi thnh hai phn, mt s t ngi c chn, v s ng ngi b lc. Song du ti c lc ng, ti ch c th ni rng, nh ti thy, ch ngha Tn-Hegel khng cn trng ging chic chn p c k vi vi ming v mi, c Kant m t rt sinh ng; m ng hn n by gi trng ging mt bc ca vi ming v c c x ra khi n. Ti cho nh nghin cu thn trng v cun sch ca Whitehead quyt nh liu n ng vng kim nghim tho ng ca chnh n, liu n c chng t s tin b khi so vi cc h thng siu hnh hc m s tr tr ca chng b Kant phn nn hay khng; vi iu kin anh ta c th tm thy cc tiu chun theo dnh gi s tin b nh vy. V ti s cho cng nh nghin cu y nh gi tnh tho ng ca kt lun cc nhn xt ny vi cc bnh lun khc ca Kant v siu hnh hc41: V siu hnh hc ni chung, v cc quan im ti by t v gi tr ca chng, ti tha nhn rng nhng trnh by ca ti y c th khng c iu kin v thn trng. Th nhng ti khng mun che giu s thc rng ti ch c th nhn vi s gh tm v thm ch vi ci g ging s cm ght ln tnh kiu cng vnh vo ca tt c cc tp sch cha y s

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thng thi ny, nh ang thi thng ngy nay. V ti hon ton tho mn rng con ng sai c chn; rng cc phng php c chp nhn phi lm tng bt tn nhng iu nc ci v ng ngn ny; v rng thm ch s tiu hu hon ton nhng thnh tu k cc ny c l cng khng tai hi nh khoa hc h cu ny vi s mu m ng ght ca n. Th d th hai v ch ngha phi duy l ng i m ti c nh cp y l A Study of History [Mt Nghin cu Lch s] ca A. J. Toynbee. Ti mun lm r l ti coi cun sch ny l mt cun sch xut sc v l th nht, v ti chn n bi v tnh hn hn ca n so vi tt c cc cng trnh phi duy l v lch s ch ngha ng thi khc m ti bit. Ti khng c trnh nh gi cc cng trng ca Toynbee vi t cch mt nh s hc. Nhng tri vi cc nh trit hc lch s ch ngha v phi duy l ng thi khc, ng c nhiu ci ni nhng ci rt kch thch v thch thc; ti ch t thy ng nh vy, v ti hm n ng nhiu gi c gi tr. Ti khng buc ti ng v ch ngha phi duy l trong lnh vc nghin cu lch s ring ca ng. V ni m cu hi l v so snh chng c ng h hay chng li mt din gii lch s no y, ng khng lng l dng phng php lp lun v c bn l duy l. Ti ngh n, th d, nghin cu so snh ca ng v tnh xc thc ca cc Sch Phc m vi t cch cc t liu lch s, vi cc kt qu ph nh42; mc d ti khng c kh nng nh gi bng chng ca ng, tnh duy l ca phng php l khng th nghi ng, v iu ny cng ng ngng m hn v s ng cm chung ca Toynbee vi tnh C c chnh thng c th lm cho ng kh bo v mt quan im m, ni t nht, l khng chnh thng43. Ti cng ng vi nhiu xu hng chnh tr c trnh by trong cng trnh ca ng, v dt khot nht l s tn cng ca ng ln ch ngha dn tc hin i, v cc xu hng b lc ch ngha v c, tc l cc xu hng phn ng v vn ho, gn lin vi n. L do v sao, bt chp tt c iu ny, ti li la chn tc phm lch s ch ngha s ca Toynbee ra nhm buc ti n vi tnh phi duy l, l ch khi chng ta thy cc nh hng ca thuc c ny trong mt cng trnh c gi tr nh vy th chng ta mi nh gi y tnh nguy him ca n. Ci ti phi m t nh ch ngha phi duy l ca Toynbee t biu l theo nhng cch khc nhau. Mt trong s chng l ng to ra mt mt ph bin v nguy him ca thi i chng ta. ti mun ni n mt khng coi l l mt cch nghim tc, v gi tr danh ngha ca n, ch t mt cch ngp ngng, m nhn thy chng khng g ngoi mt cch trong cc ng c v xu hng phi duy l su hn t bc l. N l thi

252

HU QU

ca phn tch x hi, b ph phn chng trc; v thi nhn ngay n cc ng c v thc v cc yu t quyt nh trong mi trng x hi ca nh t tng, thay cho trc tin i kho st tnh hp l ca bn thn l l. Thi ny c th c bin h mt mc nht nh, nh ti c cho thy hai chng trc; v iu ny l c bit th trng hp ca mt tc gi ngi khng a ra bt c l l no, hay l l ca ng ta hin nhin khng ng xem xt k. Nhng nu khng c n lc no coi l l mt cch nghim tc, th ti tin rng chng ta c l do chnh ng buc ti v ch ngha phi duy l; v thm ch chng ta c l do chnh ng tr a, bng cch theo cng thi i vi th tc y. Nh th ti ngh chng ta c mi quyn a ra chn on phn tch-x hi rng s sao nhng ca Toynbee coi l l mt cch nghim tc l tiu biu ca thuyt duy l tr th k hai mi biu l s v mng, thm ch s tuyt vng ca n vi l tr, v vi mt gii php duy l ca cc vn x hi ca chng ta, bng s trn trnh vo mt ch ngha thn b tn gio.44 Nh mt v d v s t chi coi cc l l nghim tc mt cch nghim tc, ti chn s i x ca Toynbee vi Marx. L do ca ti v s la chn ny nh sau. Th nht, n l mt ti quen thuc vi bn thn ti cng nh vi bn c ca cun sch ny. Th hai, n l mt ch m ti ng vi Toynbee v hu ht cc kha cnh thc tin ca n. Nhng nh gi ch yu ca ng v nh hng chnh tr v lch s ca Marx l rt ging cc kt qu m ti t c bng cc phng php t nht hn; v qu thc n l mt trong cc ch m s x l n chng t trc gic lch s su sc ca ng. Nh th ti s kh b nghi l mt ngi bin h cho Marx nu ti i bo v tnh duy l ca Marx chng li Toynbee. V y l im m ti khng ng : Toynbee i x vi Marx (nh ng i x vi tt c mi ngi) khng nh mt con ngi duy l, mt ngi a ra cc l l cho ci mnh thuyt ging. Thc vy, s i x vi Marx, v vi cc l thuyt ca ng, ch minh ho cho n tng chung do cng trnh ca Toynbee truyn t rng cc l l l phng thc khng quan trng ca li ni, v rng lch s nhn loi l lch s ca cc xc cm, cc am m, cc tn gio, cc trit l phi duy l, v c l ca ngh thut v thi ca; song n khng c lin quan g n l tr con ngi hay khoa hc ca con ngi. (Nhng tn nh Galileo v Newton, Harvey v Pasteur, khng ng bt c vai tr no trong su tp u45 ca s nghin cu lch s ch ngha ca Toynbee v chu k i sng ca cc nn vn minh). V cc im tng t gia cc quan im chung ca Toynbee v ca ti, ti c th nhc nh bn c v cc m ch ca ti, chng 1, n s

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tng t gia nhng ngi c chn v giai cp c chn; v nhiu ch khc, ti bnh lun mt cch ph phn v cc hc thuyt ca Marx v tnh tt yu lch s, v c bit v tnh khng th trnh khi ca cch mng x hi. Cc tng ny c Toynbee kt ni li bng s li lc thng thng ca ng: Cm hng .. Do thi rnh rnh ca ch ngha Marx, ng vit46, l tm nhn khi huyn v mt cuc cch mng bo lc khng th trnh khi bi v n l mt sc lnh ca .. bn thn Thng , l ci nghch chuyn vai tr ca Giai cp V sn v Thiu s Thng tr thnh mt s hon v cc vai tr a Nhng ngi c Chn, bng mt c nhy, t v tr thp nht ln v tr cao nht trong Vng quc ca Th gii Ny. Marx coi N Thn Tt yu Lch s thay cho Yahweh lm cha tri ti cao ca ng, v giai cp v sn quc t ca Th gii Phng Ty hin i thay cho dn Do Thi; v Vng quc Cu th ca ng c hnh dung nh mt Nn Chuyn chnh V sn. Nhng cc nt ni bt nht ca s khi huyn Do Thi truyn thng li ra qua ci o ci trang xc x, v n thc s l o Do Thi trc-gio s Maccabea rng ng bu trit gia ca chng ta ang trnh din trong y phc Phng Ty hin i .. M chc chn chng c my trong on c din t tuyt vi ny m ti khng ng , chng no n c nh ch l mt s tng t l th. Nhng nu n nh l mt phn tch nghim tc v ch ngha Marx (hay mt phn ca n), th ti phi phn i; rt cuc, Marx vit T bn, nghin cu ch ngha t bn laissez-faire (v ), v c cc ng gp nghim tc v quan trng nht cho khoa hc x hi, cho d phn ln chng b thay th. V, qu thc, on ca Toynbee nh dng nh mt phn tch nghim tc; ng tin rng cc php tng t v cc li bng gi ca ng ng gp cho mt s nh gi ng nghim tc v Marx; v trong mt Ph lc gn vi on ny (m ti ch trch dn mt phn quan trng) ng cp, di nhan 47 Ch ngha Marx, Ch ngha X hi, v o C c, ci ng coi chc l cc li phn i ca mt nh Marxist i vi s gii thch ny v Trit hc Marxian. Bn thn Ph lc ny cng r rng nh dng nh mt tho lun nghim tc v Ch ngha Marx, nh c th thy bi s thc l on u ca n bt u vi cc t Nhng ngi ch trng Ch ngha Marx s c l phn i rng .. v on th hai vi cc t: Trong mt n lc tr li cho mt s phn i Marxian v cc ng li nh th ny .. Nhng nu chng ta xem xt tho lun ny k lng hn, th chng ta thy rng chng l l duy l no hay yu sch no ca ch ngha Marx thm ch c nhc n, ch ni chi n c kho st. V cc l thuyt ca Marx v v vn liu chng c ng hay sai chng ta chng nghe

254

HU QU

thy mt li no. Vn thm c nu ra trong Ph lc li l vn v ngun gc lch s; v i th Marxist c Toynbee mng tng, nh bt c nh Marxist no theo ngha ca ng, khng phn i, rng chnh xc nhn ca Marx l t c s cho mt tng c, ch ngha x hi, trn mt nn tng mi, mt c s duy l v khoa hc; thay vo , ng ta phn i (ti trch Toynbee) rng trong mt tng thut kh tm tt v Trit hc Marxian chng ta trnh din mt phn tch n thnh mt yu t hp thnh Hegelian v Do Thi v C c m chng ni mt li v phn .. c trng nht ca thng ip ca Marx. . . Ch ngha X hi, nh Marxian s ni cho chng ta, l bn cht ca cch sng Marxian; n l mt yu t gc c o trong h thng Marxian yu t khng th truy nguyn c v mt ngun Hegelian hay C c hay Do Thi hay bt c ngun tin Marxian no. y l li phn i m Toynbee t vo ming mt nh Marxist, mc d bt c nh Marxist no, cho d anh ta khng c g ngoi Tuyn ngn, hn bit rng bn thn Marx ngay t 1847 phn bit khong by hay tm ngun tin-Marxian ca ch ngha x hi, v gia chng cng c nhng ci m ng gn cho ci nhn ch ngha x hi Tng l hay C c, v rng ng chng bao gi m tng l pht kin ra ch ngha x hi, m ch cho rng ng lm cho n duy l; hay nh Engels din t, rng ng pht trin ch ngha x hi t mt tng Khng tng thnh mt khoa hc48. Nhng Toynbee b qua tt c cc iu . ng vit, Trong mt n lc tr li cho mt s phn i Marxian v cc ng li nh th ny, chng ta s sn sng tha nhn tnh nhn o v tnh xy dng ca l tng m ch ngha x hi bnh vc, cng nh tm quan trng ca vai tr m l tng ny ng trong thc h Marxian; nhng chng ta s thy mnh khng th chp nhn lun im Marxian rng Ch ngha X hi l s khm ph c o ca Marx. Chng ta, v phn mnh, s ch ra rng c mt ch ngha x hi c c c thc hnh cng nh c thuyt ging trc khi tng nghe thy Ch ngha X hi Marxian; v, khi n lt chng ta tn cng, chng ta s kin nh rng Ch ngha X hi Marxian c dn ra t truyn thng C c ... M ti chc chn chng bao gi ph nhn s dn xut ny, v kh r l mi nh Marxist c th tha nhn n m khng hi sinh mt cht xu no v tn iu ca mnh; v tn iu Marxist khng phi l Marx khm ph ra l tng nhn o v xy dng m l ng l nh khoa hc ch ra bng cc cng c duy l thun tu rng ch ngha x hi s n, v n s n bng cch no. Ti hi, lm sao c th gii thch c rng Toynbee tho lun ch ngha Marx theo cc ng li chng lin quan g n cc yu sch duy l

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ca n? Cch gii thch duy nht ti c th thy l yu sch Marxist i vi tnh duy l chng c ngha g vi Toynbee. ng ch quan tm n vn n bt ngun ra sao vi t cch mt tn gio. M ti phi l ngi cui cng i ph nhn c tnh tn gio ca n. Nhng phng php cp n cc trit l hay cc tn gio hon ton t quan im v ngun gc lch s v mi trng ca chng, mt thi c m t cc chng trc nh thuyt lch s (v cn c phn bit vi ch ngha lch s), ni t nht, l rt phin din; v phng php ny c th to ra ch ngha phi duy l nhiu n th no c th thy t s sao nhng, nu khng phi l s khinh b, ca Toynbee i vi tm quan trng ca lnh vc i sng con ngi m chng ta m t y nh duy l. Trong mt nh gi v nh hng ca Marx, Toynbee i n kt lun49 rng Phn quyt ca Lch s c th ho ra l mt s nh thc li lng tm x hi C c l mt thnh tu tch cc v i nht ca Karl Marx. Chng li s nh gi ny, ti chc chn khng c my ni; c l bn c s nh li rng ti cng nhn mnh50 nh hng o c ca Marx ln o C c. Ti khng ngh rng, nh mt nh gi cui cng, Toynbee tnh n tng o c to ln rng ngi b bc lt phi gii phng chnh mnh, thay cho ch i cc hnh ng t thin t pha nhng k bc lt; nhng iu ny, tt nhin, ch l mt s khc bit v kin, v ti khng m tng tranh ci quyn ca Toynbee i vi kin ring ca ng, m ti coi l rt cng bng. Nhng ti phi lu n li ni phn quyt ca lch s c th ho ra l, vi l thuyt o c ngm nh, v thm ch ch ngha v lai o c51, ca n. V ti cho rng chng ta khng th v khng c ln trn quyt nh cc vn nh vy i vi chnh chng ta; v rng nu chng ta khng c kh nng a ra mt phn quyt, th lch s cng s chng c kh nng. Ngn y v cp ca Toynbee n Marx. V vn tng qut hn ca thuyt lch s hay ch ngha tng i lch s ca ng, c th ni rng ng rt c thc v n, mc d ng khng trnh by n nh mt nguyn l chung v s quyt nh lch s ca mi t duy, m ch nh mt nguyn l c hn ch p dng cho t duy lch s; v ng gii thch52 rng ng coi tin rng mi t duy lch s l tng i mt cch khng th trnh khi i vi hon cnh c bit v thi i v v tr ca nh t tng .. nh im xut pht. y l mt qui lut v Bn tnh Con ngi m khng c thin ti no c th c min tr. S tng t ca thuyt lch s ny vi x hi hc tri thc l kh hin nhin; v thi i v v tr ring ca nh t tng r rng chng l g ngoi s m t v ci c th c gi l mi trng lch s ca ng ta, tng t nh mi trng

256

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x hi do x hi hc tri thc m t. S khc bit, nu c, l Toynbee gii hn qui lut v Bn tnh Con ngi ca ng t duy lch s, iu i vi ti c v hi k l v c l l mt s gii hn khng ch ; v hi khng chc rng cn phi c mt qui lut v Bn tnh Con ngi m khng c thin ti no c th c min tr l ng khng cho t duy ni chung m ch cho t duy lch s. Vi ci li khng th ph nhn nhng kh tm thng v s tht cha trong mt thuyt lch s hay ch ngha x hi hc nh vy m ti cp hai chng trc, ti khng cn lp li ci ti ni . Song v phn ph phn, c th ng ch ra rng cu ca Toynbee, nu gii phng khi s hn ch ca n i vi t duy lch s, kh c th c coi l mt tin v n s l nghch l. (N l mt dng khc53 ca nghch l v k ni di; v nu khng thin ti no c min tr khi biu l cc mt ca mi trng x hi ca ng ta, th bn thn lun im ny c th ch l s biu l ca mt ca mi trng x hi ca tc gi ca n, tc l ca mt tng i ch ngha ca chnh thi i chng ta). Nhn xt ny khng ch c tm quan trng logic hnh thc. V n cho bit rng thuyt lch s hay phn tch lch s c th c p dng cho bn thn thuyt lch s na, v y qu thc l mt cch chp nhn c x l mt tng sau khi n c ph phn bng l l duy l. V thuyt lch s c ph phn nh vy, by gi ti c th liu a ra mt chn on phn tch lch s, v ni rng thuyt lch s l mt sn phm in hnh tuy li thi ca thi i chng ta; hay chnh xc hn, ca s lc hu ca cc khoa hc x hi ca thi i chng ta. N l phn ng in hnh i vi ch ngha can thip v i vi mt thi k duy l ho v hp tc cng nghip; mt thi k, c l nhiu hn bt c thi k khc no trong lch s, i hi s p dng thc tin cc phng php duy l vo cc vn x hi. Mt khoa hc x hi khng th p ng hon ton cho cc i hi ny v th c thin hng t bo v mnh bng to ra cc cuc tn cng tinh vi ln tnh kh dng ca khoa hc cho cc vn nh vy. Tm tt li chn on phn tch lch s ca ti, ti mo him gi rng thuyt lch s ca Toynbee l mt ch ngha phn-duy l bin h, c sinh ra t ni tuyt vng v l tr, v c trn trnh vo qu kh, cng nh vo tin tri v tng lai54. Phi chng thuyt lch s phi c hiu nh mt sn phm lch s. Chn on ny c nhiu c tnh ca cng trnh ca Toynbee lm vng thm. Mt v d l s nhn mnh ca ng n tnh u vit ca th gii khc trn hnh ng s nh hng n din tin ca th gii ny. V th ng ni, th d, v thnh cng trn tc bi thm ca Mohammed, ni

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rng c hi t by ra cho nh tin tri hnh ng trong th gii ny l mt thch thc m linh hn ngi tht bi lm hin ln. Khi chp nhn [n] .. ngi t b vai tr cao thng ca nh tin tri c vinh d cao qu v t tho mn vi vai tr tm thng ca mt chnh khch thnh cng tuyt diu. (Ni cch khc, Mohammed khng chng ni mt cm d m Jesus cng li c). Ignatius Loyola, v vy, nhn c s chp thun ca Toynbee chuyn t mt ngi lnh thnh mt v thnh55 . Ta c th hi, tuy vy, liu v thnh ny cng khng tr thnh mt chnh khch thnh cng hay khng? (Nhng nu n l mt cu hi v gio phi dng Tn [Jesuitism m thnh Loyola l ngi sng lp], th, c v, l hon ton khc: dng ny ca ngh thut qun l nh nc l thch ng thuc v th gii khc). Nhm trnh nhng s hiu lm, ti mun lm r l bn thn ti nh gi nhiu v thnh cao hn hu ht, hay gn nh tt c, cc chnh khch m ti bit, v ni chung ti khng b n tng bi thnh cng chnh tr. Ti trch on ny ch nh mt s lm vng thm cho chn on phn tch lch s ca ti: rng thuyt lch s ny ca mt nh tin tri lch s hin i l mt trit l trn trnh. Ch ngha phn-duy l ca Toynbee cn ni bt nhiu ch khc. Th d, trong mt tn cng ln quan nim duy l v s khoan dung ng dng cc phm tr nh tnh cao thng tri vi tnh thp hn thay cho cc l l. on cp n s i lp gia s trnh xa bo lc mt cch tiu cc, trn c s duy l, v s bt bo ng thc s ca th gii bn kia, m ch rng hai ci ny l cc trng hp c bit ca cc ngha .. nhng ci .. i li vi nhau mt cch tch cc56. y l on m ti ngh n: mc thp nht ca n s thc hnh Bt-Bo lc c th biu l chng g cao qu hn v xy dng hn mt s v mng tr tro vi .. bo lc .. c thc hnh trc y ad nauseam [mt cch kinh tm] Mt th d kht ting v s Bt-Bo lc thuc loi khng khai tr ny l s khoan dung tn gio Th gii Phng Ty t th k mi by .. cho n ngy nay. Kh cng li s cm d tr a bng cch hi dng thut ng ca chnh Toynbee- liu s tn cng khai tr ny ln s khoan dung tn gio dn ch Phng Ty c biu l bt c ci g cao qu hn hay xy dng hn mt s v mng tr tro vi l tr; liu n khng phi l mt th d kht ting v ci ch ngha phn-duy l l, v ng tic vn l, mt thi thng trong Th gii Phng Ty ca chng ta, v c thc hnh ad nauseam, c bit t thi Hegel, cho n tn ngy nay? Tt nhin, phn tch lch s ca ti v Toynbee khng phi l mt ph phn nghim tc. N ch l mt cch tr a tn nhn, cch hon tr li

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thuyt lch s bng ng tin ring ca n. Ph phn c bn ca ti l cc ng hng rt khc, v ti chc chn s ng tic nu gi nh bng cch hc i thuyt lch s ny ti tr thnh ngi chu trch nhim v vic lm cho phng php r tin ny thi thng hn mc n l ri. Ti khng mun b hiu lm. Ti khng cm thy s th ch no vi ch ngha thn b tn gio (ch i vi mt thuyt duy l tr phn-duy l chin u [militant anti-rationalist intellectualism]) v ti s l ngi u tin u tranh vi bt c mu toan no i n p n. Khng phi ti l ngi ch trng khoan dung tn gio. Ti cho rng nim tin vo l tr, hay ch ngha duy l, hay ch ngha nhn vn, hay ch ngha nhn o, c cng quyn nh bt c tn iu no khc ng gp cho s ci thin cng vic con ngi, v c bit cho s kim sot ti phm quc t v thit lp ho bnh. Nh nhn do ch ngha, Toynbee vit57, ch tp trung mi s ch v n lc ca mnh vo vic.. a cng vic con ngi di s kim sot ca con ngi. Th m .. s thng nht ca nhn loi chng bao gi c th c xc lp trn thc t tr trong mt khun kh ca s thng nht ca ci ton b siu nhn m Nhn loi l mt phn ..; v trng phi cc nh nhn o ch ngha Phng Ty Hin i ca chng ta lp d, cng nh i tru, trong ln k hoch t Thin ng bng cch dng ln mt Thp Babel khng l trn nn tng mt t .. Lun im ca Toynbee, nu ti hiu ng ng, l khng c c hi no cho nh nhn o ch ngha a cc cng vic quc t di s kim sot ca l tr con ngi. Cu khn n thm quyn ca Bergson58, ng cho rng ch lng trung thnh vi ci ton b siu nhn c th cu chng ta, v rng khng c cch no cho l tr con ngi, khng c con ng trn mt t no, nh ng din t, theo ch ngha dn tc b lc c th c thay th. M ti khng bn tm n vic c trng nim tin ca nh nhn o ch ngha vo l tr nh thuc tri t, v ti tin rng qu thc mt nguyn l ca hot ng chnh tr duy l l chng ta khng th to ra thin ng trn tri t59. Nhng, rt cuc, ch ngha nhn o l mt nim tin t chng t mnh trong hnh ng, v n chng t mnh cng kh, c l, nh bt c tn iu no khc. V mc d ti ngh, cng vi hu ht cc nh nhn o ch ngha, rng o C c, bng thuyt ging cng v lm cha ca Cha, c th c mt ng gp to ln xc lp tnh anh em ca con ngi, ti cng ngh rng nhng ngi lm xi mn lng tin ca con ngi vo l tr chc khng ng gp my cho mc ch ny.

KT LUN

CHNG 25: LCH S C CHT NGHA NO?

I

Tin gn ti cui cun sch, ti li mun nhc nh bn c rng cc chng ny khng c nh nh bt c th g ging mt lch s y v ch ngha lch s; chng ch l cc ghi ch bn l ri rc i vi mt lch s nh vy, v ng hn l cc ghi ch c nhn thm vo. Rng chng, v li, to thnh mt loi dn nhp ph phn vo trit hc v x hi v v chnh tr, c gn mt thit vi c tnh ny ca chng, v ch ngha lch s l mt trit hc x hi v chnh tr v o c (hay, ti s ni, tri o c), v n c nh hng nht nh vy k t lc khi u ca nn vn minh ca chng ta. V th kh c th bnh lun v lch s ca n m khng tho lun cc vn c bn ca x hi, ca chnh tr, v ca o c. Song mt tho lun nh vy, d n c tha nhn hay khng, hn lun cha mt yu t c nhn mnh m. iu ny khng c ngha rng phn ln trong cun sch ny ch l vn kin thun tu; trong vi trng hp ni ti gii thch cc kin ngh hay quyt nh o c v cc vn chnh tr ca mnh, ti lun lm r c tnh c nhn ca kin ngh hay quyt nh. ng hn n c ngha l s la chn cc ch c coi nh vn la chn c nhn mt mc ln hn nhiu so vi, chng hn, mt chuyn lun khoa hc. Tuy vy, trong chng mc no y s khc bit ny l mt vn v mc . Ngay c mt khoa hc cng khng ch l mt khi s thc. Ch t, n l mt su tp, v vi t cch y n ph thuc vo cc mi quan tm ca nh su tm, vo mt quan im. Trong khoa hc, quan im ny thng c xc nh bi mt l thuyt khoa hc; tc l, t v s cc s thc a dng, v t v s cc kha cnh a dng ca cc s thc, chng ta la chn ra cc s thc v cc kha cnh l th bi v chng gn vi l thuyt khoa hc t nhiu c nh trc. Mt trng phi ca cc nh trit hc v phng php khoa hc1 kt lun t cc cn nhc nh th ny rng khoa hc lun tranh lun theo vng trn, v chng ta thy mnh sn ui ci ui ca chnh mnh, nh Eddington din t, v t kinh nghim thc s ca mnh chng ta ch c th rt ra ci m bn thn chng ta a vo, dng cc l thuyt ca chng ta. Nhng y khng phi l mt l l c th ng vng. Mc d, ni chung,

260

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hon ton ng l chng ta ch chn cc s thc c lin quan n l thuyt c nh trc no , khng ng l chng ta ch chn cc s thc xc nhn l thuyt v, c th ni nh vy, lp li n; phng php khoa hc ng hn l i kim cc s thc c th bc b l thuyt. y l ci chng ta gi l kim nghim mt l thuyt - xem liu chng ta khng th tm thy mt li trong n. Nhng tuy cc s thc c su tp vi mt con mt ln l thuyt, v s xc nhn n chng no l thuyt ng u c vi cc kim nghim ny, chng l nhiu hn mt loi lp li trng rng thun tu ca mt l thuyt c nh trc. Chng xc nhn l thuyt ch nu chng l cc kt qu ca cc n lc khng thnh cng lt cc tin on ca n, v v th l mt chng c ch ng ng h n. Nh th, ti cho rng, kh nng lt n, hay tnh c th chng minh l sai [falsification] ca n, l ci to thnh kh nng kim nghim n, v v th l c tnh khoa hc ca mt l thuyt; v s thc rng tt c cc kim nghim v mt l thuyt l cc s chng minh l sai c th ca cc tin on c suy ra vi s gip ca n, cung cp cc manh mi cho phng php khoa hc2. Quan im ny v phng php khoa hc c cng c bi lch s khoa hc, b mn cho thy rng cc l thuyt khoa hc thng b cc th nghim lt , v rng s lt cc l thuyt, qu thc, l phng tin ca tin b khoa hc. Lun im cho rng khoa hc l vng vo l khng th c bo v. Nhng mt yu t ca lun im ny vn ng; c th, l mi m t khoa hc v cc s thc l c tnh chn lc cao, l chng lun ph thuc vo cc l thuyt. Tnh hnh c th c m t tt nht bng s so snh vi mt chic n pha (l thuyt n pha v khoa hc, nh ti thng gi n tng phn vi l thuyt thng v tm tr3). Ci m n pha lm cho thy ph thuc vo v tr ca n, vo cch chng ta hng n, v vo cng , mu sc, v.v. ca n; mc d, tt nhin, cng ph thuc rt nhiu vo cc th m n ri vo. Tng t, mt m t khoa hc s ph thuc, phn ln, vo quan im, cc mi quan tm ca chng ta, nhng ci thng thng c quan h vi l thuyt hay gi thuyt m chng ta mun kim nghim; mc d n cng s ph thuc vo cc s thc c m t. Thc vy, mt l thuyt hay mt gi thuyt c th c m t nh s kt tinh ca mt quan im. V nu ta th trnh by quan im ca chng ta, th s trnh by ny, thng thng, l ci i khi ngi ta gi l mt gi thuyt cng vic; tc l, mt gi thit tm thi m chc nng ca n l gip chng ta la chn, v sp xp, cc s thc. Song chng ta phi r l khng th c bt c l thuyt hay gi thuyt no m, theo ngha ny, khng l mt gi thuyt cng vic, v khng vn l gi thuyt cng

CHNG 25: LCH S C CHT NGHA NO?

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vic. V khng l thuyt no l cui cng, v mi l thuyt gip ta la chn v sp xp cc s thc. Tnh cht chn lc ny ca mi m t lm cho n tng i theo ngha no ; nhng ch theo ngha l ta c th a ra khng phi m t ny m l mt m t khc, nu gi nh quan im ca ta l khc. N cng c th nh hng n lng tin ca ta vo s ng n ca m t; song n khng nh hng n vn v tnh ng n hay sai lm ca m t; chn l khng tng i theo ngha ny4. L do v sao mi m t u c tnh chn lc, ni i th, l tnh phong ph v a dng v tn ca cc kha cnh kh d ca cc s thc ca th gii chng ta. m t s phong ph v tn ny, chng ta ch c mt s hu hn cc chui t tu s dng. Nh th chng ta c th m t di nh chng ta thch: m t ca chng ta s lun lun l khng y , mt s chn lc thun tu, v mt s chn lc nh, ca cc s thc t by ra cho m t. iu ny cho thy rng khng ch l khng th trnh mt quan im chn lc, m cng hon ton khng ng mong mun th lm vy; v nu chng ta c th lm vy, chng ta s khng nhn c mt m t khch quan hn, m ch c mt ng n thun cc mnh hon ton khng c quan h. Nhng, tt nhin, mt quan im l khng th trnh khi; v mu toan u tr i trnh n ch c th dn ti tla gt, v ti s p dng khng ph phn ca mt quan im khng c thc5. Tt c iu ny l ng, dt khot nht, trong trng hp ca m t lch s, vi v s ch ca n, nh Schopenhauer6 gi. Nh th trong lch s khng km trong khoa hc, ta khng th trnh mt quan im; v lng tin rng chng ta c th phi dn ti t-la gt v ti thiu thn trng ph phn. iu ny, tt nhin, khng c ngha rng chng ta c php chng minh l sai bt c th g, hay coi nh vn v chn l. Bt c m t lch s c bit no v cc s thc s n gin l ng hay sai, du c th kh n u quyt nh v tnh ng hay sai ca n. Cho n y, v th ca lch s l tng t nh v th ca cc khoa hc t nhin, th d, ca vt l hc. Song nu ta so snh vai tr do mt quan im ng trong lch s vi vai tr do mt quan im ng trong vt l hc, th ta thy mt s khc bit to ln. Trong vt l hc, nh ta thy, quan im thng c biu din bng mt l thuyt vt l c th c kim nghim bng tm kim cc s thc mi. Trong lch s, vn khng hon ton n gin nh th.
II

u tin hy xem xt k lng hn mt cht vai tr ca cc l thuyt trong mt khoa hc t nhin nh vt l hc. y, cc l thuyt c nhiu

262

KT LUN

nhim v lin kt vi nhau. Chng gip thng nht khoa hc, v chng gip gii thch cng nh tin on cc s kin. V gii thch v tin on, c l ti c th trch t mt trong cc tc phm ca chnh ti7: cho mt gii thch nhn qu ca mt s kin no c ngha l suy din ra mt mnh (s c gi l mt d on) m t s kin , dng cc qui lut ph qut cng vi cc cu n nht hay c th no m ta c th gi l cc iu kin ban u nh cc tin ca suy din. Th d, c th ni rng chng ta cho mt gii thch nhn qu v s t ca mt si dy no nu ta thy rng si dy ny ch c kh nng chu mt pound, v mt vt nng hai pound c t ln n. Nu phn tch gii thch nhn qu ny, th chng ta thy rng n dnh n hai yu t. (1) Ta gi s cc gi thuyt no v tnh cht ca cc qui lut ph qut ca t nhin; trong trng hp ny, c l l: Mi khi mt si dy no chu mt sc cng vt qu mt sc cng cc i no c trng cho si dy c bit , th n s t. (2) Chng ta gi s cc mnh c th (cc iu kin ban u) gn vi s kin c bit c ni n; trong trng hp ny, ta c th c hai mnh : i vi si dy ny, sc cng c trng cc i ti n nht thit t l bng vi trng lng mt pound v Trng lng t ln si dy ny l hai pound. Nh th ta c hai loi mnh khc nhau, cng nhau chng mang li mt gii thch nhn qu y , l: (1) cc mnh ph qut v c tnh ca cc qui lut t nhin, v (2) cc mnh c th gn vi trng hp c bit c ni n, cc iu kin ban u. By gi t cc qui lut ph qut (1), vi s gip ca cc iu kin ban u (2) ta c th suy din ra mnh c th sau (3): Si dy ny s t. Kt lun (3) ny cng c th c gi l mt d on c th. Cc iu kin ban u (hay chnh xc hn, tnh hnh c chng m t) thng c gi l nguyn nhn ca s kin c ni n, v d on (hay ng hn, s kin do d on m t) l kt qu: th d, ta ni rng t mt vt nng hai pound ln mt si dy ch c kh nng chu mt pound l nguyn nhn ca s t ca si dy. T phn tch ny v gii thch nhn qu, chng ta c th thy nhiu th. Mt l chng ta khng bao gi c th ni v nguyn nhn v kt qu mt cch tuyt i, m rng mt s kin l mt nguyn nhn ca mt s kin khc, kt qu ca n, tng i vi qui lut ph qut no . Tuy vy, cc qui lut ph qut ny rt thng l ht sc tm thng (nh trong trng hp ca chng ta) m thng thng chng ta coi l d nhin, thay cho s dng chng mt cch c thc. im th hai l, vic dng mt l thuyt cho mc ch tin on s kin c th no li ng l mt kha cnh khc ca vic s dng n cho mc ch gii thch mt

CHNG 25: LCH S C CHT NGHA NO?

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s kin nh vy. V v chng ta kim nghim mt l thuyt bng cch so snh cc s kin c tin on vi cc s kin thc s c quan st, phn tch ca ta cng cho thy cc l thuyt c th c kim nghim ra sao. Liu chng ta dng mt l thuyt cho mc ch gii thch, hay tin on, hay kim nghim, ph thuc vo mi quan tm ca chng ta, v vo mnh no chng ta coi l cho trc hay c gi s. Nh th trong trng hp ca ci gi l cc khoa hc l thuyt hay khi qut (nh vt l hc, sinh hc, x hi hc, v.v.) ta ch yu quan tm n cc qui lut ph qut hay cc gi thuyt. Ta mun bit liu chng c ng khng, v v ta chng bao gi c th chc chn v s ng n ca chng, chng ta chp nhn phng php loi tr cc l thuyt sai. Mi quan tm ca chng ta n cc s kin c th, th d cc th nghim c m t bi cc iu kin ban u v cc d on, l hi hn ch; ta quan tm ti chng ch yu nh cc phng tin cho cc mc ch no , cc phng tin m ta c th kim nghim cc qui lut ph qut, cc qui lut c coi nh th v t thn, v nh thng nht ho tri thc ca chng ta. Trong trng hp khoa hc ng dng, mi quan tm ca chng ta l khc. K s dng vt l hc xy dng mt chic cu ch yu quan tm n d on: liu mt chic cu thuc mt loi no c m t (bi cc iu kin ban u) c chu c hay khng mt trng ti nht nh. Vi anh ta, cc qui lut ph qut l cc phng tin cho mt mc ch v c coi l d nhin. Do cc khoa hc khi qut thun tu v ng dng quan tm tng ng n kim nghim cc gi thuyt ph qut, v n tin on cc s kin c th. Song c mt mi quan tm na, mi quan tm n gii thch mt s kin c th hay c bit. Nu mun gii thch mt s kin nh vy, th d, mt tai nn giao thng no , th chng ta thng ngm tha nhn mt lot cc qui lut ph qut kh tm thng (nh mt ci xng s gy di mt sc cng nht nh, hay bt c xe t no va chm theo cch no vi bt c c th no s to ra mt sc cng lm gy mt ci xng, v.v.), v quan tm, ch yu, n cc iu kin ban u hay n nguyn nhn m, cng vi cc qui lut ph qut tm thng ny, s gii thch s kin c ni n. Sau chng ta thng gi s cc iu kin ban u no theo gi thuyt, v c tm ra bng chng thm no nhm tm ra liu cc iu kin ban u c gi s theo gi thuyt c ng hay khng; tc l chng ta kim nghim cc gi thuyt ny bng cch suy din t chng (vi s gip ca cc qui lut ph qut khc no v thng cng tm thng ngang th) ra cc tin on mi c th c i chiu vi cc s thc c th quan st c.

264

KT LUN

Rt him khi chng ta thy mnh phi lo lng v cc qui lut ph qut dnh lu n mt gii thch nh vy. N xy ra ch khi ta quan st mt loi s kin mi hay l no , nh mt phn ng ho hc bt ng. Nu mt s kin nh vy gy ra vic xy dng v kim nghim cc gi thuyt mi, th n l l th ch yu t quan im ca khoa hc khi qut no . Song thng l, nu quan tm n cc s kin c th v s gii thch chng, chng ta coi tt c cc qui lut ph qut m ta cn l d nhin. M cc khoa hc c mi quan tm ny n cc s kin c th v n s gii thch chng c th c gi l cc khoa hc lch s phn bit vi cc khoa hc khi qut. Cch nhn ny v lch s lm r v sao c nhiu n vy cc nh nghin cu lch s v phng php ca n li c nht nh rng chnh s kin c bit l ci h quan tm, v khng phi bt c ci c gi l qui lut lch s ph qut no. V t quan im ca chng ta, khng th c qui lut lch s no. Khi qut ho n gin thuc v mt phm vi quan tm khc, c phn bit rch ri khi mi quan tm n cc s kin c th v s gii thch nhn qu ca chng m vic ny l vic ca lch s. Nhng ngi quan tm n qui lut phi quay sang cc khoa hc khi qut (th d, x hi hc). Cch nhn ca chng ta cng lm r v sao lch s li rt hay c m t nh cc s kin ca qu kh nh chng thc s xy ra. M t ny lm ni bt kh tt mi quan tm c th ca nh nghin cu lch s, tri vi mt nh nghin cu khoa hc khi qut, cho d chng ta s phi nu ra cc phn i nht nh chng li n. V cch nhn ca chng ta gii thch v sao, trong s hc, chng ta li i mt vi cc vn v ch v tn ca n nhiu hn nhiu so vi cc khoa hc khi qut. V cc l thuyt hay cc qui lut ph qut ca khoa hc khi qut a vo s thng nht cng nh mt quan im; i vi mi khoa hc khi qut chng to ra cc vn ca n, v cc trung tm ca s ch cng nh ca nghin cu, ca kt cu logic, v ca s trnh by ca n. Nhng trong lch s hc chng ta khng c cc l thuyt thng nht nh vy; hay, ng hn, hng lot cc qui lut ph qut tm thng chng ta dng c coi l d nhin; chng hu nh l khng ng quan tm, v hon ton khng c kh nng mang li trt t cho ch . Nu chng ta, th d, gii thch s phn chia Ba Lan ln th nht nm 1772 bng ch ra rng n c l khng th khng c sc mnh kt hp ca Nga, Ph, v o, th chng ta ngm s dng qui lut ph qut tm thng no nh: Nu hai qun i c trang b v ch huy gn ngang nhau, mt c tnh hn hn v qun s, th qun i kia chng bao gi thng. (D y chng ta ni chng bao gi hay hu nh khng

CHNG 25: LCH S C CHT NGHA NO?

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bao gi khng to ra my khc bit cho mc ch ca chng ta nh n to ra cho Thuyn trng ca H. M. S. Pinafore [tn mt v ca kch]). Mt qui lut nh vy c th c m t nh mt qui lut ca x hi hc v sc mnh qun s; nhng n qu tm thng gy ra mt vn nghim tc cho cc nh nghin cu x hi hc, hay gi s ch ca h. Hay nu, th d, ta gii thch quyt nh lm liu ca Csar bng tham vng v ngh lc ca ng, th chng ta s dng cc khi qut ho tm l hc rt tm thng no nhng ci hu nh khng bao gi gi s ch ca mt nh tm l hc. (Tht ra, hu ht gii thch lch s ngm s dng, khng phi cc qui lut x hi hc v tm l hc tm thng, m s dng ci c gi, chng 14, l logic tnh th; tc l, ngoi cc iu kin ban u m t cc li ch, mc ch c nhn, v cc nhn t tnh hung khc, nh thng tin sn c cho c nhn lin quan, n ngm gi s qui lut chung tm thng rng cc c nhn lnh mnh thng thng hnh ng t nhiu duy l, nh mt loi gn ng bc mt).
III

V th chng ta thy rng cc qui lut ph qut c dng trong gii thch lch s khng cung cp nguyn tc chn lc v thng nht ho no, khng cung cp quan im no cho s hc. Trong mt ngha rt hn ch mt quan im nh vy c th c cung cp bng s gii hn lch s lch s ca ci g ; cc th d l lch s v chnh tr sc mnh, hay v cc quan h kinh t, hay v cng ngh, hay v ton hc. Song thng thng, chng ta cn thm cc nguyn l chn lc, cc quan im nhng ci ng thi l cc trung tm ch . Mt s trong cc nguyn l ny c cung cp bi cc tng nh trc nhng tng theo cch no ging vi cc qui lut ph qut, nh tng rng ci quan trng cho lch s l tnh cch ca cc V Nhn, hay c tnh dn tc, hay cc t tng o c, hay cc iu kin kinh t, v.v. By gi quan trng thy rng nhiu l thuyt lch s (chng c l c m t tt hn nh cc ta-l thuyt) l ht sc khc vi cc l thuyt khoa hc v c tnh ca chng. V trong s hc (k c cc khoa hc lch s t nhin nh a cht hc lch s) cc s kin ta tu s dng thng b gii hn mt cch nghim khc v khng th c lp li hay c thc hin theo chng ta. V chng c thu lm ph hp vi mt quan im nh trc; ci gi l cc ngun lch s ch ghi chp cc s kin t ra l th ghi chp, cho nn cc ngun thng ch bao gm cc s kin khp vi l thuyt nh trc. V nu khng sn c cc s kin thm, thng khng th kim tra l thuyt ny hay bt c l thuyt tip sau khc no. Cc l

266

KT LUN

thuyt lch s khng th kim tra c nh vy khi ng c th b ln n l vng vo theo ngha m s buc ti ny c a ra mt cch bt cng chng li cc l thuyt khoa hc. Ti s gi cc l thuyt lch s nh vy l cc din gii chung tng phn vi cc l thuyt khoa hc. Cc din gii l quan trng v chng trnh by mt quan im. Nhng chng ta thy rng mt quan im l lun lun khng th trnh khi, v rng, trong s hc, rt him khi c th nhn c mt l thuyt c th c kim nghim v v th c c tnh khoa hc. Nh th chng ta khng c ngh l mt din gii chung c th c xc nhn bi s ph hp ca n thm ch vi tt c cc t liu ca chng ta; v ta phi nh li tnh vng vo ca n, cng nh s thc rng s lun c mt s din gii khc (v c l khng tng thch) ph hp vi cng cc t liu , v rng chng ta him khi c th nhn c d liu mi c th dng nh cc th nghim quyt nh trong vt l hc8. Cc nh s hc thng khng thy bt c din gii no khc khp vi cc s kin kho bng din gii ca ring h; song nu chng ta cn nhc rng ngay c trong lnh vc vt l hc, vi kho s kin ln hn v tin cy hn ca n, ht ln ny n ln khc cn n cc th nghim quyt nh mi bi v cc th nghim c tt c u ph hp vi c hai l thuyt cnh tranh nhau v khng tng thch vi nhau (hy xt th nghim thin thc cn cho quyt nh gia cc l thuyt hp dn ca Newton v ca Einstein), th chng ta s t b nim tin u tr rng bt c tp xc nh no ca cc t liu lch s c th tng c din gii theo ch mt cch m thi. Nhng, tt nhin, iu ny khng c ngha rng mi din gii u c gi tr ngang nhau. Th nht, lun c cc din gii khng thc s ph hp vi cc t liu c chp nhn; th hai, c mt s din gii cn n mt s gi thuyt ph t nhiu c v hp l nu chng mun thot khi vic cc t liu chng minh chng l sai; tip n, c mt s din gii khng c kh nng lin kt mt s s kin m din gii khc li c th lin kt, v chng mc c th gii thch. Do c th c mc tin b ng k ngay c trong lnh vc din gii lch s. Hn na, c th c mi loi chng trung gian gia cc quan im t nhiu ph qut v cc gi thuyt lch s c th hay c bit c nhc ti trn, nhng ci ng vai tr ca cc iu kin ban u hn l cc qui lut ph qut trong gii thch cc s kin lch s. Kh thng xuyn, nhng ci ny c th c kim nghim kh k v v th c th so snh c vi cc l thuyt khoa hc. Nhng mt s gi thuyt c th ny gn ging cc ta-l thuyt ph qut m ti gi l cc din gii, v do c th c phn loi vi nhng ci ny, nh cc din gii c th. V bng chng ng h mt

CHNG 25: LCH S C CHT NGHA NO?

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din gii c th nh vy kh thng xuyn cng c tnh vng vo ht nh bng chng ng h quan im ph qut no . Th d, ngi c thm quyn duy nht ca chng ta c th cho chng ta ng thng tin v cc s kin no khp vi din gii c th ca chnh ng ta. Hu ht cc din gii v cc s kin ny m chng ta c th th khi s l vng vo theo ngha rng chng phi khp vi din gii c dng trong s chn lc ban u ca cc s kin. Tuy vy, nu chng ta c th cho ti liu nh vy mt din gii lch hon ton vi din gii c ngi c thm quyn ca chng ta chp nhn (v, th d, chc chn ng l nh th trong din gii ca chng ta v cng trnh ca Plato), th c tnh ca din gii ca chng ta c l c th c v ging mt cht vi c tnh ca mt gi thuyt khoa hc. Nhng c bn, cn phi nh s thc rng s l mt l l rt ng ng ng h mt din gii no rng n c th c p dng d dng, v n gii thch tt c nhng ci chng ta bit; v ch khi no c th kim c cc phn th d chng ta mi c th kim tra mt l thuyt. (im ny gn nh lun lun b b qua bi nhng ngi hm m cc trit hc tit l khc nhau, c bit bi cc nh phn tch tm l x hi, v phn tch lch s; h thng b cm d bi s d dng m cc l thuyt ca h c th c p dng mi ni). Ti ni trc rng cc din gii c th khng tng thch vi nhau; nhng chng no chng ta coi chng ch nh nhng s kt tinh ca cc quan im, th chng khng phi th. Th d, din gii rng con ngi tin b khng ngng (n x hi m hay mc ch no ) l khng tng thch vi din gii rng con ngi khng ngng tht li hay thoi ho. Nhng quan im ca mt ngi nhn vo lch s loi ngi nh mt lch s v tin b khng nht thit khng tng thch vi quan im ca ngi nhn vo n nh mt lch s v thoi ho; tc l, chng ta c th vit mt lch s v s tin b ca loi ngi n t do (bao gm, th d, cu chuyn v chin u chng li ch n l) v mt lch s khc v s thoi ho v n p ca con ngi (bao gm c l cc th nh s tc ng ca chng tc da trng ln cc chng tc da mu); v hai lch s ny khng nht thit mu thun; ng hn, chng c th b sung cho nhau, nh hai quang cnh ca cng mt phong cnh c nhn t hai im khc nhau. Cn nhc ny c tm quan trng ng k. V mi th h c nhng lo lng v cc vn ring ca mnh, v v th c nhng mi quan tm v cc quan im ring ca mnh, suy ra rng mi th h c quyn xem xt v ti-din gii lch s theo cch ring ca mnh, b sung cho din gii ca cc th h trc. Rt cuc, chng ta nghin cu lch s bi v chng ta quan tm ti n9, v c l bi v chng ta mun hc ci g

268

KT LUN

v cc vn ring ca chng ta. Nhng lch s khng th phng s ci no trong hai mc ch ny nu, di nh hng ca mt tng khng th p dng c v tnh khch quan, chng ta do d trnh by cc vn lch s t quan im ca chng ta. V chng ta khng nn ngh rng quan im ca chng ta, nu c p dng mt cch c thc v ph phn cho vn , s l thp km hn quan im ca mt tc gi ngi tin u tr rng ng ta khng din gii, v rng ng ta t mt mc khch quan cho php ng ta trnh by cc s kin ca qu kh nh chng thc s xy ra. (y l v sao ti tin rng ngay c cc bnh lun phi th nhn mang tnh c nhn nh vy nh c th thy trong cun sch ny l c bin h, v chng ph hp vi phng php lch s). iu chnh l phi c thc v quan im ca ngi ta, v c tnh ph phn, tc l, trnh, cng nhiu cng tt, nh kin v tnh v v th khng ph phn trong trnh by cc s kin. Trong mi kha cnh khc, din gii phi t ni cho mnh; v gi tr ca n s l tnh mu m ca n, kh nng ca n lm sng t cc s kin lch s, cng nh mi quan tm thi s ca n, kh nng ca n lm sng t cc vn ngy nay. Tm li, khng th c lch s no v qu kh nh n thc s xy ra; ch c th c cc din gii lch s, v chng din gii no trong s chng l cui cng; v mi th h c quyn dng ln din gii ca ring mnh. Nhng n khng ch c quyn dng ln cc din gii ca ring n, n cng c mt ngha v lm vy; v qu thc c mt nhu cu cp bch c tr li. Chng ta mun bit cc rc ri ca mnh lin h th no vi qu kh, v chng ta mun thy ng li theo chng ta c th tin ti gii php ca ci chng ta cm nhn, v ci chng ta la chn, l cc nhim v chnh ca chng ta. Chnh nhu cu ny m, nu khng c gii p mt cch duy l v cng bng, s to ra cc din gii lch s ch ngha. Di p lc ca n nh lch s ch ngha thay cho mt cu hi duy l: Chng ta chn ci g nh cc vn khn cp nht ca mnh, chng ny sinh th no, v theo cc con ng no chng ta c th tin hnh gii quyt chng? bng cu hi phi duy l v hnh nh thc s: Chng ta ang i ng no? V bn cht, vai tr no lch s dnh cho chng ta? Nhng liu ti c c bin minh t chi nh lch s ch ngha quyn i din gii lch s theo cch ring ca ng ta? Chng phi ti va tuyn b rng bt c ai cng c quyn nh vy? Tr li ca ti cho cu hi ny l cc din gii lch s ch ngha l thuc mt loi c bit. Nhng din gii cn, v c bin h, v ci ny hay ci khc trong s chng

CHNG 25: LCH S C CHT NGHA NO?

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nht nh c chp nhn, nh ti ni, c th c so snh vi mt ci n pha. Chng ta cho n chiu vo qu kh, v chng ta hi vng ri sng hin ti bng s phn x ca n. Tri vi cch ny, din gii lch s ch ngha c th c so snh vi mt ci n pha m chng ta hng vo chnh chng ta. N lm cho kh nu khng phi khng th nhn thy bt c th g ca mi trng quanh ta, v n lm t lit cc hnh ng ca chng ta. hiu n d ny, nh lch s ch ngha khng nhn ra rng chnh chng ta l ngi chn lc v sp t cc s kin lch s, m ng ta tin rng bn thn lch s, hay lch s loi ngi, bng cc qui lut vn c ca n, quyt nh bn thn chng ta, cc vn ca chng ta, tng lai ca chng ta, v thm ch quan im ca chng ta. Thay cho vic nhn ra rng din gii lch s phi tr li mt nhu cu ny sinh t cc vn v quyt nh thc tin i mt vi chng ta, nh lch s ch ngha tin rng trong mong mun din gii lch s ca chng ta, t biu l trc gic su sc rng bng suy ngm lch s chng ta c th khm ph ra b mt, bn cht ca vn mnh con ngi. Ch ngha lch s i ra tm Con ng m nhn loi phi i theo; n i ra khm ph ra Manh Mi ca Lch s (nh J. Macmurray gi), hay ngha ca Lch s.
IV

Nhng c mt manh mi nh vy? C mt ngha trong lch s? y ti khng mun i vo vn v ngha ca ngha; ti coi l d nhin rng hu ht mi ngi bit vi s sng t h hiu ci g khi h ni v ngha ca lch s hay v ngha hay mc ch ca cuc sng10. V theo ngha ny, theo ngha trong cu hi v ngha ca lch s c t ra, ti tr li: Lch s khng c ngha no. a ra cc l do cho kin ny, u tin ti phi ni ci g v lch s m ngi dn ngh n khi h hi liu n c ngha hay khng. Cho n y, bn thn ti ni v lch s c nh n khng cn bt c gii thch no. iu khng cn c th na; v ti mun lm r l lch stheo ngha trong hu ht ngi dn ni v n n gin khng tn ti; v y ch t l mt l do v sao ti ni l n khng c ngha no. Hu ht ngi dn i n dng t lch s nh th no? (Ti c ni lch s theo ngha trong chng ta ni v mt cun sch rng n vit v lch s Chu u khng theo ngha theo chng ta ni rng n l mt lch s ca Chu u). H hc v n trong trng hc v i hc. H c cc sch v n. H thy ci c cp trong cc sch di ci tn lch s th gii hay lch s loi ngi, v h quen nhn n nh mt

270

KT LUN

chui cc s kin t nhiu xc nh. V cc s kin ny, h tin, to thnh lch s loi ngi. Song chng ta thy rng lnh vc ca cc s kin l v cng phong ph, v phi c s chn lc. Ph hp vi cc mi quan tm ca chng ta, chng hn, ta c th vit lch s v ngh thut; hay v ngn ng; hay v cc thi quen n ung; hay v bnh st typhus [Rickettsia] (xem Rats, Lice, and History [Chut, Chy, v Lch s] ca Zinsser). Chc chn, chng ci no trong s ny l lch s ca nhn loi (tt c chng cng nhau cng khng). Ci m ngi ta ngh n khi h ni v lch s nhn loi, ng hn, l lch s ca cc ch Ai Cp, Babylonia, Ba T, Macedonia, v La M, v v.v., cho n tn thi i ca chnh chng ta. Ni cch khc: H ni v lch s nhn loi, nhng ci h mun ni, v ci h hc trong trong trng hc, l lch s v quyn lc chnh tr. Khng c lch s nhn loi, ch c mt s v tn cc lch s v mi loi kha cnh ca cuc sng con ngi. V mt trong cc s ny l lch s v quyn lc chnh tr. Ci ny c cao thnh lch s th gii. Nhng, ti cho rng, y l mt s xc phm chng li mi quan nim t t v nhn loi. N hu nh khng tt hn coi lch s v tham hay v n cp hay v u c nh lch s nhn loi. V lch s v chnh tr quyn lc chng l g ngoi lch s v ti c quc t v git ngi hng lot (ng l c c mt s n lc ngn chn chng). Lch s ny c dy trong cc trng hc, v mt s trong nhng k ti phm ln nht c ca tng nh cc anh hng. Nhng tht s khng c ci vi t cch l mt lch s ph qut theo ngha ca mt lch s nhn loi c th? Khng th c. y phi l cu tr li ca mi nh nhn o, ti tin, v c bit ca mi ngi C c. Mt lch s c th ca nhn loi, nu gi nh c, s phi l lch s ca tt c mi ngi. N phi l lch s ca mi hi vng, vt ln, v au kh ca con ngi. V khng c mt ngi no quan trng hn bt c ngi khc no. R rng, lch s c th ny khng th c vit. Chng ta phi a ra cc tru tng ho, phi b qua, phi chn lc. Song vi vic ny chng ta i n nhiu lch s; v trong s chng, n lch s v ti c quc t v git ngi hng lot c qung co nh lch s loi ngi. Nhng v sao ch lch s quyn lc c chn, v khng phi, th d, lch s tn gio, hay thi ca? C nhiu l do. Mt l quyn lc nh hng n mi chng ta, v thi ca ch n t ngi. L do khc l con ngi c thin hng sng bi quyn lc. Nhng khng th nghi ng rng tn sng quyn lc l mt trong cc loi ti nht ca cc s sng bi thn tng ca con ngi, mt di tch ca thi i nh giam, ca tnh trng n

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l ca con ngi. S tn sng quyn lc c sinh ra t s hi, mt xc cm b coi khinh mt cch chnh ng. L do th ba v sao chnh tr quyn lc li c bin thnh li ca lch s l nhng ngi nm quyn mun c sng bi v c th thc thi cc mun ca h. Nhiu nh s hc vit di s gim st ca cc hong , cc tng v cc nh c ti. Ti bit rng cc quan im ny s vp phi s phn i mnh m nht t nhiu pha, k c mt s nh bin h cho o C c; v mc d hu nh chng c g trong Tn c ng h hc thuyt ny, thng c coi l mt phn ca gio iu C c rng Cha t tit l Mnh trong lch s; rng lch s c ngha; v ngha ca n l ch nh ca Cha. Ch ngha lch s nh th c cho l mt yu t thit yu ca tn gio. Nhng ti khng tha nhn iu ny. Ti cho rng quan im ny l s sng bi thn tng v m tn thun tu, khng ch t quan im ca mt nh duy l hay nhn o m t bn thn quan im C c. Ci g ng sau ch ngha lch s hu thn ny? Vi Hegel, n nhn vo lch s - lch s chnh tr - nh mt sn khu, hay ng hn, nh mt loi kch Shakespearian di; v khn gi quan nim hoc cc nhn vt lch s v i, hoc nhn loi mt cch tru tng, nh cc nhn vt chnh trong v kch. Ri h hi, Ai vit v kch ny? V h ngh h cho mt gii p ngoan o khi h tr li, Cha vit. Nhng h lm. Cu tr li ca h l li bng b thun tu, v vi kch c vit khng phi bi Cha (v h bit iu ), m bi cc gio s lch s di s gim st ca cc v tng v nhng k c ti. Ti khng ph nhn l cng c th chnh ng din gii lch s t mt quan im C c nh din gii n t bt c quan im khc no; v chc chn phi nhn mnh, th d, rng chng ta c bit bao nhiu mc tiu, mc ch, ch ngha nhn o, quyn t do, bnh ng ca Phng Ty, l nh nh hng ca o C c. Nhng ng thi, ch thi duy l cng nh ch thi C c thm ch i vi lch s v quyn t do l, bn thn chng ta chu trch nhim v n, theo cng ngha trong ta c trch nhim v ci chng ta bin cuc sng ca mnh, v ch lng tm chng ta c th phn x chng ta ch khng phi thnh cng th gian ca chng ta. L thuyt rng Cha tit l Bn thn mnh v phn x ca Ngi trong lch s l khng th phn bit c vi l thuyt rng thnh cng th gian l quan to v s bin h cui cng ca cc hnh ng ca chng ta; n dn n cng kt lun nh hc thuyt rng lch s s phn x, tc l, l phi thuc v k mnh tng lai; n l cng vy nh ci chng ta gi l ch ngha v lai o c11. Cho rng Cha tit l Bn thn mnh trong ci thng c gi l lch s, trong lch s

272

KT LUN

v ti c quc t v v git ngi hng lot, qu thc l s bng b; v ci thc s xy ra trong lnh vc cuc sng con ngi hu nh cha tng c chuyn c c v ng thi tr con ny ng ti. Cuc sng ca ngi b qun, ca c nhn v danh; cc ni tht vng v nim vui ca anh ta, s au kh v ci cht ca anh ta, y l ni dung tht ca kinh nghim con ngi hng th k. Nu lch s c th ni iu , th ti chc chn khng ni rng n l s bng b thy ngn tay ca Cha . Song mt lch s nh vy khng v khng th tn ti; v tt c cc lch s tn ti, lch s ca chng ta v ngi V i v Hng mnh, may nht l mt hi kch nng cn; n l nhc kch hi do cc th lc ng sau thc ti biu din (c th so snh c vi nhc kch hi ca Homer v cc th lc Olympian ng sau nhng vt ln ca con ngi). Chnh mt trong cc bn nng ti t nht ca chng ta, s sng bi tn th quyn lc, thnh cng, dn chng ta i tin l tht. V trong lch s thm ch khng phi nhn to, m do con ngi lm gi ra ny, mt s ngi C c dm thy bn tay ca Cha! H dm hiu v bit ci Ngi mun khi h cho Ngi cc din gii lch s nh nhen ca h! Ngc li, K. Barth nh thn hc ni, trong cun Credo [Tn nim] ca ng, chng ta phi bt u vi s th nhn .. l tt c ci chng ta ngh mnh bit khi chng ta ni Cha khng t ti hay lnh hi c Ngi .., m lun l mt trong cc thn tng t ngh ra hay t to ca chng ta, bt lun l linh hn hay t nhin, s mnh hay nim ..12 (Ph hp vi thi ny Barth m t c im hc thuyt Tin lnh-Mi v s thin khi ca Cha trong lch s nh khng th chp nhn c v nh mt s xm phm vo chc v ti thng ca Cha Christ). Song, t quan im C c, khng ch l tnh kiu ngo di cc mu toan nh vy; n, c th hn, l mt thi chng-C c. V o C c dy, nu c th ni nh vy, rng thnh cng th tc l khng quyt nh. Christ au kh di ch Pontius Pilate. Ti li trch Barth: Pontius Pilate i vo Tn Nim th no? C th cho ngay cu tr li n gin: n l vn ngy thng. Nh th ngi thnh cng, k i din quyn lc lch s ca thi , ng vai tr k thut thun tu y cho bit cc s kin ny xy ra khi no. V cc s kin ny l g? Chng chng lin quan g vi thnh cng quyn lc-chnh tr, vi lch s. Chng thm ch khng l cu chuyn v mt cuc cch mng dn tc ch ngha bt-bo ng khng thnh cng (theo kiu [ la] Gandhi) ca nhn dn Do Thi chng li nhng k xm chim La M. Cc s kin chng l g ngoi s au kh ca mt con ngi. Barth nhn mnh rng t au kh m ch ton b cuc i Christ v khng ch n ci cht ca Ngi; ng ni13:

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Jesus au kh. Bi th Ngi khng chinh phc. Ngi khng chin thng. Ngi khng c thnh cng .. Ngi chng ginh c g tr .. s ng inh trn thnh gi. C th ni cng vy v quan h ca Ngi vi nhn dn v cc mn ca Ngi. nh ca ti khi trch dn Barth l chng t rng khng ch t quan im duy l hay nhn o ca ti m s sng bi thnh cng lch s t ra khng tng hp vi tinh thn o C c. Ci c ngha vi o C c khng phi l cc chin cng lch s ca nhng k xm chim La M m (dng li ni ca Kierkegaard14) l ci vi ng dn cng hin cho th gii. Th m mi din gii hu thn v lch s c thy s biu l ch ca Cha trong lch s nh n c ghi chp, tc l trong lch s v quyn lc, v trong thnh cng lch s. i vi s tn cng ny ln hc thuyt v s thin khi ca Cha trong lch s, c l c tr li rng n l thnh cng, thnh cng ca Ngi sau ci cht ca Ngi, theo cuc sng khng thnh cng ca Christ trn tri t cui cng c thin khi cho nhn loi nh thng li tinh thn v i nht; rng n thnh cng, cc thnh qu ca gio hun ca Ngi chng minh v bin h cho n, v theo li tin tri K cui cng s l k u tin v k u tin l k cui cng c xc minh. Ni cch khc, chnh thnh cng ca Gio hi C c l ci qua ch ca Cha hin l. Song y l cch bin h nguy him nht. Ng ca n rng thnh cng th tc ca Gio hi l mt l l ng h o C c r rng tit l s thiu nim tin. Nhng ngi C c ban u khng h c nim c v th tc thuc loi ny. (H tin rng lng tm phi phn x quyn lc15, ch khng phi ngc li). Nhng ai cho rng lch s v thnh cng ca gio hun C c tit l ch ca Cha phi hi chnh mnh liu thnh cng ny c tht l mt thnh cng ca tinh thn C c hay khng; v liu tinh thn ny khng chin thng thi k khi Gio hi b ngc i, hn l thi k khi Gio hi chin thng. Gio hi no kt hp cht ch tinh thn ny thun khit hn, Gio hi ca nhng ngi t v o, hay Gio hi chin thng ca To d gio? Dng nh c nhiu ngi tha nhn iu ny lm, khng khng nh h tha nhn rng thng ip ca o C c l cho nhng k nhu m, nhng vn tin rng thng ip ny l ca ch ngha lch s. Mt i din li lc ca quan im ny l J. Macmurray, trong The Clue to History [Manh mi Lch s], ng thy bn cht ca gio hun C c trong tin tri lch s, v ng coi nh sng lp ca n l ngi khm ph ra mt qui lut bin chng v bn tnh con ngi. Macmurray cho rng16, theo qui lut ny, lch s chnh tr phi sinh ra mt cch khng th trnh khi cng ng x hi ch ngha th gii. Qui lut c bn v bn tnh con

274

KT LUN

ngi khng th b vi phm ..Nhng k ngoan ngon s k tha th gii. Song ch ngha lch s ny, vi s thay th iu chc chn cho hi vng ca n, phi dn ti mt ch ngha v lai o c. Qui lut khng th b vi phm. Nh th chng ta c th chc chn, da vo cc cn c tm l, rng bt lun chng ta lm g s dn n cng kt qu; rng ngay c ch ngha pht xt, cui cng, phi dn n cng ng ; v th kt qu cui cng khng ph thuc vo quyt nh o c ca chng ta, v rng khng cn phi lo v cc trch nhim ca chng ta. Nu chng ta c bo rng chng ta c th chc chn, da vo cn c khoa hc, rng k cui cng s l k u tin v k u tin l k cui cng, iu ny c khc g ngoi s thay th li tin tri lch s cho lng tm? Chng phi l thuyt ny ti gn mt cch nguy him li khuyn rn (chc chn ngc li cc nh ca tc gi ca n): Hy khn ngoan, v suy ngh v ci nh sng lp ca o C c ni vi mi, bi v ngi l mt nh tm l v i v bn tnh con ngi v mt nh tin tri ln ca lch s. Hy mau ha theo nhng ngi ngoan ngon; v theo cc qui lut khng lay chuyn c v bn tnh con ngi, y l cch chc chn nht vt ln nh! Mt manh mi nh vy v lch s bao hm sng bi thnh cng; n ng rng nhng ngi ngoan ngon s c bin h v h s pha thng. N bin ch ngha Marx, v c bit ci ti m t nh l thuyt o c lch s ch ngha ca Marx, thnh ngn ng ca mt tm l hc v bn tnh con ngi, v v tin tri tn gio. N l mt din gii m, bng ng , thy thnh tu v i nht ca o C c trong s thc rng nh sng lp ra n l mt nh tin bi ca Hegel - phi th nhn, mt tin bi cao siu. S nhn mnh ca ti rng khng c sng bi thnh cng, rng n khng th l quan to ca chng ta, v rng chng ta khng c n lm lo mt, v c bit, cc n lc ca ti chng t rng trong thi ny ti tn thnh vi ci ti tin l gio hun ch thc ca o C c khng nn b hiu lm. Chng khng c nh ng h thi v th gii khc m ti ph phn chng trc17. Khng bit o C c c l th gii-khc khng, ti khng bit, nhng n chc chn dy rng cch duy nht chng minh nim tin ca mnh l a ra s gip thc tin (v trn th) cho nhng ngi cn n. V chc chn l c th kt hp mt thi cc k d dt v thm ch khinh mit thnh cng th tc theo ngha quyn lc, danh ting, v giu sang, vi c gng lm iu tt nht ca mnh trn i ny, v thc y cc mc ch m ta quyt nh chp nhn vi nh r rng lm chng thnh cng; khng phi v thnh cng hay v s bin h ca ta bi lch s, m v chnh chng.

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Mt s ng h mnh m cc quan im ny, v c bit tnh khng tng thch ca ch ngha lch s v o C c, c th thy trong ph phn Hegel ca Kierkegaard. Mc d Kierkegaard cha bao gi hon ton t thot khi truyn thng Hegelian trong ng c gio dc18, kh c ai nhn ra r rng hn ch ngha lch s Hegelian c ngha l g. c, Kierkegaard vit19, cc nh trit hc nhng ngi, trc Hegel, th gii thch .. lch s. V thin gii ch c th tm tm ci khi nhn thy cc c gng ny. Nhng thin gii khng ch ci cng khai, v trong cc c gng y c s chn thnh chn tht ca con ngi. Nhng Hegel ! - y ti cn ngn ng ca Homer. Cc thn ln ci xit bao! Mt gio s cn con d s ngi n gin nhn thu s tt yu ca mi th v mi th hin hu, v ngi by gi ang chi ton b cu chuyn trn chic n thng ca mnh: hy nghe, hi cc ch thn ni Olympus ! V Kierkegaard tip tc, nhc n s tn cng20 ca nh v thn Schopenhauer ln nh bin h C c Hegel: c Schopenhauer cho ti nhiu nim vui hn ti c th by t. Ci ng ni l hon ton ng; v lc - tht ng i cho nhng ngi c- ng ta th l nh ch ngi c mi c th. Nhng s din t ca chnh Kierkegaard cng gn thng thng nh ca Schopenhauer; v Kierkegaard tip tc ni rng ch ngha Hegel, m ng gi l tinh thn thi ra li lc ny, l ng gh tm nht trong mi dng ca tnh m h; v ng ni v tnh hoa m meo mc ca n, v tnh khu gi tr tu ca n, v v s trng l i bi kht ting ca n. V, qu thc, s gio dc tr c cng nh o c ca chng ta l i bi. N b i bi bi s thn phc s ti gii, thn phc cch thc cc th c ni, ci chim mt ch ca mt s nh gi ph phn v nhng ci c ni (v cc th c lm). N b i bi bi tng lng mn v s lng ly ca sn khu Lch s trn chng ta l cc din vin. Chng ta c gio dc chy theo th hiu ca cng chng. Ton b vn v gio dc con ngi ti mt nh gi lnh mnh v tm quan trng ca chnh anh ta so vi tm quan trng ca cc c nhn khc l hon ton m mm bi cc o c ny v danh ting v s phn, bi mt o c duy tr mi mi mt h thng gio dc vn da vo cc kinh in vi ci nhn lng mn ca chng v lch s quyn lc v nn o c b lc lng mn ca chng nhng th truy nguyn v tn n Heraclitus; mt h thng m c s cui cng ca n l s sng bi quyn lc. Thay cho mt s kt hp tnh to ca ch ngha c nhn v ch ngha v tha (li dng cc nhn ny21) -tc l, thay cho lp trng nh Ci thc s c ngha l cc c nhn con ngi, nhng ti khng coi iu ny

276

KT LUN

nh c ngha rng ti l ngi rt quan trng mt s kt hp lng mn ca ch ngha v k v ch ngha tp th li c coi l d nhin. Tc l, tm quan trng ca ci ti, ca cuc sng xc cm ca n v s t biu hin ca n, c thi phng mt cch lng mn; v vi n, s cng thng gia c tnh v nhm, tp th. iu ny chim ch ca cc c nhn khc, con ngi khc, nhng khng c ch cho cc quan h c nhn phi chng. Thng tr hay phc tng, bng ng , l chm ngn ca thi ny; hoc l mt V Nhn, mt Anh hng nh vt vi s phn v c c danh ting (hi sinh cng ln, danh ting cng cao, Heraclitus ni), hoc thuc v qun chng v t phc tng ban lnh o v hi sinh bn thn mnh cho s nghip cao c hn ca tp th. C mt yu t lon thn kinh, cung lon trong trng thi cng thng b thi phng ny, v ti khng nghi ng rng chng cung lon ny, phn ng ny i vi cng thng ca nn vn minh, l b mt ca s quyn r xc cm mnh m ca o c v sng bi anh hng, ca o c v thng tr v phc tng22.. di y ca tt c iu ny c mt kh khn tht s. Trong khi kh r (nh chng ta thy cc chng 9 v 24) rng nh chnh tr phi hn ch mnh u tranh chng ci xu, thay cho chin u v cc gi tr tch cc hay cao hn, nh hnh phc, v.v., nh gio, v nguyn l, mt a v khc. Mc d ng ta khng c p t thang gi tr cao hn ca mnh ln cc hc tr, chc chn ng ta nn th khi dy s quan tm ca h n cc gi tr ny. ng ta phi chm lo cho tm hn hc tr ca mnh. (Khi Socrates bo cc bn ng chm lo tm hn h, ng chm lo cho h). Nh th chc chn c ci g ging mt yu t lng mn hay thm m trong gio dc, ci khng c tham d vo hot ng chnh tr. Nhng tuy iu ny ng v nguyn l, n hu nh khng th p dng cho h thng gio dc ca chng ta. V n gi nh trc mt quan h tnh bn gia thy gio v hc tr, mt quan h m, nh c nhn mnh chng 24, mi bn phi c t do chm dt. (Socrates chn bu bn ca mnh v h chn ng). Chnh s hc tr l ci lm cho iu ny l khng th trong cc trng hc ca chng ta. Do , cc mu toan p t cc gi tr cao hn khng ch tr thnh khng thnh cng, m phi nhn mnh rng chng dn n tai hi - n ci g c th v cng khai hn nhiu so vi cc l tng c hng ti. V nguyn l rng nhng ngi c giao ph cho chng ta phi, trc bt c th g khc, khng b lm hi, phi c tha nhn l ng cng c bn cho gio dc ht nh cho y hc. ng lm hi (v, v th, cho ngi tr ci h cn khn cp nht, tr nn c lp vi chng ta, c kh nng la chn cho chnh h) l mt mc tiu rt ng coi trng cho h thng gio dc

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ca chng ta, v s thc hin mc tiu y cn hi xa, d cho n nghe c v khim tn. Thay vo , cc mc tiu cao c hn l mt thi thng, cc mc tiu l in hnh lng mn v qu thc v ngha, nh s pht trin y ca nhn cch. Chnh di nh hng ca cc tng lng mn nh vy m ch ngha c nhn vn b ng nht vi ch ngha ch k, nh n b Plato ng nht, v ch ngha v tha vi ch ngha tp th (tc l vi s thay th ch ngha ch k nhm cho ch ngha ch k c nhn). Nhng iu ny cn ng ngay c i vi mt s trnh by r rng ca vn chnh, vn lm sao c c mt s nh gi ng mc v tm quan trng ca mnh trong mi quan h vi cc c nhn khc. V c cm thy, v ng nh th, rng chng ta phi nhm ti ci g vt qu bn thn chng ta, ci g m chng ta c th hin dng bn thn mnh, v v n chng ta c th hi sinh, li c kt lun rng ci ny phi l tp th, vi s mng lch s ca n. Nh th chng ta c bo hy hi sinh, v, ng thi, c m bo rng chng ta s c mt s mc c tuyt vi bng cch lm vy. Chng ta s hi sinh, ngi ta ni, nhng v th chng ta s nhn c vinh quang v danh ting. Chng ta s tr thnh cc din vin dn u, cc nhn vt chnh trn Sn khu Lch s; thay cho mt ri ro nh chng ta s c cc phn thng ln. y l o c ng ng ca mt thi k trong ch mt nhm thiu s c tnh n, v trong chng ai chm lo cho nhng ngi dn thng. N l o c ca nhng ngi, do l cc qu tc chnh tr hay tr tu, c c hi lm quen vi cc sch gio khoa lch s. N c l khng th l o c ca nhng ngi ng h cng l v ch ngha bnh ng; v danh ting lch s khng th l cng bng, v ch rt t ngi c th t c n. V s ngi nhng ngi cng ng xng ng th, hay xng ng hn, s lun lun b b qun. C l phi tha nhn rng o c hc Heraclitean, hc thuyt rng phn thng cao qu hn l ci ch c hu th mi c th trao tng, c th theo cch no c l u vit hn mt hc thuyt o c dy chng ta i tm phn thng ngay by gi. Nhng khng phi l ci chng ta cn. Chng ta cn mt o c hc coi thng thnh cng v phn thng. V mt o c hc nh vy khng cn phi sng ch ra. N khng phi mi. N c o C c ch trng, ch t trong cc giai on u ca n. N, li ln na, c s hp tc cng nghip cng nh khoa hc ca thi i ca chnh chng ta ch trng. o c lch s ch ngha lng mn v danh ting, may thay, dng nh gim st. Ngi Lnh V danh chng t iu . Chng ta ang bt u nhn ra rng s hi

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sinh c th c ngha nhiu ng nh, hay thm ch nhiu hn, khi hi sinh n danh. Gio dc o c ca chng ta phi i theo cch ngi trc lm. Chng ta phi c dy lm cng vic ca mnh; hi sinh v cng vic ny, v khng phi v li khen hay trnh khin trch. (S thc l tt c chng ta u cn s khch l, hi vng, li khen, v thm ch khin trch no , li l vn hon ton khc). Chng ta phi tm thy s bin minh ca mnh trong cng vic, trong ci bn thn chng ta lm, ch khng phi trong mt ngha lch s h cu. Lch s khng c ngha no, ti dm chc vy. Nhng lun im ny khng ng rng tt c nhng ci chng ta c th lm v n l kinh hi nhn lch s chnh tr quyn lc, hay rng chng ta phi ng nhn n nh mt chuyn l bch tn c. Chng ta c th din gii n, vi con mt hng vo cc vn chnh tr quyn lc m chng ta chn li gii ca chng th trong thi i chng ta. Chng ta c th din gii lch s quyn lc chnh tr t quan im ca cuc u tranh ca chng ta v x hi m, v mt nguyn tc ca l tr, v cng l, t do, bnh ng, v v kim sot ti phm quc t. Mc d lch s khng c cc mc ch, chng ta c th p t cc mc ch ny ca chng ta ln n; v du cho lch s khng c ngha no, chng ta c th cho n mt ngha. Ta li gp y vn v t nhin v quy c23. C t nhin ln lch s khng th bo chng ta ci chng ta nn lm. Cc s thc, bt lun l cc s kin v t nhin hay lch s, khng th a ra quyt nh cho chng ta, chng khng th xc nh cc mc ch m chng ta s chn. Chnh chng ta l ngi a nh v ngha vo t nhin v lch s. Con ngi l khng ngang nhau; nhng chng ta c th quyt nh u tranh v cc quyn bnh ng. Cc th ch ca con ngi nh nh nc l khng duy l, nhng chng ta c th quyt nh chin u lm cho chng duy l hn. Bn thn chng ta v ngn ng thng thng ca chng ta, nhn tng qut, mang tnh xc cm hn l duy l; nhng chng ta c th th tr nn duy l hn mt cht, v chng ta c th rn luyn mnh dng ngn ng ca chng ta nh mt cng c khng phi ca t-biu l (nh cc nh gio dc lng mn ca chng ta ni) m ca truyn thng duy l24. Bn thn lch s - ti mun ni n lch s chnh tr, tt nhin, khng phi lch s khng tn ti v s pht trin ca nhn loi khng c mc ch no cng chng c ngha no, song chng ta c th quyt nh cho n c hai. Ta c th bin n thnh cuc chin u ca chng ta v x hi m v chng li cc k th ca n (nhng k, khi ni kn o, lun lun cam oan cc tnh cm nhn o ca h, ph hp vi li khuyn ca Pareto); v chng ta c th din gii n mt cch

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ph hp. Cui cng, chng ta c th ni cng vy v ngha ca cuc sng. Tu thuc vo chng ta quyt nh ch ca chng ta trong cuc sng l g, xc nh cc mc ch ca chng ta25. Ch ngha nh nguyn ny v cc s thc v cc quyt nh26, ti tin, l c bn. Cc s thc, cc s kin nh chng vn l, khng c ngha no; chng c th c ngha ch thng qua quyt nh ca chng ta. Ch ngha lch s ch l mt trong nhiu c gng vt qua ch ngha nh nguyn ny; n c sinh ra t s hi, v n trnh vic nhn thc r l chng ta chu trch nhim cui cng ngay c v cc tiu chun chng ta la chn. Song mt c gng nh vy i vi ti dng nh chnh xc i din cho ci thng c m t l m tn. V n cho rng chng ta c th thu hoch ni mnh khng gieo ht; n c thuyt phc chng ta rng nu ta n thun i ng bc lch s th mi th s v phi din ra tt p, v rng khng cn n quyt nh c bn no t pha chng ta; n c chuyn trch nhim ca chng ta cho lch s, v v th cho tr c bc ca cc th lc ma qu vt qu bn thn chng ta; n th t c s cho cc hnh ng ca chng ta trn cc nh c che giu ca cc th lc ny, nhng ci c th c tit l cho chng ta ch trong cc cm hng v trc gic thn b; v nh th n t cc hnh ng ca chng ta v bn thn chng ta mc o c ca mt ngi, c cc l s t vi v cc gic m truyn cm hng, chn s may ca mnh trong mt tr x s27. Ging tr c bc, ch ngha lch s c sinh ra t s tht vng ca chng ta v tnh hp l v trch nhim ca cc hnh ng ca chng ta. N l mt hi vng mt phm cch v mt nim tin mt gi tr, mt mu toan i thay hi vng v nim tin pht sinh t nhit tnh o c v khinh mit thnh cng ca chng ta bng mt s chc chn ny sinh t mt khoa hc-gi mo; mt khoa hc-gi mo v cc tinh t, hay v bn tnh con ngi, hay v vn mnh lch s. Ch ngha lch s, ti qu quyt, khng ch khng th ng vng v mt l tr, n cng mu thun vi bt c tn gio no ch trng tm quan trng ca lng tm. V mt tn gio nh vy phi ng vi thi duy l i vi lch s s nhn mnh ca n n trch nhim ti cao ca chng ta v cc hnh ng ca mnh, v v cc hu qu ca chng ln tin trnh lch s. ng, chng ta cn hi vng; hnh ng, sng m khng c hi vng l vt qu sc chng ta. Song chng ta khng cn nhiu hn, v khng c cho chng ta nhiu hn. Chng ta khng cn s chc chn. c bit, tn gio khng c l ci thay th cho cc c m v ao c; n khng c ging nh cm mt v x s, cng chng

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nh nm gi mt n bo him trong mt cng ti bo him. Yu t lch s ch ngha trong tn gio l mt yu t sng bi thn tng, m tn. S nhn mnh ny n ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v cc quyt nh cng xc nh thi ca chng ta i vi cc tng nh tin b. Nu ta ngh rng lch s tin ti, hoc chng ta nht thit tin b, th chng ta phm cng sai lm nh nhng ngi tin rng lch s c mt ngha ci c th c khm ph ra trong n v khng cn gn cho n. V tin ti l di chuyn n mt loi mc ch no , n mt mc ch tn ti cho chng ta vi t cch l nhng con ngi. Lch s khng th lm vic ; ch c chng ta, cc c nhn con ngi, c th lm iu ; chng ta c th lm vic bng bo v v cng c cc th ch dn ch m da vo chng t do, v vi n s tin b, ph thuc vo. Chng ta s lm vic tt hn nhiu khi chng ta tr nn c thc y hn v s thc rng s tin b tu thuc vo chng ta, vo s sng sa ca quan nim ca chng ta v cc mc ch ca mnh, v vo ch ngha hin thc28 v s la chn chng. Thay cho lm ra v l cc nh tin tri chng ta phi tr thnh nhng ngi to ra s phn ca mnh. Chng ta phi hc lm cc th tt mc chng ta c th, v tm ra cc sai lm ca mnh. V khi chng ta vt b tng rng lch s quyn lc s l quan to ca chng ta, khi chng ta t b s lo lng liu lch s c bin h cho chng ta hay khng, th mt ngy no c l chng ta c th thnh cng kim sot quyn lc. Bng cch ny, n lt mnh, chng ta thm ch c th bin minh lch s. Rt cn mt s bin minh.

CH THCH CH THCH CHO CHNG 11 Rng ph phn Plato ca Aristotle l rt thng xuyn, v nhiu ch quan trng, khng xng ng, c nhiu nh nghin cu lch s trit hc tha nhn. N l mt trong vi im m ngay c nhng ngi hm m Aristotle cng thy kh bo v ng, v h thng cng l ngi hm m Plato. Zeller, trch ch mt th d, (so Aristotle and the Earlier Peripatetics, bn dch ting Anh ca Costelloe v Muirhead, 1897, II, 261, n.2), bnh lun v s phn phi t trong Nh nc Tt nht ca Aristotle: C mt k hoch tng t Laws ca Plato, 745c seqq.; tuy vy, Politics 1265b24, Aristotle coi dn xp ca Plato l rt ng ch trch ch v mt khc bit vt. G. Grote, Aristotle (Ch. XIV, cui on th hai) a ra mt nhn xt tng t. Cn c vo nhiu ph phn Plato gi r l s ghen t tnh c o ca Plato l mt phn ng c ca ng, s m bo long trng c ca ngi nhiu ca Aristotle (Nicomachean Ethics, I, 6, 1) rng nhim v thing ling u tin cho chn l buc ng hi sinh ci thm ch qu gi nht vi ng, y l, tnh yu ca ng vi Plato, vi ti nghe c v hi gi nhn gi ngha. 2 So T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (ti trch t ln xut bn ting c, III, 298, tc l Book 7, Ch. 31, 6). Xem c bit Politics ca Aristotle, 1313a. G. C. Field (trong Plato and His Contemporaries, 114 f.) bo v Plato v Aristotle chng li s ch trch .. rng, vi kh nng, v, trng hp sau, thc t v iu ny (tc l s xm ln ca Macedon) trc con mt h, h chng .. ni g v cc din tin mi ny. Song s bo v ca Field (c l hng chng Gomperz) l khng thnh cng, bt chp cc bnh lun anh thp ca ng v nhng ngi a ra mt ch trch nh vy. (Field ni: ph phn ny l .. mt s thiu hiu bit l k). Tt nhin, ng, nh Field cho rng mt b quyn ging nh quyn b ch m Macedon hnh s .. khng phi l vic mi; nhng Macedon trong con mt Plato ch t l na-d man v v th l mt k th t nhin. Field cng ng khi ni rng s ph hu nn c lp bi Macedon khng phi l s ph hu hon ton; nhng c phi Plato hay Aristotle thy trc l n khng tr thnh hon ton? Ti tin mt s bo v nh ca Field c l khng th thnh cng, n gin v n s phi chng minh qu nhiu; c th l, tm quan trng ca mi e do Macedon c th r i vi bt c nh quan st no khi ; song iu ny, tt nhin, b th d ca Demosthenes bc b. Cu hi l: v sao Plato, ging Isocrates quan tm mt t n ch ngha dn tc lin-Hi Lp c [pan-Hellenic] (so cc ct. 48-50 ch. 8, Rep., 470, v Eight Letter, 353e, m Field cho l chc chn l thc) v ngi e s mt mi e do Phnician v Oscan i vi Syracuse, v sao ng li pht l mi e do Macedon i vi Athens? Mt cu tr li c v ph hp cho cu hi tng ng v Aristotle l: v ng thuc v phi ng h Macedon. Mt cu tr li trng hp ca Plato do Zeller (op. cit., II, 41) gi khi ng bo v quyn ca Aristotle i ng h Macedon: Plato hi lng v c tnh qu qut ca lp trng chnh tr hin hnh n mc ng ch trng cc thay i cc k su rng. (Mn ca Plato, Zeller tip tc, m ch n Aristotle, t c th trnh khi cng s kt n, v ng c ci nhn su v sc so hn vo con ngi v s vt .. Ni cch khc, cu tr li c th l s cm ght ca Plato i vi nn dn ch Athen vt qu ch ngha dn tc lin-Hi Lp ca ng nhiu n mc, ging Isocrates, ng hn hoan mong i s xm ln ca Macedon. 3 Trch dn ny v ba trch dn tip l t Politics ca Aristotle, 1254b-1255a; 1254a; 1255a; 1260a. Xem c: 1252a, f. (I, 2, 2-5); 1253b, ff. (I, 4, 386, v c bit I, 5); 1313b (V, 11, 11). Ngoi ra: Metaphysics, 1075a, ni ngi t do v cc n l cng i lp nhau bi bn tnh. Song ta cng thy on: Mt s n l c tm hn ca ngi t do, v n l khc c th xc ca h (Politics, 1254b). So vi Timaeus ca Plato, 51e, c trch ct. 50 (2) ch. 8. - V mt s lm nh bt tm thng, v mt nh gi c
1

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cn nhc in hnh v Laws ca Plato, xem Politics, 1260b: Nhng ngi (y l cch Aristotlean hi in hnh m ch n Plato) sai l nhng ngi thm ch cm chng ta chuyn tr vi cc n l v bo ch nn dng cch ni ra lnh; v cc n l phi b qu mng (Plato ni, Laws, 777e, rng h khng nn b ry la) ngay c nhiu hn tr em. Zeller, trong danh mc di ca mnh v cc c hnh c nhn ca Aristotle (op. cit., I, 44), nhc n tnh cao thng v cc nguyn tc ca ng v lng nhn t ca ng i vi cc n l. Ti khng th cng li vic nh n nguyn tc c l t cao qu hn song chc chn nhn t hn c Alcidamas v Lycophron a ra trc nhiu, y l, khng nn c n l no c. W. D. Ross (Aristotle, 2nd ed., 1930, pp. 241 ff.) bo v thi ca Aristotle i vi s n l bng cch ni: ni vi ta ng c v l phn ng, ng c th c v l cch mng i vi h, tc l vi nhng ngi cng thi ng. bo v quan im ny, Ross nhc n hc thuyt ca Aristotle v ngi Hy Lp khng nn n dch ngi Hy Lp. Song thuyt ny kh c th l rt cch mng v Plato ch trng n, c l na th k trc Aristotle. V quan im ca Aristotle qu thc l phn ng, tt nht c th thy t s thc l ng ht ln ny n ln khc thy cn bo v chng chng hc thuyt rng khng ngi no l n l do bn tnh, v hn na t li chng ca chnh ng v cc xu hng chng-s n l ca nn dn ch Athen. Mt trnh ny tuyt vi v Politics ca Aristotle c th thy phn u ca Chng XIV cun Aristotle ca G. Grote, m ti s trch vi cu: S .. do Aristotle kin ngh v chnh ph, hai cun cui ca Politics, nh tiu biu cho cc tng ring ca ng v ci g ging nh s tuyt m, r rng da vo Republic ca Plato: ngi m ng khc chi tit quan trng v khng tha nhn c s hu chung v ti sn v s hu chung v v con. C hai trit gia ny tha nhn mt giai cp tch bit ca dn c, c gii thot khi mi cng vic ring cc nhc v vic kim tin, v to thnh cc cng dn duy nht ca cng ng. Giai cp nh ny thc t l th - l cng ng: dn c cn li khng phi l mt phn ca cng ng, h ch l cc phn ph i vi n - qu thc khng th thiu c, nhng vn ch l ph, theo cng cch nh cc n l hay gia sc. Grote nhn ra Nh nc Tt nht ca Aristotle, ni n khc vi Republic, a phn l bn sao ca Laws. S ph thuc ca Aristotle vo Plato l ni bt ngay c ni ng by t s ngm ng ca mnh v chin thng ca dn ch; so c bit, Politics, III, 15; 11-13; 1286b (mt on tng t l IV, 13; 10; 1297b). on kt thc bng ni v nn dn ch: Khng dng khc no ca chnh ph t ra cn kh d na; song kt qu ny t c bi mt l l theo rt st cu chuyn ca Plato v s suy sp ca nh nc cc Cun VIII-IX ca Republic; v iu ny bt chp s thc l Aristotle ph phn cu chuyn ca Plato mt cch nghim khc (th d trong V, 12; 1316a, f.). 4 Cch Aristotle s dng t banausic-tm thng theo ngha ca ngh nghip hay kim tin c chng t r rng Politics, VIII, 6, 3 ff. (1340b) v c bit 15 f. Mi ngi c ngh, th d mt ngi thi so, v tt nhin mi th th cng hay ngi lao ng, l tm thng, tc l, khng phi l ngi t do, khng phi l mt cng dn, cho d anh ta khng phi l mt n l tht; a v ca mt ngi tm thng l a v ca n l mt phn hay hn ch (Politics, I, 14; 13; 1260a/b). T banausos xut pht, ti hiu, t mt t tin-Hellenic cho ngi cu ho. Dng nh mt thuc ng n c ngha l ngun gc hay ng cp ca mt ngi lm anh ta mt t cch can m trong lnh vc. (So Greenidge, do Adam trch bn in Republic ca ng, ct. cho 495e30). N c th c dch l ng cp thp, hn h, hn, hay cc ng cnh no l k mi pht. Plato dng t ny theo cng ngha nh Aristotle. Laws (741e v 743d), t banausia c dng m t tnh trng sa o ca mt ngi kim tin bng cc

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phng tin khc vi s chim hu tha k rung t. Xem c Republic, 495e v 590c. Song nu nh li truyn thuyt rng Socrates l mt th xy; v tiu s ca Xenophon (Mem. II, 7); v vic Antisthenes ca ngi cng vic nng nhc; v thi ca cc Cynic; th c v khng chc l Socrates ng vi nh kin qu tc rng kim tin phi l hn h. (Oxford English Dictionary ngh din t banausic nh my mc thun tu, ph hp vi mt th my, v trch Grote, Eth. Fragm., vi, 227 = Aristotle, 2nd ed., 1880, p. 545; song din t ny l qu hp, v on ca Grote khng bin h cho din gii ny, iu c th lc u da vo mt s hiu lm ca Plutarch. L th l trong v Midsummer Nights Dream ca Shakespeare t my mc thun tu c dng chnh xc theo ngha v nhng ngi tm thng; v vic s dng ny c th gn k vi mt on v Archimedes trong bn dch ca North ca cun Life of Marcellus ). Trong Mind, vol. 47, c mt tho lun l th gia A. E. Taylor v F. M. Cornford, Taylor (pp. 197 ff.) bo v quan im ca mnh rng Plato, khi ni v thn mt on no ca Timaeus, c th ngh n mt nng dn lm rung ngi phc v bng lao ng th xc; mt quan im b Cornford (pp. 329 ff.) ph phn, ti ngh rt thuyt phc. Thi ca Plato vi mi cng vic tm thng, v c bit vic chn tay, c lin quan n vn ny; v khi (p. 198, ct.) Taylor dng l l rng Plato so snh cc thn ca ng vi nhng ngi chn cu hay ch-chn cu ph trch mt n cu (Laws, 901e, 907a), th ta c th ch ra rng cc hot ng ca dn du c v dn i sn c Plato coi kh nht qun l cao qu thm ch siu phm; nhng nng dn lm rung ru r nh l tm thng v sa o. So ct. 32 ch. 4, v vn bn. 5 Hai on tip theo l t Politics (1337b, 4 v 5). 6 Bn in 1939 ca T in b ti Pocket Oxford Dictionary vn ni: t do .. (v gio dc) thch hp cho mt ngi qu phi, v vn hc chung hn l loi k thut. iu ny cho thy rt r sc mnh dai dng ca nh hng ca Aristotle. Ti tha nhn l c vn nghim trng v gio dc ngh nghip, v tnh hp hi. Song ti khng tin mt s gio dc vn hc l thuc cu cha; v n c th to ra loi k d ring v tnh hp hi, tnh hm mnh k l. V ngy nay khng ai c coi l c gio dc nu khng quan tm n khoa hc. S bin h thng thng, rng mt s quan tm n in hc hay a tng hc khng cn thit lm sng t hn s quan tm n cng vic con ngi, ch l mt s thiu hiu bit hon ton v cng vic con ngi. V khoa hc khng ch l mt su tp cc s kin v in, v.v.; n l mt trong cc hot ng tinh thn quan trng nht ca thi i chng ta. Bt c ai khng c t mt s hiu bit v hot ng ny t ct mnh khi s pht trin ng ch nht trong lch s v cng vic con ngi. Ci gi l cc Khoa Vn ca chng ta, da vo l thuyt rng bng cc phng tin gio dc vn hc v lch s chng a sinh vin vo i sng tinh thn con ngi, v th tr nn li thi dng hin ti ca chng. Khng th c lch s v con ngi no loi tr mt lch s v s vt ln v cc thnh tu tr tu ca con ngi; v khng th c lch s t tng no loi tr lch s cc t tng khoa hc. Song gio dc vn hc thm ch c mt kha cnh h trng hn. Khng ch n tht bi gio dc sinh vin, ngi thng tr thnh thy gio, mt s hiu bit v hot ng tinh thn ln nht ca chnh thi i mnh, m n cng thng tht bi gio dc anh ta s trung thc tr tu. Ch nu sinh vin tri nghim vic d sai lm n th no, v kh ra sao c c thm ch s tin b nh trong lnh vc tri thc, ch khi anh ta c c mt cm nhn v cc tiu chun trung thc tr tu, s tn trng chn l, v s coi thng quyn uy v tnh t ph. Song ngy nay chng g cn thit hn s truyn b cc c hnh tr tu khim tn ny. Nng lc tr tu, T. H. Huxley vit trong A Liberal Education, ci

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quan trng nht trong i sng .. ca bn s l nng lc v nhn thy s vt nh chng l m khng n uy quyn Nhng trng hc v hc vin, bn s khng bit ngun no ca chn l ngoi uy quyn. Ti tha nhn l, ng tic, iu ny cng ng vi nhiu cua v khoa hc, m mt s gio vin vn coi c nh l mt ng kin thc, nh cu ni c xa. Song tng ny, ti hi vng, mt ngy no s mt i; v khoa hc c th c dy nh mt phn hp dn ca lch s con ngi nh mt s tng ln nhanh chng ca cc gi thuyt to bo, c th nghim v ph phn kim sot. c dy theo cch ny, nh mt phn ca lch s v trit hc t nhin, v lch s v cc vn v t tng, n c th tr thnh c s ca mt nn gio dc i hc t do, mt nn gio dc m mc tiu, ni n khng th to ra cc chuyn gia, s to ra ch t nhng ngi c th phn bit gia mt lang bm v mt chuyn gia. Mc tiu khim tn v t do ny s vt xa bt c th g m cc khoa Vn ca chng ta hin nay t c. 7 Politics, VIII, 3, 2 (1337b): Ti phi lp i lp li, rng nguyn l hot ng trc tin l nhn h. Trc , VII, 15, 1 f. (1334a), ta c: V mc ch ca cc c nhn v nh nc l nh nhau .. chng u phi cha cc c hnh nhn ri V, Khng c s nhn h cho cc n l, tc ng ni ng. So c dn chiu ct. 9 mc ny, v Metaphysics, 1072b23. V s ca tng v tn trng cc giai cp nhn h ca Aristotle, so th d on sau t Politics, IV, (VII), 8, 4-5 (1293b/1294a): Dng di v gio dc thng thng i cng vi ca ci Ngi giu c cc li th ri m s mong mun n l s cm d n ti c, v v th h c gi l nhng ngi cao qu v ho hoa. M c v l khng th rng mt nh nc c cai tr ti nu cc cng dn gii nht cai tr .. Aristotle, tuy vy, khng ch ca ngi ngi giu, m, gng Plato, c ngi phn bit chng tc (so op. cit., III, 13, 2-3, 1283a): Ngi bm sinh cao thng l cc cng dn theo mt ngha ng hn ca t so vi ngi bm sinh hn h... Nhng ngi c t tin tt hn chc l nhng ngi tt hn, v tnh cao thng l tnh tri ca dng ging. 8 So Gomperz, Greek Thinkers. (German ed., vol. III, 263, i.e., book 6, ch. 27, 7). 9 So Nicomachean Ethics, X, 7, 6. Cm t Aristotlian, cuc sng tt p, c v chp ly s tng tng ca nhiu ngi hm m hin i nhng ngi lin tng cm t ny vi ci g ging mt cuc sng tt theo ngha C c - mt cuc sng hin dng cho s gip , phng s, v truy tm cc gi tr cao hn. Nhng din gii ny l kt qu ca mt s l tng ho sai lm v cc nh ca Aristotle; Aristotle ch lo lng ring cho cuc sng tt p ca cc nh qu phi phong kin, v cuc sng tt p ny ng khng hnh dung nh cuc sng ca cc hnh ng tt, m nh mt cuc sng nhn h tao nh, sng vi bn b thn hu nhng ngi c v th tt ngang vy. 10 Ti khng ngh rng thm ch t s thng tc ho l qu mnh, v vi bn thn Aristotle chuyn nghip c ngha l thng tc, v v ng chc chn bin trit hc Platonic thnh mt ngh. V li, ng lm m n, nh ngay Zeller tha nhn gia li ca ngi ca mnh (op. cit., I, 46): ng khng th gy cm hng cho chng ta .. cht no theo cng cch nh Plato. Tc phm ca ng v v hn, chuyn nghip hn .. ca Plato. 11 Trong Timaeus (42a f., 90e f., v c bit 91d f.; xem ct. 6 (7) ch. 3) Plato trnh by mt l thuyt chung v ngun gc ca cc loi qua thoi ho, t cc Thn v ngi u tin tr xung. n ng u tin thoi ho thnh n b, ri thnh cc ng vt cao hn v thp hn v thnh thc vt. Nh Gomperz ni (Greek Thinkers, cun 5, ch. 19, 3; German ed., vol. II, 482), n l mt l thuyt v sa st theo ngha en hay mt l thuyt v thoi ho, tri vi l thuyt hin i v tin ho m, v n gi s mt chui i ln, c th c gi l mt l thuyt i ln. Trnh by b n v c l na-chm bim ca

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Plato v thuyt i xung ny bng s tha ho, s dng l thuyt Orphic v Pythagorean v s lun hi ca linh hn. Tt c iu ny (v s thc quan trng l cc thuyt tin ho a ra cc dng thp hn trc cc dng cao hn l mt thi thng t nht t thi Empedocles) phi nh khi ta nghe t Aristotle rng Speusippus, cng vi cc nh Pythagorean no , tin vo thuyt tin ho theo k gii v siu phm nht, ng hng u, n sau cng theo th t thi gian pht trin. Aristotle ni (Met., 1072b30) v nhng ngi, cng vi cc Pythagorean v Speusippus, cho rng ci p v ci thin ti cao khng hin hu lc ban u. T on ny c l ta c th kt lun rng cc nh Pythagorean no dng huyn thoi lun hi (c l do nh hng ca Xenophanes) nh phng tin ca mt l thuyt i ln. Phng on ny c Aristotle ng h, ng ni (Met., 1091a34): Cc nh thn thoi hc c v ng vi mt s nh t tng thi nay (mt m ch, ti tin, n Speusippus) .. nhng ngi ni rng ci thin cng nh ci p xut hin trong t nhin ch sau khi t nhin c tin b no . Cng c v c nh Speusippus dy rng th gii trong tin trnh pht trin ca n s tr thnh ci Mt Parmenidian ci ton b c t chc v hon ton hi ho. (So Met., 1092a14, ni mt nh t tng cho rng ci hon ho hn lun n t ci khng hon ho, c trch nh ni rng bn thn ci Mt vn cha tn ti; so c Met., 1091a11). Bn thn Aristotle by t mt cch nht qun, cc ch c trch, s phn i ca ng i vi cc thuyt i ln ny. L l ca ng rng chnh mt ngi hon chnh to ra con ngi, v rng ci ht cha y l khng c trc con ngi. Cn c vo thi ny, Zeller kh c th ng khi gn cho Aristotle ci trn thc t l l thuyt Speusippian. (So Zeller, Aristotle, etc., vol. II, 28 f. Mt din gii tng t c H. F. Osborn, From the Greeks to Darwin, 1908, pp. 48-56, xut). C th ta phi chp nhn din gii ca Gomperz, theo Aristotle dy v tnh bt dit v bt bin ca loi ngi v t nht ca cc ng vt bc cao hn. Nh th cc trt t hnh thi hc ca ng phi c din gii khng theo th t thi gian cng khng theo ph h. (So Greek Thinkers, cun 6, ch. 11, 10, v c bit ch. 13, 6 f., v cc ct. cc trang ny). Nhng, tt nhin, vn cn kh nng l Aristotle khng nht qun v im ny, nh ng th nhiu im khc, v cc l l ca ng chng li Speusippus l do ng mun khng nh s c lp ca mnh. Xem c ct. 6 (7) ch. 3, v cc ct. 2 v 4 ch. 4. 12 ng lc u tin ca Aristotle, tc l, Thng , l c trc trong thi gian (tuy ngi l vnh cu) v c thuc tnh thin. V chng c lin quan n s ng nht mc ch hnh thc v cui cng c nhc ti on vn ny, xem ct. 15 ch. ny. 13 V mc ch lun sinh hc ca Plato xem Timaeus, 73a-76e. Gomperz bnh lun ng (Greek Thinkers, cun 5, ch. 19, 7; bn ting c, vol. II, 495 f.) rng mc ch lun ca Plato ch c th hiu c nu ta nh li rng cc ng vt l nhng ngi b thoi ho, v rng s cu to ca chng v th biu l cc mc ch m ban u ch l cc mc ch ca con ngi. 14 V phin bn Plato ca l thuyt v cc v tr t nhin, xem Timaeus, 60b-63a, v c bit 63b f. Aristotle chp nhn l thuyt vi cc thay i nh v ging Plato gii thch tnh nh v nng ca thn th bng hng ln v xung ca chuyn ng t nhin n cc v tr t nhin; so th d Physics, 192b13; c Metaphysics, 1065b10. 15 Aristotle khng lun lun hon ton r rng v nht qun trong cc tuyn b ca ng v vn ny. V th ng vit Metaphysics (1044a35): Mc ch hnh thc (ca con ngi) l g? Bn cht ca anh ta. Mc tiu cui cng? Mc ch ca anh ta. Nhng c l hai th ny l nh nhau. cc phn khc ca cng tc phm ng c v chc chn hn v s ng nht gia Hnh thc v mc ch ca s thay i hay chuyn ng. V

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th chng ta c (1069b/1070a): Mi th thay i .. l c bin i bi ci g thnh ci g . Ci lm cho n bin i l ng c trc tip; .. ci m n bin thnh, l Hnh thc. V mun hn (1070a, 9/10): C ba loi thc cht: th nht, vt cht ..; th hai, bn tnh m n chuyn ng ti; v th ba, thc cht c bit bao gm hai th ny. M v ci c gi l bn tnh thng c Aristotle gi l Hnh thc, v v y n c m t nh mt mc ch ca chuyn ng, ta c: Hnh thc = mc ch. 16 V hc thuyt rng chuyn ng l s thc hin hay hin thc ho ca cc kh nng, xem th d Metaphysics, Cun IX; hay 1065b17, ni t c th xy c c dng m t mt kh nng xc nh ca mt ngi nh trin vng: Khi ci c th xy c .. thc s tn ti, th n ang c xy dng; v y l qu trnh xy dng. So c Physics ca Aristotle, 201b4 f.; xem thm Gomperz, op. cit., cun 6, ch. 11, 5. 17 So Metaphysics, 1049b5. Xem thm Cun V, ch. IV, v c bit 1015a12 f., Cun VII, ch. IV, c bit 1029b15. 18 V nh ngha ca linh hn nh Entelechy u tin, xem ti liu tham kho do Zeller a ra, op. cit., vol. II, p. 3, n. 1. V ngha ca Entelechy nh mc ch hnh thc, xem op. cit., vol. I, 379, n.2. Aristotle s dng t ny hon ton khng chnh xc. (xem c Met., 1035b15). So c ct. 19 ch. 5, v vn bn. 19 V trch dn ny v trch dn tip xem Zeller, op. cit., I, 46. 20 So Politics, II, 8, 21 (1269a), vi cc tham kho ca n n cc Huyn thoi khc nhau ca Plato v Ngi sinh ra t t (Rep., 414c; Pol., 271a; Tim., 22c; Laws, 677a). 21 So Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of History, do J. Sibree dch, London 1914, Introduction, 23; xem c Hegel-Selections ca Loewenberg (The Modern Students Library), 366. Ton b Dn nhp [Introduction], c bit trang ny v cc trang tip, cho thy r s ph thuc ca Hegel vo Aristotle. Rng Hegel bit vic c chng t bi cch ng m ch n Aristotle p. 59 (ln in ca Loewenberg, 412). 22 Hegel, op. cit., 23 (ln in ca Loewenberg, 365). 23 So Caird, Hegel (Blackwood 1911), 26 f. 24 Cc trch dn tip l t ch c nhc ti cc ct. 21 v 22. 25 V cc nhn xt tip theo, xem Hegels Philosophical Propaedeutics, 2nd Year, Phenomenology of the Spirit. Transl. by W. T. Harris (ln in ca Loewenberg, 68 ff.). Ti trch mt cht khi bn dch ny. Cc nhn xt ca ti m ch n cc on l th sau: 23: S thi thc ca s t gic (t gic trong ting c cng c ngha t khng nh; so cui ch. 16) ct iu ny: nhn ra bn tnh tht .. ca n .. N v th l .. tch cc .. trong khng nh mnh theo b ngoi .. 24: S t gic trong vn ho, hay chuyn ng ca n, c ba giai on: (2) trong chng mc n lin quan n ci ti [ng] khc ..: quan h gia ch v n l (s thng tr v s quy phc). Hegel khng ni n bt c quan h vi ci ti khc no. Chng ta c thm na: (3) Quan h ca Ch v N l 32: t khng nh l ngi t do v nhn c s cng nhn l nh th, s t gic phi t biu l vi ci ti khc 33: ..Vi i hi c i c li v s cng nhn to ra .. quan h ch v n l ga h .. 34: V ..mi ngi phi c gng khng nh v chng minh mnh .. ngi thch cuc sng hn t do bc vo hon cnh n l, do chng t l anh ta khng c nng lc (bn tnh c l l din t ca Aristotle hay Plato) . . v tnh c lp ca anh ta 35: .. Ngi phc v khng c ci ti v c ci ti khc thay cho ci ti ca ring mnh Ngc li, ch coi ngi hu l h ng, v coi ch c nhn ca mnh l c bo tn v cao thng .. 36: ch ring ca ngi hu .. b xo b trong ni s ch ca anh ta .. v.v. Kh khng nhn ra mt yu t cung lon trong l thuyt ny v cc quan h con ngi v s

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quy gin chng thnh a v ch v n l. Ti hu nh khng nghi ng l phng php ca Hegel v chn cc t tng ca ng di cc ng t, m ta phi dn i nhm hiu c ngha ca ng (nh mt so snh gia cc trch dn khc nhau ca ti v bn gc c th cho thy) l mt trong cc triu chng v s cung lon ca ng; n l mt loi trn trnh, mt cch xa lnh nh sng ban ngy. Ti khng nghi ng rng phng php ny ca ng c th l mt i tng tuyt vi cho phn tm hc nh cc m c r di ca ng v thng tr v quy phc. (Phi ni n l php bin chng ca Hegel xem chng tip a ng, cui mc 36 c trch y, vt qu quan h ch-n l n ch ph qut, s qu n t do tch cc. Nh s thy ch. 12 (c bit cc mc II v IV), cc t ny chnh l li ni tri cho nh nc ton tr. V th, a v ch v n l c bin thnh cc cu thnh ca ch ngha ton tr mt cch rt thch hp). Vi nhn xt ca Hegel c trch y (so 35) rng n l l ngi thch cuc sng hn t do, so nhn xt ca Plato (Republic, 387a) rng ngi t do l nhng ngi s cnh n l hn ci cht. Theo mt ngha no , iu ny kh ng; nhng ngi khng sn sng chin u v t do ca h s mt n. Song l thuyt m c Plato v Hegel ng , v rt c cc tc gi mun hn a thch, rng nhng ngi chu thua mt sc mnh cao hn, hay nhng ngi khng cht ng hn chu thua mt k cp c v trang, do bn tnh, l cc n l bm sinh, khng xng ng c sng tt hn. L thuyt ny, ti qu quyt, ch c cc k th hung d nht ca nn vn minh mi c th theo ui. 26 V mt ph phn quan im ca Wittgenstein rng, trong khi khoa hc kho st cc vn c thc, cn cng vic ca trit hc l lm r ngha, xem cc ct. 46 v c bit 51 v 52 ch. ny. (So thm, H. Gomperz, The Meanings of Meaning, trong Philosophy of Science, vol. 8, 1941, c bit p. 183). V ton b vn m s lc ny (xung n ct. 54 ch. ny) dnh cho, tc l vn ca bn cht lun phng php i li thuyt duy danh phng php, so cc ct. 2730 ch. 3, v vn bn; xem thm c bit ct. 38 ch. ny. 27 V s phn bit ca Plato, hay ng hn ca Parmenides, gia tri thc v kin (mt s phn bit tip tc c cc tc gi hin i hn, th d, Locke v Hobbes a chung ), xem cc ct. 22 v 26 ch. 3, v vn bn; thm, cc ct. 19 ch. 5, v 25-27 ch. 8. V s phn bit tng ng ca Aristotle, so th d Metaphysics 1039b31 v Anal. Post., I, 33 (88b30 ff.); II, 19 (100b5). V s phn bit ca Aristotle gia tri thc chng minh v trc gic, xem ch. cui ca Anal. Post. (II, 19, c bit 100b 5-17; xem c 72b 18-24, 75b31, 84a31, 90a6-91a11). V mi quan h gia tri thc chng minh v cc mc ch ca mt s vt khc vi bn tnh c bn ca n v do cn n mt t trung gian, xem op. cit. II, 8 (c bit 93a25, 93b26). V mi quan h tng t gia trc gic tr tu v hnh thc khng th chia c m n thu hiu - bn cht khng th chia c v bn tnh ring ng nht vi mc ch ca n xem op. cit., 72b24, 77a4, 85a1, 88b35. Xem c op. cit. 90a31: bit bn tnh ca mt s vt l bit l do v sao n tn ti (tc l mc ch ca n); v 93b21: C cc bn tnh c bn l cc tin trc tip, tc l c bn. V s tha nhn ca Aristotle rng chng ta phi dng li u trong s hi quy (thoi lui) ca cc chng minh, v chp nhn cc nguyn l no m khng c chng minh, xem th d Metaphysics, 1006a7: L khng th chng minh mi th, v khi s ny sinh mt hi quy v tn .. Xem c Anal. Post., II, 3 (90b, 18-27). Ti c th ni l phn tch ca ti v l thuyt ca Aristotle v nh ngha hp phn ln vi ca Grote, song mt phn khng hp vi ca Ross. S khc bit rt ln gia cc din gii ca hai tc gi ny c th c biu th ng bng hai trch dn, u ly t cc

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chng dnh cho phn tch Anal. Post., Cun II ca Aristotle. cun th hai, Aristotle quay sang coi chng minh nh cng c nh i ti nh ngha. (Ross, Aristotle, 2nd ed., p. 49). iu ny c th i snh vi: nh ngha khng bao gi c th c chng minh, v n ch tuyn b bn cht ca ch th ..; cn Chng minh gi s bn cht l bit .. (Grote, Aristotle, 2nd ed., 241; xem c 240/241. So c cui ca ct. 29 di y). 28 So Metaphysics ca Aristotle, 1031b7 v 1031b20. Xem c 996b20: Chng ta c tri thc v mt s vt nu chng ta bit bn cht ca n. 29 Mt nh ngha l mt tuyn b m t bn cht ca mt s vt (Aristotle, Topics, I, 5, 101b36; VII, 3, 153a, 153a15, etc. Xem c Met., 1042a17) nh ngha .. tit l bn tnh c bn. ( Anal. Post., II, 3., 91a1). nh ngha l .. mt tuyn b v bn tnh ca s vt (93b28). Ch cc s vt c bn cht m cng thc ca chng l cc nh ngha. (Met., 1030a5 f.) - Bn cht, m cng thc ca n l mt nh ngha, cng c gi l thc cht ca mt s vt. (Met., 1017b21) R rng, khi , nh ngha l mt cng thc ca bn cht .. (Met., 1031a13). V cc nguyn l, tc cc im xut pht hay cc tin ca cc chng minh, phi phn bit hai loi. (1) Cc nguyn l logic (so Met., 996b25 ff.) v (2) cc tin m t chng minh c tin hnh v n lt khng th c chng minh nu mun trnh mt hi quy v tn (so ct. 27 ch. ny). Nhng ci sau l cc nh ngha: Cc tin c bn ca cc chng minh l cc nh ngha ( Anal. Post., II, 3., 90b23; so 89a17, 90a35; 90b23). Xem c Ross, Aristotle, p. 45/46, bnh lun v Anal. Post., I, 4., 2074a4: Ta c bo, cc tin ca khoa hc, Ross vit (p. 46), per se [thc cht] hoc theo ngha (a) hay ngha (b). trang trc ta nghe thy: mt tin tt yu per se (hay tt yu c bn) theo ngha (a) v (b) nu n da vo mt nh ngha. 30 Nu n c mt ci tn, th s c mt cng thc v ngha ca n, Aristotle ni (Met., 1030a14; xem c 1030b24); v ng gii thch rng khng phi mi cng thc v ngha ca mt ci tn l mt nh ngha; nhng nu tn l mi loi [species] ca mt ging [genus], th cng thc s l mt nh ngha. Quan trng lu rng trong cch s dng ca ti (ti theo cch s dng hin i ca t) nh ngha lun ni n ton b cu nh ngha, trong khi Aristotle (v cc ngi theo ng v vn ny, th d Hobbes) i khi dng t nh mt t ng ngha cho cc t nh ngha. Cc nh ngha khng phi l ca cc ci ring, m ch l ca cc ci chung (so Met., 1036a28) v ch ca cc bn cht, tc l ca ci g l loi ca mt ging (tc l mt du hiu phn bit c trng cui cng [last differentia]; so Met., 1038a19) v mt dng khng th chia c, xem c Anal. Post., II, 13., 97b6 f. 31 Rng lun bn ca Aristotle l khng rt sng sa c th thy t cui ca ct. 27 ch. ny, v t mt so snh na v hai din gii ny. S ti ngha ln nht l lun bn ca Aristotle v cch trong , bng qu trnh quy np, chng ta tin n cc nh ngha l cc nguyn l; so c bit Anal. Post., II, 19, pp. 100a f. 32 V hc thuyt ca Plato, xem cc ct. 25-27 ch. 8, v vn bn. Grote vit (Aristotle, 2nd ed., 260): Aristotle tha k t Plato hc thuyt v mt L tr hay Tr tu khng th sai, hon ton c min tr khi sai lm. Grote tip tc nhn mnh l, tri vi Plato, Aristotle khng coi khinh kinh nghim, m ng hn gn cho L tr ca ng (tc l trc gic tr tu) mt v tr nh trm cui v tng quan vi qu trnh Quy np (loc. cit., xem c op. cit., p. 577). iu ny l vy; nhng kinh nghim quan st hnh nh ch c chc nng bi b v pht trin trc gic tr tu ca chng ta cho

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nhim v ca n, trc gic v bn cht chung; v, qu thc, khng ai tng gii thch cc nh ngha, vt qu sai lm, c th t c bng quy np ra sao. 33 Quan im ca Aristotle rt cuc cng nh ca Plato chng mc c hai, cui cng, khng c s ku gi kh d n l l. Tt c ci c th lm l khng nh mt cch gio iu v mt nh ngha no rng n l mt m t ng v bn cht ca n; v nu c hi v sao m t ny ch khng phi m t khc l mt m t ng, tt c vn l mt s vin dn n trc gic v bn cht. Aristotle ni v quy np ch t theo hai ngha mt ngha heuristic [t pht hin] hn v phng php dn n trc cm nguyn l chung (so An. Pri., 67a22f., 27b25-33, Anal. Post., 71a7, 81a38-b5, 100b4 f.) v mt ngha kinh nghim hn (so An. Pri., 68b15-37, 69a16, Anal. Post., 78a35, 81b5 ff., Topics, 105a13, 156a4, 157a34). Mt trng hp mu thun hin nhin, tuy vy, c th c gii quyt, l 77a4, ni ta bit rng mt nh ngha khng l chung cng chng l ring. Ti gi rng gii php khng phi l mt nh ngha khng hon ton l mt phn xt cht no (nh G. R. G. Mure gi trong bn dch Oxford), m rng n khng n gin l chung m l xng vi-commensurate, tc l chung v cn thit. (So 73b26, 96b4, 97b25). V l l ca Anal. Post. c ni n vn bn, xem 100b6 ff. V s ho hp thn b ca s hiu bit v ci c bit trong De Anima, xem c bit 425b30 f., 430a20, 431a1; on quyt nh cho mc ch ca chng ta l 430b27 f.: S lnh hi trc gic v nh ngha .. ca bn cht l khng bao gi sai .. ht nh .. vic thy mt i tng nhn khng bao gi c th sai. V on thn hc ca Metaphysics, xem c bit 1072b20 (tip xc) v 1075a2. Xem c cc ct. 59 (2) ch. 10, 36 ch. 12, v cc ct. 3, 4, 6, 29-32, v 58 ch. 24. V ton b khi s thc ni ti on vn tip, xem cui Anal. Post.(100b15 f.). ng l cc quan im ca Hobbes (mt nh duy danh song khng duy danh phng php) ging th no vi bn cht lun phng php ca Aristotle. Hobbes cng tin rng cc nh ngha l cc tin c bn ca mi tri thc (tri vi kin). 34 Ti trnh by quan im ny v phng php khoa hc Logic of Scientific Discovery; xem th d pp. 278 ff. v pp. 315 ff., v mt bn dch y hn t Erkenntnis, vol. 5 (1934) ni ti ni: Ta phi lm quen vi vic din gii cc khoa hc nh cc h thng cc gi thuyt (thay cho khi tri thc), tc l cc d on khng th c xc minh, nhng ta dng chng chng no chng c cng c, v v n ta khng c quyn ni rng chng l ng hay t nhiu chc chn hay thm ch c kh nng. 35 Trch dn l t ch thch ca ti trong Erkenntnis, vol. 3 (1933), by gi c dich li Logic of Scientific Discovery, pp. 312 ff.; n l mt bin th v khi qut ho ca mt khng nh v hnh hc do Einstein a ra Geometry and Experience. 36 Tt nhin, khng th nh gi liu cc l thuyt, l l, v lp lun, hay quan st v th nghim, c tm quan trng ln hn cho khoa hc; v khoa hc lun l l thuyt c kim nghim bi quan st v th nghim. Nhng chc chn l tt c cc nh thc chng ngi th chng t rng khoa hc l tng cc quan st ca chng ta, hoc rng n mang tnh quan st hn l thuyt, l hon ton sai lm. Vai tr ca l thuyt v l l trong khoa hc hu nh khng c nh gi qu cao. - V quan h gia chng minh v l l logic ni chung, xem ct. 47 ch. ny. 37 So th d Met., 1030a, 6 v 14 (xem ct. 30 ch. ny). 38 Ti mun nhn mnh l y ti ni v thuyt duy danh i li bn cht lun theo cch phng php lun thun tu. Ti khng bn n bt c lp trng no n vn

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siu hnh v cc ci chung, tc l n vn siu hnh ca thuyt duy danh i li bn cht lun (mt t ti gi dng thay cho t thuyt duy thc truyn thng); v ti chc chn khng ch trng mt thuyt duy danh siu hnh, mc d ti ch trng mt thuyt duy danh phng php. (Xem c cc ct. 27 v 30 ch. 3). S i lp gia cc nh ngha duy danh v bn cht lun c a ra trong vn bn l mt n lc ti lp s phn bit gia cc nh ngha bng li v thc t. S nhn mnh chnh ca ti, tuy vy, l v vn liu nh ngha c c t phi sang tri hay t tri sang phi; hoc, ni cch khc, liu n thay mt chuyn di bng mt chuyn ngn, hay thay mt chuyn ngn bng mt chuyn di. 39 Lun im ca ti rng trong khoa hc ch cc nh ngha duy danh xut hin ( y ch ni v cc nh ngha tng minh v khng v cc nh ngha n v quy) cn c bo v mt cht. N chc chn khng ng l cc t khng c dng mt cch t nhiu trc gic trong khoa hc; iu ny l r nu ta xt rng mi chui nh ngha phi bt u bng cc t khng xc nh, m ngha ca chng c th c minh ho song khng c nh ngha. Hn na, c v r l trong khoa hc, c bit ton hc, ta thng dng mt t, th d chiu hay chn l, mt cch trc gic, ch tip tc nh ngha n mun hn. Nhng y l mt m t kh th v tnh hnh. Mt m t chnh xc hn c th l th ny. Mt s t bt nh c dng mt cch trc gic i khi c th c thay bng cc t c nh ngha m c th thy rng chng thc hin cc nh m cc t khng xc nh c dng; tc l, i vi mi cu trong cc t khng xc nh xut hin (th d c nh nh gii tch) c mt cu tng ng trong cc t mi c nh ngha xut hin (ci suy ra t nh ngha). Ta chc chn c th ni rng K. Menger nh ngha chiu mt cch quy hay Tarski nh ngha Chn l; nhng cch ny biu l vn c th dn n hiu lm. Ci xy ra l Menger cho mt nh ngha thun duy danh ca cc lp tp hp im m ng gn cho ci nhn n-chiu, bi v l c th thay th khi nim trc gic ton hc n-chiu bng mt khi nim mi trong tt c cc ng cnh quan trng; v cng c th ni vy v khi nim Chn l ca Tarski. Tarski cho mt nh ngha duy danh (hay ng hn mt phng php v d tho cc nh ngha duy danh) m ng gn cho ci nhn Chn l, v mt h thng cc cu c th c suy ra t nh ngha tng ng vi cc cu ny (ging nh qui lut v trung gian b loi) c nhiu nh logic v trit gia s dng lin quan n ci h gi l Chn l. 40 C th chng, ngn ng ca chng ta s chnh xc gi nh ta trnh cc nh ngha v rt chu kh lun dng cc t nh ngha thay cho cc t c nh ngha. V c mt ngun khng chnh xc trong cc phng php hin hnh v nh ngha: Carnap pht trin (nm 1934) ci c v l phng php u tin v trnh mu thun trong mt ngn ng s dng cc nh ngha. So Logical Syntax of Language, 1937, 22, p. 67. (Xem c Hilbert-Bernays, Grundlagen d. Math., 1939, II, p. 295, n. 1). Carnap chng t l trong hu ht trng hp mt ngn ng tha nhn cc nh ngha s mu thun cho d cc nh ngha tho mn cc quy tc chung to ra cc nh ngha. S khng quan trng thc tin tng i ca s mu thun ny ch da vo s thc rng chng ta lun c th loi cc t c nh ngha, thay chng bng cc t nh ngha. 41 Nhiu th d v phng php a ra t mi ch sau khi nhu cu ny sinh c th thy cun sch ny. C nh tnh hnh ny, cp n cc lp trng trit hc, kh c th trnh a ra cc tn cho cc lp trng ny, v mc ch ngn gn. y l l do v sao ti dng nhiu ch ngha - ism n vy. Nhng trong nhiu trng hp cc tn ny c a ra ch sau khi cc lp trng c ni n ny c m t.

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Trong mt ph phn c h thng hn v phng php bn cht lun, ba vn c th c phn bit m bn cht lun khng th trn trnh hay gii p. (1) Vn phn bit r gia mt quy c bng li thun tu v mt nh ngha bn cht lun m t ng mt bn cht. (2) Vn phn bit cc nh ngha bn cht ng vi nh ngha bn cht sai. (3) Vn trnh mt hi quy v tn ca cc nh ngha. Ti s ch cp ngn gn n vn th hai v th ba ca cc vn ny. Vn th ba c cp trong vn bn; v vn th hai, xem cc ct. 44 (1) v 54 ch. ny. 43 S thc l mt khng nh l ng i khi c th gip gii thch v sao vi ta n c v nh hin nhin. y l trng hp 2+2 = 4, hay cu mt tri pht ra nh sng v nhit. Song iu ngc li r rng khng phi vy. S thc rng mt cu i vi mt s hay thm ch vi mi ngi c v l hin nhin, tc l, mt s hay tt c tin chc vo s ng n ca n v khng th hnh dung v s sai lm ca n, khng l l do v sao n phi ng. (S thc rng ta khng c kh nng hnh dung v s sai lm ca mt tuyn b trong nhiu trng hp ch l mt l do nghi ng rng sc tng tng ca chng ta l thiu hay cha pht trin). Mt trong cc sai lm nghim trng nht nu mt trit hc lun a s hin nhin ra nh mt l l ng h s ng n ca mt cu; th m hu nh mi trit hc duy tm lm iu ny. N chng t cc trit hc duy tm thng l cc h thng bin h cho cc nim tin gio iu no . Li bo cha, rng ta thng v th phi chp nhn cc cu v khng c l do tt hn s hin nhin ca chng, l khng hp l. Cc nguyn l logic v phng php khoa hc (c bit nguyn l quy np hay qui lut ng u ca t nhin) thng c ni n nh cc khng nh ta phi chp nhn, v khng th bin h chng bng bt c th g tr s hin nhin. Cho d gi nh iu ny c ng, s thng thn hn i ni l chng ta khng th bin h chng, v c th. Song, thc ra, khng cn n nguyn l quy np. (So The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti). V trong chng mc lin quan n cc nguyn l logic, lm c nhiu vic trong cc nm va qua v chng cho thy l thuyt hin nhin l li thi. (So c bit Logic Syntax of Langue ca Carnap v Introduction to Semantics ca ng). Xem c ct. 44 (2). 44 (1) Nu p dng cc cn nhc ny cho trc gic tr tu v cc bn cht, th c th thy l bn cht lun khng c kh nng gii quyt vn : Lm sao ta bit mt nh ngha c xut v ng v hnh thc liu cng ng hay khng; v c bit, ta quyt nh th no gia hai nh ngha cnh tranh nhau? R rng l i vi nh duy danh phng php cu tr li cho mt cu hi loi ny l tm thng. V hy gi s rng ai (cng vi Oxford Dictionary) kin nh rng Mt puppy l mt g tr kiu ngo, u rng tuych, xc lo, v ng ta khng khng gi nh ngha ny chng li ngi no bm vo nh ngha trc ca chng ta [lu puppy = ch con; g tr xc xc; ND]. Trong trng hp ny, nh duy danh, nu kin nhn, s ch ra l ng khng quan tm n mt tranh ci v cc nhn, v s la chn chng l tu ; v ng c th gi , nu c bt c nguy him no v s m h, ta c th d dng a ra hai nhn khc nhau, th d puppy1 v puppy2. V nu mt bn th ba ng h rng Mt puppy l mt con ch nu, th nh duy danh s kin nhn gi a ra nhn puppy3. Nhng nu cc bn tranh ci tip tc ci ln, hoc bi v ai c khng khng rng ch puppy ca ng l c l, hoc bi v ng khng khng rng puppy ca mnh, ch t, phi c gn nhn puppy1, th ngay c nh duy danh kin nhn ch c th nhn vai. ( trnh hiu lm, phi ni rng thuyt duy danh phng php khng tho lun vn v s tn ti ca nhng ci chung; do Hobbes khng l mt nh duy danh phng php, m ti phi gi l mt nh duy danh bn th hc).

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Cng vn tm thng ny, tuy nhin, gy ra cc kh khn khng vt qua c cho phng php bn cht lun. Ta gi s rng nh bn cht lun khng khng, th d Mt puppy l con ch nu khng phi l mt nh ngha ng v bn cht ca puppiness. ng ta c th bo v quan im ny th no? Ch bng mt s cu khn n trc gic tr tu ca ng v cc bn cht. Nhng s thc ny c h qu thc tin l nh bn cht lun tr nn b v hon ton, nu nh ngha ca ng b thch thc. V ng ta c th phn ng ch theo hai cch. Mt l ngoan c lp li rng trc gic tr tu ca ng l duy nht ng m, tt nhin, i th ca ng c th phn li theo cng cch, nh th ta i n b tc thay cho tri thc cui cng v r rng mt cch tuyt i m Aristotle ha vi chng ta. Cch khc l tha nhn rng trc gic ca i th c th cng ng nh ca ng, nhng n l v mt bn cht khc, m ng tic ng biu th bng cng tn. iu ny c th dn n gi l hai tn khc nhau phi c dng cho hai bn cht khc nhau, th d puppy1 v puppy2. Nhng bc ny c ngha l t b lp trng bn cht lun hon ton. V n c ngha rng chng ta bt u bng cng thc nh ngha v gn cho n nhn no , tc l ta tin hnh t phi sang tri; v n c ngha l ta s phi gn cc nhn ny mt cch tu . iu ny c th thy bng xt rng c gng khng khng rng mt puppy1, v bn cht, l mt con ch con, cn ch nu ch c th l puppy2, r rng s dn n cng kh khn a nh bn cht lun n tnh th tin thoi lng nan hin ti. Do , mi nh ngha phi c coi nh c th chp nhn c ngang nhau (min l ng v hnh thc); theo thut ng Aristotlian, iu c ngha rng mt tin c bn l ng ht nh tin khc (mu thun vi n) v rng l khng th a ra mt tuyn b sai. (iu ny c v c Antisthenes ch ra; xem ct. 54 ch. ny). Nh th i hi Aristotlian, rng trc gic tr tu l mt ngun tri thc ngc vi kin, ng mt cch khng nhm ln v rnh rnh, v rng n cho ta cc nh ngha l cc tin c bn an ton v cn thit ca mi suy din khoa hc, l khng c c s trong tng im ca n. V mt nh ngha ho ra chng l g ngoi mt cu ni cho chng ta rng t c nh ngha c cng ngha nh cng thc nh ngha, v rng ci ny c th c thay bng ci kia. Cch s dng duy danh cho php ta ct ngn mt cu chuyn di v v th c li th thc tin no . Song cch s dng bn cht lun ca n c th ch gip ta thay mt cu chuyn ngn bng mt cu chuyn cng c ngha th song di hn nhiu. Vic s dng ny ch khuyn khch ch ngha ngn t. (2) V mt ph phn trc gic bn cht ca Husserl, so J. Kraft, From Husserl to Heidegger (ting c, 1932). Xem c ct. 18 ch. 24. Trong tt c nhng ngi gi cc quan im c lin quan, c l M. Weber c nh hng ln nht n lun bn cc vn x hi hc. ng ch trng mt phng php hiu trc gic cho cc khoa hc x hi; v cc mu l tng ca ng phn nhiu tng ng vi cc bn cht ca Aristotle v Husserl. ng lu l Weber, bt chp cc xu hng ny, thy tnh khng th chp nhn c ca s cu vin n hin nhin. S thc l mt din gii c hin nhin cao t n khng chng t g v tnh hp l kinh nghim ca n (Ges. Aufsaetze, 1922, p. 404); v ng ni kh ng l s hiu bit trc gic phi lun c kim tra bng cc phng php bnh thng. (Loc. cit., ti nhn mnh). Song nu nh th, th n khng l phng php c trng ca mt khoa hc hnh vi con ngi nh ng ngh; n cng thuc v ton hc, vt l hc, v.v. V ho ra l nhng ngi tin rng hiu trc gic l mt phng php c bit cho cc khoa hc v hnh vi con ngi gi cc quan im nh vy ch yu v h khng th tng tng mt nh ton hc hay vt l hc c th rt

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quen vi i tng ca mnh n mc c th cm nhn n, theo cch mt nh x hi hc cm nhn hnh vi con ngi. 45 Khoa hc gi s cc nh ngha ca mi thut ng ca n .. (Ross, Aristotle, 44; so Anal. Post., I, 2); xem c ct. 30 ch. ny. 46 Cc trch dn tip l t R. H. S. Crossman, Plato To-Day 1937, pp. 71 f. Mt hc thuyt rt ging c M. R. Cohen v E. Nagel trnh by trong cun An Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method (1936), p. 232: Nhiu bn ci v bn tnh tht ca ti sn, tn gio, lut, .. s tt nhin bin mt nu thay cc t ny bng cc t tng ng c nh ngha chnh xc. (Xem c cc ct. 48 v 40 ch. ny). Cc quan im v vn ny c trnh by bi Wittgenstein Tractatus LogicoPhilosophicus (1921/22) v bi nhiu mn ca ng, l khng r nh ca Cohen, Crossman, v Nagel. Wittgenstein l mt nh phn siu hnh. ng vit li ni u, Cun sch cp n cc vn trit hc v chng t, ti tin, rng phng php trnh by cc vn ny da vo mt s hiu lm v logic v v ngn ng ca chng ta. ng c gng chng t rng siu hnh hc l n gin v ngha v c vch ra mt ranh gii, trong ngn ng ca chng ta, gia c ngha v v ngha: Ranh gii c th .. c vch ra trong cc ngn ng v ci nm bn kia ranh gii s n gin l v ngha. Theo sch ca Wittgenstein, cc nh l c ngha. Chng l ng hay sai. Cc nh trit hc khng tn ti; chng ch trng ging cc nh , nhng thc ra v ngha. Ranh gii gia c ngha v v ngha trng vi ranh gii gia khoa hc t nhin v trit hc: Tng s cc nh ng l ton b khoa hc t nhin (hay Tng s cc khoa hc t nhin). Trit hc khng phi l mt khoa hc t nhin. Nhim v tht ca trit hc, v vy, khng phi l trnh by cc nh ; n, ng hn, lm sng t cc nh : Kt qu ca trit hc khng phi l mt s cc nh trit hc, m lm cho cc nh sng t. Nhng ngi khng thy iu , v xut cc nh trit hc, bn v ci v ngha siu hnh. (Phi nh, lin quan n iu ny, rng mt s phn bit r rt gia cc tuyn b c ngha, v cc din t ngn ng v ngha trng ging cc tuyn b nhng khng c ngha, u tin c Russel a ra trong c gng ca ng gii quyt cc vn gy ra bi cc nghch l m ng khm ph ra. Russell phn chia cc din t ging cc mnh thnh ba phn, v c th phn bit cc mnh c th l ng hay sai v v ngha hay cc ta-mnh v ngha. Quan trng lu rng vic dng ny ca t v ngha hay khng c ngha mt phn hp vi cch dng bnh thng, nhng r ngha hn, v ngi ta thng gi cc mnh tht l v ngha, th d, nu chng l v l, tc l t mu thun hay hin nhin sai. Nh th mt tuyn b khng nh v mt vt th vt l no rng n ng thi hai ch khc nhau khng phi l v ngha m l tuyn b sai, hay l ci mu thun vi vic s dng t vt th trong vt l hc c in; v tng t, mt tuyn b khng nh v mt electron rng n c v tr v moment chnh xc l khng v ngha nh mt s nh vt l khng nh, v nh mt s nh trit hc lp li m n n gin tri vi vt l hc hin i). Ci c ni n y c th tm tt nh sau. Wittgenstein tm mt ng ranh gii gia c ngha v v ngha, v thy ranh gii ny trng vi ranh gii gia khoa hc v siu hnh hc, tc l gia cc cu c tnh khoa hc v cc ta-nh trit hc. (Rng ng ng nht mt cch sai lm lnh vc cc khoa hc t nhin vi lnh vc ca cc cu ng khng lin quan ti chng ta y; xem, tuy vy, ct. 51 ch. ny). Din gii ny v mc tiu ca ng c cng c khi ta c: Trit hc hn ch .. lnh vc ca khoa hc t nhin. (Tt c cc cu c trch n y l t pp. 75 v 77).

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Rt cuc ng ranh gii c vch ra th no? Khoa hc c phn bit ra sao vi siu hnh hc, v do c ngha vi v ngha? Chnh cu tr li cho cu hi ny xc lp s ging nhau gia l thuyt ca Wittgenstein v l thuyt ca Crossman v phn cn li. Wittgenstein ng rng cc t hay cc k hiu do cc nh khoa hc dng l c ngha, cn mt nh siu hnh hc khng cho ngha no cho cc k hiu no trong cc nh ca ng; y l ci ng vit (pp. 187 v 189): Phng php ng ca trit hc l th ny. ng ni ci g tr ci c th c ni, tc l cc nh ca khoa hc t nhin, tc l ci g khng lin quan g vi trit hc: v ri khi ai khc mun ni ci g siu hnh, lun hy chng minh cho hn rng hn khng cho cc k hiu no trong cc nh ca hn ngha no. Trong thc tin, iu ny hm rng chng ta phi tin hnh bng hi nh siu hnh hc: Bng t ny ng mun ni ci g? Bng t ng ni g? Ni cch khc, chng ta i ng ta cho mt nh ngha; v nu khng c, ta cho rng t l v ngha. L thuyt ny, nh s cho thy vn bn, b qua cc s thc rng (a) mt nh siu hnh hc d dm v v lng tm mi khi c hi, Bng t ny ng mun ni g?, s nhanh nhu ngh mt nh ngha, nh th ton b tr chi ho thnh mt th thch tnh kin nhn; (b) nh khoa hc t nhin khng v th logic tt hn nh siu hnh hc; v thm ch, nu so vi nh siu hnh hc v lng tm, v th ti hn. C th bnh lun l Schlick, trong Erkenntnis, I, p. 8, ni ng x l hc thuyt ca Wittgenstein, lu n kh khn ca mt hi quy v tn; nhng li gii m ng gi (c v theo hng ca cc nh ngha quy np hay cu to, hay c l ca thao tc lun; so ct. 50 ch. ny) khng r cng chng c kh nng gii quyt vn ranh gii. Ti ngh l cc nh no trong cc nh ca Wittenstein v Schlick trong i hi mt trit hc v ngha c tho mn bi l thuyt logic m Tarski gi l Ng ngha hc. Nhng ti cng tin rng s tng ng gia cc nh ny v Ng ngha hc khng i xa. V Ng ngha hc xut cc nh ; n khng ch lm r chng. Cc bnh lun ny v Wittgenstein c tip tc cc ct. 51-52 ch. ny. (Xem c cc ct. 8 (2) v 32 ch. 24; v 10 v 25 ch. 25). 47 Quan trng phn bit gia mt suy din logic ni chung, v mt chng minh ni ring. Mt chng minh l mt lp lun suy din theo chn l ca kt lun rt cuc c xc lp; y l cch Aristotle dng t, i hi (th d, trong Anal. Post., I, 4, pp. 73a, ff.) rng chn l cn thit ca kt lun phi c xc lp; v y l cch Carnap dng t ny (xem c bit Logical Syntax, 10, p. 29, 47, p. 171), chng t rng cc kt lun c th chng minh c theo ngha ny l ng mt cch gii tch. ( y ti s khng i vo vn v cc t gii tch-analytic v tng hp). T Aristotle, r l khng phi mi suy din logic u l chng minh; cng c cc suy din logic khng phi l cc chng minh; th d ta c th suy ra cc kt lun t cc tin c th nhn l sai, v cc suy din nh vy khng c gi l cc chng minh. Cc suy din khng-chng minh c Carnap gi l cc suy dn- derivation (loc. cit.). L th l tn cho cc suy din khng-chng minh ny khng c a ra sm hn; n cho thy s bn tm vi cc chng minh, mt s bn tm ny sinh t nh kin Aristotlian rng khoa hc hay tri thc khoa hc phi xc lp mi tuyn b ca n, tc l chp nhn chng nh cc tin hin nhin, hoc chng minh chng. Song v th l th ny. Ngoi logic v ton hc thun tu chng c g c th c chng minh. Cc l l cc khoa hc khc (v thm ch mt s trong ton hc, nh I. Lakatos chng t) khng phi l chng minh m ch l cc suy dn.

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C th nhn xt rng c mt s tng t su rng gia cc vn v suy dn mt bn v nh ngha bn kia, v gia cc vn v chn l ca cc cu v vn v ngha ca cc t. Mt suy dn bt u vi cc tin v dn n mt kt lun; mt nh ngha bt u (nu c t phi sang tri) vi cc t nh ngha v dn n t c nh ngha. Mt suy dn cho chng ta bit v chn l ca mt kt lun, vi iu kin chng ta c thng bo v chn l ca cc tin ; mt nh ngha cho chng ta bit v ngha ca t c nh ngha, vi iu kin ta c thng bo v ngha ca cc t nh ngha. Nh th mt suy dn dch chuyn vn v chn l quay li cho cc tin , m khng tng c kh nng gii quyt n; v mt nh ngha chuyn vn v ngha quay li cho cc t nh ngha, m khng tng c kh nng gii quyt n. 48 L do v sao cc t nh ngha chc l hi t r rng v t chnh xc hn cc t c nh ngha l chng thng tru tng v tng qut hn. iu ny khng nht thit ng nu cc phng php hin i no v nh ngha c s dng (nh ngha bng tru tng ho, mt phng php ca logic biu tng); nhng chc chn ng vi tt c cc nh ngha m Crossman ngh n, v c bit vi mi nh ngha Aristotlian (bi loi-genus v du hiu phn bit c trng- differentia). Mt s nh thc chng, c bit di nh hng ca Locke v Hume, cho rng c th nh ngha cc t tru tng gng cc t ca khoa hc hay ca chnh tr hc (xem vn bn cho ct. tip) di dng cc quan st c bit, c th hay thm ch cc cm gic. Mt phng php quy np v nh ngha c Carnap gi l cu to. Song c th ni rng khng th cu to ra ci chung di dng cc ci ring. (V vic ny, so The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti, c bit cc tit 14, pp. 64 ff., v 25, p. 93; v Testability and Meaning ca Carnap, trong Philosophy of Science, vol. 3, 1936, pp. 419 ff., v vol. 4, pp. 1 ff.). 49 Cc th d l ht nh cc th d m Cohen v Nagel, op. cit., 232 f., ngh cho nh ngha. (So ct. 46 ch. ny). C th thm y mt s nhn xt chung v tnh v dng ca cc nh ngha bn cht lun. (So c cui ct. 44 (1) ch. ny). (1) N lc gii quyt mt vn thc s bng dn chiu n cc nh ngha thng c ngha l thay mt vn ngn t thun tu cho vn thc s. (C mt th d xut sc v phng php ny trong Physics ca Aristotle, II, 6, n cui). iu ny c th c chng t cho cc th d sau. (a) C mt vn thc s: Chng ta c th quay v ci ci ca ch ngha b lc? V bng cch no? (b) C mt vn o c: Chng ta phi quay v vi ci ci? Nh trit hc v ngha, nu i mt vi (a) hay (b), s ni: Hon ton ph thuc vo bn hiu ci g vi cc t m h ca mnh; hy ni cho ti bn nh ngha quay v, ci ci, ch ngha b lc th no, v vi s gip ca cc nh ngha ny ti c th c kh nng gii quyt vn ca bn. Chng li iu ny, ti cho rng nu quyt nh c th c a ra vi s gip ca cc nh ngha, nu n c suy ra t cc nh ngha, th vn c gii quyt nh vy ch l mt vn ngn t; v n c gii quyt c lp vi cc s thc hay vi cc quyt nh o c. (2) Mt trit gia bn cht lun v ngha thm ch c th lm ti hn, c bit lin quan vi vn (b); ng ta c th gi , th d, rng n ph thuc vo bn cht hay c tnh c bn hay c l vo s phn ca nn vn minh ca chng ta liu chng ta c phi quay v hay khng. (Xem c ct. 61 (2) ch. ny).

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(3) Bn cht lun v l thuyt v nh ngha dn n mt s pht trin gy sng st trong o c hc. S pht trin v tng tru tng ho v mt tip xc vi c s ca mi o c hc cc vn o c thc tin, phi c ta quyt nh y v by gi. N dn u tin n cu hi chung, Ci g tt? hay Ci Thin l g?; tip n Ci Thin c ngha l g? v tip n cu hi Ci Thin c ngha l g? c th c tr li khng? G. E. Moore, ngi nu ra cu hi cui trong Principia Ethica, chc chn ng khi nht quyt rng tt theo ngha o c khng th c nh ngha di dng t nhin ch ngha. V, qu thc, nu c th, n s c ngha l ci g nh ng hay ngt hay xanh hay ; v n s hon ton khng thch ng t quan im o c. Ht nh ta khng cn t ti ci ng, hay ci ngt, v.v., s khng c l do no c bt c quan tm o c no n mt ci tt t nhin ch ngha. Song d cho Moore ng v ci c l c coi chnh ng l im chnh ca ng, c th cho rng mt phn tch v tt hay v bt c khi nim hay bn cht, chng bng cch no c th ng gp cho bt c l thuyt o c no lin quan n c s tho ng duy nht ca mi o c, vn o c trc tip phi c gii quyt y v by gi. (So c ct. 18 (1) ch. 5, c bit v s khng thch ng ca cc phn x o c). 50 Ti ngh n cc phng php cu to (xem ct. 48 ch. ny), nh ngha ngm, nh ngha bng tng quan, v nh ngha thao tc. Cc l l ca cc nh thao tc nhn chung c v kh ng; song h khng th bc b s thc rng trong cc nh ngha, hay m t thao tc ca mnh, h cn n cc t chung phi c coi l khng xc nh; v i vi chng, vn li p vo. C th thm y vi gi hay m ch v cch ta dng cc t ca chng ta. V mc ch ngn gn, cc m ch ny s nhc n cc chi tit k thut no m khng c gi thch; v th, dng hin ti, chng c th nhn chung khng hiu c. V ci gi l cc nh ngha ngm, c bit trong ton hc, Carnap chng t (Symposion I, 1927, 355 ff.; so c Abriss ca ng) rng chng khng nh ngha theo ngha thng thng ca t ny; mt h thng cc nh ngha ngm khng th c coi nh xc nh mt m hnh, m n nh r ton b mt lp cc m hnh. Do , h thng cc k hiu c xc nh bi mt h thng cc nh ngha ngm khng th c coi nh mt h thng cc hng s, m chng phi c coi l cc bin s (vi mt di xc nh, v c kt li vi nhau bi h thng theo cch no ). Ti tin c mt s tng t hn ch gia tnh hnh ny v cch ta dng cc t ca chng ta trong khoa hc. S tng t c th c m t theo cch ny. Trong mt ngnh ca ton hc ni ta thao tc vi cc k hiu xc nh bi nh ngha ngm, s thc rng cc k hiu ny khng c ngha xc nh khng nh hng n vic ta thao tc vi chng, hay n tnh chnh xc ca cc l thuyt ca chng ta. V sao li th? Bi v ta khng bt cc k hiu lm qu sc. Ta khng gn mt ngha cho chng, vt qu ci bng ca ngha c cc nh ngha ngm ca chng ta m bo. (V nu ta gn cho chng mt ngha trc gic, th chng ta cn thn coi iu ny nh mt cng c ph ring, ci khng c can thip vo l thuyt). Theo cch ny, ta th, c th ni nh vy, c bn trong vng bng m ca tnh m h hay ca tnh nhp nhng, v trnh ng n vn v cc gii hn chnh xc ca vng hay di na ti ny; v ho ra l ta c th t rt nhiu m khng tho lun ngha ca cc k hiu ny; v chng c g ph thuc vo ngha ca chng. Theo cch tng t, ti tin, ta c th thao tc vi cc t ny m ngha ca chng, ta hc c qua thao tc. Ta dng chng, c th ni nh vy, sao cho chng g ph thuc vo ngha ca chng, hoc cng t cng tt. Cc nh ngha thao tc ca chng ta c li th gip chng ta chuyn vn sang mt lnh vc trong chng g

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hay t ph thuc vo cc t. Ni d hiu l ni theo cch cc t khng phi l quan trng. 51 Wittgenstein trong Tractatus (so ct. 46 ch. ny ni c cc dn chiu cho thm) dy l trit hc khng th xut cc nh , v mi nh trit hc thc ra l cc ta-nh v ngha. Gn cht vi iu ny l hc thuyt ca ng rng nhim v tht ca trit hc khng phi l xut cc cu m lm r chng: i tng ca trit hc l lm sng t v mt logic cc t tng. Trit hc khng l mt l thuyt m l mt hot ng. Mt tc phm trit hc v c bn l s lm sng t. (Op. cit., p. 77). Cu hi ny sinh liu quan im ny c hp vi mc tiu c bn ca Wittgenstein, ph hu siu hnh hc bng lt ty n nh ci v ngha. Trong The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti (xem c bit pp. 311 ff.), ti th chng t rng phng php ca Wittgenstein dn n mt gii php ngn t thun tu v, bt chp tnh trit b ngoi ca n, n phi dn n khng phi s ph hu hay s loi tr hay thm ch ranh gii r rng ca siu hnh hc, m dn n s xm nhp ca chng vo lnh vc khoa hc, n s ln ln chng vi khoa hc. Cc l do cho iu ny l kh n gin. (1) Hy xt mt trong cc cu ca Wittgenstein, th d, Trit hc khng l mt l thuyt m l mt hot ng. Chc chn, y khng phi l mt cu thuc v ton b khoa hc t nhin (hay tng s ca cc khoa hc t nhin). V th, theo Wittgenstein (xem ct. 46 ch. ny), n khng th thuc v tng s cc nh ng. Mt khc, n cng khng l mt nh sai (v gi nh n sai, ph nh ca n phi ng, v thuc v khoa hc t nhin). Nh th ta n kt qu l n phi khng c ngha hay v ngha; v cng ng th cho hu ht cc nh ca Wittgenstein. H qu ny ca hc thuyt ca ng c bn thn Wittgenstein nhn ra, v ng vit (p. 189): Cc nh ca ti lm sng t theo cch ny: ngi hiu ti cui cng nhn ra chng l v ngha .. Kt qu l quan trng. Trit hc ring ca Wittgenstein l v ngha, v n c tha nhn th. Mt khc, nh Wittgenstein ni Li ni u, s ng n ca cc t tng truyn t y i vi ti c v khng th b cng kch v r rng. V th, kin ca ti l cc vn v c bn v rt cuc c gii quyt. iu ny cho thy ta c th truyn t cc t tng ng khng th b tn cng v r rng bng con ng ca cc nh c tha nhn l v ngha, v cui cng ta c th gii quyt cc vn bng xut ci v ngha. (So c ct. 8 (2,b) ch. 24). Hy xem iu ny c ngha g. N c ngha rng tt c ci v ngha siu hnh hc m Bacon, Hume, Kant, v Russell chin u chng li hng th k by gi c th du xung mt cch thoi mi, v thm ch tha nhn thng thn l n v ngha. (Heidegger lm vy; so ct. 87 ch. 12). V by gi chng ta c mt loi v ngha mi tu dng, ci v ngha truyn t cc t tng m s ng n ca chng l khng th b tn cng v r rng; ni cch khc, ci v ngha ht sc quan trng. Ti khng ph nhn, cc t tng ca Wittgenstein l khng th b ch trch v r rng. V lm sao c th tn cng chng? Hin nhin, bt c g chng li chng phi c tnh trit hc v v th v ngha. V n c th b gt b vi t cch nh vy. Ta i mt vi loi lp trng ti m t ch khc, lin quan n Hegel (so ct. 33 ch. 12) nh mt ch ngha gio iu c tng cng. Tt c ci bn cn, ti vit trong Logik der Forschung (nay c dch l The Logic of Scientific Discovery: xem p. 51), p. 21, l xc nh khi nim ngha hay ngha mt cch hp ph hp, v c th ni v mi cu hi kh chu l khng th tm thy bt c ngha hay ngha no ni chng. Do tha nhn ring cc vn khoa hc t nhin l c ngha, mi tranh ci v khi nim

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ngha phi tr nn v ngha. Mt khi ln ngi, gio iu v ngha mi mi trn kh nng b tn cng. N khng th b tn cng v r rng. (2) Song l thuyt ca Wittgenstein khng ch mi gi mi loi v ngha siu hnh lm ra v l ht sc quan trng; n cng lm m ci ti gi (op. cit., p.7) l vn ranh gii. ng lm iu ny bi v tng u tr ca ng l c ci g c bn hay do bn tnh khoa hc v c ci g c bn hay do bn tnh siu hnh v nhim v ca chng ta l khm ph ra ranh gii t nhin gia hai ci ny. Ch ngha thc chng, ti li c th trch mnh (op. cit., p. 8), din gii vn ranh gii theo cch t nhin ch ngha; thay cho din gii vn ny nh vn phi c quyt nh theo tnh hu dng thc tin, n hi v mt s khc bit tn ti do t nhin, c th ni nh vy, gia khoa hc t nhin v siu hnh hc. Song r rng nhim v trit hc hay phng php lun ch c th gi v ngh ra mt ranh gii hu dng gia hai ci ny. iu ny kh c th thc hin bng c trng siu hnh hc l v ngha hay khng c ngha. Th nht, bi v cc t ny hp cho vic x s cm phn c nhn v cc nh siu hnh hc v h thng siu hnh hc hn l cho mt m t c trng v mt ng ranh gii. Th hai, bi v vn ch c dch chuyn, v by gi ta phi hi: C ngha v v ngha c ngha l g? Nu c ngha ch tng ng vi khoa hc v v ngha vi khng khoa hc, th r rng chng c tin b no. V cc l do nh th ti gi (op. cit., 8 ff., 21 f., 227) rng nn loi b hon ton cc t gy xc cm ngha, c ngha, v ngha, v.v., ra khi tho lun phng php lun. ( ngh gii quyt vn ranh gii bng dng tnh c th chng minh l sai (falsifiability) hay tnh c th kim tra (testability), hay cc mc ca testability, nh tiu chun v c tnh kinh nghim ca mt h thng khoa hc, ti gi l khng c li th no i dng c ngha nh mt tng ng gy xc cm ca c th kim tra) *Bt chp s t chi dt khot ca ti v vic coi tnh c th chng minh l sai hay tnh c th kim nghim (hay bt c th g khc) nh mt tiu chun v ngha, ti thy cc nh trit hc thng gn cho ti xut chp nhn ci ny nh mt tiu chun ca ngha hay ca s c ngha. (Xem, th d, Philosophic Thought in France and in the United States, edited by M. Farber, 1950, p. 570).* Nhng d ta c loi b mi dn chiu n ngha hay ngha khi cc l thuyt ca Wittgenstein, li gii ca ng cho vn ranh gii khoa hc v siu hnh hc vn rt ng tic. V do ng ng nht tng s cc nh ng vi tng s khoa hc t nhin, ng loi tr tt c cc gi thuyt khng ng khi lnh vc khoa hc t nhin. V v ta chng bao gi bit mt gi thuyt liu c ng hay khng, ta chng bao gi bit n thuc v lnh vc khoa hc t nhin hay khng. Cng kt qu ng tic, y l, mt ranh gii loi tr mi gi thuyt khi khoa hc t nhin, v v th bao hm chng trong lnh vc siu hnh hc, t c bi nguyn l xc minh ni ting ca Wittgenstein, nh ti ch ra trong Erkenntnis, 3 (1933), p. 427. (V mt gi thuyt, ni nghim ngt, l khng th xc minh c, v nu ni thong hn, th c th ni rng ngay c mt h thng siu hnh hc nh h thng ca cc nh nguyn t lun ban u c xc minh). Ln na, kt lun ny c chnh Wittgenstein rt ra my nm mun hn, theo Schlic (so The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti, n. 9 tit 4), ng khng nh nm 1931 rng cc l thuyt khoa hc khng phi l cc nh thc, tc l khng c ngha. Cc l thuyt, cc gi thuyt, tc l, nhng ci quan trng nht trong mi pht biu khoa hc, nh th b vt ra khi thnh ng khoa hc t nhin, v v th t cng mc vi siu hnh hc.

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Quan im gc ca Wittgenstein trong Tractatus ch c th c gii thch bng gi thit rng ng b qua cc kh khn gn vi a v ca mt gi thuyt khoa hc ci lun vt qu xa s pht biu n gin v s kin; ng b qua vn v tnh ph qut hay tnh tng qut. V vic ny, ng i theo vt chn ca cc nh thc chng sm hn, ni bt l Comte, ngi vit (so Early Essays on Social Philosophy ca ng, ed. by H. D. Hutton, 1911, p. 223; xem F. A. von Hayek, Economica, VIII, 1941, p. 300): Quan st cc s kin l c s vng vng duy nht ca tri thc con ngi mt nh khng tha nhn l c rt ra t mt pht biu n gin v s kin, c bit hay tng qut, khng th c bt c ngha thc v d hiu no. Comte, mc d ng vn khng bit tnh nghim trng ca vn c che giu sau cm t s kin chung, ch t nhc n vn ny, bng chn cc t c bit hay tng qut vo. Nu ta b cc t ny i, th on ny tr thnh mt trnh by rt r v sc tch v tiu chun c bn ca Wittgenstein v ngha hay ngha, nh c ng trnh by trong Tractatus (tt c cc nh l cc hm chn l ca, v v th c th quy v, cc nh nguyn t, tc l cc bc nh ca cc s kin nguyn t), v nh Schlick gii ngha nm 1931. Tiu chun ca Comte v ngha c J. S. Mill chp nhn. Tm tt. L lun phn-siu hnh v ngha Tractatus ca Wittgenstein, khng gip chin u vi ch ngha gio iu siu hnh v trit hc sm truyn, m tiu biu cho mt ch ngha gio iu c tng cng m ca cho k th, v ngha siu hnh ht sc quan trng, vt b, qua cng ca, bn tt nht, tc l, gi thuyt khoa hc. 52 C v ch ngha phi duy l theo ngha ca mt hc thuyt hay tn iu khng xut cc l l mch lc v c th bn ci m ng hn xut cc cch ngn v cc tuyn b gio iu phi c hiu hoc mc k, ni chung s c xu hng tr thnh tnh cht ca mt gii b truyn ca ngi c khai tm. V, thc vy, d on ny mt phn c cng c bi mt s tc phm t trng phi Wittgenstein. (Ti khng mun khi qut ho; th d, mi th ti thy trong vn ca F. Waismann c trnh by nh mt chui ca cc l l duy l v cc k r rng, v hon ton thot c thi chp nhn n hoc mc k n). Vi trong cc tc phm b truyn ny c v khng c vn nghim trng; vi ti, chng c v l tinh vi v s tinh vi. Quan trng l chng n t mt trng phi khi u bng vch mt trit hc v s tinh vi cn ci ca cc n lc ca n gii quyt cc vn -gi. Ti c th kt thc ph phn ny bng tuyn b ngn gn rng ti khng ngh rng c my bin minh cho chin u vi siu hnh hc ni chung, hoc bt c ci g xng ng s sinh ra t mt cuc chin u nh vy. Cn gii quyt vn ranh gii ca khoa hc khi siu hnh hc. Song phi nhn ra l nhiu h thng siu hnh hc dn n cc kt qu khoa hc quan trng. Ti ch nhc n h thng ca Democritus; v ca Schopenhauer rt ging vi ca Freud. V mt s, th d cc h thng ca Plato hay Malebranche hay Schopenhauer, l cc cu trc p v t duy. Nhng ng thi, ti tin l phi chin u vi cc h thng siu hnh hc c xu hng lm chng ta m mn v ln ln. Nhng r rng, chng ta cng phi lm th thm ch vi cc h thng phi-siu hnh hc v phn-siu hnh hc, nu chng biu hin xu hng nguy him ny. V ti ngh ta khng th lm iu ny ngay mt lc. ng hn ta phi chu kh phn tch cc h thng chi tit mt cht; ta phi chng t rng chng ta hiu ci tc gi mun ni, nhng ci ng ta mun ni khng ng c gng hiu n. (c trng ca mi h thng gio iu ny v c bit cc h thng b truyn l nhng ngi ca ngi chng qu quyt v mi nh ph bnh l h khng hiu; song h qun rng hiu phi dn n

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s ng ch trong trng hp ca cc cu vi ni dung tm thng. Trong tt c cc trng hp khc, ta c th hiu v khng ng ). 53 So Schopenhauer, Grundprobleme (4th ed., 1890, p. 147). ng bnh lun v l tr trc gic tr tu a ra cc tuyn b ca n t thp ba chn ca nh tin tri -oracle (v th ti dng thut ng trit hc sm truyn- oracular phylosophy); v ng tip tc: y l ngun gc ca phng php trit hc bc ln sn khu ngay sau Kant, phng php gy bi ri v la bp ngi dn, la di h v nm bi vo mt h - phng php ba hoa. Mt ngy no thi k ny s c lch s trit hc nhn ra nh thi k bt lng. (Ri n on c trch trong vn bn). V thi phi duy l v chp nhn n hoc mc k n, so c vn bn cho cc ct. 39-40 ch. 24. 54 L thuyt ca Plato v nh ngha (so ct. 27 ch. 3 v ct. 23 ch. 5), m mun hn Aristotle pht trin v h thng ho, vp phi s phn i ch yu (1) t Antisthenes, (2) t trng phi Isocrates, c bit Theopompus. (1) Simplicius, mt trong cc ngun tt nht ca ta v cc vn rt ng ng ny, gii thiu Antisthenes (ad Arist. Categ., pp. 66b, 67b) nh mt i th ca l thuyt Hnh thc hay nim ca Plato, v thc ra, ca hc thuyt v bn cht lun v trc gic tr tu ni chung. Ti c th thy mt con nga, Plato, ngi ta k Antisthenes ni, nhng ti khng th thy tnh nga ca n. (Mt l l rt ging c mt ngun mun hn, D. L., VI, 53, gn cho Diogenes nh Cynic, v khng c l do v sao ng li khng dng n). Ti ngh ta c th da vo Simplicius (ngi c v c tip cn n Theophrastus), v rng li chng ca chnh Aristotle trong Metaphysics (c bit Met., 1043b24) hp tt vi phn-bn cht lun ny ca Antisthenes. Hai on Metaphysics ni Aristotle nhc n Antisthenes phn i l thuyt bn cht lun v nh ngha u rt l th. on th nht (Met., 1024b32) ta nghe Antisthenes nu ra im c tho lun ct. 44 (1) ch. ny; tc l, khng c cch no phn bit gia mt nh ngha ng v mt nh ngha sai (v puppy, chng hn) cho nn hai nh ngha r rng mu thun nhau s ch m ch n hai bn cht khc nhau, puppy1 v puppy2; nh th s khng c mu thun no, v kh c th ni v cc cu sai. Aristotle vit v ph phn ny, Antisthenes chng t tnh th thin ca ng bng yu sch rng chng g c th c m t tr bng cng thc thch hp ca n, mi cng thc cho mi th; t suy ra l khng th c mu thun; v hu nh khng th a ra mt tuyn b sai. (on ny thng c din gii nh bao hm l thuyt khng nh ca Antisthenes, thay cho s ph phn ca ng vi hc thuyt nh ngha. Nhng din gii ny b qua ng cnh ca Aristotle. Ton b on bn v kh nng ca cc nh ngha sai, tc l chnh xc v vn gy ra cc kh khn c m t ct. 44 (1), cn c vo s khng tho ng ca l thuyt v trc gic tr tu. V tht r t vn bn ca Aristotle rng cc kh khn ny cng nh thi ca Antisthenes i vi chng lm ng kh chu). on th hai (Met., 1043b24) cng thng nht vi ph phn cc nh ngha bn cht lun c trnh by chng ny. N cho thy Antisthenes tn cng cc nh ngha bn cht lun l v dng, l ch thay mt chuyn di cho mt chuyn ngn; v n cho thy thm na rng Antisthenes tha nhn rt khn ngoan rng, mc d v dng nh ngha, c th m t hay gii thch mt s vt bng nhc n s tng t m n c vi mt s vt c bit ri, hay, nu l hn hp, bng cch gii thch cc thnh phn ca n l g. Aristotle vit, Qu thc c ci g trong kh khn m cc nh Antisthenian v nhng ngi v hc nh vy nu ra. H ni rng mt s vt l ci g (hoc ci g l mt s vt) khng th c nh ngha; v ci gi l nh ngha, h ni, chng l g ngoi mt cng thc di. Song h tha nhn l c

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th gii thch, th d, v bc, n l loi vt th no; v ta c th ni n ging thic. T hc thuyt ny, Aristotle ni thm, suy ra rng c th cho mt nh ngha v mt cng thc v loi hn hp ca cc th hay cc cht liu, bt lun chng l cc th cm nhn c, hay cc i tng ca trc gic tr tu; nhng khng ca cc thnh phn s ng ca chng .. (Tip theo, Aristotle lan man lc sang th kt ni l l ny vi hc thuyt ca ng rng mt cng thc nh ngha bao gm hai phn, genus [loi] v differentia [nt khu bit], chng c lin quan, v c hp nht, ging vt cht v hnh thc). Ti cp y n vn ny v hnh nh l cc k th ca Antisthenes, th d Aristotle (so Topics, I, 104b21), trch ci ng ni theo cch dn n n tng n khng phi l ph phn ca Antisthenes vi bn cht lun m ng hn l hc thuyt khng nh ca ng. n tng ny c th l do s pha trn n vi mt hc thuyt khc c l ca Antisthenes; ti ngha n hc thuyt n gin l chng ta phi ni mc mc, ht nh dng mi t theo mt ngha, v theo cch ny ta c th trnh mi kh khn m l thuyt v nh ngha th gii quyt khng thnh cng. Tt c vn ny, nh ni trc, l rt khng chc chn, do ta thiu chng c. Song ti ngh Grote chc ng khi m t tranh lun ny gia Antisthenes v Plato nh s phn i u tin ca Thuyt Duy danh chng li mt Thuyt Duy thc cc oan (hay vi thut ng ca chng ta, mt bn cht lun cc oan). Lun im ca Grote nh vy c th c bo v chng li s tn cng ca Field (Plato and His Contemp., 167) rng hon ton sai i m t Antisthenes nh mt nh duy danh, . h tr cho din gii ca ti v Antisthenes, ti c th nhc n rng chng li l thuyt kinh vin v nh ngha, cc l l rt ging c Descartes dng (so The Philosophical Works, do Haldane v Ross dch, 1911, vol. I, p. 317) v c Locke dng t r hn (Essay, Book III, ch. III, 11, n ch. IV, 6; c ch. X, 4 n 11; xem c bit ch. IV, 5). C Descartes ln Locke, tuy vy, vn l cc nh bn cht lun. Bn cht lun b Hobbes (so ct. 33 trn) v Berkeley, ngi c th c m t nh mt trong nhng ngi u tin thu hiu mt thuyt duy danh phng php lun, kh xa thuyt duy danh bn th hc ca ng, tn cng; xem c ct. 7 (2) ch. 25. (2) V cc nh ph bnh l thuyt Platonic-Aristotlian v nh ngha khc, ti ch k n Theopompus (c Epictetus trch, II, 17, 4-10; xem Grote, Plato, I, 324). Ti ngh chc t Socrates khng ng h l thuyt nh ngha, tri vi cch nhn c chp nhn ni chung; dng nh ng chin u vi ci ch l gii php ngn t ca cc vn o c; v ci gi l cc nh ngha thut ng o c ca ng rt c th, cn c vo cc kt qu ph nh, l cc n lc ph hu cc nh kin cu n ngn t. (3) Ti mun ni thm y rng bt chp mi ph phn ca mnh ti sn sng tha nhn cc cng trng ca Aristotle. ng l nh nh sng lp ra logic, v xung n Principia Mathematica [Nguyn l Ton hc], c th ni mi logic u l tho t m v khi qut ho ca nhng ci Aristotlian ban u. (Mt thi i mi ca logic qu thc bt u, theo ti, mc d khng vi ci gi l cc h thng a-tr hay phiAristotlian, m ng hn vi s phn bit r gia ngn ng i tng v siu-ngn ng). Hn na, Aristotle c cng ln l th thun ho ch ngha duy tm bng cch tip cn l thng ca mnh m ng khng khng rng ch cc s vt ring l tht (v hnh thc v vt cht ch l cc kha cnh ca tru tng ho). *M chnh cch tip cn ny chu trch nhim v s thc l Aristotle thm ch khng th gii vn v ci chung ca Plato (xem cc ct. 19 v 20 ch. 3, v vn bn), tc l vn gii thch v

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sao cc s vt no li ging nhau v ci khc li khng. V sao khng c ngn y bn cht Aristotlian trong cc s vt nh s cc s vt?* 55 nh hng ca ch ngha Plato c bit ln kinh Phc m ca St. John l r; v nh hng ny t r rt hn trong cc kinh Phc m sm hn, tuy ti khng khng nh rng khng c. Tuy nhin cc kinh Phc m by t mt xu hng chng-duy l tr v chng-ln mt trit l r rng. Chng trnh mt s vin dn n suy on trit hc, v chng dt khot chng s uyn bc v php bin chng, th d, ca cc hc gi; song s uyn bc, thi k ny, c ngha l gii thch cc kinh theo mt ngha bin chng v trit hc, v c bit theo ngha ca cc tn-Platonist. 56 Vn v ch ngha dn tc v thay ch ngha b lc gio x Do Thi bng ch ngha quc t ng mt vai tr rt quan trng trong lch s ban u ca o C c; cc ting vng ca cc cuc u tranh ny c th thy trong Acts (c bit 10, 15 ff., 11, 118; xem c St. Matthew 3, 9, v cc bt chin chng li cc cm k thc n b lc trong Acts 10, 10-15). L th l vn ny xut hin cng vi vn x hi v giu c v ngho kh, v v n l; xem Galatians 3, 28; v c bit Acts 5, 1-11, ni s hu cc ti sn t c m t nh mt trng ti. S st li ca cc hnh thc b ngng v ho ca ch ngha b lc Do Thi trong cc Ghettos [khu Do Thi] ca ng u, n tn 1914 v thm ch lu hn l rt l th (So cch m cc b lc Scot c bm vo cuc sng b lc ca h). 57 Trch dn l t Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. VI, p. 202; on cp n ng c khng b o C c bi cc nh cai tr La M, nhng ngi thng rt khoan dung v cc vn tn gio. Yu t trong o C c, Toynbee vit, khng th chu ni i vi Chnh ph quc l nhng ngi C c t chi chp nhn yu sch ca Chnh ph rng n c quyn p cc thn dn ca n hnh ng ngc vi lng tm ca h Nh th thay cho kim ch s lan truyn ca o C c, t v o t ra c tc dng hiu qu nht ca vic ci o .. 58 V Phn-Gio phi Tn-Platonic ca Julian vi tn ti Plato ho ca n, v cuc chin u ca ng chng nhng ngi v thn, tc o C c, so th d Toynbee, op. cit., V, pp. 565 v 584; ti c th trch mt on t J. Geffken (do Toynbee trch, loc. cit.): Jamblichus (mt trit gia ngoi gio, nh thn b s v ngi sng lp trng phi Tn-Platonist Syrian, sng khong nm 300 sau cng nguyn) kinh nghim tn gio c nhn .. b loi tr. N b thay th bi mt gio phi thn b vi cc l ban phc, bi mt s chnh xc rt t m trong thc hin cc dng th phng, bi mt l nghi gn ging ma thut, v bi mt tng on Cc tng ca Julian v tnh cao qu ca chc gio s to ra .. chnh xc lp trng ca Jamblichus, m nhit huyt ca ng cho cc gio s, cho cc hnh thc th phng chi tit, v cho mt hc thuyt chnh thng c h thng chun b c s cho vic xy dng mt gio phi ngoi gio. Trong cc nguyn l ny ca nh Platonist Syrian v ca Julian ta c th nhn ra s pht trin ca mt xu hng chnh cng Platonic (v c l c Do Thi mun; so ct. 56 ch. ny) chng tn gio cch mng ca lng tm c nhn v nhn tnh bng lm ngng mi thay i v bng a ra mt hc thuyt cng nhc c gi thun khit bi mt ng cp gio s trit hc v bi cc cm k kht khe. (So vn bn cho cc ct. 14 v 18-23 ch. 7; v ch. 8, c bit vn bn cho ct. 34). Vi vic Justinian truy t nhng ngi phiC c v d gio v vic ng cm trit hc nm 529, gi i chiu; by gi chnh o C c chp nhn cc phng php ton tr v kim sot lng tm bng v lc. Thi trung c en ti bt u.

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V cnh bo ca Toynbee chng li mt din gii v s ni ln ca o C c theo ngha ca li khuyn ca Pareto (so cc ct. 65 ch. 10 v 1 ch. 13) xem, th d, A Study of History, V, 709. 60 V hc thuyt v lim s ca Cristias, Plato v Aristotle rng tn gio l thuc phin ca nhn dn, so cc ct. 5 n 18 (c bit 15 n 18) ch. 8. (Xem c Topics, ca Aristotle, I, 2, 101a30 ff.). V cc th d mun hn (Polybius v Strabo) xem, th d, Toynbee, op. cit., V, 646 f., 561. Toynbee trch Polybius (Historiae, V, 56): im trong hin php La M tri hn ngi khc r rt nht c th thy, theo ti, vic i x vi Tn gio ca n .. Nhng ngi La M tm c cch rn mi lin kt chnh ca trt t x hi ca h .. t s m tn, v.v. V ng trch Strabo: Khng th khin .. mt m ngi hn tp tr li ting gi ca L tr Trit hcKhi i x vi loi ngi nh vy, khng th lm m khng c m tn, v.v. Cn c vo lot di cc nh trit hc Plato ho ny nhng ngi dy rng tn gio l thuc phin ca nhn dn ti khng hiu lm sao s ti cc ng c tng t cho Constantine c th c m t nh sai nin i. C th k ra mt i th gh gm m Toynbee ni l ng ta thiu thc lch s: Lord Acton. V ng vit (so History of Freedom ca ng, 1909, p. 30 f., ti nhn mnh) v quan h ca Constantine vi ngi C c: Constantine, khi chp nhn nim tin ca h, khng c t b mu chnh sch ca bc tin bi ca mnh cng chng t chi s m hoc ca uy quyn c on, m cng c ngai vng ca mnh vi s h tr ca mt tn gio lm th gii ngc nhin bi sc khng c ca n.. 61 Ti thn phc cc thnh ng trung c nhiu nh bt c ai, v ti hon ton sn sng tha nhn s v i v tnh v song ca s kho lo trung c. Song ti tin rng tnh thm m khng bao gi c dng nh mt l l chng ch ngha nhn vn. Li ca tng Thi Trung c c v bt u vi phong tro Lng mn c, v n tr thnh mt thi thng vi s phc sinh ca phong tro Lng mn ny m ng tic chng ta ang chng kin hin nay. Tt nhin, n l mt phong tro phn-duy l; n s c tho lun t mt quan im khc chng 24. Hai thi vi Thi Trung c, ch ngha duy l v ch ngha phi-duy l, tng ng vi hai din gii v lch s (so ch. 25). (1) Din gii duy l v lch s nhn cc thi k ni ngi ta th xt cng vic con ngi mt cch duy l vi hi vng. N thy Th h V i v c bit Socrates, o C c ban u (n Constantine), Thi Phc hng v thi Khai sng, v khoa hc hin i, cc thnh phn ca mt phong tro thng b gin on, cc n lc ca con ngi t gii phng mnh, ph v ci ci ca x hi ng, to ra mt x hi m. N thc rng phong tro ny khng tiu biu cho mt qui lut tin b hay cho bt c th g thuc loi , m n ch ph thuc vo chnh chng ta, v n phi bin mt nu ta khng bo v n chng cc ch th ca n cng nh chng s li bing v bing nhc. Din gii ny thy cc thi k can thip en ti vi uy quyn Plato ho, cc tn ti ca chng v trt t gio s v b lc ca cc hip s. Mt pht biu c in v din gii ny c Lord Acton a ra (op. cit., p. 1; ti nhn mnh). T do, ng vit ngay sau tn gio, l ng lc ca vic thin v l do chung ca ti c, t vic gieo ht Athens, 2560 nm trc mi thi i s tin b ca n b bao vy bi cc k th t nhin ca n, bi s v minh v m tn, bi ham mun chinh phc v bi s thch thoi mi, bi khao kht quyn lc ca k mnh, v khao kht thc n ca ngi ngho. Trong cc khong di n hon ton b ngng .. Khng c cn tr no li lin min nh vy, hay li kh khc phc n vy, nh s bt

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trc v ln ln ng n bn cht ca t do thc s. Nu cc li ch th ch gy ra nhiu tn hi, cc tng sai cn gy ra nhiu hn. K l mt cm gic mnh ra sao v en ti thnh hnh thi trung c. Khoa hc v trit hc ca h u b m nh bi cm gic l chn l c bit mt thi, b mt. iu ny t bc l nim tin vo b mt b mt ca qu ca cc trit gia c xa v vo s thng thi c xa v chim tinh khng t hn vo nim tin rng mt tng khng th c gi tr no nu n mi, v mi tng cn s ng h ca uy quyn c xa (Aristotle v Kinh thnh). Nhng nhng ngi, cm thy cha kho b mt n s thng thi b mt, ng. V cha kho ny l nim tin vo l tr, v t do. N l s cnh tranh t do ca t duy, ci khng th tn ti m khng c t do t tng. (2) Din gii khc thng nht vi Toynbee khi thy, ngi Hy Lp cng nh ch ngha duy l hin i (t thi Phc Hng), mt s sai lc khi con ng nim tin. Vi con mt ca tc gi ny, Toynbee ni (A Study of History, vol. V, p. 6 f., ct.; ti nhn mnh), yu t chung ca ch ngha duy l c th thy r trong Vn minh C Hy Lp v Phng Ty l khng c bit nh phn bit cp x hi ny vi tt c cc i din khc ca loi Nu ta coi yu t C c ca nn Vn minh Phng ty ca chng ta nh bn cht ca n, th s tr li vi ch ngha Hy Lp c c th c coi, khng l mt s thc hin cc kh nng ca dn Phng Ty theo o C c, m l mt s sai lch khi con ng ph hp ca s pht trin Phng Ty - thc ra, l mt bc sai m by gi c th hay khng c th ly li. Ngc vi Toynbee, ti khng h nghi ng rng c th ly li bc ny v quay li vi ci ci, vi s n p, m tn, v bnh dch hch ca Thi Trung c. Song ti tin l tt hn nhiu khi chng ta khng lm vy. V ti cho rng ci chng ta nn lm s c quyt nh bi chnh chng ta, qua cc quyt nh t do, v khng phi bi bn cht lun lch s ch ngha; cng chng bi vn v c tnh c bn ca nn Vn minh Ty Phng c th l g nh Toynbee tin (xem c ct. 49 (2) ch. ny). (Cc on c trch t Toynbee l cc phn tr li ca ng cho bc th ca Dr. E. Bevan; v bc th ca Bevan, tc l bc u trong hai l th ca ng m Toynbee trch, i vi ti c v i din qu thc rt r rng cho ci ti gi l din gii duy l). 62 Xem H. Zinsser, Rats, Lice, and History (1937), pp. 80 v 83; ti nhn mnh. V nhn xt ca ti trong vn bn, cui ca ch. ny, rng khoa hc v o c ca Democritus vn cn sng vi chng ta, ti c th ni rng mt mi lin h lch s trc tip dn t Democritus v Epicurus qua Lucretius khng ch ti Gassendi m r rng ti c Locke. Cc nguyn t v h v l cm t c trng m s hin din ca n lun tit l nh hng ca truyn thng ny; v thng thng, trit hc t nhin v cc nguyn t v trng rng i cng vi trit l o c ca mt ch ngha khoi lc hay thuyt v li v tha. V ch ngha khoi lc v thuyt v li, ti tin rng qu thc cn thay nguyn l ca chng: ti a ho vui thch! bng mt nguyn l c l ph hp hn vi quan im ban u ca Democritus v Epicurus, khim tn hn, v cp bch hn nhiu. Ti mun ni ti quy tc: ti thiu ho kh au! ti tin (so cc ch. 9, 24, v 25) rng khng ch khng th m cn rt nguy him th ti a ho vui thch hay hnh phc ca nhn dn, v mt mu toan nh vy phi dn n ch ngha ton tr. Nhng c t nghi ng rng hu ht cc mn ca Democritus (xung n tn Bertrand Russell, ngi vn quan tm n cc nguyn t, hnh hc, v thuyt v li) s c t tranh ci vi vi s ti-trnh by c gi v nguyn l khoi lc ca h min l n c hiu nh n mun ni, v khng v mt tiu chun o c.

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CH THCH CHO CHNG 12 Ch thch chung cho Chng ny. Ni c th, ti ch dn cc ct. ny n Selections, tc l n Hegel: Selections, ed. by J. Loewenberg, 1929. (T The Modern Students Library of Philosophy). Su tp tuyt vi v d tip cn ny cha rt nhiu on c trng nht ca Hegel, cho nn nhiu trng hp c th chn cc trch dn t chng. Tuy vy, cc trch dn t Selections s i km vi cc ch dn n cc ln xut bn ca tc phm gc. Ni c th ti dn chiu n WW, tc l ti Smtliche Werke ca Hegel, herausgegeben von H. Glockner, Stuttgart (t 1927 tr i). Mt phin bn quan trng ca Encyclopedia, tuy vy, khng bao gm WW, c trch nh Encycl. 1870, tc l, G. W. F. Hegel, Encyclopdie, herausgegeben von K. Rosenkranz, Berlin 1870. Cc on t Philosophy of Law (hay Philosophy of Right) c trch bng s ca cc on vn v ch L biu th rng on l t cc bi ging do Gans a thm vo trong ln xut bn ca ng nm 1833. Ti khng lun lun theo cch hnh vn ca cc dch gi. 1 Trong Lun vn Khai trng ca ng, De Orbitis Planetarum, 1801. (Tiu hnh tinh Ceres c khm ph ra ngy 1 thng 1 nm 1801). 2 Democritus, fragm. 118 (D2); so vn bn cho ct. 29 ch. 10. 3 Schopenhauer, Grundprobleme (4th ed., 1890), p. 147; so ct. 53 ch. 11. 4 Ton b Phylosophy of Nature y cc nh ngha nh vy. H. Stafford Hatfield, th d, dch nh ngha ca Hegel v nhit (so bn dch ca ng v Bavink, The Anatomy of Modern Science, p. 30): Nhit l s t-phc hi ca vt cht trong tnh v hnh dng ca n, trng thi lng ca n s thng li ca tnh ng u tru tng ca n trn s xc nh c th, s tru tng ca n, s lin tc t-tn ti thun khit, nh ph nh ca ph nh, y c nu nh hnh ng. nh ngha, th d, v in cng th. V trch dn tip xem Briefe, ca Hegel, I, 373, do Wallace trch, The Logic of Hegel (transl., p. xiv f., ti nhn mnh). 5 So Falkenberg, History of Modern Philosophy (6th German ed., 1908, 612; so bn dch ting Anh ca Armstrong, 1895, 632). 6 Ti ngh n cc trit hc khc nhau v tin ho hay tin b hay ni ln nh ca H. Bergson, S. Alexander, Thng ch Smuts hay A. N. Whitehead. 7 on c trch v phn tch ct. 43 (2), di y. 8 V tm trch dn on vn ny, so Selections, pp. 389 (=WW, vi, 71), 447, 443, 446 (ba trch dn); 388 (hai trch dn) (=WW, xi, 70). Cc on l t The Philosophy of Law ( 272L, 258L, 270L); trch dn u v cui l t Philosophy of History. V chnh th lun ca Hegel, v l thuyt hu c ca ng v nh nc, xem th d m ch ca ng n Menenius Agrippa (Livy, II, 32; v mt ph phn, xem ct. 7 ch. 10) trong Philosophy of Law, 269L; v s trnh by c in ca ng v s i lp gia sc mnh ca mt c th c t chc v s bt lc ca ng, hay tng, cc n v nguyn t, cui 290L (so c ct. 70 ch. ny). Hai im rt quan trng khc trong Hegel theo gio hun chnh tr ca Plato l: (1) L thuyt v ci Mt, ci t, v ci Nhiu; xem th d, op. cit., 273: Quc vng l mt ngi; s t xut hin vi t chc hnh php; v s nhiu .. vi lp php; cng c m ch n s ng 301, v.v. (2) L thuyt v s i lp gia tri thc v kin (so tho lun ca op. cit., 270, v t do t tng, trong vn bn gia ct. 37 v 38, di y), m Hegel dng c trng d lun nh kin ca s ng hay thm ch nh tnh ng bng ca s ng, so op. cit., 316 ff., v ct. 76, di y.

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V ph phn l th ca Hegel i vi Plato, v s bp mo cn l th hn m ng a ra cho chnh ph phn ca mnh, so ct. 43 (2) ch. ny. 9 V cc nhn xt ny, so c bit ch. 25. 10 So Selections, xii (J. Loewenberg trong Dn nhp cho Selections). 11 Ti ngh n khng ch cc tin bi trit hc trc tip ca ng (Fichte, Schlegel, Schelling, v c bit Schleiermacher), hay cc ngun c xa ca ng (Heraclitus, Plato, Aristotle), m c bit Rousseau, Spinoza, Montesquieu, Herder, Burke (so mc IV ch. ny), v nh th Schiller. S hm n ca Hegel vi Rousseau v Montesquieu (so The Spirit of the Laws, XIX, 4 f.), v Herder, cho Spirit of the Nation, l r rng. Cc quan h ca ng vi Spinoza c c tnh khc. ng theo, hay ng hn phng theo, hai tng quan trng ca nh quyt nh lun Spinoza. Th nht l khng c t do ngoi l tr trong s tha nhn duy l v tnh tt yu ca mi th, v trong quyn lc m l tr, bng s tha nhn ny, c th s dng trn cc am m. tng ny c Hegel pht trin thnh mt s ng nht ca l tr (hay Tinh thn) vi t do, v gio hun ca ng rng t do l chn l ca s tt yu (Selections, 213, Encycl. 1870, p. 154). tng th hai l ch ngha thc chng o c k l ca Spinoza, hc thuyt ca ng rng l phi thuc v k mnh, mt tng m ng ngh ra dng chng ci ng gi l s chuyn ch, tc l n lc thu tm quyn lc qu cc gii hn quyn lc hin thi. Mi lo chnh ca Spinoza l t do t tng, ng dy rng l khng th i vi mt nh cai tr i p buc cc ngh ca con ngi (v t tng l t do), v mu toan t ci khng th l bo ngc. Trn hc thuyt ny, ng t c s cho s ng h ca ng i vi quyn lc ca nh nc th tc (m, ng u tr hi vng, s khng tc mt t do t tng) chng li nh th. Hegel cng ng h nh nc chng li nh th, v ng ch ni mp v t do t tng m tm quan trng chnh tr ca n c ng nhn ra (so li ni u ca Phil. of Laws); nhng ng thi ng xuyn tc tng ny, cho l nh nc phi quyt nh ci g l ng v sai, v c th cm ci n cho l sai (xem tho lun ca Phil. of Laws, 270, vn bn gia cc ct. 37 v 38, di y). T Schiller, Hegel ly (nhn tin khng c s tha nhn thm ch m ch rng ng ang trch) chm ngn ni ting ca ng Lch s th gii l to n ca Th gii. Nhng chm ngn ny ( cui 340 ca Phil. of Laws; so vn bn cho ct. 26) bao hm rt nhiu trit l chnh tr lch s ch ngha ca Hegel; khng ch s tn sng thnh cng v nh th quyn lc, m c ch ngha thc chng o c k d ca ng, v l thuyt ca ng v tnh hp l ca lch s. Vn liu Hegel c b Vico nh hng hay khng vn cn b ng. (Bn dch ting c ca Weber v New Science c xut bn nm 1822). 12 Schopenhauer l mt ngi hm m nng nhit khng ch ca Plato m c ca Heraclitus. ng tin m ng nhi y bng h nh th vt; ng chp nhn chm ngn ca Bias mi ngi u h nh li khuyn ca ng; v ng tin rng mt ch qu tc Platonic l chnh ph tt nht. ng thi, ng cm ght ch ngha dn tc, v c bit ch ngha dn tc c. ng l mt k giang h. Cc din t hi gm guc ca ng v ni s v s cm ght ca ng i vi cc cuc cch mng 1848 mt phn c th c gii thch bi s e s ca ng l di s cai tr ca m ng ng c th mt c lp, v mt phn bi ng cm ght thc h dn tc ch ngha ca phong tro. 13 V gi ca Schopenhauer v motto ny (ly t Cymbeline, Hi V, Cnh 4) xem Will in Nature (4th ed., 1878) ca ng, p. 7. Hai trch dn tip theo l t Works (2nd ed., 1888) ca ng, vol. V, 103 f., v vol. II, p. xvii, f., (tc l Li ni u cho ln xut bn th hai ca World as Will and Idea; ti nhn mnh). Ti tin mi ngi nghin cu

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Schopenhauer u phi b n tng bi tnh chn tht v trung thc ca ng. So c nh gi ca Kierkegaard, c trch vn bn cho cc ct. 19/20 ch, 25. 14 Ln xut bn u tin ca Schwegler (1839) l mt tiu lun tng nh Hegel. Cu hi l t History of Philosophy ca ng, H. Stirling dch, 7th ed., p. 322. 15 Vi bn c Anh Dr. Hutchinson Stirling gii thiu Hegel ln u bng tuyn b mnh m v cc nguyn l ca ng, E. Caird vit (Hegel, 1883, Li ni u, p. vi); c th cho thy Stirling c coi kh nghim tc. Trch dn tip l t Cc Ch gii ca Stirling cho History ca Schwegler, p. 429. Ti c th lu rng motto ca chng ny ly t cng tc phm, p. 441. 16 Stirling vit (op. cit., 441): Vic ln sau cng i vi Hegel l cng dn tt, v vi ng ngi th, khng cn n trit hc cho tr c Hegel. Nh th ng ni cho ng Duboc ngi vit cho ng v cc kh khn ca mnh vi h thng, rng, nh ngi ch tt ca mt nh v ngi cha ca gia nh, c mt nim tin vng chc, ng c hu nh , v c th coi bt c vic g thm, theo con ng trit hc, chng hn, nh ch .. l s xa x tr tu. Nh th theo Stirling, Hegel khng quan tm n dn dp s kh khn trong h thng ca ng, m ch quan tm n ci bin cc cng dn xu thnh tt. 17 Trch dn tip theo l t Stirling, op. cit., 444 f. Stirling tip tc cu cui c trch vn bn: Ti thu c nhiu t Hegel, v ti lun lun t lng bit n, nhng lp trng ca ti v s knh trng ng n gin l s knh trng ca mt ngi, trong bin ci khng th hiu c thnh c th hiu c, c th phng s cho qun chng. V ng chm dt on vn bng cch ni rng: Mc tiu chung ca ti .. ti ngh l ging ht nh ca Hegel .., l, ca mt trit gia C c. 18 So, th d, A Textbook of Marxist Philosophy. 19 Ti ly on ny t nghin cu rt l th, Nationalism and the Cultural Crisis in Prussia, 1806-1815, ca E. N. Anderson (1939), p. 270. Phn tch ca Anderson ph phn ch ngha dn tc, v ng nhn ra r rng yu t lon thn kinh v cung lon trong (so, th d, p. 6 f.). Th m ti khng th ng hon ton vi thi ca ng. Ti cho rng, c s ao c khch quan ca nh s hc hng dn, c v i vi ti ng coi phong tro dn tc ch ngha qu nghim trng. Ti khng th ng , c bit, vi s ln n ca ng v Vua Frederick William v ngi thiu hiu bit v phong tro dn tc ch ngha. Frederick William thiu nng lc nh gi ng tnh trng i, Anderson vit p. 271, bt lun trong mt l tng hay trong mt hnh ng. Tin trnh n ch ngha dn tc m vn hc v trit hc c ang ln m sng chi n vy cho nhng ngi khc vn cn ng vi ng. Song rt hin nhin cc bc gii nht ca vn hc v trit hc c l chng-dn tc ch ngha; Kant v Schopenhauer c hai u chng, v ngay c Goethe ng xa ch ngha dn tc; v khng th bin h i hi bt c ai, v c bit mt ngi n gin, tht th, bo th nh nh vua, rng ngi phi b kch ng v s ba hoa ca Fichte. Nhiu ngi s hon ton ng vi nh gi ca vua khi ngi ni (loc. cit.) v ch vit ngoy lp d ni ting. Mc d ti ng rng s bo th ca nh vua l rt ng tic, ti ht sc knh trng s gin d ca ngi, v s khng c ca ngi i vi ln sng cung lon dn tc ch ngha. 20 So Selections, xi (J. Loewenberg trong Dn nhp cho Selections). 21 So cc ct. 19 ch. 5 v 18 ch. 11, v vn bn. 22 V trch dn ny xem Selections, 103 (=WW, iii, 116); v trch dn tip, xem Selections, 130 (= G.W.F. Hegel, Werke, Berlin-Leipzig 1832-1887, vol. vi, 224). V trch dn cui on ny, xem Selections, 131 (= Werke, 1832-1887, vol. vi, 224-5). 23 So Selections, 103 ( = WW, iii, 103).

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So Selections, 128 ( = WW, iii, 141). Ti m ch n Bergson, v c bit n Creative Evolution ca ng. (A. Mitchell dch, ting Anh, 1913). C v l c tnh Hegelian ca tc phm ny khng c nhn ra ; v thc vy, tnh sng sa v trnh by hp l ca Bergson v t tng ca ng i khi lm cho kh nhn ra trit hc ca ng ph thuc nhiu th no vo Hegel. Song nu ta xt, th d, Bergson dy rng bn cht l s thay i, hay nu ta c cc on ging on sau (so op. cit., 275 v 278), th cn t nghi ng. iu c bn cng l s tin b n phn tnh, Bergson vit. Nu phn tch ca chng ta ng, n l thc, hay ng hn siu- thc, ci khi nguyn ca cuc sng thc tng ng chnh xc vi nng lc la chn ca sinh vt sng; n cng tn ti vi ra ca hnh ng kh d bao quanh hnh ng thc: thc l ng ngha vi sng kin v vi t do. (Ti nhn mnh). S ng nht thc (hay Tinh thn) vi t do l phin bn Hegelian ca Spinoza. iu ny i xa n mc c th thy cc l thuyt Hegel m ti thin v m t nh hin nhin Bergsonian; th d, Bn cht thc s ca Tinh thn l hot ng; n thc hin tim nng ca n; n bin mnh thnh vic lm ring ca n, cng vic ring ca n .. (Selections, 435 = WW, xi, 113). 26 So ct. 21 n 24 ch. 11, v vn bn. y (so Selections, 409 = WW, xi, 89) l mt on c trng khc: Nguyn l Pht trin cng bao hm s tn ti ca mt mm tim tng ca sinh vt -nng lc hay kh nng phn u t thc hin.- V trch dn mun hn on vn, so Selections, 468 (tc l Phil. of Laws, 340; xem c ct. 11, trn). 27 Mt khc, xt rng ngay c mt ch ngha Hegel c, tc l ch ngha Fichte v ch ngha Aristotle, thng c m tn ln nh mt thnh tu c o, c l hi h khc ni v Hegel rng ng khng c o. (Nhng so ct. 11). 28 So Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, 2nd ed., p. 514 (top); xem c p. 518 (cui mc 5); v motto ca Dn nhp ca ti, xem th ca Kant cho Mendelssohn ngy 8-4-1766. 29 So ct. 53 ch. 11, v vn bn. 30 C l c l cho rng ci ngi ta thng gi l tinh thn ca mt ngn ng ch ch yu l tiu chun truyn thng v s trong sng do cc nh vn ln a vo ngn ng c bit . C vi tiu chun truyn thng na trong mt ngn ng, ngoi tnh trong sng, th d, cc tiu chun v tnh n gin, v trang tr, v tnh khc chit hay ngn gn, v.v.; nhng tnh trong sng c l l quan trng nht trong s ; v n l mt di sn vn ho phi c gi gn cn thn. Ngn ng l mt trong cc th ch quan trng nht ca i sng x hi, v s trong sng ca n l mt iu kin hot ng ca n nh mt cng c truyn thng duy l. Vic s dng n cho truyn t cc xc cm l t quan trng hn nhiu, v chng ta c th truyn t rt nhiu cm xc m chng ni mt li. * C l ng ni rng Hegel, ngi hc t Burke ci g v tm quan trng ca s pht trin lch s ca cc truyn thng, thc ra lm nhiu hu hoi truyn thng tr tu m Kant t nn mng, c bng hc thuyt ca ng v s xo tr ca l tnh t bc l ra trong am m (xem cc ct. 82, 84 v vn bn), v bng phng php lp lun thc s ca ng. Nhng ng lm nhiu hn th. Bng ch ngha tng i lch s ca mnh- l thuyt cho rng chn l l tng i, ph thuc vo tinh thn thi i ng gip ph hu truyn thng tm kim chn l, v tn trng chn l. Xem c mc IV ca chng ny, v bi bo ca ti, Towards a Rational Theory of Tradition (trong The Rationalist Annual, 1949; by gi trong Conjectures and Refutations ca ti).* 31 Cc n lc b li Php Bin chng ca Kant (hc thuyt ca ng v cc Mu thun) c v rt him. Ph phn nghim tc th lm r v trnh by li cc l l ca Kant c th thy World as Will and Idea ca Schopenhauer v New or Antropological

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Critique of Reason ca J. F. Fries, ting c, xut bn ln 2, 1828, pp. xxiv ff. Ti th din gii Kant nh cho rng suy t n thun khng th xc lp bt c th g ni kinh nghim khng th gip gt b cc l thuyt sai. (So Mind, 49, 1940, p. 416; c Conjecture and Refutations, p. 326 f. trong cng tp ca Mind, pp. 204 ff., M. Fried c mt ph phn l th v cn thn v l l ca Kant). V mt n lc mang li ngha cho l thuyt bin chng ca Hegel v l tr cng nh v din gii tp th ch ngha ca l tr (tinh thn khch quan ca ng), xem phn tch v kha cnh x hi hay gia cc c nhn ca phng php khoa hc ch. 23, v din gii tng ng v l tr ch. 24. 32 Ti a ra mt bin h chi tit v vic ny What is Dialectic? (Mind, 49, pp. 403 ff.; xem c bit cu cui p. 410: c, Conjecture and Refutation, p. 321). Xem c ct. thm di nhan , Are Contradictions Embracing? * xut hin t trong Mind, 52, 1943, pp. 47 ff. Sau khi vit n ti c Introduction to Semantics ca Carnap, 1942, ni ng dng t comprehensive bao qut, c v hay hn embracing. Xem c bit 30 ca sch ca Carnap.* Trong What is Dialectic? mt lot vn c cp m ch c lt qua cun sch ny; c bit qu t Kant ti Hegel, php bin chng ca Hegel, v trit hc ca ng v s ng nht. Tuy vi tuyn b ca bi bo y c lp li y, hai cch trnh by vn ch yu l b sung cho nhau. Xem c cc ct. tip xung tn ct. 36. 33 So Selections, xxviii (li trch ting c; v cc trch dn tng t xem WW, iv, 618, v Werke 1832-1887, vol. vi, 259). V tng v ch ngha gio iu c tng cng c ni ti on vn ny, so What is Dialectic?, p. 417, v Conjecture and Refutations, p. 327; xem c ct. 51 ch. 11. 34 So What is Dialectic? c bit t p. 414, ni vn , u c chng ta lnh hi th gii th no? c a ra, xung n p. 420 (Conjecture and Refutations, pp. 325-30). 35 Mi th c tht l mt nim, Hegel ni. So Selections, 103 (= WW, iii, 116); v t s hon ho ca nim, suy ra ch ngha thc chng o c. Xem c Selections, 388 (= WW, xi, 70), tc l on cui c trch vn bn cho ct. 8; xem thm, 6 ca Encyclopdia, v Li ni u cng nh 270L ca Phil. of Right. Ti hu nh khng cn ni thm Nh c ti Ln on vn trc l mt m ch n phim ca Chaplin. 36 So Selections, 103 (= WW, iii, 116). Xem c Selections, 128, 107 (=WW, iii, 142). Trit hc v ng nht ca Hegel, tt nhin, cho thy nh hng ca l thuyt thn b v tri thc ca Aristotle hc thuyt v s thng nht ca ch th nhn bit v i tng c bit. (So cc ct. 33 ch. 11, 59-70 ch. 10, cc ct. 4, 6, v 29-32, v 58 ch. 24). Vi cc nhn xt ca ti trong vn bn v trit hc ng nht ca Hegel, c th ni thm l Hegel tin, cng vi hu ht cc trit gia thi ng, rng logic c coi nh l lun ca suy ngh, hay ca suy l. (Xem What is Dialectic?, p. 418). iu ny, cng vi trit hc ng nht, c h qu l logic c coi l l lun ca t duy, hay ca l tr, hay ca cc nim, hay khi nim, hay ca Thc t. T tin thm rng t duy pht trin bin chng, Hegel c th rt ra rng, l tr, cc nim hay khi nim, v Thc t, tt c pht trin mt cch bin chng; v ng nhn c thm na Logic = Php bin chng v Logic = L lun v Thc ti. Hc thuyt sau c bit n nh pan-logism ca Hegel. Mt khc, Hegel c th dn ra t cc tin ny rng cc khi nim pht trin mt cch bin chng, tc l c kh nng v mt loi t-to v t-pht trin, t h v. (Hegel bt u trnh by ny vi nim v Tn ti gi nh trc ci i lp ca n, tc l H v, v to ra qu t H v sang Tn ti, tc l Sinh thnh). C hai l do cho n lc pht trin cc khi nim t h v. Mt l tng sai lm rng trit hc phi xut pht m khng c gi nh trc no. ( tng ny mi y c Husserl ti khng nh; n

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c tho lun ch. 24; so ct. 8 ch. , v vn bn). iu ny dn Hegel bt u t h v. L do th hai l hi vng cho mt s pht trin c h thng v s bin h ca Bng cc Phm tr ca Kant. Kant a ra nhn xt rng hai phm tr u ca mi nhm l i lp vi nhau, v phm tr th ba l mt loi tng hp ca ci u. Nhn xt ny (v nh hng ca Fichte) dn Hegel i hi vng l ng c th dn ra mi phm tr mt cch bin chng, t h v, v v th bin h cho s tt yu ca mi phm tr. 37 So Selections, xvi (= Werke, 1832-1887, vi, 153-4). 38 So Anderson, Nationalism, etc., 294. Nh vua ha hin php vo 22-5-1815. Cu chuyn v hin php v ng y c v c ni nhiu nht v cc hong thn ca thi y (th d, v hong Francis I cng nh ngi k v ca ng Ferdinand I x o). Trch dn tip l t Selections, 246 f. (= Encycl. 1870, pp. 437-8). 39 So Selections, 248 f. (= Encycl. 1870, pp. 437-8; ti nhn mnh). 40 So ct. 25 ch. 11. 41 V nghch l t do, so ct. 43 (1) di y; bn on vn vn bn trc ct. 42 ch. 6; cc ct. 4 v 6 ch. 7, v ct. 7 ch. 24; v on trong vn bn. (Xem c ct. 20 ch. 17). V pht biu li ca Rousseau v nghch l t do, so Social Contract, Book I, ch. VIII, on hai. V gii php ca Kant, so ct. 4 ch. 6. Hegel thng xuyn m ch n gii php ca Kant (so Kant, Metaphysics of Morals, Introduction to Theory of Law, C; Works, ed. by Cassirer, VII, p. 31); th d Phylosophy of Law ca ng, 29; v 270, ni, i theo Aristotle v Burke (so ct. 43 ch. 6 v vn bn), Hegel l l chng l thuyt (do Lycophron v Kant) rng chc nng c th ca nh nc ct bo v cuc sng, ti sn, v tnh ng bng ca mi ngi, nh ng din t mt cch khinh b. V hai trch dn u v cui on vn ny, so Selections, 248 f., v 249 (= Encycl. 1870, p. 439). 42 V cc trch dn, so Selections, 250 (= Encycl. 1870, pp. 440-41). 43 (1) V cc trch dn tip, so Selections, 251 (= Encycl. 1870, p. 441); 251 f., (cu u ca 541 = Encycl. 1870, p. 442); v 253 f. (bt u ca 542, ti nhn mnh mt phn = Encycl. 1870, p. 443). y l cc on t Encyclopdia. on tng t t Phil. of Law l: 273 (on vn cui) n 281. Hai trch dn l t 275, v 279, cui on u (ti nhn mnh). V mt s s dng ng ng tng t ca nghch l t do, xem Selections, 394 (= WW, xi, 76): Nu tha nhn nguyn l tn trng ch c nhn nh c s duy nht ca t do chnh tr .. th, ni cho ng, chng ta khng c Hin php. Xem c Selections, 400 f. (= WW, xi, 80-81), v 449 (xem Phil. of Law, 274). Bn thn Hegel tm tt s xuyn tc ca ng (Selections, 401 = WW, xi, 82): mt giai on sm hn ca tho lun, chng ta xc lp ..th nht, nim v T do nh mc tiu tuyt i v cui cng Ri chng ta tha nhn Nh nc nh ci Ton th o c v Thc ti ca T do .. Nh th ta bt u vi t do v kt thc vi nh nc ton tr. Ngi ta kh c th trnh by s xuyn tc mt cch v lim s hn. (2) V th d khc na v mt xuyn tc bin chng, tc, s xuyn tc l tr thnh am m v bo lc, xem cui ca (g) mc IV ca ch. ny (vn bn cho ct. 84). V mi quan h ny c bit l th l ph phn ca Hegel v Plato. (Xem c cc ct. 7 v 8 trn, v vn bn). Hegel, ni mp vi mi gi tr hin i v C c, khng ch vi t do, m thm ch vi t do ch quan ca c nhn, ph phn chnh th lun hay ch ngha tp th ca Plato (Phil. of Law, 187): Nguyn l v tnh cch .. c lp ca c nhn, nguyn l v t do ch quan, quyn ca n b.. Plato t chi. Nguyn l ny h m .. trong o C c v .. trong Th gii La M. Ph phn ny l tuyt diu, v n chng t rng Hegel bit Plato mun g; thc ra, cch hiu Plato ca Hegel rt ph hp

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vi cch hiu ca chnh ti. i vi mt bn c cha tho v Hegel, on ny c th thm ch chng t s bt cng i coi Hegel l mt nh tp th ch ngha. Song ta ch cn quay sang 70L ca cng tc phm thy cu ni tp th ch ngha cc oan nht ca Plato, Ngi c to ra v ci ton th, ch khng phi ci ton th v ngi, c Hegel hon ton tn thnh, ng vit: Mt c nhn n nht, hu nh chng cn ni, l ci g l thuc, v vi t cch hn phi hin dng mnh cho ci ton b o c, tc l nh nc. y l ch ngha c nhn ca Hegel. Nhng v sao ng li ph phn Plato? V sao ng nhn mnh tm quan trng ca t do ch quan? 316 v 317 ca Philosophy of Law tr li cho cu hi ny. Hegel tin chc l cc cuc cch mng c th trnh c ch bng cch cho ngi dn, nh mt loi van an ton, mt lng t do no khng vt qu mt c hi khng quan trng x cc cm xc ca h. Nh th ng vit (op. cit., 316, 317L, ti nhn mnh): Ngy nay ..nguyn l v t do ch quan l rt quan trng v c ngha. .. Mi ngi mun tham gia cc cuc tho lun v tranh lun. Nhng mt khi hn c quyn n ni, .. tnh ch quan ca hn c hi lng v hn s kin nhn chu ng nhiu. Php, quyn t do ngn lun t ra rt t nguy him hn l s im lng b p t bng v lc; vi im lng con ngi phi nn nut mi th, cn khi h c php tranh lun, h c mt li x cng nh c mt cht toi nguyn; v bng cch ny, mt s vic c th c thc y d dng hn. Hn kh vt c s v lim s m tho lun ny biu l trong Hegel trt cm xc ca mnh, t do n vy, v t do ch quan, hay, nh ng thng gi n mt cch rt long trng, nguyn l ca th gii hin i. Tm tt li. Hegel hon ton thng nht vi Plato, tr vic ng ph phn Plato khng cho ngi b tr o tng v quyn t do ch quan. 44 Ci ng kinh ngc, l cc tr ti tin ny c th thnh cng, l ngay c nhng ngi nghim tc b phng php bin chng ca Hegel nh la. Nh mt th d c th nhc n rng ngay c mt chin s u tranh cho t do v l tr, kh tnh v c khai sng nh C. E. Vaughan l nn nhn ca o c gi ca Hegel, khi ng by t lng tin ca mnh v nim tin vo t do v tin b m, cn c vo s chng t ring ca Hegel, l .. bn cht ca tn iu ca ng. (So C. E. Vaughan, Studies in the History of Political Philosophy, vol. II, 296; ti nhn mnh). Phi tha nhn Vaughan ph phn thin hng qu ng ca Hegel i vi trt t c thit lp (p. 178); ng thm ch ni v Hegel rng chng ai c th .. sn sng hn .. m bo th gii rng cc th ch suy i v p bc nht .. phi .. c chp nhn l duy l hin nhin (p. 295); th m ng tin s chng t ring ca Hegel n mc ng coi cc c im ny ch nh cc s ngng cung (p. 295), nh cc thiu st d dng c chiu c (p. 182). Hn na, bnh lun mnh nht v hon ton c bin h ca ng, rng Hegel khm ph ra li cui ca s sng sut chnh tr, lt mi tng .. ca lch s, trong Hin php Ph (p. 182), khng c s phn c xut bn m khng c mt ba gii khi phc lng tin ca bn c vo Hegel; v bin tp vin ca Studies xut bn sau khi Vaughan cht ph hu sc mnh ca bnh lun ca Vaughan bng chua thm trong mt ch thch, vi dn chiu n mt on t Hegel m ng ta coi l c Vaughan m ch (ng ta khng nhc n on c trch y trong vn bn cho cc ct. 47, 48, v 49), m c l on hu nh khng bin h cho bnh lun .. 45 Xem ct. 36 ch. ny. Mt ch bo v l thuyt bin chng ny c th thy sm nh Physics ca Aristotle, I, 5. 46 Ti rt cm n E. H. Gombrich, cho php ti nhn cc tng chnh ca on ny t ph phn xut sc ca ng v trnh by ca ti v Hegel (trao cho ti qua th).

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V quan im ca Hegel rng Tinh thn Tuyt i t biu l trong lch s th gii, xem Phil. of Law, 259L. V s ng nht Tinh thn Tuyt i vi Tinh thn Th gii ca ng, xem op. cit., 339L. V quan im rng s hon ho l mc tiu ca Thng , v v s tn cng ca Hegel ln quan im (Kantian) rng k hoch ca Thng l kh hiu, xem op. cit., 343. (V cc phn cng l th ca M. B. Foster, xem ct. 19 ch. 25). V cch Hegel dng tam on lun (bin chng), xem c bit Encyclopdia, 181 (tam on lun l duy l, v mi th duy l); 198, ni nh nc c m t nh mt b ba ca tam on lun; v 575 n 577, ni ton b h thng ca Hegel c trnh by nh mt b ba ca tam on lun. Theo on cui ny, ta c th suy ra rng lch s l lnh vc ca tam on lun th hai ( 576); so Selections, 309 f. V on u (t mc III ca Dn nhp cho Philosophy of History), xem Selections, 348 f. - V on tip (t Encyclopdia) xem Selections, 262 f. 47 So Selections, 442 (on vn cui = WW, xi, 119-20). Trch dn cui on vn ny l t cng ch. V ba bc, so Selections, 360, 362, 398 (= WW, xi, 44, 46, 79-80). Xem c Hegel, Philosophy of History (J. Sibree dch, 1857, trch t ln xut bn 1914), p. 110: Phng ng ch .. bit rng Mt l t do; Th gii Hy Lp v La M, mt s l t do; Th gii c, Tt c l t do. Hnh thc chnh tr m chng ta quan st thy trong Lch s v th u tin l ch Chuyn quyn, th hai l Dn ch v Qu tc, v th ba l Qun ch. (V x l thm ca ba bc, so op. cit., pp. 117, 260, 354). 48 V ba trch dn tip so Phil. of History, 429; Selections, 358, 359 (=WW, xi, 43-44). Trnh by vn bn n gin ho vn i mt cht; v Hegel u tin chia (Phil. of Hist., 356 ff.) Th gii c ra lm ba giai on c ng m t (p. 358) nh Vng quc ca Cha, Con v Thnh thn; v vng quc ca Thnh [Tinh] thn li c chia thnh ba giai on c ni ti trong vn bn. 49 V ba on tip theo, so Phil. of History, pp. 354, 476, 476-7. 50 Xem c bit vn bn cho ct. 75 ch. ny. 51 So c bit cc ct. 48-50 ch. 8. 52 So Phil. of History, p. 418 (Dch gi vit: Nhng ngi Slave c ho). 53 Masaryk i khi c m t l mt vua trit gia. Song chc chn ng khng l mt nh cai tr thuc loi Plato mun; v ng l mt nh dn ch. ng rt quan tm n Plato, song ng l tng ho Plato v din gii ng ta mt cch dn ch. Ch ngha dn tc ca ng l mt phn ng i vi p bc dn tc, v ng lun u tranh chng s thi qu dn tc ch ngha. C th lu rng tc phm c in u tin ca ng bng ting Czech l mt bi bo v ch ngha yu nc ca Plato. (So K. Capek, tiu s Masaryk, ch. v giai on Sinh vin i hc ca ng). Czechoslovakia ca Masaryk c l l mt trong cc nh nc tt nht v dn ch nht tng tn ti; nhng bt chp tt c iu , n c xy dng trn nguyn l ca nh nc quc gia, trn mt nguyn l khng th p dng c trong th gii ny. Mt lin bang gia cc dn tc lu vc Danube c th ngn cn nhiu. 54 Xem ch. 7. V trch dn t Rousseau, mun hn on vn, so Social Contract, book I, ch. VII (cui on hai). V quan im ca Hegel v hc thuyt ch quyn ca nhn dn, xem on t 279 ca Phil. of Law c trch vn bn cho ct. 61 ch. ny. 55 So Herder, do Zimmern trch, Modern Political Doctrines (1939), p. 165 f. (on trch vn bn khng c trng cho thi so rng ca Herder, b Kant ph phn). 56 So ct. 7 ch. 9.

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V hai trch dn t Kant, xa hn trong on vn ny, so Works (ed. by E. Cassirer), vol. IV, p. 179; v p. 195. 57 So Fichte, Briefwechsel (ed. Schulz, 1925), II, p. 100. L th c Anderson, Nationalism, ect., p. 30, trch mt phn. (So c Hegemann, Entlarvte Geschichte, 2nd ed., 1934, p. 118). Trch dn tip l t Anderson, op. cit., p. 34 f. - V trch dn on vn tip, so op. cit., 36 f.; ti nhn mnh. C th l mt cm gic ban u chng-c l chung cho nhiu nh sng lp ch ngha dn tc c; iu cho thy ch ngha dn tc da n th no vo mt cm gic thp hn . (So cc ct. 61 v 70 ch. ny). Nh mt th d, Anderson ni (op. cit., 79) v E. M. Arndt, mun hn l mt nh dn tc ch ngha ni ting: Khi Arndt bn ba khp Chu u nm 1798-9, ng gi mnh l mt ngi Thu in bi v, nh ng ni, tn c bc mi hi trn th gii; ng ni thm mt cch c trng, khng v li ca ngi dn thng. Hegemann khng nh ng (op. cit., 118) rng cc nh lnh o tinh thn c thi c bit quay sang chng s nam r ca nc Ph, v ng trch Winckelmann, ngi ni, ti th l mt hon quan Th hn l mt ngi Ph; v Lessing, ngi ni, Ph l nc slave nht Chu u; v ng nhc n Goethe, ngi nhit thnh hi vng rng Napoleon s mang li s du bt. V Hegemann, cng l tc gi ca mt cun sch chng Napoleon, ni thm: Napoleon l mt bo cha; .. bt c g chng ta phi ni chng li ng, phi tha nhn rng bng thng li Jena ca mnh ng buc nh nc phn ng ca Frederick a ra vi ci cch mun mn. Mt nh gi l th v c nm 1800 c th thy Anthropology (1800) ca Kant, ni ng cp, khng hon ton nghim tc, n cc c trng dn tc. Kant vit (Works, vol VIII, 213, 211, 212; ti nhn mnh) v ngi c Mt xu ca anh ta l s p buc bt chc ngi khc v nh gi thp mnh v tnh c o ca ring mnh ..; v c bit mt thin hng cu n chi tit cn mn phn loi mnh trong quan h vi cc cng dn khc, theo mt h thng cp bc v c quyn. Trong h thng cp bc ny, anh ta khng bit mt mi trong to ra cc tc v, v nh th m qung v tnh cu n... Trong tt c nhng ngi vn minh, ngi c phc tng ngoan ngon nht v lu di nht chnh ph m di h sng, v anh ta khng thch thay i v cng li trt t c xc lp hn bt c ai khc. C tnh anh ta l mt loi l tr lnh lng. 58 So Works ca Kant, vol. VIII, 516. Kant, ngi sn sng ngay gip khi Fichte cu khn ng vi t cch mt tc gi v danh khn n, lng l by nm sau ln xut bn giu tn ca cun sch u tin ca Fichte thng thn ni ln kin ca mnh v Fichte, tuy ng b p phi lm vy t nhiu pha, th d, bi bn thn Fichte, ngi lm ra v thc hin li ha Kantian. Cui cng, Kant xut bn Gii thch Cng khai V Fichte ca ng, nh mt li p li i hi long trng ca mt nh ph bnh nhn danh cng chng, rng ng phi ni thng thn kin ca mnh. ng tuyn b rng, theo ng, h thng ca Fichte l hon ton khng th ng vng c; v ng t chi c bt c lin quan g vi mt trit hc bao gm nhng s tinh t cn ci. V sau khi cu nguyn (nh c trch vn bn) rng Cha c th bo v chng ta khi cc bn ca mnh, Kant tip tc ni: V cng c th c .. cc bn gian ln v phn bi nhng ngi c mu hu hoi chng ta, mc d h ni ngn ng nhn t; ngi ta khng th thn trng trnh cc cm by h ging ra cho chng ta. Nu Kant, mt ngi cn nhc, nhn t, v tn tm nht, xc ng ni cc th nh th, th chng ta c mi l do coi nh gi ca ng mt cch nghim tc. Song cho n nay ti khng thy lch s no v trit hc tuyn b r rng rng, theo ca Kant, Fichte l mt k

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mo danh bt lng; tuy ti thy nhiu lch s trit hc c thanh minh cc li buc ti ca Schopenhauer, th d, bng m ch rng ng ghen t. Song cc li buc ti ca Kant v Schopenhauer khng h n l. A. von Feuerbach ( mt l th ngy 30-1-1799; so Schopenhauers Works, vol. V, 102) din t mnh m nh Schopenhauer; Schiller i n kin tng t, v Goethe cng vy; v Nicolovius gi Fichte l mt k xu nnh v mt k la gt. (So c Hegemann, op. cit., pp. 119 ff). Tht kinh ngc thy l, nh s thng ng ca ting n, m mt ngi nh Fichte li thnh cng xuyn tc gio hun ca thy ng, bt chp s phn i ca Kant, v trong khi Kant cn sng. Vic ny mi ch xy ra mt trm nm trc v c th c kim tra d dng bi bt c ai b cng c cc th ca Kant v Fichte, v cc tuyn b cng khai ca Kant; v n chng t rng l thuyt ca ti v Plato xuyn tc gio hun ca Socrates khng h k qui nh n c v vi cc nh Platonist. Socrates cht, v ng khng li l th no. (Gi nh s so snh khng phi l ci mang li qu nhiu vinh d cho Fichte v Hegel, ta c th b cm d ni: khng c Plato, chc khng c Aristotle; v khng c Fichte, khng c Hegel). 59 So Anderson, op. cit., p. 13. 60 So Hegels Phil. of History, 465. Xem c Phil. of Law, 258. Vi li khuyn ca Pareto, so ct. 1 ch. 13. 61 So Phil. of Law, 279; v trch dn tip, xem Selections, 256 f. (= Encycl. 1870, p. 446). Tn cng ln nc Anh, di na trong on vn, tip theo p. 257 (= Encycl. 1870, p. 447). V m ch ca Hegel n ch c, so Phil. of History, p. 475 (xem c ct. 77 ch. ny). -Mc cm t ti, c bit trong quan h vi Anh, v mt s ku gi thng minh n cc mc cm nh vy, ng mt phn ng k trong cu chuyn ni ln ca ch ngha dn tc; so c cc ct. 57 v 70 ch. ny. V cc on khc v nc Anh, xem ct. tip v ct. 70 ch. ny v vn bn (Ti nhn mnh t ngh thut v khoa hc). 62 S dn chiu mit th ca Hegel n cc quyn hnh thc n thun, n quyn t do hnh thc n thun, n hin php hnh thc n thun, v.v., l ng quan tm, v n l ngun ng ng ca ph phn Marxist hin i v cc nn dn ch hnh thc n thun ch a ra quyn t do hnh thc n thun. So ct. 19 ch. 17 v vn bn. C th trch vi on c trng trong Hegel ln n quyn t do hnh thc n thun, v.v. Chng u c ly t Philosophy of History (p. 471): Ch ngha t do bt u phn i tt c iu ny (tc l s phc hi Ph chnh th lun), nguyn l nguyn t lun khng khng v s thng tr ca ch c nhn, cho rng mi chnh ph phi .. c s tha nhn dt khot ca h (ca nhn dn). Nh th khng nh mt hnh thc ca Quyn t do -y l s tru tng n thun - ng c ni n kin quyt lm cho khng th thit lp bt c t chc chnh tr no.- (p. 474): Hin php Anh l mt m phc tp ca cc quyn c bit n thun v cc c quyn c bit, .. V cc th ch c c trng bi quyn t do thc s (ngc vi quyn t do hnh thc n thun) khng u c t hn nc Anh. V mt cc quyn t nhn v quyn t do v s hu chng biu th mt thiu st khng th tin c: bng chng c ban cho cc quyn trng nam l cn thit b nhim (bng mua hay cch khc) cc chc v qun s hay tu s i vi cc con th ca tng lp qu tc. Xem thm tho lun v tuyn b Nhn Quyn ca Php v cc nguyn l ca Kant pp. 462 ff. vi s dn chiu ca n n khng g hn ch hnh thc v nguyn l v Quyn t do ci vn ch l hnh thc; v tng phn vic ny, th d, vi cc nhn xt p. 354, chng t rng Tinh thn c l quyn t do ch thc v tuyt i: Tinh thn c l Tinh thn ca Th gii mi. Mc tiu ca n l thc hin Chn l tuyt i nh s t quyt v hn

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ca Quyn t do; ca Quyn t do m n c bn thn hnh thc tuyt i ca ring n nh ni dung ca n. Nu gi nh ti phi dng t quyn t do hnh thc theo ngha khinh mit, th ti phi p dng n cho quyn t do ch quan ca Hegel, nh c ng cp trong Phil. of Law, 317L (c trch cui ct. 43). 63 So Anderson, Nationalism, ect., p. 279. V s m ch ca Hegel n nc Anh (trch trong ngoc cui on vn ny), so Selections, 263 (= Encycl. 1870, p. 452); xem c ct. 70 ch. ny. 64 Trch dn ny t Phil. of Law, 331. V hai trch dn tip, so Selections, 403 (= WW, xi, 84) v 267 f. (= Encycl. 1870, pp. 455-56). V trch dn di na (minh ho ch ngha thc chng php l), so Selections, 449 (tc l Phil. of Law, 274). V l lun thng tr th gii, so c l lun v thng tr v phc tng, v v n l, c phc ho ct. 25 ch. 11, v vn bn. V l lun v tinh thn hay ch hay thin ti dn tc khng nh mnh trong lch s, tc l trong lch s chin tranh, xem vn bn cho ct. 69 v 77. Trong quan h vi l thuyt lch s dn tc, so cc nhn xt sau ca Renan (c A. Zimmern trch Modern Political Doctrines, p. 190 f.): Qun v ti s ni bo - hiu lch s ca ta sai, l cc nhn t c bn trong to ra mt quc gia [hay, nh by gi ta bit, mt nh nc ton tr]; v nh th s tin b ca nghin cu lch s thng l mt mi nguy him cho tnh quc gia M bn cht ca mt quc gia l tt c cc c nhn phi c nhiu ci chung, v hn na tt c h phi qun nhiu. Ngi ta kh tin Renan l mt ngi dn tc ch ngha; nhng ng l, tuy thuc loi dn ch; v ch ngha dn tc ca ng l Hegelian in hnh; v ng vit (p. 202): Mt dn tc l mt nguyn l linh hn, tinh thn. 65 Haeckel kh c th c coi nghim tc nh mt trit gia hay nh khoa hc. ng gi mnh l mt nh t tng t do, song t duy ca ng khng c lp nm 1914 cn ng i cc thnh qu sau ca chin thng: (1) Gii phng khi s chuyn ch ca nc Anh; (2) s xm ln nh nc k cp Anh bi hi qun v lc qun c; chim c London; (3) s chia ct nc B; v.v. kh lu. (Trong: Das Monistische Jahrhundert, 1914, No. 31/32, pp. 65 f., c trch Thus Spake Germany, 270). Tiu lun c gii ca W. Schallmeyer c nhan : Tnh Di truyn v Chn lc trong i sng ca cc Quc gia. (Xem c ct. 71 ch. 10, trn). 66 V ch ngha Hegel ca Bergson, so ct. 25 ch. ny. V m t c trng ca Shaw v tn ngng tin ho sng to, so Back to Methuselah, mc cui ca Li ni u (Phn Ring ca Ti trong Ch ): .. khi khi nim v Tin ho Sng to pht trin, ti thy rng cui cng chng ta trong tm vi ca mt nim tin ph hp vi iu kin u tin ca mi tn ngng m loi ngi tng nm gi: y l n phi, trc ht v c bn, l mt khoa hc v siu sinh hc. 67 So Dn nhp xut sc ca A. Zimmern cho Modern Political Doctrines ca ng, p. xviii. - V ch ngha ton tr Platonic, so vn bn cho ct. 8 ch. ny. V l thuyt v ch v n l, v v thng tr v phc tng, so ct. 25 ch. 11; xem c ct. 74 ch. ny. 68 So Schopenhauer, Grundprobleme, p. xix. 69 V tm trch dn on vn ny, so Selections, 265, 402, 403, 435, 436, 399, 407, 267 f. (= Encycl. 1870, p. 435, WW, xi, 83, 84, 113-4, 81, 88, Encycl. pp. 455-6). So c 347 ca Phylosophy of Law. 70 So Selections, 435 f. (= WW, xi, 114). V vn t ti, so c cc ct. 57 v 61 ch. ny, v vn bn. V on khc v nc Anh, xem cc ct. 61-63, v vn bn ch. ny. Mt on rt ng quan tm (Phil. of Law, 290L) cha mt cng thc c in v chnh th lun chng t rng Hegel khng ch ngh di dng ca chnh th lun hay

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ch ngha tp th v quyn lc, m ng cng thy tnh c th p dng ca cc nguyn l ny cho t chc ca giai cp v sn. Cc giai cp thp hn, Hegel vit, t nhiu khng c t chc. Th m, cc k quan trng l h phi c t chc, v ch bng cch ny h c th tr nn hng mnh. Khng c t chc, h chng l g c m ch l mt ng, mt tng s cc nguyn t. Hegel n kh gn Marx trong on ny. 71 on l t H. Freyer, Pallas Athene (1935), do A. Kolnai, The War against the West (1938), p. 417, trch. Ti rt mang n cun sch ca Kolnai, lm cho ti c th trch chng ny mt s ng k cc tc gi m khc i ti khng tip cn c. (Tuy vy, ti khng lun lun theo cch hnh vn ca bn dch ca Kolnai). V m t c trng Freyer vi t cch mt trong cc nh x hi hc hng u ca nc c ng thi, so F. A. von Hayek, Freedom and Economic System (Public Policy Pamphlet No. 29, 29, 2nd impression, 1940), p. 30. V bn on on vn ny t Hegels Phil. of Law, 331, 340, 342L (so c 331 f.) v 340, xem Selections, 260 f. (=Encycl. 1870, pp. 449-50). (Cu cui c trch l mt phin bn khc ca cu u ca 546). V on t H. von Treitschke, so Thus Spake Germany (1941), p. 60. 72 So Phil. of Law, 257, tc Selections, 443. V ba trch dn tip, xem Phil. of Law, 334 v 339L, tc Selections, 467. V trch dn cui on vn ny, so Phil. of Law, 330L v 333. 73 So Selections, 365 (= WW, xi, 49); ti nhn mnh. V trch dn tip, so Selections, 468, tc l Phil. of Law, 340. 74 c Kolnai trch, op. cit., 418. - V Heraclitus, so vn bn cho ct. 10 ch. 2.- V Haiser, xem Kolnai, loc. cit.; so c l thuyt ca Hegel v n l, c ni n ct. 25 ch. 11. - V trch dn cui ca on vn ny, so Selections, 467, tc Phil. of Law, 334. V chin tranh t v bin thnh chin tranh xm chim, xem op. cit., 326. 75 V tt c cc on t Hegel trong on vn ny, so Selections, 426 f. (= WW, xi, 105-6). (Ti nhn mnh). V on khc by t nh rng lch s th gii phi gt b o c, xem Phil. of Law, 345. V E. Meyer, so cui ca ct. 15 (2) ch. 10. 76 Xem Phil. of Law, 317 f.; so Selections, 461; v cc on tng t, xem 316: D lun nh n tn ti l mt t-mu thun lin tc; xem c 301, tc Selections, 456, v 318L. (V cc quan im thm ca Hegel v d lun, so c vn bn cho ct. 84 ch. ny). -V nhn xt ca Haiser, so Kolnai, op. cit., 234. 77 So Selections, 464, 465, v cc on t Phil. of Law, 324 v 324L. V cc on tip t Phil. of History, so Selections, 436 f. (= WW, xi, 114-5). (on c trch ngay sau tip tc theo cch c trng: .. t cht mt cch t nhin, nh th d cc th ch c, Hin php ch c. So ct. 61 ch. ny v vn bn vi iu ny). 78 So Phil. of Law, 327L v 328, tc Selections, 465 f. (Ti nhn mnh). V nhn xt v thuc sng, so Phil. of History, p. 419. 79 V cc trch dn t Kaufmann, Banse, Ludendorff, Scheler, Freyer, Lenz, v Jung, so Kolnai, op. cit., 411, 411 f., 412, 411, 417, 411, v 420. - V trch dn t Address to the German Nation (1808) ca J. G. Fichte, so bn ting c 1871 (I. H. Fichte ed.), p. 49 f.; xem c A. Zimmern, Modern Political Doctrines, 170 f. - V s lp li ca Spengler, xem Decline of the West ca ng, I, p. 12; v s lp li ca Rosenberg, so Myth of the Twenty Century ca ng (1935), p. 143; xem c ct. 50 ca ti ch. 8, v Rader, No Compromise (1939), 116. 80 So Kolnai, op. cit., 412. 81 So Caird, Hegel (1883), p. 26.

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Kolnai, op. cit., 438.- V cc on t Hegel, so Selections, 365 f., ti nhn mnh mt phn; so c vn bn cho ct. 84 ch. ny. v E. Krieck, so Kolnai, op. cit., 65 f., v E. Krieck, National-Political Education (ting c, 1932, p. 1; c trch Thus Spake Germany, p. 53). 83 So Selections, 268 (= Encycl. 1870, p. 456); v Stapel, so Kolnai, op. cit., 292 f. 84 V Rosenberg, so Kolnai, op. cit., 295. V quan im ca Hegel v d lun, xem c vn bn cho ct. 76 ch. ny; v cc on c trch y, xem Phil. of Law, 318L, tc Selections, pp. 461 (ti nhn mnh), 375, 377, 377, 378, 367/368, 380, 368, 364, 388, 380 (= WW, xi, 59, 60, 60, 60-61, 51-2, 63, 52, 48, 70-1, 63). (Ti nhn mnh mt phn). Hegel ca ngi xc cm, am m v t li, xem c vn bn cho ct. 82 ch. ny. 85 V Best, so Kolnai, op. cit., 414 f. - V cc trch dn t Hegel, so Selections, 464 f., 464, 465, 437 (= WW, xi, 115, ging ni bt vi Bergson), 372. (Cc on t Phil. of Law l t 324, 324L, 327L). -V nhn xt v Aristotle, so Pol., VII, 15, 3 (1334a). 86 V Stapel, so Kolnai, op. cit., 255-257. 87 So Selections, p. 100: Nu ti b mi s xc nh ca mt i tng, th cn li khng g. -V What is Metaphysics ca Heidegger, so Carnap, Erkenntnis, 2, 229. V quan h ca Heidegger vi Husserl v Scheler, so J. Kraft, From Husserl to Heidegger (2nd, German ed., 1957). Heidegger tha nhn cc cu ca ng l v ngha: Cu hi v tr li v h v bn thn chng l v ngha, ng vit (so Erkenntnis, 2, 231). C th ni g, t quan im ca Tractatus ca Wittgenstein, chng li loi trit hc ny, loi tha nhn rng n ni v v ngha nhng ci v ngha ht sc quan trng? (So ct. 51 (1) ch. 11). G. Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger, 1962, cha mt su tp cc t liu v hot ng chnh tr ca Heidegger. 88 V cc trch dn ny t Heidegger, so Kolnai, op. cit., 221, 313.- V li khuyn ca Schopenhauer cho ngi bo v, so Works, vol. V, p. 25 (note). 89 V Jaspers, so Kolnai, op. cit., 270 f. Kolnai (p. 282) gi Jaspers l em Heidegger. Ti khng ng . V, tri vi Heidegger, Jaspers r rng vit cc sch cha nhiu l th, thm ch cc sch y da vo kinh nghim, th d cun General Psycho-Pathology ca ng. Nhng ti c th trch y vi on t mt cng trnh sm hn, Psychology of World-Views ca ng (xut bn ln u 1919; ti trch t ln xut bn th ba ting c, 1925), cho thy th gii quan ca Jaspers l kh tin tin, d sao i na, trc khi Heidegger bt u vit. hnh dung cuc sng ca con ngi, ta phi xem anh ta sng ra sao By gi. Ci By gi l thc ti duy nht, n l bn thn thc ti, trong cuc sng ca linh hn. Ci By gi c sng l ci Cui cng, ci Mu Nng, ci Tc th, ci Sng, ci Hin ti-Th xc, ci Ton b Thc, ci S Vt C th duy nht Con ngi tm thy Tn ti v ci Tuyt i cui cng ch By gi. (p. 112) (T chng v Thi Nhit tnh, p. 112): u Nhit tnh l ng c ch o tuyt i, tc l u ta sng trong Thc ti v v Thc ti, v vn dm v liu tt c, ta c th ni v Ch ngha Anh hng: v Tnh yu anh hng, Xung t anh hng, Cng vic anh hng, v.v. 5. Thi Nhit tnh l Tnh Yu .. - (Tiu mc 2, p. 128): Lng thng khng phi l Tnh Yu .. (p. 127): y l v sao Tnh Yu li tn c, tn nhn; v v sao n c Ngi Yu chn tht tin, ch nu n nh th. (pp. 256 ff.): III. Cc Tnh th Bn l n l (A) Xung t. Xung t l dng c bn ca mi Tn ti Cc phn ng vi cc Tnh th Bn l ca Xung t l nh sau: .. 2. S thiu hiu bit ca con ngi v s thc rng Xung t l Cui cng: Anh ta ln trnh .. V v.v. Ta lun thy cng bc tranh: Mt ch ngha lng mn cung lon, kt hp vi mt s d man tn bo v v thng thi rm chuyn nghip ca cc tiu mc v tiu-tiu mc.

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So Kolnai, op. cit., 208. V nhn xt ca ti v trit l ca k c bc, so O. Spengler (The Hour of Decision. Germany and World-Historical Evolution. German ed., 1933, p. 230; c trch trong Thus Spake Germany, 28): Ngi m gm p buc thng li y s l cha ca th gii. Cc con sc sc , sn sng cho tr chi k diu ny. Ai dm ling chng? V trit hc k cp, cun sch ca mt tc gi rt c ti, E. von Salomon, c l thm ch c trng hn. Ti trch vi on t cun sch ny, The Outlaws (1930; cc on c trch l t pp. 105, 73, 63, 307, 73, 367): Dc vng t hi! Chng phi ti l k c sng? .. Ham mun u tin ca con ngi l ph hu H bn rt ba bi, ch v a vui Chng ta thot khi gnh nng ca k hoch, phng php hay h thng Ci chng ta mun chng ta khng bit, v ci chng ta bit chng ta khng mun Ham mun ln nht ca ti lun lun l ph hu. V v.v. (So c Hegemann, op. cit., 171). 91 So Kolnai, op. cit., 313. 92 V Ziegler, so Kolnai, op. cit., 398. 93 Trch dn ny l t Schopenhauer, Grundprobleme (4th ed., 1890), Dn nhp cho ln xut bn u tin (1840), p. xix. - Nhn xt ca Hegel v b su cao qu nht (hay b su cao c nht) l t Jahrbuecher d. wiss. Lit., 1827, No. 7; n c Schopenhauer trch, op. cit. Trch dn cui l t Schopenhauer, op. cit., xviii. CH THCH CHO CHNG 13 Ch thch chung cho cc Chng v Marx. u c th, ti dn chiu cc ct. ny n Capital hay n H.o.M. hay c hai. Ti dng Capital ch K. Marx, Capital, do E. v C. Paul dch, Everyman Double Volume Edition. - H.o.M. l A Handbook of Marxism, E. Burns bin tp, 1935, song dn chiu n cc ln xut bn y ca vn bn lun c a thm. V cc trch dn Marx v Engels, ti k n ln in chun Moscow (Gesamtausgabe, vit tt l GA), xut bn t 1927 tr i v do D. Ryazanow v nhng ngi khc bin son nhng vn cha y . V cc trch dn Lenin, ti k n Little Lenin Library, do Martin Lawrence, mun hn Lawrence v Wishart xut bn, vit tt l L.L.L. Cc tp mun hn ca Capital c trch nh Das Kapital (m vol. I c xut bn ln u 1867); cc dn chiu n vol. II, 1885, hay n vol. III, phn 1, v vol. III, phn 2 (vit l III/1 v III/2), u in nm 1894. Ti mun lm tht r l tuy ti dn chiu ni c th n cc bn dch ni trn, ti khng lun theo cch hnh vn ca h. 1 So V. Pareto, Treatise on General Sociology, 1843. (Bn dch ting Anh: The Mind and Society, 1935, vol. III, p. 1281; so c vn bn cho ct. 65 ch. 10). Pareto vit (p. 1281 f.): Ngh thut cai tr l tm ra cc cch li dng cc tnh cm nh vy, khng ph nng lc ca mnh vo cc n lc v ch i ph hu chng; rt thng xuyn kt qu duy nht ca cch lm sau l cng c chng. Ngi c kh nng gii thot mnh khi s thng tr m qung ca cc tnh cm ring ca mnh s c kh nng s dng cc tnh cm ca nhng ngi khc cho cc mc ch ring ca mnh C th ni iu ny v quan h gia nh cai tr v k b tr ni chung. Chnh khch ngi phc v tt nht cho bn thn v cho ng ca mnh l ngi khng c nh kin, bit li dng cc nh kin ca nhng ngi khc. Cc nh kin m Pareto ngh n c cc c im khc nhau ch ngha dn tc, tnh yu t do, ch ngha nhn vn. V cng c th lu l Pareto, tuy ng gii thot khi nhiu nh kin, chc chn khng thnh cng gii thot mnh khi tt c. iu ny c th thy gn nh mi trang ng vit, c bit, tt nhin, ni ng ni v ci ng m t khng phi khng thch ng nh tn gio nhn

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o. nh kin ring ca ng l tn gio phn-nhn o. ng thy rng s la chn ca ng khng phi gia nh kin v gii thot khi nh kin, m ch gia nh kin nhn o v nh kin chng-nhn o, c l ng c th cm thy hi t tin tng v tnh u vit ca ng. (V vn cc nh kin, so ct. 8 (1) ch. 24, v vn bn). Cc tng ca Pareto v ngh thut cai tr l rt c; chng truy nguyn ch t v n Cristias cu ca Plato, v ng vai tr ca chng trong truyn thng trng phi Platonic (nh c ch ra ct. 18 ch. 8). 2 (1) Cc t tng ca Fichte v Hegel dn n nguyn l nh nc quc gia v quyn t quyt dn tc, mt nguyn l phn ng, tuy vy, mt chin s cho x hi m nh Masaryk tin mt cch chn thnh, v nh dn ch Wilson chp nhn. (V Wilson, so th d Modern Political Doctrines, ed. by A. Zimmern, 1939, pp. 223 ff.) Nguyn l ny hin nhin khng p dng c trn tri t, v c bit Chu u, ni cc dn tc (cc nhm ngn ng) b nhn cht n mc hon ton khng th g h ra. Kt qu kinh khng ca n lc ca Wilson c p dng nguyn l lng mn ny cho hot ng chnh tr chu u by gi phi l r cho tt c mi ngi. Rng dn xp Versailles th bo, l mt huyn thoi; cc nguyn l ca Wilson khng c tn trng, l mt huyn thoi khc. S thc l cc nguyn l nh vy khng th c p dng nht qun hn; v Versailles tht bi ch yu bi v n lc p dng cc nguyn l khng th p dng c ca Wilson. (V iu ny, so ct. 7 ch. 9, v vn bn cho cc ct. 51-64 ch. 12). (2) V quan h vi c im Hegel ca ch ngha Marx c ni n vn bn ca on vn ny, y ti cho mt danh mc cc quan im quan trng m ch ngha Marx ly t ch ngha Hegel. Bn lun ca ti v Marx khng da vo danh mc ny, v ti khng mun i x vi ng ch nh mt Hegelian khc, m ng hn nh mt nh nghin cu nghim tc, c th, v phi, tr li cho bn thn mnh. y l danh mc, sp xp gn theo tm quan trng ca cc quan im khc nhau cho ch ngha Marx. (a) Ch ngha lch s: Phng php ca mt khoa hc x hi l nghin cu lch s, v c bit cc xu hng vn c trong s pht trin lch s ca loi ngi. (b) Ch ngha tng i lch s: Ci l mt qui lut trong mt giai on lch s khng cn thit l qui lut mt giai on lch s khc. (Hegel cho rng ci ng trong mt giai on khng cn thit ng trong giai on khc). (c) C mt qui lut c hu v tin b trong tin trin lch s. (d) Pht trin l tin n nhiu t do v l tr hn, tuy vy phng tin dn n iu ny khng phi l k hoch hp l ca chng ta m ng hn l cc lc lng phi duy l nh cc nim say m v t li ca chng ta. (Hegel gi y l s xo tr ca l tr). (e) Ch ngha thc chng o c, hay trong trng hp ca Marx, ch ngha v lai o c. (T ny c gii thch ch. 22). (f) thc giai cp l mt trong cc cng c m do chng s pht trin y bn thn mnh. (Hegel thao tc vi thc dn tc, Tinh thn dn tc hay Thin ti dn tc). (g) Bn cht lun phng php. Php bin chng. (h) Cc tng Hegelian sau ng mt phn trong cc tc phm ca Marx song tr thnh quan trng hn vi cc nh Marxist sau ny. (h1) S phn bit gia quyn t do hnh thc n thun hay dn ch hnh thc n thun v quyn t do tht s, kinh t hay dn ch kinh t, v.v.; v quan h vi iu ny, c mt thi nc i no vi ch ngha t do, tc l yu ght pha trn. (h2) Ch ngha tp th. cc chng tip, (a) li l ch chnh. V quan h vi (a) v (b), xem c ct. 13 ch. ny. V (b), so cc ch. 22-24. V (c), so cc ch. 22 v 25. V (d) so ch. 22 (v v s

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xo tr ca l tr ca Hegel, so vn bn cho ct. 84 ch. 12). V (f), so cc ch. 16 v 19. V (g), so cc ct. 4 ch. ny, 6 ch. 17, 13 ch. 15, 15 ch. 19, v cc ct. 20-24 ch. 20, v vn bn. V (h1), so ct. 19 ch. 17. (h2) c nh hng n thuyt phn tm l ca Marx (so vn bn cho ct. 16 ch. 14); di nh hng ca hc thuyt Platonic-Hegelian v s u vit ca nh nc trn c nhn m Marx pht trin l lun ca mnh rng ngay c thc c nhn cng do cc iu kin x hi quyt nh. Th m, v c bn, Marx l mt nh c nhn ch ngha; mi quan tm chnh ca ng l gip cc c nhn ngi au kh. Nh th ch ngha tp th nh vn l chc chn khng ng mt vai tr quan trng cc tc phm ca Marx. (Tr vic ng nhn mnh thc giai cp tp th, c ni n (f); so, th d, ct. 4 ch. 18). Song n ng vai tr trong thc tin Marxist. 3 Capital (387-9), Marx a ra vi nhn xt l th c v l lun phn cng lao ng ca Plato (so ct. 29 ch. 5 v vn bn) v v c im ng cp ca nh nc ca Plato. (Marx, tuy vy, ch ni ti Ai Cp ch khng n Sparta; so ct. 27 ch. 4). V quan h ny, Marx cng trch mt on l th t Busiris, 15f., 224/5 ca Isocrates, ni u tin Isocrates ngh cc l l cho phn cng lao ng rt ging cc l l ca Plato (vn bn cho ct. 29 ch. 5); sau Isocrates tip tc: Ngi Ai Cp .. thnh cng n mc cc trit gia ni ting nht bn v cc ti nh vy u ca ngi hin php Ai Cp hn tt c cc hin php khc, v rng ngi Sparta .. cai qun th ring ca h xut sc th bi v h sao chp cch ca ngi Ai Cp. Ti ngh rt c th Isocrates nhc n Plato y; v n lt ng li c Crantor nhc n, khi ng ni v nhng ngi ln n Plato l hc tr ca nhng ngi Ai Cp, nh c ni ti ct. 27 (3) ch. 4. 4 Hay, hu hoi tr c; so vn bn cho ct. 68 ch. 12. V php bin chng ni chung, v php bin chng Hegelian ni ring, so ch. 12, c bit vn bn cho cc ct. 28-33. Vi php bin chng ca Marx, ti khng c nh cp y, v ti cp ni khc. (So What is Dialectics?, Mind, N. S., vol. 49, 1940, pp. 403 ff.; hay, c xt li, trong Conjectures and Refutations, pp. 312 ff.). Ti coi php bin chng ca Marx, ging nh ca Hegel, l mt m ln xn kh nguy him; nhng c th trnh phn tch n y, c bit v ph phn ch ngha lch s ca ng bao trm tt c ci c th c cho l nghim tc trong php bin chng ca ng. 5 So, th d, trch dn trong vn bn cho ct. 11 ch. ny. 6 Ch ngha khng tng b Marx v Engels tn cng ln u tin Tuyn Ngn C.S., III, 3. (So H.o.M., 55 ff. = GA, Series I, vol. 6, 553-5). V cc tn cng ca Marx ln cc nh kinh t t sn nhng ngi th dung ho .. kinh t hc chnh tr vi cc yu sch ca giai cp v sn, tn cng hng trc tip c bit vo Mill v cc thnh vin khc ca trng phi Comtist, so c bit Capital, 868 (chng Mill; xem c ct. 14 ch. ny), v 870 (chng Revue Positiviste Comtist; xem c vn bn cho ct. 21 ch. 18). V ton b vn v cng ngh x hi i li ch ngha lch s, v v k thut x hi tng phn i li k thut x hi Khng tng, so c bit ch. 9. (Xem c cc ct. 9 ch. 3; 18 (3) ch. 5; v 1 ch. 9; vi dn chiu n M. Eastman, Marxism: is it Science?) 7 (1) Hai trch dn Lenin ly t Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Soviet Communism (2nd ed., 1937), p. 650 f., h ni, trong mt ct., rng trch dn th hai l t mt bi ni ca Lenin thng 5-1918. Rt l th thy Lenin nm tnh hnh nhanh th no. Trc khi ng ng ln nm quyn, khi xut bn cun sch Nh nc v Cch mng, thng 81917, ng vn l mt nh lch s ch ngha thun khit. Khng ch l ng cha bit v cc vn kh khn nht dnh n nhim v xy dng mt x hi mi; ng thm ch tin, vi hu ht cc nh Marxist, rng cc vn khng tn ti, hoc chng s c qu trnh lch s gii quyt. So c bit cc on t Nh nc v Cch mng trong

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H.o.M., p. 757 f. (= Lenin, State and Revolution, L.L.L., vol. 14, 77-9), ni Lenin nhn mnh tnh n gin ca cc vn t chc v cai qun trong cc pha khc nhau ca x hi C.S. ang tin trin. Tt c ci cn n, ng vit, l h phi lm vic ngang nhau, phi lm phn vic ca h u n, v c nhn lng bng nhau. Vic k ton v kim sot cn thit cho vic ny c n gin ho (nhn mnh ca bn gc) bi ch ngha t bn n mc ti a. Chng nh vy c th c cc cng nhn tip qun mt cch n gin, v cc phng php kim sot ny nm trong tm tay ca bt c ai bit c bit vit, v bit bn quy tc u tin ca s hc. Cc tuyn b ngy th ng kinh ngc ny l tiu biu. (Ta thy cc quan im tng t c v Anh; so ct. ny, (2) di y). Chng phi c tng phn vi cc bi ni ca Lenin vi thng sau. Chng cho thy nh x hi ch ngha khoa hc tin tri khng b rng buc n th no bi bt c im bo trc no v cc vn v tai ho pha trc. (Ti mun ni n tai ho ca thi k ch ngha cng sn-thi chin, giai on l kt qu ca ch ngha Marx tin tri v phn-cng ngh ny). Nhng chng cng cho thy nng lc ca Lenin tm ra, v tha nhn vi mnh, cc sai lm mc phi. ng t b ch ngha Marx trn thc tin, tuy khng trong l lun. So c ch. V, mc 2 v 3 ca Lenin, H.o.M., pp. 742 ff. ( = State and Revolution, 67-73), cho c im thun lch s ch ngha, tc l tin tri v phn-cng ngh (phn-Khng tng; Lenin c th ni; so p. 747 = State and Revolution 70-71) ca ch ngha x hi khoa hc ny trc khi n ln nm quyn. Song khi Lenin th nhn rng ng chng bit cun sch no cp n cc vn c tnh xy dng ca k thut x hi, th ng ch chng minh rng cc nh Marxist, trung thnh vi cc iu rn ca Marx, thm ch khng c ci Khng tng ca cc nh x hi gh bnh chuyn nghip th lm phn u vi chnh cc vn ny; ti ngh n vi trong s cc nh Fabian Anh v A. Menger (th d, Neue Staatslehre, 2nd ed. 1904, c bit pp. 248 ff.) v J. Popper-Lynkeus o. Ngi sau, ngoi nhiu gi khc, pht trin mt cng ngh v trang tri tp th, v c bit cc trang tri khng l thuc loi mun hn c a vo Nga (xem Allgemeine Nhrplicht, 1912; so pp. 206 ff. v 300 ff. ca 2nd ed., 1923). Nhng ng b cc nh Marxist ui ra nh mt k na-x hi ch ngha. H gi ng l k na-x hi ch ngha v ng d tnh mt khu vc t nhn trong x hi ca mnh; ng gii hn hot ng kinh t ca nh nc cho vic lo cc nhu cu thit yu ca mi ngi cho ci ti thiu c m bo ca s tn ti. Mi th vt qu iu ny c cho mt h thng cnh tranh nghim ngt. (2) Quan im ca Lenin trong State and Revolution c trch trn (nh J. Viner ch ra) rt ging quan im ca John Carruthers, Socialism and Radicalism (so ct. 9 ch. 9); xem c bit pp. 14-16. ng ni: Cc nh t bn sng ch ra mt h thng ti chnh tuy phc tp song n gin hot ng mt cch thc tin, n ch dn mi ngi y cch qun l tt nht nh my ca mnh. Mt [h thng] ti chnh rt ging tuy n gin hn nhiu theo cng cch c th ch dn mt gim c c bu ca mt nh my x hi ch ngha cch anh ta phi qun l n ra sao, v anh ta khng c nhiu nhu cu xin ch bo t mt nh t chc chuyn nghip hn l mt nh t bn cn. 8 Khu hiu t nhin ch ngha u tr ny l nguyn l ca ch ngha cng sn ca Marx (Marx ly t bi Lorganisation de travail ca Louis Blanc, nh Bryan Magee vui lng ch cho ti). Gc ca n l Platonic v C c ban u (so ct. 29 ch. 5; Acts, 2, 44-45, v 4, 34-35; xem c ct. 48 ch. 24 v cc ch dn cho ). N c Lenin trch State and Revolution; xem H.o.M., 752 (= State and Revolution, 74). Nguyn l ca ch ngha x hi, c kt hp vo Hin php Mi ca Lin X (1936), l yu hn mt cht song ng k; so iu 12: Lin X nguyn l ca ch ngha x hi c

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thc hin: Lm theo nng lc, hng theo lao ng. Thay lao ng cho t C c ban u nhu cu bin mt thnh ng t nhin ch ngha lng mn v kh mp m v mt kinh t thnh mt nguyn l kh thc tin nhng tm thng v thnh ci ngay c ch ngha t bn cng c th cho l ca mnh. 9 Ti m ch n nhan ca mt cun sch ni ting ca Engels: S Pht trin ca Ch ngha X hi T Khng tng n Khoa hc. (c xut bn bng ting Anh di nhan : Socialism: Utopian and Scientific). 10 Xem The Poverty of Historicism ca ti (Economica, 1944: nay c xut bn ring ra [xem c bn dch ting Vit S khn cng ca ch ngha lch s]. 11 y l lun cng th mi mt ca Theses on Feuerbach (1845), so H.o.M., 231 (= F. Engels, Ludwig Feuerbach und der Ausgang der Klassischen deutschen Philosophie, J. W. Dietz, Nachf. Berlin 1946, 56). Xem c cc ct. 14-16 ch. ny, v cc mc 1, 17 v 18 ca S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s. 12 Ti khng c nh tho lun chi tit y vn siu hnh hay phng php lun ca quyt nh lun. (C vi nhn xt thm v vn ch. 22 di y). Song ti mun ch ra rng t tho ng n th no nu quyt nh lun v phng php khoa hc c coi l cc t ng ngha. iu ny vn c lm, thm ch bi mt tc gi xut sc v sng sa nh Malinowski. So th d, bi bo ca ng trong Human Affairs (ed. by Cattel, Cohen, and Travers, 1937), ch. XII. Ti hon ton ng vi cc xu hng phng php lun ca bi bo ny, vi li cu khn dng phng php khoa hc trong khoa hc x hi ca n cng nh vi s ln n ti ba ca n v cc xu hng lng mn trong nhn hc (so c bit pp. 207 ff., 221-4). Song khi Malinowski l l ng h quyt nh lun trong nghin cu vn ho con ngi (p. 212; so, th d, c p. 252), ti khng thy ci ng hiu bng quyt nh lun nu khng n gin l phng php khoa hc. S nh ng ny, tuy vy, khng th ng vng, v n cha cc mi nguy him trm trng, nh c chng t trong vn bn; v n c th dn n ch ngha lch s. 13 V mt ph phn ch ngha lch s, xem S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s. Marx c th b ln n v gi nim tin sai lm l c mt qui lut t nhin v pht trin lch s; v vi trong cc nh khoa hc gii nht thi ng (th d T. H. Huxley; so Lay Sermons, 1880, p. 214 ca ng) tin vo kh nng tm ra mt qui lut tin ho. Song khng th c qui lut tin ho kinh nghim. C gi thuyt tin ho c th, cho rng s sng trn tri t tin trin theo cc cch no . Song mt qui lut ph qut hay t nhin v tin ho phi a ra mt gi thuyt v din tin ca s pht trin s sng (ch t) trn mi hnh tinh. Ni cch khc, u ta b gii hn quan st mt qu trnh n nht, ta khng th hi vng tm thy, v kim chng, mt qui lut t nhin. (Tt nhin, c cc qui lut tin ho gn vi s pht trin ca cc c th non, v.v.). C th c cc qui lut x hi hc, v thm ch qui lut v vn tin b; th d, gi thuyt rng, u quyn t do t tng, v t do truyn t t tng c bo v mt cch hiu qu bi cc th ch php l v cc nh ch m bo tnh cng khai ca tho lun, th s c tin b khoa hc. (So ch. 23). Song c cc l do gi quan im l tt hn nu khng ni v cc qui lut lch s cht no c. (So ct. 7 ch. 25 v vn bn). 14 So Capital, 864 (Li ni u cho ln Xut bn u tin). V mt nhn xt tng t ca Mill, xem ct. 16 di). cng ch, Marx cng ni: Mc tiu cui cng ca cng trnh ny l bc trn qui lut kinh t v vn ng ca x hi hin i. (V im ny, so H.o.M., 374, v vn bn cho ct. 16 ch. ny). S ng gia ch ngha thc dng ca Marx v ch ngha lch s ca ng tr nn kh r nu ta so cc on ny vi lun cng th 11 ca Cc Lun cng v Feuerbach ca ng (c trch vn bn cho ct. 11

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ch. ny). Trong S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s, mc 17, ti th lm cho mu thun ny r rt hn bng cch c trung ch ngha lch s ca Marx dng ging chnh xc nh tn cng ca ng ln Feurbach. V ta c th din gii on c trch ca Marx trong vn bn bng cch ni rng: Nh lch s ch ngha ch c th din gii s pht trin x hi, v gip n theo cc cch khc nhau; im chnh ca ng ta, tuy vy, l khng ai c th thay i n. So c ch. 22, c bit vn bn cho cc ct. 5 ff. 15 So Capital, 469; ba trch dn tip l t Capital, 868 (Li ni u cho ln Xut bn Th hai. Li dch mt thuyt h ln nng cn khng hon ton ph hp vi din t rt nng ca bn gc); op. cit., 673; v op. cit., 830. V c d chng c chi tit c ni n trong vn bn, xem, th d, op. cit., 105, 562, 649, 656. 16 So Capital, 864 = H.o.M., 374; so ct. 14 ch. ny. Ba trch dn tip l t J. S. Mill, A System of Logic (1st ed., 1843; trch t 8th ed.), Book VI, Ch. X; 2 (cui); 1 (u); 1 (cui). Mt on l th (din t gn ht nh nhn xt ni ting ca Marx c trch vn bn cho ct. 14) c th thy cng ch. ca Logic ca Mill, 8. Nhc n phng php lch s, tm kim cc qui lut v trt t v tin b x hi, Mill vit: Vi s gip ca n sau chng ta c th thnh cng khng ch trong nhn xa vo lch s tng lai ca nhn loi, m c trong xc nh cc phng tin nhn to no c th c dng, v mc no, y nhanh tin b t nhin chng mc c ch; b cho bt c ci g c th l cc bt tin hay bt li vn c ca n, v phng chng cc nguy him hay tai nn m loi chng ta b do cc chuyn tnh c tt yu ca s tin trin ca n. (Ti nhn mnh). Hay nh Marx din t ct ngn v lm nh cc cn au ca n. 17 So Mill, loc. cit., 2; cc nhn xt tip l t on vn u ca 3. Qu o v ng bay l t cui ca on vn th hai ca 3. Khi ni v cc qu o Mill ngh, c l, n cc l thuyt chu k ca s pht trin lch s nh c trnh by Statesman ca Plato, hay c l Discourses on Livy ca Machiavelli. 18 So Mill, loc. cit., u ca on vn cui ca 3. - V tt c cc on ny, so c cc ct. 6-9 ch. 14, v S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s, cc mc 22, 24, 27, 28. 19 V ch ngha tm l hc (t do E. Husserl), ti c th trch y vi cu ca nh tm l hc xut sc D. Katz; cc on ly t bi Psychological Needs ca ng (Ch. III ca Human Affairs, ed. by Cattel, Cohen, and Travers, 1937, p. 36). Trong trit hc mt thi gian c mt xu hng bin tm l hc thnh c s c bn duy nht ca mi khoa hc khc .. Xu hng ny thng c gi l ch ngha tm l hc .. Nhng ngay c cc khoa hc nh vy, c mt ht nhn trung lp khng mang tnh tm l hc ... Ch ngha tm l hc s c tho lun ch. 14. So c ct. 44 ch. 5. 20 So Li ni u ca Marx cho A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859), c trch H.o.M., 371 (= K. Marx, Zur Kritik der politishen Oekonomie, ed. by K. Kautsky, J. W. Dietz, Nachf. Berlin 1930, LIV-LV, c Capital, p. xv f.). on c trch y hn vn bn cho ct. 13 ch. 15, v vn bn cho ct. 2 ch. 14. CH THCH CHO CHNG 14 So ct. 19 ch. trc. So Li ni u ca Marx cho A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, cng c trch ct. 20 ch. 13 v vn bn cho cc ct. 13 ch. 15 v 4 ch. 16; so H.o.M., 372 = Capital, p. xvi. Xem c Marx and Engels, German Ideology (H.o.M., 213 = GA, Series I, vo. v, 16): Khng phi thc l ci quyt nh i sng, m l i sng quyt nh thc.
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So M. Ginsberg, Sociology (Home University Library, 130 ff.), ng tho lun vn ny trong mt khung cnh tng t, tuy vy, khng nhc ti Marx. 4 So th d, Zoology Leaflet 10, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, 1929. 5 V thuyt trng th ch, so c bit ch. 3 (vn bn cho cc ct. 9 v 10) v ch. 13. 6 So Mill, A System of Logic, VI, IX, 3. (So c cc ct. 16-18 ch. 13). 7 So Mill, op. cit., VI, VI, 2. 8 So Mill, op. cit., VI, VII, 1. V s i lp gia ch ngha c nhn phng php lun v ch ngha tp th phng php lun, xem Scientism and the Study of Society ca F. A. von Hayek, Part II, sec. VII (Economica, 1943, pp. 41 ff.). 9 V trch dn ny v trch dn tip xem Mill, op. cit., VI; X, 4. 10 Ti dng t cc qui lut x hi hc ch cc qui lut t nhin ca i sng x hi, tri vi cc lut chun tc ca n; so vn bn cho cc ct. 8-9 ch. 5. 11 So ct. 10 ch. 3. (on l t p. 122 ca phn II, S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s (Economica, N.S. xi, 1944) ca ti v p. 65 ca sch cng tn. Ti hm n K. Polanyi v gi rng Marx l ngi u tin hiu l thuyt x hi nh s nghin cu cc hu qu x hi khng mong mun ca gn nh mi hnh ng ca chng ta, ng nhn mnh kha cnh ny ca ch ngha Marx cc tho lun t (1924). * (1) Phi lu , tuy vy, rng bt chp kha cnh va c ni n ca ch ngha Marx to thnh mt im thng nht quan trng gia quan im ca Marx v quan im ca ti, c s bt ng ng k gia quan im Marx v ca ti v cch cc hu qu khng mun ny phi c phn tch. V Marx l mt nh tp th ch ngha phng php lun. ng tin rng chnh h thng cc mi quan h kinh t vn c l ci gy ra cc hu qu khng mong mun hay khng d nh trc ny - mt h thng cc th ch, n lt, c th gii ngha c dng t liu sn xut, nhng khng th phn tch c dng cc c nhn, cc mi quan h ca h, cc hnh ng ca h. Tri li, ti cho rng cc th ch (v truyn thng) phi c phn tch v mt c nhn ch nghatc l, dng ca cc mi quan h ca cc c nhn hot ng trong cc tnh hung nht nh, v dng ca cc hu qu khng d kin ca cc hnh ng ca h. (2) S dn chiu vn bn n lm sch bc vi v, v n ch. 9 l n cc ct. 9 n 12, v vn bn, ca ch. ny. (3) V cc nhn xt trong vn bn ( on vn m ct. ny c gn vo, v vi on vn tip theo) v cc hu qu x hi khng ch ca cc hnh ng ca chng ta, ti mun lu n s thc rng tnh hnh cc khoa hc vt l (v lnh vc k thut v cng ngh c hc) l hi ging. Nhim v ca cng ngh y cng ch yu l thng bo cho chng ta cc hu qu khng lng trc ca ci chng ta lm (th d mt chic cu c th tr nn qu nng nu ta kin c ho cc cu thnh no ca n). Nhng s tng t cn i xa hn na. Cc sng ch c kh ca ta him khi theo ng cc d nh ban u ca chng ta. Cc nh sng ch ra t c l khng thy trc cc hu qu x hi ca cng vic ca h, nhng h chc chn khng thy trc cc hu qu thun c hc nhng cch khc nhau m xe ca h b hng hc. V trong khi xe ca h c sa i nhm trnh cc hng hc ny, chng thay i khng cn nhn ra c na, (V vi chng, cc ng c v nguyn vng ca ngi dn cng thay i). (4) Vi ph phn ca ti v Thuyt m mu (pp. 94-6), so cc bi bo ca ti Prediction and Prophecy and their Significance for Social Theory (trong Proceedings of the Xth International Congress of Philosophy, 1948, vol. i, pp. 82 ff., c bit p. 87 f.), v Towards a Rational Theory of Tradition (The Rationalist Annual, 1949, pp. 36 ff., c bit p. 40 f.). C hai by gi trong cun Conjectures and Refutations ca ti.*

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Xem on t Mill c trch ct. 8 ch. ny. So ct. 63 ch. 10. Cc nh ng gp quan trng cho logic quyn lc l Plato ( cc Cun VIII v IX ca Republic, v Laws), Aristotle, Machiavelli, Pareto, v.v. 14 So Max Weber, Ges. Aufsaetze zur Wissenschaftslehre (1922), c bit pp. 408 ff. C th a thm mt nhn xt y v khng nh thng c lp li rng cc khoa hc x hi hot ng vi mt phng php khc vi phng php ca cc khoa hc t nhin, chng mc ta bit cc nguyn t x hi, tc chnh chng ta, bng s quen bit trc tip, cn s hiu bit ca ta v cc nguyn t vt l ch c tnh gi thuyt. T iu ny, thng rt ra kt lun (th d Karl Menger) rng phng php khoa hc x hi, v n dng s hiu bit ca ta v chnh mnh, c tnh tm l hc, hay c l ch quan, tri vi cc phng php khch quan ca cc khoa hc t nhin. Ta c th tr li iu ny: Chc chn khng c l do v sao ta li khng dng bt c hiu bit trc tip m ta c v chnh chng ta. Song tri thc nh vy l c ch trong cc khoa hc x hi ch nu ta khi qut ho, tc l nu ta gi s rng ci ta bit v chng ta cng ng cho nhng ngi khc na. Song khi qut ho ny c tnh gi thuyt, v n phi c kim tra v sa cha bi kinh nghim thuc loi khch quan. (Trc khi gp ngi khng thch s c la, mt s ngi c th d tin rng mi ngi u thch). R rng, trong trng hp cc nguyn t x hi theo cch no chng ta c v th thun li hn trng hp cc nguyn t vt l, khng ch do ta c hiu bit v mnh, m cng do vic s dng ngn ng. Th m t quan im phng php khoa hc, mt gi thuyt c gi bng ttrc gic v th khng khc vi mt gi thuyt vt l v cc nguyn t. Ci sau cng c th c gi cho nh vt l bi mt loi trc gic v cc nguyn t ging ci g. V c hai trng hp, trc gic ny l chuyn ring t ca nhng ngi ra gi thuyt. Ci cng khai, v quan trng i vi khoa hc, ch l vn liu cc gi thuyt c th c kinh nghim kim chng, v liu chng c vt qua cc kim chng hay khng. T quan im ny, cc l thuyt x hi khng ch quan hn cc thuyt vt l. (V s r hn, th d, ni v l thuyt v cc gi tr ch quan hay l thuyt v cc hnh ng la chn hn l l thuyt ch quan v gi tr: xem c ct. 9 ch. 20). 15 on vn ny c chn vo nhm trnh s hiu lm c ni n trong vn bn. Ti bit n Prof. E. Gombrich lu ti n kh nng hiu lm nh vy. 16 Hegel cho rng nim ca ng l ci g tn ti mt cch tuyt i, tc l c lp vi t duy ca bt c ai. Ta c th, v th, cho rng ng khng l mt nh tm l hc. Th m Marx, hon ton c l, khng coi ch ngha duy tm tuyt i ny ca Hegel l nghim tc; ng hn ng din gii n nh mt ch ngha tm l c che giu, v chng li n vi t cch y. So Capital, 873 (ti nhn mnh): i vi Hegel, qu trnh t duy (m thm ch ng trnh by che y di ci tn nim nh mt tc nhn hay i tng c lp) l ci to ra thc t. Marx gii hn tn cng ca ng i vi hc thuyt rng qu trnh t duy (hay thc, hay tm tr) to ra thc t; ng cho thy n thm ch khng to ra thc t x hi (ch ni chi n th gii vt cht). V l lun Hegelian v c nhn ph thuc vo x hi, (ngoi iii ca ch. 12) xem tho lun yu t x hi ch. 23, chnh xc hn, yu t lin c nhn trong phng php khoa hc, cng nh tho lun tng ng ch. 24 v yu t lin c nhn trong tnh duy l. CH THCH CHO CHNG 15
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So Li ni u ca Cole cho Capital, xvi. (Nhng xem c ct. tip).

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Lenin i khi cng dng t Marxist th tc, song theo ngha hi khc. Ch ngha Marx th tc c t ci chung ra sao vi cc quan im ca Marx c th thy t phn tch ca Cole, op. cit., xx, v t vn bn cho cc ct. 4 v 5 ch. 16, v ct. 17 ch. 17. 3 Theo Adler, kht vng quyn lc, tt nhin, thc s khng l g ngoi s thi thc n b cho cm gic thp km ca mnh bng chng t tnh u vit ca mnh. Mt s nh Marxist th thc thm ch cn tin rng Einstein, ngi, h ngh, khm ph ra tnh tng i hay thuyt tng i, a thm nt v kt thc cho trit hc ca con ngi hin i, tc l mi th u tng i. 4 J. F. Hecker ( Moscow Dialogues, p. 76) vit v ci gi l ch ngha duy vt lch s ca Marx: Ti thch gi n l ch ngha lch s bin chng hay .. ci g thuc loi y. Ti li lu bn c n s thc rng cun sch ny ti khng cp n php bin chng ca Marx, v ti cp n n ni khc. (So ct. 4 ch. 13). 5 V khu hiu ca Heraclitus, so c bit vn bn cho ct. 4 (3) ch. 2, cc ct. 16/17 ch. 4, v ct. 25 ch. 6. 7 Cc trch dn sau ly t Das Kapital, vol. III/2 (1894), p. 355; tc ch. 48, sec. III. 8 So Das Kapital, vol. III/2, loc. cit. 9 V cc trch dn on vn ny, so F. Engels, Anti-Dhring; xem H.o.M., 298, 299 (= F. Engels, Herrn Eugen Duehrings Umwaelzung der Wissenschaft, GA special volume 294-5). 10 Ti ngh n vn , th d, nh hng ca cc iu kin kinh t (nh nhu cu o c t) ln s pht trin hnh hc Ai Cp, v hnh hc Pythagorean ban u Hy Lp. 11 So c bit trch dn t Capital trong ct. 13 ch. 14; c cc on y t Li ni u cho A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, ch c trch mt phn trong vn bn cho ct. tip. V vn bn cht lun ca Marx, v s phn bit gia thc ti v b ngoi, xem ct. 13 ch. ny, v cc ct. 6 v 16 ch. 17. 12 Song ti thin v ni l n tt hn ch ngha duy tm nhn Hegelian hay Platonic; nh ti ni What is Dialectic?, nu gi nh ti buc phi chn, may l ti khng phi, ti s chn ch ngha duy vt. (So p. 422 ca Mind, vol. 49, hay Conjectures and Refutations, p. 331, ni ti cp cc vn rt ging cc vn y). 13 V trch dn ny v cc trch dn sau, so Li ni u ca Marx cho A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, H.o.M., 372 (= Zur Kritik der politischen Oekonomie, LV). Quan st Th hai ca phn II ca Poverty of Philosophy ca Marx (so H.o.M., 354 f. = GA, Series I, vol. vi, 179-80) ri mt cht nh sng na ln cc on ny (v ln vn bn cho ct. 3 ch. 16); v y Marx phn tch x hi rt r thnh ba lp, nu c th gi chng nh vy. Lp th nht tng ng vi thc ti hay bn cht, lp th hai v th ba vi hnh thc b ngoi ch yu v th yu. (iu ny rt ging s phn bit ca Plato v cc nim, cc s vt cm nhn c, v hnh nh ca cc s vt cm nhn c; v vn bn cht lun ca Plato so ch. 3, v cc nim tng ng ca Marx so c cc ct. 8 v 16 ch. 17). Lp u tin hay c bn (hay thc ti) l lp vt cht, b my v t liu sn xut khc tn ti trong x hi; Marx gi lp ny l lc lng sn xut vt cht, hay s sn xut vt cht. Lp th hai ng gi l quan h sn xut hay cc quan h x hi; chng ph thuc vo lp th nht: Cc quan h x hi gn b mt thit vi lc lng sn xut. Khi t lc lng sn xut mi con ngi thay i phng thc sn xut ca h; v khi thay i phng thc sn xut, h thay i cch kim sng - h thay i mi quan h x hi ca h. (V hai lp u, so vn bn cho ct. 3 ch. 16). Lp th ba c to nn bi cc thc h, tc l cc tng php l, o c, tn gio,

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khoa hc: Cng nhng con ngi xc lp cc quan h x hi ca h ph hp vi sn xut vt cht, cng to ra cc nguyn l, tng, v phm tr, ph hp vi cc quan h x hi ca h. Bng phn tch ny, ta c th ni l Nga lp u tin c bin i ph hp vi lp th ba, mt s bc b ni bt l thuyt ca Marx. (Xem c ct. tip). 14 D a ra cc li tin tri rt tng qut; th d, trong mt thi gian hp l, s c ma. Nh th chng c my trong li tin tri rng, trong vi thp nin, s c cch mng u . Song nh ta thy, Marx ch ni nhiu hn mt cht, v va b cc s kin chng t l sai. Nhng ai c thanh minh s chng t l sai ny, vt b mu cui cng ca tm quan trng kinh nghim khi h thng ca Marx. Khi n tr nn siu hnh hc thun tu (theo ngha ca The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti). Marx hnh dung c ch chung ca mt cuc cch mng ra sao, ph hp vi l thuyt ca ng, c minh ho bi m t sau v cch mng x hi ca giai cp t sn (cng c gi l cch mng cng nghip), ly t Tuyn ngn C.S. (H.o.M, 28; ti nhn mnh =GA, Series I, vol. vi, 530-31): T liu sn xut v bun bn, trn c s giai cp t sn hnh thnh, c to ra trong x hi phong kin. mt giai on nht nh trong s pht trin ca t liu sn xut v bun bn .. cc quan h s hu phong kin tr nn khng cn tng thch vi cc lc lng sn xut c pht trin ri. Chng tr thnh rt nhiu xing xch. Chng phi v tung ra tng mnh. V chng v tung ra tng mnh. (So c vn bn cho ct. 11, v ct. 17 ch. 17). 15 So H. Heine, Religion and Philosophy in Germany. (Engl. transl., 1882) c trch y t ph lc cho P. Carus, Kants Prolegomenna, 1912, p. 267. 16 Mt bng chng cho tnh bn ny c th thy Capital, cui ct. 2 p. 671. Marx, ti tha nhn, thng bt khoan dung. Tuy vy, ti cm thy song ti d c th sai- rng ng c thc ph phn thy im yu ca mi ch ngha gio iu, v ng chc s khng thch cch m cc l thuyt ca ng b bin thnh mt tp cc gio iu. (Xem ct. 30 ch. 17, v p. 425-p. 334 Conjectures and Refutations ca What is Dialectic? So ct. 4 ch. 13). Tuy vy, c v Engels sn sng chu tnh bt khoan dung v tnh chnh thng ca cc nh Marxist. li ni u ca mnh cho bn Capital ting Anh, ng vit (so Capital, 886) v cun sch thng c gi, Lc a, l Kinh thnh ca giai cp lao ng. V thay cho phn i chng m t bin ch ngha x hi khoa hc thnh mt tn gio, Engels tip tc cho thy, cc li bnh ca ng, rng Capital xng ng tc hiu ny, v cc kt lun rt ra cng trnh ny ngy cng tr thnh cc nguyn l c bn ca phong tro giai cp cng nhn v i trn khp th gii. T y ch mt bc l n sn lng d gio v rt php thng cng cc k vn gi tinh thn ph phn, tc khoa hc, tinh thn mt thi gy cm hng cho Engels v Marx. CH THCH CHO CHNG 16 So Marx- Engels, Tuyn ngn C.S.; xem H.o.M., p. 12 (= GA, Series I, vol. vi, 525). Nh ch. 4 ch ra (xem vn bn cho cc ct. 5/6 v 11/12), Plato c cc tng rt ging. 2 So vn bn cho ct. 15 ch. 14. 3 So Marx, The Poverty of Philosophy, H.o.M., 355 (= GA, Series I, vol. vi, 179). (Trch dn t cng ch nh ch m cc on trch trong ct. 13 ch. 15 c ly). 4 So li ni u cho A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy; so Capital, xvi, v H.o.M., 371 f. (= Zur Kritik der politischen Oekonomie, LIV-LV. Xem c ct. 20 ch. 13, ct. 1 ch. 14, ct. 13 ch. 15, v vn bn). on c trch y, v c bit
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cc t lc lng sn xut vt cht v quan h sn xut c soi sng mt cht t cc on c trch trong ct. 13 ch. 15. 5 So Capital, 650 f. Xem c on tng t v nh t bn v k bn xn trong Capital, 138 f., = H.o.M., 437; so c ct. 17 ch. 17. Trong The Poverty of Philosophy, H.o.M, 367 (= GA, Series I, vol. vi, 189), Marx vit: Mc d mi thnh vin ca giai cp t sn hin i c cng li ch trong chng mc h to thnh mt giai cp chng li giai cp khc, h c cc li ch i lp, i khng, trong chng mc h i mt vi nhau. S i lp li ch ny l kt qu t cc iu kin kinh t ca i sng t sn ca h. 6 Capital, 651. 7 iu ny ging chnh xc ch ngha lch s dn tc ch ngha ca Hegel, ni li ch tht ca dn tc c thc trong tm tr ch quan ca cc cng dn, v c bit ca nh lnh o. 8 So vn bn cho ct. 14 ch. 13. 9 So Capital, 651. 10 * Ban u ti dng t ch ngha t bn laissez-faire; nhng cn c vo s thc l laissez-faire biu th s thiu cc ro cn thng mi (nh thu quan) l ci g rt ng mong mi, ti tin v t s thc rng ti coi chnh sch kinh t khng can thip ca u th k mi chn l khng ng mong mun, v thm ch nghch l, ti quyt nh thay i thut ng ca mnh, v dng t ch ngha t bn v [unrestrained].* CH THCH CHO CHNG 17 So li ni u cho A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (H.o.M., 372 = Zur Kritik der politischen Oekonomie, LV). V l thuyt v cc tng lp hay cc lp ca thng tng kin trc, xem cc trch dn trong ct. 13 ch. 15. 2 V kin ngh c thuyt phc v v lc ca Plato, xem, th d, vn bn cho ct. 35 ch. 5, v cc ct. 5 v 10 ch. 8. 3 So Lenin State and Revolution (H.o.M., 725 = State and Revolution, 8-9). 4 Hai trch dn l t Marx-Engels, T.N.C.S. (H.o.M., 46 = GA, Series I, vol. vi, 546). 5 So Lenin, State and Revolution (H.o.M., 725 = State and Revolution, 8-9). 6 V vn c trng ca mt bn cht lun lch s ch ngha, v c bit v cc vn thuc loi Nh nc l g? hay Chnh ph l g?, so vn bn cho cc ct. 26-30 ch. 3, 21-24 v 26 ff. ch. 11 v 26 ch. 12. V ngn ng ca cc yu sch chnh tr (hoc hay hn, ca cc kin ngh chnh tr, nh L. J. Russell din t) m theo ti phi thay th loi bn cht lun ny, so c bit vn bn gia cc ct. 41 v 42 ch. 6 v ct. 5 (3) ch. 5. V bn cht lun ca Marx, xem c bit vn bn cho ct. 11, v ct. 13, ch. 15; ct. 16 ch. ny; v cc ct. 20-24 ch. 20. So c bit nhn xt phng php lun tp ba ca Capital (Das Kapital, III/2, p. 352), c trch ct. 20 ch. 20. 7 Trch dn ny l t Tuyn Ngn C.S. (H.o.M., 25 = GA, Series I, vol. vi, 528). Vn bn l t Li ni u ca Engels cho bn ting Anh u tin ca Capital. Ti trch y ton b on kt thc t Li ni u ny; Engels ni v kt lun ca Marx rng ch t Chu u, Anh l nc duy nht ni cch mng x hi khng th trnh khi c th c thc hin hon ton bng cc cng c ho bnh v php l. ng d nhin khng qun ni thm rng ng hu nh khng k vng giai cp thng tr Anh s quy phc cuc cch mng ho bnh v php l ny, m khng c mt cuc ni lon tin-n l. (So Capital, 887; xem c vn bn cho ct. 7 ch. 19). on ny cho thy r rng l, theo ch
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ngha Marx, bo lc hay bt-bo lc ca cch mng s ph thuc vo s phn khng hay khng-phn khng ca giai cp thng tr c. So c vn bn cho cc ct. 3 ff. ch. 19. 8 So Engels, Anti-Dhring (H.o.M., 296 = GA, Special vol., 292); xem c cc on ct. 5 ch. ny. S phn khng ca giai cp t sn n ra vi nm Nga; song khng c du hiu v s teo i ca nh nc Nga, khng ngay c trong t chc ni b ca n. L lun v nh nc teo i l rt phi thc t, v ti ngh Marx v Engels c th chp nhn n ch yu ht gi t bum ca cc i th ca h. Cc i th ti ngh n l Bakunin v nhng k v chnh ph; Marx khng thch thy thuyt cp tin ca bt c ai hn ca mnh. Ging Marx, h nhm ti lt trt t x hi hin ti, h tn cng, tuy vy, chng h thng chnh tr-php l, thay cho h thng kinh t. i vi h, nh nc l qu s phi b tiu dit. Song i vi cc k knh ch v chnh ph, t cc tin ring Marx c th d dng tha nhn kh nng l th ch nh nc, di ch ngha x hi, c th thc hin cc chc nng khng th thiu; y l cc chc nng bo v cng l v quyn t do m cc nh l lun ln v dn ch phn cho n. 9 So Capital, 799. 10 chng Tch lu nguyn thu, Marx, nh ng ni (p. 801), khng quan tm .. n cc nguyn nhn thun kinh t ca cch mng nng nghip. S quan tm ca chng ta l cc cng c c th cng bc (tc chnh tr) c dng gy ra thay i. 11 V nhiu on, v thng tng kin trc, so ct. 13 ch. 15. 12 So vn bn cho cc ct. c nhc ti trong ct. trc. 13 Mt trong cc phn ng ch v c gi tr nht ca Capital, mt t liu bt h tht s v s au kh ca con ngi, l Chng VIII ca Tp u, c nhan Ngy Lm vic, trong phc ho lch s ban u ca quy ch lao ng. T chng c dn chng tt bng t liu ny, cc trch dn tip theo c ly ra. Tuy vy, phi nhn ra l chnh chng ny cha cc t liu cho mt s bc b hon ton Ch ngha x hi Khoa hc Marxist, da vo li tin tri v s bc lt khng ngng tng ln ca cc cng nhn. Khng ai c th c chng ny ca Marx m khng nhn ra rng li tin tri ny may thay khng bin thnh s tht. C th iu ny mt phn l do cc hot ng ca cc nh Marxist trong t chc lao ng; song s ng gp chnh l t s tng nng sut lao ng- n lt n, theo Marx, l mt kt qu ca S tch lu t bn ch ngha. 14 So Capital, 246 (Xem li ch 1 cui trang [footnote] cho on ny Capital). 15 So Capital, 257 f. Bnh lun ca Marx trong footnote 1 ca trang ny l l th nht. ng cho thy cc trng hp nh th ny c cc k phn ng Tory tin-n l s dng tuyn truyn cho ch n l. V ng cho thy rng, gia nhng ngi khc, Thomas Carlyle, nh tin tri (mt tin bi ca ch ngha pht xt), tham gia vo phong tro tin-n l ny. Marx vit, Carlyle h mt s kin v i ca lch s hin i, Ni chin M, xung mc, rng Peter min Bc mun p v u Paul min Nam bi v Peter min Bc thu cng nhn ca mnh theo ngy, v Paul min Nam thu h sut i. y Marx trch bi Ilias Americana in Nuce ( Macmillans Magazine, August, 1863) ca Carlyle. V Marx kt lun: Nh th bong bng ng cm Tory cho cng nhn th (nhng ngi theo phi Tory khng bao gi ng cm vi cng nhn nng nghip) cui cng n tung. Bn trong n chng ta thy- ch n l! Mt trong cc l do ca ti trch on ny l ti mun nhn mnh s bt ng hon ton ca Marx vi nim tin rng khng c my chn gia s n l v s n llng. Khng ai c th nhn mnh hn Marx s thc rng vic bi b ch n l (v

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do vic a vo s n l-lng) l mt bc quan trng nht v tt yu trong gii phng nhng ngi b p bc. T n l-lng v vy l nguy him v gy lm lc; v n c cc nh Marxist Th tc din gii, nh ch bo rng Marx tn thnh ci m thc ra l s ca ngi tnh hnh ca Carlyle. 16 Marx nh ngha gi tr ca mt hng ho nh s gi lao ng trung bnh cn ti sn xut ra n. nh ngha ny l mt minh ho tt cho bn cht lun ca ng (so ct. 8 ch. ny). V ng a ra gi tr nhm nhn c ci thc t c bn tng ng vi ci xut hin dng gi ca hng ho. Gi l mt loi din mo ho huyn. Mt th c th c gi m khng c gi tr, Marx vit (Capital, 79; xem c cc nhn xt xut sc ca Cole trong Dn nhp ca ng cho Capital, c bit pp. xxvii, ff.). Mt phc ho l thuyt gi tr ca Marx s c thy ch. 20. (So cc ct. 9-27 ch. , v vn bn). 17 V vn cc n l-lng, so cui ct. 15 ch. ny; c Capital, 155 (c bit footnote 1). V phn tch ca Marx m cc kt qu ca n c phc ho ngn gn y, xem c bit Capital, 153 ff., c footnote 1 p. 153; so c ch. 20 di y. Trnh by ca ti v phn tch ca Marx c th c ng h bng trch mt tuyn b ca Engels trong Anti-Dhring nhn dp tm tt Capital. Engels vit (H.o.M, 269 = GA, Special vol. 160-67): Ni cch khc, cho d ta c loi b mi kh nng n cp, bo lc, v gian ln v cho d ta c gi s l ngi ch lao ng ca ring mnh to ra mi ti sn t ban u; v sut ton b qu trnh tip theo, ch c trao i cc gi tr ngang nhau ly cc gi tr ngang nhau; ngay c khi s pht trin khng ngng ca sn xut v trao i tt yu s gy ra h thng sn xut t bn ch ngha hin ti; vi s c quyn ho ca n v cng c sn xut v v hng tiu dng vo tay mt giai cp t v s lng; vi vic cc giai cp khc chim tuyt i a s sa st thnh cc k ngho tng v sn; vi chu k tun hon ca hng thnh sn xut v suy thoi thng mi; ni cch khc, vi s v chnh ph hon ton ca h thng sn xut hin ti. Ton b qu trnh c gii thch bng cc nguyn nhn kinh t thun tu: cp bc, v lc, v s gi thit v can thip chnh tr thuc bt k loi no l khng cn thit bt c im no. C l on ny mt ngy no c th thuyt phc mt nh Marxist Th tc rng ch ngha Marx khng gii thch suy thoi bng m mu ca cc hng ln. Bn thn Marx ni (Das Kapital, II, 406 f., ti nhn mnh): Sn xut t bn ch ngha dnh n cc iu kin, c lp vi cc ch tt hay xu, ch cho php mt s phn vinh tng i tm thi ca giai cp lao ng, v lun lun ch nh ci bo trc mt suy thoi. 18 V hc thuyt ti sn l k trm hay ti sn l s n cp, so c nhn xt ca Marx v John Watts trong Capital, 601, footnote 1. 19 V c tnh Hegelian ca s phn bit gia quyn t do hnh thc n thun v thc s hay thc t, hay dn ch, so ct. 62 ch. 12. Hegel thch tn cng hin php Anh v s sng bi ca n vi quyn t do hnh thc, tri vi nh nc Ph trong quyn t do tht s c thc hin. V trch dn cui on vn ny, so on c trch vn bn cho ct. 7 ch. 15. Xem c cc ct. 14 v 15 ch. 20, v vn bn. 20 V nghch l t do v nhu cu bo v quyn t do bi nh nc, so bn on vn trong vn bn trc ct. 42 ch. 6, v c bit cc ct. 4 v 6 ch. 7, v vn bn; xem c ct. 41 ch. 12, v vn bn, v ct. 7 ch. 24. 21 Chng li phn tch ny, c th ni, nu gi s cnh tranh hon ho gia cc nghip ch nh cc nh sn xut, v c bit nh ngi mua lao ng trn th trng lao ng (v nu gi s thm rng khng c i qun cng nghip d b ca ngi tht nghip gy p lc ln th trng ny), th khng th c chuyn bc lt ngi yu v kinh t bi ngi mnh v kinh t, tc l cc cng nhn bi cc nghip ch. Song gi thit v cnh

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tranh hon ho gia cc ngi mua trn cc th trng lao ng c thc t cht no khng? Chng ng l, th d, trn nhiu th trng lao ng a phng ch c mt ngi mua ng k ? V li, ta khng th gi s l cnh tranh hon ho s t ng loi b vn tht nghip, nu khng v l do khc th v lao ng khng th d di chuyn. 22 V vn s can thip kinh t ca nh nc, v v m t c im ca h thng kinh t hin ti ca chng ta nh ch ngha can thip, xem ba chng tip, c bit ct. 9 ch. 18 v vn bn. C th lu rng ch ngha can thip nh c dng y l phn b kinh t ca ci ti gi l ch ngha bo h chnh tr ch. 6, vn bn cho cc ct. 24-44. (L r v sao t ch ngha bo h khng th c dng thay ch ngha can thip). Xem c bit ct. 9 ch. 18, v cc ct. 25/26 ch. 20, v vn bn. 23 on c trch y hn vn bn cho ct. 14, ch. 13; v mu thun gia hot ng thc tin v quyt nh lun lch s ch ngha, xem ct. , v vn bn cho cc ct. 5 ff. ch. 22. 24 So mc II ca ch. 7. 25 Xem Bertrand Russell, Power (1938); so c bit pp. 123 ff.; Walter Lippmann, The Good Society (1937), so c bit pp. 188 ff. 26 B. Russell, Power, pp. 128 f. Ti nhn mnh. 27 Cc lut bo v dn ch vn trng thi pht trin kh s ng. C th v phi lm rt nhiu. Quyn t do ngn lun, chng hn, c i bi v mc tiu chnh l phi a thng tin ng cho dn chng; song nhn t lp trng ny, rt thiu m bo th ch t mc tiu ny. Ci m cc t bo tt thng lm hin nay do sng kin ring ca h, y l, cung cp cho dn chng mi thng tin quan trng sn c, c th c thit lp nh bn phn ca h, hoc bi cc lut c b cc cn thn, hay bi thit lp mt quy tc o c, c cng chng tha nhn. Cc vn , th d, nh l th ca Zinovief [vic tch thu n London lm thay i din tin bu c , N.D.], c l c th c kim sot bi mt lut lm cho c th hu kt qu thng c bng cc phng tin khng thch hp, v buc nh xut bn sao lng bn phn ca mnh v tm hiu chc chn s tht ca thng tin c xut bn cn thn mc c th phi chu trch nhim v tc hi gy ra; trong trng hp ny, v chi ph cho mt cuc bu c mi. Ti khng th i vo chi tit y, song nim tin chc chn ca ti l ta c th d dng khc phc cc kh khn cng ngh ngng ng chng ta t cc mc ch nh vy nh tin hnh cc chin dch bu c ch yu bng ku gi n l tr thay cho s say m. Ti khng thy v sao ta li khng, th d, chun ho kch thc, loi, v.v. ca cc ti liu [pamphlet] vn ng bu c, v loi b p phch c ng. (Vic ny khng nht thit gy nguy him cho quyn t do, ht hp l nh cc hn ch p t ln nhng ngi bin h trc to l bo v quyn t do hn l gy nguy him cho n). Cc phng php tuyn truyn hin nay l s lng m cng chng cng nh ng vin. Tuyn truyn loi c th kh tt cho bn x phng khng c dng trong cc vn c hu qu nh vy. 28 *So Kim sot Th tc Thu mn Anh, 1947. S thc rng th tc ny hu nh khng c dng (n r rng khng b lm dng) cho thy lut thm ch c tnh cht nguy him nht c ban hnh m khng c nhu cu cp bch - hin nhin v khng c hiu bit thch ng v s khc bit c bn gia hai loi lp php, tc l mt loi thit lp cc quy tc ng x chung, v mt loi cho chnh ph quyn t do lm theo mnh.* 29 * V s phn bit ny, v v s dng t khung php l, xem F. A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom [c bn ting Vit] (ti trch t Ln xut bn u Anh, 1944). Xem, th d, p. 54, ni Hayek ni v s phn bit .. gia vic to ra mt khung lut php lu di trong quyt nh c nhn hng dn hnh ng sn xut, v s ch huy hot ng

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kinh t bi nh chc trch trung ng no . (Ti nhn mnh). Hayek nhn mnh tm quan trng ca tnh c th d on c ca khung php l; xem, th d, p. 56* 30 Bi ph bnh, ng trn European Messenger ca St. Peterburg, c Marx trch trong Li ni u cho ln xut bn th hai ca Capital. (Xem Capital, 871). cng bng vi Marx, chng ta phi ni rng ng khng lun coi h thng ca ring ng qu nghim tc, v rng ng hon ton sn sng i trch mt cht khi s c bn ca mnh; ng coi n nh mt quan im (v vi t cch nh th n chc chn cc k quan trng) hn l mt h thng cc gio iu. Nh th chng ta c, hai trang lin tip ca Capital (832 f.), mt tuyn b nhn mnh l lun Marxist thng thng v tnh cht th yu ca h thng php l (hay c tnh nh mt mt n, mt b ngoi), v mt tuyn b gn mt vai tr rt quan trng cho sc mnh chnh tr ca nh nc v nng n dt khot ln a v ca mt lc lng kinh t trng thnh. Tuyn b u l, Tc gi nhc li rng cc cuc cch mng khng c tin hnh bng cc lut, ni n cch mng cng nghip, v n mt tc gi i hi cc o lut theo n c thc hin. Tuyn b th hai l mt bnh lun (v chnh thng nht t quan im Marxist) v cc phng php tch lu t bn; tt c cc phng php ny, Marx ni, u s dng quyn lc nh nc, c tp trung sc mnh chnh tr ca x hi. Sc mnh l b cho mi x hi c mang thai mt x hi mi. Bn thn n l mt lc lng kinh t. Cho n cu cui, m ti nhn mnh, on ny r rng l chnh thng. Nhng cu cui ph v tnh chnh thng ny. Engels gio iu hn. Phi so snh c bit mt trong cc tuyn b ca ng AntiDhring (H.o.M., 277), ni ng vit, Vai tr do sc mnh chnh tr ng trong lch s tng phn vi s pht trin kinh t by gi l r rng. ng cho rng mi khi sc mnh chnh tr i ngc s pht trin kinh t, th thng thng, n thua, ch vi t ngoi l; cc ngoi l t i ny l cc trng hp c lp ca s xm chim trong nhng k xm chim man r .. b ph .. cc lc lng sn xut m h khng bit s dng th no. (So, tuy vy, cc ct. 13/14 ch. 15, v vn bn). Ch ngha gio iu v ch ngha c on ca hu ht cc nh Marxist l hin tng tht s ng kinh ngc. N ch chng t l h dng ch ngha Marx mt cch phi duy l, nh mt h thng siu hnh hc. C th thy gia nhng ngi cp tin v nhng ngi n ho nh nhau. E. Burns, th d, a ra ( H.o.M., 374) tuyn b u tr ng ngc nhin l nhng li bc b .. chc hn bp mo cc l thuyt ca Marx; iu c v ng rng cc l lun ca Marx l khng th bc b c, tc l phi khoa hc; v mi l lun khoa hc u c th b bc b, v c th b thay th. Mt khc, L. Laurat, trong Marxism and Democracy, p. 226, ni: Nhn vo th gii chng ta sng, chng ta sng st v s chnh xc gn nh ton hc m cc tin on c bn ca Karl Marx c thc hin. Bn thn Marx c v ngh khc. Ti c th sai v iu ny, song ti tin vo tnh chn tht ca tuyn b ca ng ( cui Li ni u ca ln xut bn u ca Capital; xem 865): Ti hoan nghnh ph phn khoa hc, d tn nhn n u. Nhng i mt vi cc thnh kin ca ci gi l d lun, ti s bm cht vo chm ngn ca mnh ..: Hy theo ng ca mnh, v c h huyn thuyn! CH THCH CHO CHNG 18 V bn cht lun ca Marx, v s thc rng cc phng tin vt cht ca sn xut ng vai tr bn cht trong l thuyt ca ng, so c bit ct. 13 ch. 15. Xem c ct. 6 ch. 17 v cc ct. 20-24 ch. 20, v vn bn.
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So Capital, 864 = H.o.M., 374, v cc ct. 14 v 16 ch. 13. Ci ti gi l mc tiu th hai ca Capital, mc tiu chng-bin h, gm mt nhim v hi c tnh hc thut, y l, ph phn kinh t hc chnh tr v mt a v khoa hc ca n. Chnh nhim v ny m Marx m ch c nhan ca tc phm bo trc Capital, tc l A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, ln nhan ph ca bn thn Capital, dch theo ngha en l Critique of Political Economy-Ph phn Kinh t hc Chnh tr. V c hai nhan ny m ch khng lm ln n Ph phn L tnh thun tu ca Kant. V nhan ny, n lt n, c ni: Ph phn trit hc thun tu hay siu hnh v mt a v khoa hc ca n. (iu ny c biu th r rng hn bi u ca li din gii ca Ph phn ca Kant, dch gn theo ngha en l: Li ni u Cho Bt c Siu hnh hc no trong Tng lai C th i a v Khoa hc mt cch Chnh ng). Bng m ch n Kant, Marx hin nhin mun ni: Ht nh Kant ph phn i hi ca siu hnh hc, pht hin ra rng n khng l khoa hc m ch yu l thn hc bin h, cng vy ti ph phn y cc i hi tng ng ca kinh t hc t sn. Rng xu hng ch yu ca Ph phn ca Kant, trong cc gii ca Marx, c coi l hng chng li thn hc bin h, c th c thy t s trnh by n trong Religion and Philosophy in Germany bi H. Heine, bn ca Marx (so cc ct. 15 v 16 ch. 15). Khng phi khng ng quan tm l, bt chp s gim st ca Engels, cc dch gi Anh u tin ca Capital dch nhan ph ca n l Mt Phn tch Ph phn ca Sn xut T bn ch ngha, nh th thay mt nhn mnh n ci ti m t trong vn bn nh mc tiu u tin ca Marx cho mt m ch n mc tiu th hai ca ng. Marx trch Burke trong Capital, 843, note 1. Li trch l t E. Burke, Thoughts and Details on Scarcity, 1800, p. 31 f. 4 So cc nhn xt ca ti v thc giai cp gn cui mc I, ch. 16. V s tn ti tip tc ca s thng nht giai cp sau khi chm dt u tranh giai cp chng k th giai cp, ti ngh, l hu nh khng ph hp vi cc gi thit ca Marx, v c bit vi php bin chng ca ng, cho rng thc giai cp l mt th c th c tch lu v sau c lu tr, rng n c th sng lu hn cc lc to ra n. Nhng gi thit thm rng n tt yu phi sng lu hn cc lc ny l tri vi l lun ca Marx coi thc nh ci gng hay nh mt sn phm ca cc thc t x hi khc nghit. Th m, gi thit thm ny phi c a ra bi bt c ai tn thnh cng Marx rng bin chng lch s phi dn n ch ngha x hi. on tip theo l t Tuyn ngn C.S. (H.o.M., 46 f. = GA, Series I, vol. vi, 46) l c bit l th trong ng cnh ny; n cha mt tuyn b r rng, thc giai cp ca cc cng nhn l mt h qu n thun ca hon cnh bt buc, tc l p lc ca tnh hnh giai cp; nhng ng thi n cha hc thuyt b ph phn vn bn, y l, s tin tri v x hi phi giai cp. on l th ny: Bt chp s thc rng giai cp v sn b p buc, bi hon cnh bt buc, t t chc nh mt giai cp trong thi gian u tranh vi giai cp t sn; bt chp s thc rng, bng cch mng, n bin thnh giai cp thng tr, v, nh th, qut sch cc iu kin sn xut c bng v lc; bt chp tt c cc s thc ny, n s qut sch, cng vi cc iu kin ny, c cc iu kin cho s tn ti ca bt c s i khng giai cp no v ca bt c giai cp no, v nh th s th tiu uy th ti cao ca ring n vi t cch mt giai cp. Thay cho x hi t sn c, vi cc giai cp v i khng giai cp ca n, chng ta s c mt hip hi trong s pht trin t do ca mi ngi l ci m bo cho s pht trin t do ca mi ngi. (So c vn bn cho ct. 8 ch. ny). Mt nim tin p, nhng l mt nim tin thm m v lng mn; l

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mt Ch ngha Khng tng c ao, mn thut ng Marxist, ch khng l mt ch ngha x hi khoa hc. Marx chin u chng ci ng gi l ch ngha Khng tng, v th l ng. (So ch. 9). Song v bn thn ng l mt ngi lng mn, ng khng thy r yu t nguy him nht ca ch ngha Khng tng, chng cung lng mn ca n, s phi duy l m hc ca n; thay vo , ng chng li cc n lc (phi tha nhn cha chn) ca n ti k hoch ho duy l, cho chng i li vi ch ngha lch s ca ng (So ct. 21 ch. ny). Thay cho mi lp lun sc so ca ng v thay cho mi n lc ca ng dng phng php khoa hc, cc ch, Marx cho php cc tnh cm phi duy l v thm m kim sot hon ton cc suy ngh ca ng. Ngy nay ngi ta gi iu ny l m tng. Chnh m tng lng mn, phi duy l, v thm ch thn b l ci khin Marx cho rng s thng nht giai cp tp th v s on kt giai cp ca cc cng nhn s ko di sau s thay i v v tr giai cp. Nh th chnh m tng, mt ch ngha tp th thn b, v mt phn ng phi duy l i vi s cng thng ca nn vn minh l ci khin Marx tin tri v s ti tt yu ca ch ngha x hi. Loi ch ngha lng mn ny l mt trong cc yu t ca ch ngha Marx li cun cc k mnh nhiu ngi theo. N c biu l, th d, ht sc thng thit trong li tng ca Moscow Dialogues ca Hecker. Hecker ni y v ch ngha x hi nh mt trt t x hi ni s khng cn xung t giai cp v chng tc, v ni chn, thin, m s l phn ca mi ngi. Ai li khng thch c thin ng trn tri t! Th m, phi l mt trong cc nguyn l hng u ca chnh tr hc duy l l chng ta khng th to thin ng trn tri t. Chng ta s khng tr thnh Tinh thn T do hay tin ch t khng trong khong vi ba th k tip. Chng ta gn vi tri t ny bi s trao i cht ca mnh, nh Marx mt ln sng sut tuyn b; hay nh o C c din t, chng ta l linh hn v xc tht. Nh th chng ta phi khim tn hn. Trong chnh tr v y t, ngi ha qu nhiu chc l mt lang bm. Chng ta phi c ci thin cc th, nhng chng ta phi gii thot khi tng v vin ngc bo bi ca cc trit gia, khi mt cng thc bin x hi con ngi i bi thnh vng rng trng cu. ng sau tt c iu ny l hi vng ui ma qu khi th gii chng ta. Plato ngh l ng c th lm iu bng xua n vo cc giai cp thp hn, v cai tr n. Cc k v chnh ph m l, mt khi nh nc, H thng Chnh tr, b ph hu, th mi th hn s tt. V Marx m mt gic m tng t v xua ui ma bng ph hu h thng kinh t. Cc nhn xt ny khng c ng rng l khng th a ra thm ch cc tin b nhanh, c l ngay c thng qua cc ci cch nh, th d, nh ci cch thu, hay gim li sut. Ti ch mun khng nh rng chng ta phi ch i, mi s loi b mt ci xu, nh cc h qu khng mong mun ca n, s to ra mt lot ci xu mi tuy c l t xu hn nhiu c th mt bnh din khn cp hon ton khc. Nh vy nguyn l th hai ca cng hot ng chnh tr l: mi hot ng chnh tr ct chn ci xu t hn (nh thi s v nh ph bnh Thnh Vin K. Kraus din t). V mi chnh tr gia phi st sng tm kim cc ci xu m hnh ng ca h tt yu to ra thay cho che giu chng, v mt s nh gi thch hp v cc ci xu ua tranh tr nn khng th nu khc i. 5 D ti khng nh cp n php bin chng ca Marx (so ct. 4 ch. 13), ti c th chng t: c th cng c l l b lng v logic ca Marx bng ci gi l l l bin chng. Ph hp vi l l ny, tt c ci ta cn l m t cc xu hng i khng trong ch ngha t bn sao cho ch ngha x hi (th d dng ch ngha t bn nh nc ton tr) t ra nh hp [synthesis] tt yu. Hai xu hng i lp ca ch ngha t bn c l c th c m t th ny. Chnh : Xu hng n tch t vn vo tay t ngi;

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n cng nghip ho v kim sot quan liu v cng nghip; n s san bng kinh t v tm l ca cc cng nhn qua tiu chun ho cc nhu cu v mong mun. Phn : S ngho kh gia tng ca ng o qun chng; thc giai cp tng ln ca h do hu qu ca (a) u tranh giai cp, v (b) s hiu r tng ln ca h v tm quan trng tt bc ca h mt x hi nh x hi cng nghip ni giai cp lao ng l giai cp sn xut duy nht, v v vy l giai cp c bn duy nht. (So c ct. 15 ch. 19, v vn bn). Hu nh khng cn ch ra hp Marxist ni ln ra sao; nhng c th cn khng nh rng mt s nhn mnh c i i cht t trong m t xu hng i khng c th dn n cc hp rt khc; thc ra, n bt c hp no ngi ta mun bo v. Th d, c th d trnh by ch ngha pht xt nh mt hp tt yu; hay c l ch k tr; hay khc i, mt h thng ca ch ngha can thip dn ch. 6 * Bryan Magee vit v on ny: y l tt c ci m The New Class [Giai cp Mi] ca Djilas ni v: mt l thuyt c vch ra y v nhng thc t ca cch mng Cng sn, c vit bi mt ngi Cng sn ngoan c.* 7 Lch s phong tro giai cp lao ng y tri ngc. N cho thy cng nhn sn sng cho nhng hi sinh to ln nht trong cuc chin u ca h v s gii phng giai cp h, v hn th, gii phng loi ngi. Nhng cng c nhiu chng k mt cu chuyn bun v tnh ch k kh bnh thng v v s theo ui li ch ngnh lm hi n tt c. Chc chn c th hiu c l mt nghip on nhn c li th ln cho thnh vin ca n qua s on kt v mc c tp th s c loi cc ngi khng sn sng tham gia nghip on khi cc li ch ny; th d, bng a vo cc hp ng tp th ca h iu kin rng ch c thu cc on vin cng on. Song l vn khc, v khng th bin h c, nu mt nghip on theo cch ny nhn c s c quyn khp danh sch thnh vin li, nh th khng cho cc bn cng nhn mun vo c tham gia, m thm ch khng thit lp mt phng php cng bng v nhn cc thnh vin mi (nh phi tham gia nghim ngt vo mt danh sch ch). Rng cc vic nh vy c th xy ra cho thy s thc rng mt ngi l cng nhn khng lun lun ngn cn anh ta khi vic qun ht s on kt ca nhng ngi b p bc v khi vic s dng y cc c quyn kinh t m anh ta c th c, tc l khi bc lt cc ng bn cng nhn. 8 So Tuyn Ngn C.S. (H.o.M., 47 = GA, Series I, vol. vi, 546); on c trch y hn ct. 4 ch. ny, ni cp n ch ngha lng mn ca Marx. 9 T ch ngha t bn l qu m h dng nh mt ci tn ca mt giai on lch s xc nh. T ch ngha t bn ban u c dng theo mt ngha mit th, v n gi ngha ny trong cch dng ph bin (h thng ng h li nhun ln do nhng k khng lm vic kim c). Song ng thi n cng c dng theo ngha khoa hc trung lp, nhng vi nhiu ngha khc nhau. n chng mc m, theo Marx, mi s tch lu t liu sn xut c th c gi l t bn, thm ch chng ta c th ni rng ch ngha t bn theo ngha no l ng ngha vi t chc cng nghip. Theo ngha ny ta c th m t hon ton ng mt x hi cng sn, ni nh nc s hu tt c t bn, l ch ngha t bn nh nc. V cc l do ny, ti gi dng tn ch ngha t bn v [unrestrained] cho giai on m Marx phn tch v t tn l ch ngha t bn, v dng tn ch ngha can thip cho giai on ca chng ta. Tn ch ngha can thip qu thc c th bao ph ba loi chnh ca k thut x hi thi i chng ta: ch ngha can thip tp th Nga; ch ngha can thip dn ch ca Thu in v Cc Nn dn ch Nh, v New Deal [Chnh sch Kinh t X hi Mi] M; v thm ch cc phng php pht xt ca nn kinh t qun s ho. Ci Marx gi l ch ngha t bn - tc ch ngha t bn v - hon ton teo i trong th k hai mi.

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ng dn ch x hi Thu in, ng m u th nghim Thu in, mt thi l ng Marxist; nhng t b cc l thuyt Marxist khng lu sau khi n quyt nh chp nhn cc trch nhim chnh ph v bt tay vo mt chng trnh ci cch x hi to ln. Mt trong cc kha cnh m th nghim Thu in lch khi ch ngha Marx l s nhn mnh ca n n ngi tiu dng, v vai tr ca cc hp tc x ngi tiu dng, tri vi s nhn mnh Marxist gio iu ln sn xut. L thuyt kinh t cng ngh ca nhng ngi Thu in b nh hng mnh bi ci cc nh Marxist gi l kinh t hc t sn, cn l thuyt Marxist chnh thng v gi tr chng c vai tr g trong . 11 V cng lnh ny, xem H.o.M., 46 (= GA, Series I, vol. vi, 545). - Vi im (1), so vn bn cho ct. 15 ch. 19). C th lu l ngay c mt trong cc tuyn b cp tin nht m Marx tng a ra, Gi Lin on Cng sn (1850), ng coi thu thu nhp lu tin l mt bin php cc k cch mng. Trong m t cui cng v cc chin thut cch mng gn cui bi din vn ny ln cc im trong ting h xung trn Cch mng thng trc! Marx ni: Nu nhng ngi dn ch kin ngh thu t l, cng nhn phi i thu lu tin. V nu bn thn nhng ngi dn ch tuyn b mt loi thu lu tin n ho, cng nhn phi c ni mt li thu lu tin nng; nng n mc gy ra s sp ca t bn ln. (So H.o.M., 70, v c bit ct. 44 ch. 20). 12 V khi nim k thut x hi tng phn ca ti, so c bit ch. 9. V can thip chnh tr vo cc vn kinh t, v mt gii thch chnh xc hn ca t ch ngha can thip, xem ct. 9 ch. ny, v vn bn. 13 Ti coi s ph phn ny v ch ngha Marx l rt quan trng. N c nhc ti 17/18 ca S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s ca ti; v nh c ni r , n c th c n trnh bng ngh mt l thuyt o c lch s ch ngha. Nhng ti tin ch khi no mt l thuyt nh vy (so ch. 22, c bit cc ct. 5 ff. v vn bn) c chp nhn, th ch ngha Marx mi c th thot khi li buc ti l n dy nm tin vo cc php mu chnh tr. (Cm t ny l do Julius Kraft). Xem c cc ct. 4 v 21 ch. ny. 14 V vn ca tho hip, so mt nhn xt cui on vn m ct. 3 ch. 9 c gn vo. V s bin h cho nhn xt vn bn, V h khng lp k hoch cho ton x hi, xem ch. 9 v The Poverty of Historicism, II ca ti (c bit ph phn chnh th lun). 15 F. A. von Hayek (so, th d, Freedom and the Economic System, Chicago, 1939) nht quyt l mt nn kinh t k hoch tp trung hn gy ra nguy him trm trng cho quyn t do c nhn. Song ng cng nhn mnh rng lp k hoch cho t do l cn thit. (Lp k hoch cho t do cng c Mannheim ng h, trong Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction ca ng, 1941. Song v tng ca ng v k hoch dt khot c tnh tp th v chnh th lun, ti tin chc l n phi dn n chuyn ch, ch khng n t do; v qu thc quyn t do ca Mannheim l con ca t do ca Hegel. So cui ch. 23, v bi bo ca ti c trch cui ct. trc). 16 Mu thun ny gia l thuyt lch s Marxist v thc tin lch s Nga c tho lun ch. 15, cc ct. 13/14, v vn bn. 17 y l mt mu thun khc gia l thuyt Marxist v thc tin lch s; tri vi mu thun ni ct. trc, mu thun th hai ny gy ra nhiu tho lun v cc n lc gii thch vn bng a ra cc gi thuyt ph tr. Gi thuyt quan trng nht trong s ny l l lun v ch ngha quc v bc lt thuc a. L lun ny khng nh rng s pht trin cch mng b tht bi cc nc trong ngi v sn chung vi nh t bn thu hoch ni khng phi h m l cc th dn thuc a gieo ht. Gi thuyt ny,

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r rng b bc b bi s pht trin ging nh s pht trin cc nn Dn ch Nh phi quc, s c tho lun y hn ch. 20 (vn bn cho cc ct. 37-40). Nhiu nh dn ch x hi din gii cch mng Nga, theo s ca Marx, nh mt cuc cch mng t sn n mun, nht quyt l cuc cch mng ny gn vi mt s pht trin kinh t ging cch mng cng nghip cc nc pht trin hn. Song din gii ny, tt nhin, cho rng lch s phi tun theo s Marxist. Thc ra, mt vn bn cht lun nh, liu cch mng Nga c l mt cch mng cng nghip n chm hay l mt cch mng x hi cha chn mui, ch mang tnh ngn t; v nu n dn n cc kh khn bn trong ch ngha Marx, th iu ny ch chng t l c cc kh khn ngn t trong m t cc s kin khng c cc nh sng lp nhn thy trc. 18 Cc lnh t c kh nng truyn cho nhng ngi theo h mt nim tin nhit tnh vo s mng ca h - gii phng loi ngi. Song cc lnh t ny cng chu trch nhim v s tht bi cui cng ca hot ng chnh tr ca h, v s v ca phong tro. S tht bi ny, ch yu, l do s v trch nhim tr tu. Cc lnh t cam oan vi cc cng nhn rng ch ngha Marx l mt khoa hc, v rng pha tr tu ca phong tro nm trong cc bn tay gii nht. Nhng h chng bao gi chp nhn mt thi khoa hc, tc ph phn, i vi ch ngha Marx. Chng no h cn c th p dng n (v c g d hn iu ny?), chng no h cn c th din gii lch s trong cc bi bo v din thuyt, h tho mn v tr tu. (So c cc ct. 19 v 22 ch. ny). 19 Nhiu nm trc khi ch ngha pht xt ni ln Trung u c th thy mt thuyt ch bi rt r rt gia hng ng cc lnh t dn ch x hi. H bt u tin ch ngha pht xt l mt giai on khng th trnh khi trong s pht trin x hi. Tc l, h bt u sa s ca Marx, song h khng bao gi nghi s ng n ca cch tip cn lch s ch ngha; h chng bao gi thy mt cu hi nh Ch ngha pht xt c l mt giai on khng trnh khi trong s pht trin ca nhn loi? c th l hon ton lm lc. 20 Phong tro Marxist Trung u c t tin l trong lch s. N l mt phong tro, bt chp s thc l n rao ging thuyt v thn, c th tht s c gi l mt phong tro tn gio ln. (C l iu ny c th gy n tng cho cc tr thc nhng ngi khng coi nghim tc ch ngha Marx). Tt nhin, v nhiu mt, n l mt phong tro tp th v thm ch b lc. Nhng n l mt phong tro ca cc cng nhn t o to mnh cho nhim v v i ca h; gii phng chnh h, nng trnh ca cc mi quan tm v tiu khin ca h; thay cho leo ni v ru, nhc c in nhn nhy, v sch nghim tc li k. S gii phng giai cp lao ng ch c th c thc hin bi bn thn nhng ngi lao ng l nim tin ca h. (V n tng su do phong tro ny gy ra cho mt s nh quan st, xem, th d, G. E. R. Gedye, Fallen Bastions, 1939). 21 Trch dn l t Li ni u ca Marx cho ln xut bn th hai ca Capital, (so Capital, 870; so c ct. 6 ch. 13). N cho thy Marx may mn th no trong con mt ca cc nh ph bnh ca ng (so c ct. 30 ch. 17, v vn bn). Mt on cc k l th khc, ni Marx by t ch ngha Phn-Khng tng v ch ngha lch s ca ng, c th thy Ni chin Php (H.o.M., 150, K. Marx, Der Buergerkrieg in Frankreich, A. Willaschek, Hamburg 1920, 65-66), ni Marx ng tnh ni v Cng x Paris 1871: Giai cp lao ng khng k vng cc php mu t Cng x. H khng c cc iu Khng tng c lm sn, a vo bng sc lnh ca nhn dn. H bit rng t s gii phng chnh h, v vi n, cc hnh thc cao hn m x hi hin thi ca chng ta hng ti mt cch khng cng ni, .. h s phi tri qua cc cuc u tranh lu di, qua mt lot qu trnh lch s, bin i hon cnh v con ngi. H khng c cc l tng thc hin, m gii phng cc yu t ca mt x

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hi mi c thai nghn trong bn thn x hi t sn c ang sp . C vi on ni Marx biu l s thiu k hoch lch s ch ngha ni bt hn. H s phi tri qua cc cuc u tranh lu di .., Marx ni. Song nu h khng c k hoch thc hin, khng c cc l tng thc hin, nh Marx ni, th h u tranh v ci g? H khng k vng cc php mu, Marx ni; cn bn thn ng k vng cc php mu khi tin l cuc u tranh lch s tin mt cch khng th cng ni n cc hnh thc cao hn ca i sng x hi. (So cc ct. 4 v 13 ch. ny). mc no Marx c bin h v ng t chi lao vo k thut x hi. T chc cng nhn r rng l nhim v thc tin quan trng nht ca thi ng. Nu mt li bo cha kh nghi nh thi gian cha chn mui c th tng c dng mt cch cng bng, n phi c dng cho s t chi ca Marx i hc i cc vn v k thut x hi th ch duy l. (iu ny c minh ho bi tnh tr con ca cc kin ngh Khng tng cho n v bao gm Bellamy, chng hn). Song ng tic l ng ng h trc gic chnh tr lnh mnh ny bng mt tn cng l lun ln cng ngh x hi. iu ny tr thnh mt s bo cha cho cc mn gio iu ca ng tip tc theo cng thi khi m s vt i thay, v cng ngh tr nn quan trng hn v chnh tr so vi ngay c vic t chc cng nhn. 22 Cc lnh t Marxist din gii cc s kin nh s thng trm bin chng ca lch s. Nh th h hnh ng nh nhng ngi dn khch, qua cc ni i (v thung lng) ca lch s hn l nh cc lnh t chnh tr hnh ng. Ngh thut ng ng ny v din gii cc s kin kinh khng ca lch s thay cho chin u vi chng b thi s K. Kraus (c ni n ct. 4 ch. ny) vch mt mt cch sinh ng. CH THCH CHO CHNG 19 So Capital, 846 = H.o.M, 403. on l t Marx-Engels, Tuyn Ngn C.S. (So H.o.M., 31 = GA, Ser. I. vol. vi, 533). 3 So Capital, 547 = H.o.M., 560 (ni n c Lenin trch dn). C th a ra mt nhn xt v t tp trung t bn (m ti dch vn bn l tp trung vn vo tay t ngi). ln xut bn th ba ca Capital (Capital, 689 ff.) Marx a ra cc phn bit sau: (a) bng tch t t bn ng mun ni s tng ln n thun v tng lng t liu sn xut, th d, bn trong mt lnh vc no ; (b) bng tp trung [concentration] t bn ng mun ni (so 689/690) s tng bnh thng ca vn trong tay cc c nhn nh t bn khc nhau, mt s tng trng ny sinh t xu hng chung n tch t v cho h quyn iu khin s cng nhn ngy cng tng. (c) bng tp trung ho [centralization] ng mun ni (so 691) loi tng trng t bn do s tc ot mt s nh t bn bi cc nh t bn khc (mt nh t bn h gc nhiu ng bn ca ng ta). Trong ln xut bn th hai, Marx vn cha phn bit gia tp trung v tp trung ho; ng dng t tp trung theo c hai ngha (b) v (c). cho thy s khc bit, ta c ln xut bn th ba (Capital, 691): y ta c tp trung ho tht, khc vi tch t v tp trung. Trong ln xut bn th hai, ta c ch ny: y ta c tp trung tht, khc vi tch t. S sa i, tuy vy, khng c thc hin sut cun sch, m ch vi on (c bit pp. 690-3, v 846). Trong on c trch y trong vn bn, hnh vn vn gi nh ln xut bn th hai. on (p. 846) c trch trong vn bn cho ct. 15 ch. ny, Marx thay tp trung bng tp trung ho. 4 So Marx, Eighteenth Brumaire (H.o.M., 123; ti nhn mnh = Karl Marx, Der Achtzehnte Brumaire des Louis Bonaparte, Verlag fuer Literatur und Politik. Wien2 1

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Berlin 1927, 28-28): Cng ho t sn thng. ng v pha n c gii qu tc ti chnh, t sn cng nghip, tng lp trung lu, tiu t sn, qun i, v sn lu manh, c t chc nh i qun Di ng, tr thc, gii tng l, v dn c nng thn. V pha giai cp v sn Paris chng c ai ngoi bn thn giai cp v sn. Pht biu cc k u tr ca Marx v ngi sn xut nng thn, so c ct. 43 ch. 20. 5 So vn bn cho ct. 11 ch. 18. 6 So trch dn ct. 4 ch. ny, c bit dn chiu n giai cp trung lu v tr thc. V giai cp v sn lu manh, so cng ch v Capital, 711 f. (T c dch nh giai cp v sn n mc rch ri). 7 V ngha ca thc giai cp theo ngha ca Marx, xem cui mc I ch. 16. Ngoi din tin kh d ca mt tinh thn ch bi, nh c ni ti vn bn, c cc th khc c th lm xi mn thc giai cp cng nhn, v c th dn n chia r giai cp lao ng. Th d, Lenin ni l ch ngha quc c th chia r cng nhn bng biu h mt phn chin li phm; ng vit (H.o.M., 707 = V. I. Lenin, L.L.L., Imperialism, the Highest State of Capitalism, vol. xv, 96; so c ct. 40 ch. 20): .. Anh, xu hng ca ch ngha quc chia r cng nhn, cng c cc k c hi gia h, v gy sa st tm thi trong phong tro giai cp lao ng, bc l sm hn cui th k mi chn v u th k hai mi nhiu. H. B. Parkes ni ng trong phn tch xut sc ca ng, Marxism A Post Mortem (1940; cng c xut bn di nhan Marxism An Autopsy), rng hon ton c th l cc nghip ch v cng nhn c th cng nhau bc lt ngi tiu dng; trong mt ngnh c quyn hay c bo v, h c th chia nhau chin li phm. Kh nng ny cho thy Marx phng i s i khng gia li ch ca cc cng nhn v nghip ch. V cui cng c th k n rng xu hng ca hu ht cc chnh ph tip tc theo ng t khng c nht, c th dn n kt qu sau. V cc cng nhn v nghip ch l cc nhm c t chc tt nht v mnh nht v mt chnh tr trong cng ng, mt chnh ph hin i c th d c xu hng tho mn c hai lm hi n ngi tiu dng. V n c th lm th m khng c mt lng tm ti li; v n s thuyt phc mnh rng n lm tt bng thit lp ho bnh gia cc bn i khng nht trong cng ng. 8 So vn bn cho cc ct. 17 v 18 ch. ny. 9 Mt s nh Marxist thm ch dm khng nh l mt cuc cch mng x hi bo lc ko theo t au kh hn nhiu so vi ci xu kinh nin vn c trong ci h gi l ch ngha t bn. (So L. Laurat, Marxism and Democracy, do E. Fitzgerald dch, 1940, p. 38, n. 2; Laurat ph phn Sidney Hook, Towards an Understanding of Marx, v gi cc quan im nh vy). Tuy vy, cc nh Marxist ny khng tit l c s khoa hc ca s nh gi ny; hay ni thng ra, ca mn gi v li sm hon ton v trch nhim ny. 10 Engels ni v Marx, nh li Hegel ca ng, Phi d hiu m khng c bnh lun thm no rng nu cc s vt v cc mi quan h qua li ca chng c coi l kh bin thay cho l c nh, th cc hnh nh tinh thn ca chng, cc khi nim ca chng, cng l thuc vo s thay i v bin i; rng ngi ta khng c p chng vo cc chung chim nh ngha cng nhc; m, tu theo tnh hnh, x l chng theo tnh cht lch s hay logic ca qu trnh m theo chng c hnh thnh. (So Li ni u ca Engels cho Das Kapital, III/1, p. xvi). 11 Khng tng ng chnh xc v nhng ngi cng sn i khi theo l lun n ho hn, c bit cc nc ni l lun ny khng c cc nh Dn ch X hi trnh by. So, th d, vn bn cho ct. 26 ch. ny.

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So cc ct. 4 v 5 ch. 17, v vn bn; cng nh ct. 14 ch. ny; v tng phn vi cc ct. 17 v 18 ch. ny, v vn bn. 13 Tt nhin, c cc lp trng ng gia hai lp trng ny; v cng c cc lp trng Marxist n ho hn: c bit ci gi l ch ngha xt li ca A. Bernstein. Lp trng sau, thc ra, t b ch ngha Marx hon ton; n khng l g ngoi ch trng mt phong tro cng nhn dn ch v bt bo ng nghim ngt. 14 Din bin ny ca Marx, tt nhin, l mt din gii, v khng phi rt thuyt phc; thc ra Marx khng rt nht qun, v ng dng t cch mng, v lc, bo lc, v.v. vi mt s m h c h thng. Lp trng ny c p ln ng mt phn bi s thc l lch s trong sut i ng khng din tin theo d kin ca ng. N tun theo l thuyt Marxist chng mc n biu l cc k r rt mt xu hng ri xa ci Marx gi l ch ngha t bn, tc l ri xa s khng-can thip. Marx thng xuyn ni n xu hng ny vi s tho mn, th d, trong Li ni u ca ng cho ln xut bn Capital u tin. (So trch dn ct. 16 ch. ny; xem c vn bn). Mt khc, cng xu hng ny (n ch ngha can thip) dn n s ci thin s phn ca cng nhn tri vi l thuyt ca Marx; v v th lm gim kh nng ca mt cuc cch mng. Cc din gii do d v m h ca Marx v gio hun ca chnh ng c l l kt qu ca tnh hnh ny. minh ho im ny, c th trch hai on, mt t mt tc phm sm v mt t mt tc phm mun ca Marx. on sm l t Gi Lin on Cng sn (1850; so H.o.M., pp. 60 ff. =Labour Monthly, Sept. 1922, 136 ff.). on l l th v n thit thc. Marx gi s cng nhn cng nhng ngi dn ch t sn cng nhau thng cuc chin chng ch ngha phong kin v thit lp mt ch dn ch. Marx nht quyt rng sau khi t iu ny, li h xung trn ca cng nhn phi l Cch mng thng trc! iu ny c ngha l g c gii thch k ( p. 66): H phi hnh ng sao cho s sc si cch mng khng tt ngay sau thng li. Ngc li, h phi duy tr n cng lu cng tt. Cn xa mi chng ci gi l thi qu, nh t b s tr th ca nhn dn i vi nhng k v cc cng s b cm ght, gn vi cc k c th hn, cc hnh ng nh vy khng ch c tha th, m phi nm ly s iu khin chng, lm gng. (So c ct. 35 (1) ch. ny, v ct. 44 ch. 20). Mt on n ho tng phn vi on trc c th chn t Gi Quc t Cng sn th Nht (Amsterdam, 1872; so L. Laurat, op. cit., p. 36): Chng ta khng ph nhn rng c cc nc, nh Hoa K v Vng quc Anh - nu ti bit cc th ch ca cc bn k hn, c l ti phi k thm Holland ni cng nhn s c kh nng t cc mc tiu ca h bng cc phng tin ho bnh. Song iu ny khng phi th mi nc. V cc quan im n ho hn ny, so c vn bn cho cc ct. 16-18 ch. ny. Song ton b s ln ln c th thy ngn gn sm nh tm tt cui cng ca Tuyn ngn ni ta thy hai tuyn b mu thun sau y, ch cch nhau mt cu: (1) Tm li, nhng ngi Cng sn ng h mi ni mi phong tro cch mng chng li trt t x hi v chnh tr hin hnh. (Vic ny phi bao gm nc Anh, chng hn). (2) Cui cng, h n lc mi ni v s thng nht v ho hp ca cc ng dn ch ca mi nc. lm cho s ln ln hon ton, cu tip l nh sau: Nhng ngi cng sn khng thm giu gim cc quan im v mc tiu ca h. H tuyn b cng khai rng mc ch ca h c th t c ch bi lt bng v lc mi iu kin x hi hin hnh. (Cc iu kin dn ch khng c loi tr). 15 So Capital, 846 = H.o.M., 403 f. (V t tp trung ho, thay ln xut bn th ba cho t tp trung ca ln hai, so ct. 3 ch. ny. V vic dch ci o chong t bn ch ngha ca chng tr nn ct chi, tri buc, c th lu rng mt cch dch theo ngha

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en hn c th l: chng tr nn khng tng thch vi ci o chong t bn ch ngha ca chng; hay thong hn mt cht: ci o chong t bn ch ngha ca chng tr nn khng th chu ni). on ny b php bin chng Hegelian nh hng mnh, nh on tip sau n cho thy. (Hegel i khi gi phn ca mt chnh l s ph nh ca n, v hp l ph nh ca ph nh). Phng php chim hu t bn ch ngha, Marx vit, .. l s ph nh u tin ca s hu t nhn c th da trn lao ng c th. Nhng vi tnh khng th lay chuyn ni ca mt qui lut t nhin, sn xut t bn ch ngha gy ra s ph nh ca chnh n. l ph nh ca ph nh. S ph nh th hai ny .. thit lp .. s hu chung v t ai v t liu sn xut. (V s dn xut bin chng chi tit hn ca ch ngha x hi, so ct. 5 ch. 18). 16 y l thi ca Marx trong Li ni u ca ng cho ln xut bn u tin ca Capital (Capital, 865), ni ng ni: Tuy nhin, tin b l khng th ph nhn c .. Cc i din nc ngoi ca vua Anh .. cho chng ta bit .. rng cc nc pht trin hn lc a Chu u, mt s thay i v cc quan h gia t bn v lao ng ng cng hin nhin v khng th trnh khi nh nc Anh. .. Mr. Wade, Ph Tng thng ca Hp chng Quc Bc M .. tuyn b cc cuc mt ting cng khai rng, sau khi xo b tnh trng n l, mt s thay i trit v cc iu kin ca t bn v s hu rung t s l chng trnh ngh s tip theo! (So c ct. 14 ch. ny). 17 So Li ni u ca Engels, ln xut bn ting Anh u tin ca Capital. (Capital, 887). on c trch y hn ct. 9 ca ch. 17. 18 So th ca Marx cho Hyndman, ngy 8-12-1880; xem H. H. Hydman, The Record of an Adventurous Life (1911), p. 283. So c L. Laurat, op. cit., 239. on c th c trch y y hn: Nu ng ni rng ng khng chia s quan im ca ng ti v nc Anh ti ch c th tr li ng rng ng coi mt cuc cch mng Anh l khng tt yu, song theo cc tin l lch s - l c th. Nu s tin ho khng th trnh khi bin thnh mt cuc cch mng, n khng ch l li ca cc giai cp cai tr, m cng l ca giai cp lao ng. (Lu s m h ca lp trng). 19 H. B. Parkes, Marxism A Post Mortem, p. 101 (so c pp. 106 ff.), biu l mt quan im tng t; ng khng nh nim tin Marxist rng ch ngha t bn khng th c ci cch m ch c th b tiu dit l mt trong nhng gio l ca l lun Marxist v tch t. Chp nhn mt l lun khc no , ng ni, .. v vn c th cho ch ngha t bn c bin i bng cc phng php t t. 20 So cui Tuyn ngn (H.o.M., 59 = GA, Ser. I, vol. vi, 557): Nhng ngi v sn chng c g mt tr xing xch ca h. H c c th gii. 21 So Tuyn ngn (H.o.M., 45 = GA, Ser. I, vol. vi, 545); on c trch y hn vn bn cho ct. 35 ch. ny. Trch dn cui on vn ny l t Tuyn ngn, H.o.M., 35 (= GA, Ser. I, vol. vi, 536). So c ct. 35 ch. ny. 22 Song ci cch x hi him khi c thc hin di p lc ca nhng ngi au kh; cc phong tro tn gio ti k c cc nh V li v cc c nhn (nh Dickens) c th nh hng mnh n cng lun. V Henry Ford pht hin ra l tng lng c th c li cho ngi ch, gy kinh ngc cho tt c cc nh Marxist v nhiu nh t bn. 23 So cc ct. 18 v 21 ch. 18. 24 So H.o.M., 37 (= GA, Series I, vol. vi, 538). 25 So The State and Revolution, H.o.M., 756 (= State and Revolution, 77). on trch y l: Dn ch l rt quan trng cho giai cp lao ng trong cuc u tranh v quyn t do chng li cc nh t bn. Song dn ch khng h l mt gii hn

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m ngi ta c th khng bc qua; n ch l mt trong cc giai on ca tin trnh pht trin t ch ngha phong kin sang ch ngha t bn, v t sang ch ngha Cng sn. Lenin nht quyt rng dn ch c ngha ch l bnh ng hnh thc, So c H.o.M., 834 (= V. I. Lenin, Cch mng V sn v K Phn bi Kautsky. L.L.L., vol. xviii, 34), Lenin dng l l Hegelian ny v bnh ng hnh thc n thun chng Kautsky: .. hn chp nhn bnh ng hnh thc m di ch ngha t bn ch l s la gt v mt mn o c gi gi tr b mt ca n nh mt s bnh ng de facto [trn thc t] .. 26 So Parkes, Marxism - A Post Mortem, p. 219. 27 Mt nc i chin thut nh vy l ph hp vi Tuyn ngn tuyn b rng nhng ngi Cng sn n lc mi ni v s thng nht v ho hp ca cc ng dn ch ca mi nc, nhng n ng thi cng tuyn b mc ch ca h c th t c ch bi lt bng v lc mi iu kin x hi hin hnh, bao gm c cc iu kin dn ch. Song nc i chin thut nh vy ph hp vi cng lnh 1928; v n ni (H.o.M., 1036; ti nhn mnh = The Programme of Communist International, Modern Books Ltd., London 1932, 61): Trong xc nh ng li chin thut mi ng Cng sn phi tnh n tnh hnh bn trong v bn ngoi c th ng xc nh cc khu hiu .. vi nh t chc .. qun chng trn phm vi rng nht c th. Song iu ny khng th t c m khng s dng y s mp m c h thng ca t cch mng. 28 So H.o.M., 59 v 1042 (= GA, Ser. I, vol. vi, 557, v Programme of Communist International, 65); v cui ct. 14 ch. ny. (Xem c ct. 37). 29 y khng l trch dn m l mt din gii. So, th d, on Li ni u ca Engels cho Capital bn ting Anh c trch ct. 9 ch. 17. Xem c L. Laurat, op. cit., p. 240. 30 on u c L. Laurat, loc. cit. trch; v on hai, so H.o.M., 93 = (K. Marx, The Class Struggle in France 1848-1850. Introduction by Engels. Co-operative Publishing Society of Foreign Workers in the U.S.S.R., Moscow 1934, 29). Ti nhn mnh. 31 Engels thc c mt phn l ng buc phi i hng v Lch s chng t chng ta sai, v tt c nhng ngi ngh nh chng ta, nh ng ni (H.o.M., 79 = K. Marx, Die Klassenkampfe in Frankreich, Vorwaerts, Berlin, 1890, 8). Song ng thc c ch yu v mt sai lm: ng v Marx nh gi qu cao tc pht trin. Rng s pht trin, thc ra, i theo hng khc, ng khng bao gi tha nhn, mc d ng than phin v n; so vn bn cho cc ct. 38-9 ch. 20, ni ti trch li than phin ngc i ca Engels rng giai cp lao ng thc s ngy cng tr thnh t sn hn. 32 So cc ct. 4 v 6 ch. 7. 33 Chng c th tip tc c v cc l do khc na; th d, bi v quyn lc ca bo cha ph thuc vo s ng h ca mt b phn no ca nhng ngi b tr. Nhng iu ny khng c ngha rng ch chuyn ch phi thc t l mt s cai tr giai cp, nh cc nh Marxist c th ni. V cho d bo cha c buc phi mua chuc mt b phn no ca dn c, cho h cc c quyn kinh t hay c quyn khc, iu ny khng c ngha l hn ta b b phn ny p buc, hay rng b phn ny c quyn lc i v thc thi cc c quyn ny nh quyn ca h. Nu khng c cc th ch hin hnh cho php b phn thc thi nh hng ca n, th bo cha c th rt li cc li ch m b phn ny c hng v tm s ng h t cc b phn khc. 34 So H.o.M., 171 (= K. Marx, Civil War in France, Intr. by Engels. Martin Lawrence, London 1933, 19). (Xem c H.o.M., 833 = The Proletarian Revolution, 33-34). 35 So H.o.M., 45 (= GA, Ser. I, vol. vi, 545). Xem c ct. 21 ch. ny. So thm on sau t Tuyn ngn (H.o.M., 37 =GA, Ser. I, vol. 538): Mc tiu trc mt ca nhng ngi Cng sn l .. chim quyn lc chnh tr bi giai cp v sn.

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(1) Li khuyn chin thut hn dn n tht bi ca cuc chin u ca dn ch c Marx nu chi tit Gi Lin on Cng sn ca ng. (H.o.M., 67 = Labour Monthly, Sept. 1922, 143; so c ct. 14 ch. ny v ct. 44 ch. 20). Marx gii thch, sau khi t dn ch, thi phi ly i vi ng dn ch m, theo Tuyn ngn, nhng ngi cng sn phi thit lp s thng nht v ho hp. Marx ni: Tm li, t pht u ca thng li, khng cn phi hng s ng vc ca chng ta chng li k th phn ng b nh bi, m chng li cc ng minh trc kia ca chng ta (tc l cc nh dn ch). Marx i vic v trang ton b giai cp v sn bng sng trng, sng, v n dc phi c tin hnh ngay v cng nhn phi c t chc thnh mt i qun c lp, vi cc ch huy v b tham mu ring ca mnh. Mc tiu l Chnh ph dn ch t sn khng ch mt ngay mi s ng h ca cng nhn, m ngay t u thy mnh di s gim st v e do ca uy quyn c ton b giai cp lao ng ng ng sau. R rng, chnh sch ny nht nh ph tan nn dn ch. N nht thit khin Chnh ph quay ra chng cng nhn khng sn sng tun theo lut, m th chi phi bng cc li e do. Marx c th li cho mu m ca ng bng li tin tri (H.o.M., 68 v 67 = Labour Monthly, Sept. 1922, 143): Ngay khi Chnh ph mi c thit lp h s bt u nh cng nhn, v ng ni: cho chnh ph ny (tc chnh ph dn ch) vi s phn bi cc cng nhn ca n, t gi u ca chin thng, s bt u phi nn ch trong cng vic bt chnh ca n, cn t chc v v trang giai cp v sn. Ti ngh cc chin thut ca ng s to ra chnh xc kt qu bt chnh m ng tin tri. Chng s lm cho li tin tri lch s ca ng tr thnh ng. Tht vy, nu gi nh cc cng nhn lm theo cch ny, mi ngi dn ch theo ngha ca ng s buc phi (cho d, v c bit nu, anh ta mun thc y s nghip ca nhng ngi b p bc) gia nhp ci Marx m t nh s phn bi cc cng nhn, v chin u chng li nhng k mun ph tan cc th ch dn ch bo v c nhn khi lng nhn t ca cc bo cha hay cc Nh c Ti V i. Ti c th ni thm rng cc on c trch l pht biu tng i sm ca Marx v kin chn mui hn ca ng c l hi khc v d sao i na m h hn. Nhng iu ny khng lm gim s thc l cc on sm hn ny c nh hng lu di, v h thng hnh ng da vo chng, lm hi tt c nhng ngi lin quan. (2) Lin quan n im (b) trong vn bn trn, c th trch mt on t Lenin (H.o.M., 744 = The Proletarian Revolution, 30): .. giai cp lao ng nhn thc hon ton r, rng cc ngh vin t sn l cc th ch xa l vi h, rng chng l cc cng c p bc giai cp v sn bi giai cp t sn, rng chng l cc nh ch ca giai cp th ch, ca thiu s bc lt. R rng l cc cu chuyn ny khng khuyn khch cng nhn i bo v nn dn ch ngh vin chng li cuc tn cng ca bn pht xt. 36 So Lenin, State and Revolution, 68 (= H.o.M.,744): Dn ch .. cho k giu, l dn ch ca x hi t bn .. Marx hiu thu bn cht ca dn ch t sn mt cch ti ba khi .. ng ni rng ngi b p bc, vi nm mt ln, c php quyt nh cc i din c bit no ca giai cp p bc s .. p bc h!. Xem c cc ct. 1 v 2 ch. 17. 37 Lenin vit Left-Wing Communism, An Infantile Disorder, L.L.L. vol. xvi, 72-73 (= H.o.M., 884 f.; ti nhn mnh): .. mi s ch phi tp trung vo bc tip .. v tm ra cc hnh thc qu hay tip cn n cch mng v sn. i tin phong v sn c thuyt phc v thc h .. Song t bc u tin ny con ng n thng li vn cn di cho ton b giai cp .. c th ly mt quan im nh vy, ring tuyn truyn v c ng l khng . Qun chng phi c kinh nghim chnh tr ca ring mnh. Qui lut c bn ca mi cuc cch mng ln l nh vy ..: cn .. thng qua kinh nghim au n ca chnh h nhn ra .. tnh tuyt i khng th trnh c ca mt

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nn c ti ca bn phn ng cc .. nh la chn duy nht cho mt nn c ti ca giai cp v sn, nhm hng h mt cch kin quyt v hng ch ngha cng sn. 38 Nh mong i, mi ng Marxist c li tht bi cho ng khc; ng ny li cho ng kia v chnh sch tai ho ca n, v n lt b ng kia li v duy tr nim tin ca cng nhn vo kh nng chin thng cuc chin dn ch. Hi ma mai l bn thn Marx cho mt m t xut sc khp rt chi tit vi phng php li cho hon cnh ny, v c bit cho ng cnh tranh, v tht bi ca n. (M t ny, tt nhin, Marx nhm chng nhm cnh t tranh ua ca thi ng). Marx vit (H.o.M., 130; nhn mnh cui l do ti = V. I. Lenin, The Teachings of Karl Marx, L.L.L. vo. i, 55): H khng cn xt cc ngun lc ring ca h qu trm trng. H ch cn cho tn hiu, v nhn dn, vi tt c ngun lc v tn ca n, s tn cng cc k p bc. Nu, trong s kin thc, sc mnh .. ca h t ra l hon ton bt lc, th li l hoc cc nh ngu bin c hi (c l l ng khc) chia r nhn dn on kt thnh cc phe th ch, hoc ..ton b s vic b mt chi tit v thc hin lm tan v, hoc, hin thi, mt tai nn khng lng trc lm hng cuc chi. Trong bt c tnh hung no ngi dn ch (hay phn-dn ch) trong trng ra khi tht bi nhc nht, ht nh anh ta ngy th bc vo n, vi mt nim tin chc mi c c rng anh ta l ngi c nh sn chin thng; c anh ta ln ng anh ta khng cn phi t b lp trng c ca mnh, m, ngc li, cc iu kin phi chn mui, chuyn theo hng ca anh ta .. 39 Ti ni cnh cp tin, v din gii lch s ch ngha ny v ch ngha pht xt nh mt giai on khng trnh khi trong s pht trin khng th lay chuyn ni, c cc nhm xt xa i ng ca nhng ngi Cng sn tin v bo v. Ngay c mt s lnh t cng nhn thnh Vin nhng ngi ngh mt cuc khng chin anh dng nhng mun mng v c t chc ti chng ch ngha pht xt vn tin mt cch trung thc rng ch ngha pht xt l mt bc cn thit trong s pht trin lch s n ch ngha x hi. Nhiu nh h cm ght n, h cm thy buc phi coi ngay c ch ngha pht xt nh mt bc tin, a nhn dn au kh n gn mc ch cui cng. 40 So on c trch ct. 37 ch. ny. CH THCH CHO CHNG 20 Ch bn dch ting Anh y ca ba tp ca Capital gn 2.500 trang. Cn phi k thm ba tp c xut bn bng ting c di nhan Cc L thuyt v Gi tr Thng d; chng cha cc t liu, phn ln lch s, m Marx nh dng trong Capital. 2 So s i lp gia mt ch ngha t bn v vi ch ngha can thip c a ra ch. 16 v 17. (Xem cc ct. 16 ch. 16, 22 ch. 17, v 9 ch. 18, v vn bn. V tuyn b ca Lenin, so H.o.M., 561 (= The Teachings of Karl Marx, 29, ti nhn mnh). L th l c Lenin ln hu ht cc nh Marxist c v khng nhn ra rng x hi bin i t thi Marx. Lenin ni nm 1914 v x hi ng thi c nh l x hi ng thi ca Marx cng nh ca ng. Song Tuyn ngn c xut bn nm 1848. 3 V mi trch dn on vn ny, so Capital, 691. 4 So cc nhn xt v cc t ny ct. 3 ch. 19. 5 Tt hn bi v tinh thn ch bi, c th gy nguy him cho thc giai cp (nh c ni ti vn bn cho ct. 7 ch. 19), chc s t c kh nng pht trin. 6 So Capital, 697 ff. 7 Hai trch dn l t Capital, 698 v 706. T c dch l na-phn vinh c th l, theo cch dch theo ngha en hn, phn vinh trung bnh. Ti dch l sn xut qu
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mc excessive production thay cho sn xut tha over-production v Marx khng c ni sn xut tha theo ngha sn xut nhiu hn mc c th bn by gi, m theo ngha sn xut nhiu n mc s kh khn v bn n s mau chng bc l ra. 8 Nh Parkes din t; so ct. 19 ch. 19. 9 Tt nhin, l thuyt lao ng v gi tr l rt c xa. Tho lun ca ti v l thuyt gi tr, phi nh li, ch hn ch ci gi l l thuyt gi tr khch quan; ti khng c nh ph phn l thuyt gi tr ch quan (c l c th m t tt hn nh l thuyt v nh gi ch quan, hay v hnh ng chn la; so ct. 14 ch. 14). J. Viner vui lng ch ra cho ti rng mi quan h duy nht gia l thuyt gi tr ca Marx v l thuyt ca Ricardo ny sinh t s hiu lm ca Marx v Ricardo, v rng Ricardo chng bao gi cho rng, mt i ly mt, lao ng c bt c sc sng to no hn t bn. 10 i vi ti c v chc chn l Marx khng bao gi nghi ng rng cc gi tr ca ng theo cch no tng ng vi cc gi th trng. Gi tr ca mt mt hng, ng dy, bng vi gi ca hng ho khc nu s gi lao ng trung bnh cn sn xut ra chng l nh nhau. Nu mt trong hai hng ho l vng, th trng lng ca n c th c coi nh gi ca hng ho kia, tnh bng vng; v v tin (theo lut) da vo vng, nh th ta i n gi bng tin ca mt hng ho. Cc t l trao i thc trn th trng, Marx dy (xem c bit ch thch 1 quan trng p. 153 ca Capital), s dao ng quanh gi tr t l; v do , gi th trng bng tin s cng dao ng quanh gi tr t l tng ng vi vng ca hng ho c ni n. Nu ln ca gi tr c chuyn thnh gi, Marx ni hi vng v, th quan h .. ny c dng ca mt .. t l trao i i vi hng ho hot ng vi t cch l tin (tc l vng). Nh th t l trao i t biu l, tuy vy, khng ch ln ca gi tr hng ho, m c cc thng trm ln xung, nhiu hn hay t hn, m v chng hon cnh c bit chu trch nhim; ni cch khc, cc gi c th ln xung. Kh nng .. v mt s lch ca gi khi .. gi tr v th l vn c trong dng gi. y khng phi l mt thiu st; ngc li, n cho thy rng dng gi l hon ton thch hp cho mt phng php sn xut trong cc tnh u n c th t th hin ch nh cc trung bnh ca cc tnh khng u. C v r i vi ti l cc tnh u n m Marx ni n y l cc gi tr, v ng tin rng cc gi tr th hin mnh (hay khng nh mnh) ch nh cc trung bnh ca cc gi th trng tht s, chng v th dao ng quanh gi tr. L do v sao ti nhn mnh iu ny l i khi n b ph nhn. G. D. H. Cole, th d, vit Dn nhp ca ng (Capital, xxv; ti nhn mnh): Marx .. thng ni c nh cc hng ho, tip theo cc dao ng th trng tm thi, tht s c mt xu hng trao i cc gi tr ca chng. Song ng ni dt khot ( p. 79) rng ng khng c ni iu ny; v tp ba ca Capital ng .. lm cho s khc nhau khng th trnh khi gia cc gi v cc gi tr ht sc r rng. Nhng tuy ng l Marx khng coi cc dao ng nh ch tm thi, ng c cho rng cc hng ho c mt xu hng, tu thuc vo dao ng th trng, trao i gi tr ca chng; v nh ta thy on c trch y, v c Cole nhc n, Marx khng ni v bt c s khc nhau no gia gi tr v gi, m ch m t cc dao ng v cc trung bnh. Lp trng l hi khc tp ba ca Capital, ni (Ch. IX) v tr ca gi tr ca mt hng ho c thay bng mt phm tr mi, gi sn xut, bng tng ca chi ph sn xut ca n cng vi sut trung bnh ca gi tr thng d. Nhng ngay c y vn l c trng ca t duy Marx rng phm tr mi ny, gi sn xut. quan h vi gi th trng tht ch nh mt loi iu chnh ca cc trung bnh. N khng xc nh gi th trng mt cch trc tip, m n biu hin mnh (ht nh gi tr lm tp mt) nh mt trung bnh quanh cc gi

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tht dao ng hay ln xung. iu ny c th c chng t vi s gip ca on sau y (Das Kapital, III/2, p. 396 f.): Cc gi th trng ln trn v xung di cc gi sn xut iu chnh ny, nhng cc dao ng ny b tr ln nhau Cng nguyn l v cc trung bnh iu chnh chi phi y nh c Qutelet thit lp cho cc hin tng x hi ni chung. Tng t, Marx ni (p. 399) v gi iu chnh .., tc gi m quanh cc gi th trng dao ng; v trang tip, ni ng ni v nh hng ca cnh tranh, ng ni l ng quan tm n gi t nhin .., tc l gi .. khng b iu chnh bi cnh tranh, m iu chnh n. (Ti nhn mnh). Ngoi s thc l gi t nhin r rng ng l Marx hi vng tm bn cht ca ci m cc gi th trng dao ng l cc hnh thc b ngoi (so c ct. 23 ch. ny), ta thy rng Marx bm mt cch nht qun vo quan im rng bn cht ny, bt lun l gi tr hay gi sn xut, th hin mnh nh trung bnh ca cc gi th trng. Xem c Das Kapital, III/1, 171 f. 11 Cole, op. cit., xxix, ni trong trnh by mt khc cc k sng sa ca mnh v l thuyt Gi tr Thng d ca Marx rng n l ng gp ring bit ca ng cho hc thuyt kinh t. Nhng Engels, trong Li ni u ca ng cho tp hai ca Capital, cho thy rng l thuyt ny khng phi ca Marx, rng Marx khng ch khng bao gi i l ca ng, m cng cp n lch s ca n (trong Cc L thuyt v Gi tr Thng d; so ct. 1 ch. ny). Engels trch t bn tho ca Marx nhm chng t l Marx cp n ng gp ca Adam Smith v ca Ricardo cho l thuyt v trch chi tit t cun sch mng, The Source and Remedy of the National Difficulties, c ni n Capital, 646, nhm chng t rng cc tng chnh ca hc thuyt, ngoi s phn bit Marxian gia lao ng v sc lao ng, c th thy . (So Das Kapital, II, xii-xv). 12 Phn u c Marx (so Capital, 213 f.) gi l thi gian lao ng cn thit, phn hai l thi gian lao ng thng d. 13 So Li ni u ca Engels cho tp hai Capital. (Das Kapital, II, xxi, f.) 14 Vic Marx dn ra hc thuyt gi tr thng d tt nhin gn cht vi ph phn ca ng v quyn t do hnh thc, cng l hnh thc,v.v. So c bit cc ct. 17 v 19 ch. 17, v vn bn. So c vn bn cho ct. tip. 15 So Capital, 845. Xem c cc on c nhc ti ct. trc. 16 So vn bn cho ct. 18 (v ct. 10) ch. ny. 17 Xem c bit ch. X ca tp ba Capital. 18 V trch dn ny, so Capital, 706. K t cc t nh th dn c d tha, on tip theo ngay sau on c trch vn bn cho ct. 7 ch. ny. (Ti b t tng i trc dn c d tha, v n khng lin quan n ng cnh hin thi, v c l gy nhm ln. C v nh c mt li in trong ln xut bn Everyman: overproduction thay cho surplus population dn c d tha). Trch dn l l th trong quan h vi vn v cung v cu, v vi gio hun ca Marx rng nhng ci ny phi c mt c s (hay bn cht); so cc ct. 10 v 20 ch. ny. 19 C th nhc n trong mi quan h ny rng cc hin tng c ni n - cnh ngho kh trong mt thi k cng nghip ho bnh trng nhanh (hay ch ngha t bn ban u; so ct. 36 di y, v vn bn) mi y c gii thch bi mt gi thuyt m, nu n c th ng vng, s chng t rng c rt nhiu trong l thuyt ca Marx v bc lt. Ti ngh n mt l thuyt da trn hc thuyt ca Walter Euken v hai h thng tin t thun tu (vng v h thng tn dng), v phng php ca ng v phn tch cc h thng kinh t khc nhau cho trc v mt lch s nh cc hn hp ca cc h thng thun tu. p dng phng php ny, Leonhard Miksch mi y ch ra (trong bi Die Geldordnung der Zukunft, Zeitschrift fr das Gesamte Kreditwesen, 1949) rng h

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thng tn dng dn n cc khon u t bt buc, tc l ngi tiu dng buc phi tit kim, phi king; nhng vn [t bn] c tit kim bng con ng ca cc khon u t bt buc ny, Miksch vit, khng thuc v nhng ngi buc phi king tiu dng, m thuc v cc nghip ch [entrepreneur, ngi khi nghip, nh kinh doanh]. Nu l thuyt ny t ra c th chp nhn c, th phn tch ca Marx (song khng phi cc qui lut cng chng phi cc li tin tri ca ng) s c xc nhn mc ng k. V ch c s khc bit nh gia gi tr thng d ca Marx m, cng bng ra, thuc v cng nhn song b nh t bn chim ot hay tc ot, v cc khon tit kim bt buc ca Miksch tr thnh ti sn khng ca ngi tiu dng buc phi tit kim, m ca nh kinh doanh. Bn thn Miksch m ch rng cc kt qu ny gii thch nhiu v s pht trin kinh t th k mi chn (v v s ni ln ca ch ngha x hi). Phi lu rng phn tch ca Miksch gii thch cc s thc quan trng dng nhng khng hon ho trong mt h thng cnh tranh (ng ni n c quyn kinh t v to tin l ci c quyn lc l lng) cn Marx th gii thch cc s thc tng ng vi s gip ca gi thit v mt th trng t do, tc l v cnh tranh [hon ho]. (V li, ngi tiu dng v cng nhn cng nghip, tt nhin, khng th c ng nht hon ton). Nhng bt lun gii thch l g, cc s thc - c Miksch m t nh phnx hi khng th chu c - vn cn; v l cng lao ca Marx, c vic ng khng chp nhn cc s thc ny, ln ng ht sc c gng gii thch chng. 20 So ct. 10 ch. ny, c bit on v gi t nhin (c ct. 18 v vn bn); l th l tp ba ca Capital, khng xa cc on c trch ct. 10 ch. ny (xem Das Kapital, III/2, 352; ti nhn mnh), v trong ng cnh tng t, Marx a ra nhn xt phng php lun sau: Mi khoa hc s l tha nu cc hnh thc b ngoi ca cc s vt trng vi cc bn cht ca chng. y, tt nhin, l bn cht lun thun tu. Rng bn cht lun ny tip gip vi siu hnh hc c cho thy ct. 24 ch. ny. R rng l khi Marx ni i ni li, c bit tp mt, v hnh thc-gi, ng ngh n mt hnh thc b ngoi; bn cht l gi tr. (So c ct. 6 ch. 17 v vn bn). 21 Trong Capital, pp. 43 ff.: S Thn B ca c tnh Bi [Th] Vt ca Hng ho. 22 So Capital, 567 (xem c 328), vi tm tt ca Marx: Nu nng sut lao ng tng gp i th, nu t l lao ng cn thit trn lao ng thng d vn khng i .. kt qu duy nht s l mi trong hai th s i din cho hai ln nhiu gi tr s dng (tc hng ho) nh trc. Cc gi tr s dng ny by gi hai ln r nh trc Nh th l c th, khi nng sut lao ng tng, gi lao ng phi tip tc gim, v th m s gim ny li i km mt s tng ln v s lng cc phng tin sng ca cng nhn. 23 Nu ni chung nng sut lao ng tng ln t nhiu, th nng sut ca cc cng ti vng c th cng tng; v iu ny c ngha l vng, ging mi hng ho khc, tr nn r hn nu nh gi bng gi lao ng. Do , cng ng cho vng nh cho cc hng ho khc; v khi Marx ni (so ct. trc) rng s lng thu nhp thc ca cng nhn tng, v l thuyt, iu ny cng c th ng v thu nhp ca anh ta tnh bng vng, tc l bng tin. (Phn tch ca Marx trong Capital, p. 567, m ti ch trch mt tm tt ct. trc, v vy l khng ng bt c u ng ni v gi; v gi l gi tr biu th bng vng, v nhng ci ny c th vn khng i nu nng sut tng bng nhau trong mi nghnh sn xut, bao gm sn xut vng). 24 Ci l v l thuyt gi tr ca Marx (nh khc bit vi trng phi c in Anh, theo J. Viner) l n coi lao ng ca con ngi l khc bit c bn vi mi qu trnh khc trong t nhin, th d vi lao ng ca sc vt. iu ny cho thy r l l thuyt da cui cng vo mt l thuyt o c, cho rng s au kh ca con ngi v i ngi l

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mt th khc c bn vi mi qu trnh t nhin. Chng ta c th gi n l hc thuyt v tnh thing ling ca lao ng con ngi. M ti khng ph nhn rng l thuyt ny l ng theo ngha o c; tc l, chng ta phi hnh ng theo n. Nhng ti cng ngh l mt phn tch kinh t khng c da vo mt hc thuyt o c hay siu hnh hc hay tn gio m v n ngi ngi nm gi khng c thc. Marx, nh ta s thy ch. 22, khng tin mt cch c thc vo mt o c nhn o, hay km nn cc nim tin nh vy, li i xy dng trn mt c s o c ni ng khng nghi n trong l thuyt tru tng ca ng v gi tr. iu ny, tt nhin, lin quan n bn cht lun ca ng: bn cht ca mi quan h x hi v kinh t l lao ng ca con ngi. 25 V ch ngha can thip, so ct. 22 ch. 17 v ct. 9 ch. 18. (Xem c ct. 2 ch. ny). 26 V nghch l quyn t do trong p dng n cho quyn t do kinh t, so ct. 20 ch. 17, ni c cc dn chiu thm. Vn v th trng t do, c ni n vn bn ch v p dng n cho th trng lao ng, c tm quan trng rt ng k. Khi qut ho ci c ni vn bn, r rng l tng v mt th trng t do l ngc i. Nu nh nc khng can thip, th cc t chc na chnh tr khc nh cc c quyn, cc trust, cc nghip on, v.v., c th can thip, bin quyn t do th trng thnh mt h cu. Mt khc, cc k quan trng nhn ra l khng c mt th trng t do c bo v cn thn, ton b h thng kinh t hn ngng phng s cho mc ch duy l duy nht ca n, tc l, tho mn cc nhu cu ca ngi tiu dng. Nu ngi tiu dng khng th la chn; nu phi mua ci nh sn xut cho; nu nh sn xut, bt lun nh sn xut t nhn hay nh nc hay mt phng tip th, l ch th trng, thay cho ngi tiu dng; th tnh hnh phi xy ra l ngi tiu dng, cui cng, phc v nh mt loi cung-tin v ngi dn rc cho nh sn xut, thay cho nh sn xut phc v nhu cu v mong mun ca ngi tiu dng. y ta i mt r rng vi mt vn v k thut x hi: th trng phi c kim sot, nhng theo cch sao cho s kim sot khng cn tr s la chn t do ca ngi tiu dng v n khng loi b nhu cu i vi cc nh sn xut cnh tranh v thin ca ngi tiu dng. Lp k hoch kinh t m khng lp k hoch cho quyn t do kinh t theo ngha ny s dn n gn ch ngha ton tr mt cch nguy him. (So F. A. von Hayek, Freedom and the Economic System, Public Policy Pamphlets, 1939/40). 27 So ct. 2 ch. ny, v vn bn. 28 S phn bit ny gia my mc dng ch yu cho m rng v my mc dng ch yu cho tng cng sn xut c a ra trong vn bn ch yu vi mc tiu lm cho trnh by l l sng sa hn. Ngoi ra, ti hi vng, n cng l mt s ci thin ca l l. Ti c th a ra y mt danh mc cc on quan trng hn ca Marx, kin quan n chu k thng mi (t-c), v n quan h ca n vi tht nghip (u): Manifesto, 29 f. (t-c). Capital, 120 (khng hong tin = suy thoi chung), 624 (t-c v tin t), 694 (u), 698 (t-c), 699 (t-c ph thuc vo u; tnh t ng ca chu k), 703-705 (t-c v u ph thuc ln nhau), 706 f. (u). Xem c tp ba ca Capital, c bit Ch. XV, mc v Thng d T bn v Thng d Dn c, H.o.M., 516-528 (t-c v u) v cc Ch. XXV XXXII (t-c v tin t; so c bit Das Kapital, III/2, 22 ff.) Xem c on t tp hai ca Capital m t mt cu c trch trong ct. 17 ch. 17. 29 So Cc Bin bn Chng c, trc U ban Mt ca Thng vin iu tra nguyn nhn ca cnh Khn cng, v.v., 1875, trch Das Kapital, III/1, pp. 398 ff. 30 So th d hai bi v Ci cch Ngn sch ca C. G. F. Simkin Economic Record ca c, 1941 v 1942 (xem c ct. 3 ch. 9). Cc bi bo ny cp n chnh sch phn chu k, v tng thut ngn gn v cc bin php ca Thu in.

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So Parkes, Marxism A Post Mortem, c bit p. 220, n. 6. Cc trch dn l t Das Kapital, III/2, 354 f. (Ti dch l cc hng ho hu ch tuy gi tr s dng st ngha en hn). 33 L thuyt m ti ngh n (c J. Mill tin hay gn th, nh J. Viner cho ti bit) thng c Marx m ch, v c chng li n, tuy nhin, khng thnh cng lm cho vn ca ng tht r. N c th c trnh by ngn ngn nh thuyt cho rng tt c vn cui cng quy v lng, v vn c nh (hay nh Marx ni, bt bin) c to ra, v c tr, bng lng. Hay theo thut ng ca Marx: Khng c vn [t bn] bt bin m ch c vn kh bin. Thuyt ny c Parkes (op. cit., 97) trnh by rt r v n gin: Mi t bn l vn kh bin. iu ny s d hiu nu ta xt mt ngnh gi nh, kim sot ton b qu trnh sn xut ca n t nng tri hay hm m n sn phm hon chnh, m khng mua bt c my mc hay nguyn liu t no bn ngoi. Ton b chi ph sn xut ca mt ngnh nh vy s l ho n tin lng. V v ton b mt nn kinh t c th c coi nh mt ngnh gi nh nh vy, bn trong n my mc (vn bt bin) lun c tr bng lng (vn kh bin), tng vn bt bin phi l mt phn ca tng vn kh bin. Ti khng ngh l l l ny, m mt thi bn thn ti tin, c th lm mt hiu lc ca lp trng Marxian. (y c l l im ln duy nht ti khng th ng vi ph phn xut sc ca Parkes). L do l th ny. Nu ngnh gi nh quyt nh tng my mc ca n khng ch thay th, hay tin hnh cc ci tin cn thit th ta c th coi qu trnh ny nh mt qu trnh Marxian in hnh v tch t t bn bng u t t li nhun. o s thnh cng ca khon u t ny, ta phi xem xt liu li nhun cc nm tip theo c tng ln t l vi n khng. Mt s li nhun mi ny c th li c u t. By gi trong nm m chng c u t (hay li nhun c tch t bng bin thnh vn bt bin), trong cc giai on tip theo, chng c coi l mt phn ca vn bt bin, v chng c k vng ng gp t l cho li nhun mi. Nu chng khng, sut li nhun phi rt, v ta ni n l mt khon u t ti. Sut li nhun nh th l mt s o thnh cng ca mt khon u t, ca nng sut ca vn bt bin mi a vo, khon ny, tuy ban u lun c tr dng vn kh bin, tuy nhin tr thnh vn bt bin theo ngha Marxian, v gy nh hng ca n ln sut li nhun. 34 So ch. XIII ca tp ba ca Capital, th d, H.o.M., 499: Ri chng ta thy, rng bt chp s st gim dn v sut li nhun, c th c .. mt s tng tuyt i v khi lng li nhun lm ra. V s tng ln ny c th l khng ngng. V n c th khng ch nh th. Trn c s sn xut t bn ch ngha, n phi nh th, tr cc dao ng tm thi. 35 Cc trch dn on vn ny l t Capital, 708 ff. 36 V tm tt ca Parkes, so Marxism A Post Mortem, p. 102. C th ni n y l l thuyt Marxian rng cc cuc cch mng ph thuc vo s ngho kh c xc nhn mc no th k trc bi s n ra ca cc cuc cch mng cc nc ni s ngho kh thc s tng ln. Nhng ngc vi tin on ca Marx, cc nc ny khng phi l cc nc ca ch ngha t bn pht trin. Chng hoc l cc nc nng nghip hay cc nc m ch ngha t bn giai on pht trin s khai. (So Op. cit., 48). C v l cc xu hng cch mng gim i vi s tin b ca cng nghip ho. Do , cch mng Nga khng c din gii nh chn mui (cc nc tin tin hn cng khng c coi l qu-chn mui cho cch mng), m ng hn nh mt sn phm ca s ngho kh in hnh ca tui u th t bn ch ngha v ca s ngho kh ca nng dn, c tng cng bi s cng cc ca chin tranh v cc kh nng tht bi. Xem c ct. 19, trn.

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So H.o.M., 507. Trong mt ch gii cho on ny (tc Das Kapital, III/1, 219), Marx cho rng Adam Smith ng, chng li Ricardo. on ca Smith m c l Marx m ch n c trch di hn trong on vn: n l t the Wealth of Nations (vol. II, p. 95 ca ln xut bn Everyman). Marx trch mt on t Ricardo (Works, ed. MacCulloch, p. 73 = Ricardo, Everyman edition, p. 78). Nhng c thm ch mt on c trng hn trong Ricardo cho rng c ch do Smith m t khng th .. tc ng n sut li nhun (Principles, 232). 38 V Engels, so H.o.M., 708 (= c trch Imperialism, 96). 39 V s tr mt [change of front], so ct. 31 ch. 19, v vn bn. 40 So Lenin, Imperialism: Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917), 97; (= H.o.M., 708). 41 y c th l mt bo cha, tuy ch l bo cha rt khng tho mn, cho cc nhn xt gy chn nn nht ca Marx, c Parkes trch, Marxism A Post Mortem (213 f., n. 3). Chng gy chn nn nht v chng nu ra cu hi liu Marx v Engels c chn tht yu t do khng m ngi ta mun cc ng c; liu h khng phi b nh hng nhiu bi tnh v trch nhim v ch ngha dn tc ca Hegel hn l ngi ta c th k vng t cc gio hun chung ca cc ng. 42 So H.o.M., 295 (= GA, Special Vol. 290-1): Bng ngy cng bin s ng dn c thnh v sn, phng thc sn xut t bn ch ngha to ra lc lng .. buc phi thc hin cuc cch mng ny. V on t Tuyn ngn, so H.o.M., 35 (= GA, Ser. I, vol. vi, 536). V on tip theo, so H.o.M., 156 f. (= Der Buergerkrieg in Frankreich, 84). 43 V on u tr khng ng, H.o.M., 147 f. (= Der Buergerkrieg in Frankreich, 75 f.). 44 V chnh sch ny, so Marx, Gi Lin on Cng sn, c trch cc ct. 14 v 35-37 ch. 19. (So c, th d, cc ct. 26 f. ch. ). Xem thm on sau t op. cit. (H.o.M., 70 f.; ti nhn mnh = Labour Monthly, Sept. 1922, 145-6): Nh th, th d, nu giai cp tiu t sn nh mua ng st v cc nh my, cng nhn phi i rng ng st v cc nh my nh vy phi n gin b Nh nc tch thu m khng c n b; v chng l ti sn ca bn phn ng. Nu nhng ngi dn ch kin ngh thu t l, cng nhn phi i thu lu tin. Nu bn thn nhng ngi dn ch tuyn b v mt thu lu tin va phi, cng nhn phi nht quyt mt thu lu tin nng; nng n mc gy ra sp t bn ln. Nu nhng ngi dn ch kin ngh iu chnh N Quc gia, cng nhn phi i s ph sn ca Nh nc. Cc i hi ca cng nhn s ph thuc vo cc kin ngh v cc bin php ca nhng ngi dn ch. y l cc chin thut ca nhng ngi Cng sn, nhng ngi m Marx ni: Li h xung trn ca h phi l: Cch mng Thng trc!. CH THCH CHO CHNG 21 So cc ct. 22 ch. 17 v 9 ch. 18, v vn bn. Engels ni trong Anti-Dhring rng Fourier t lu khm ra vng c [lun qun] ca phng thc sn xut t bn ch ngha; so H.o.M., 287. 3 So H.o.M., 527 (= Das Kapital, III/1, 242). 4 So, th d, Parkes, Marxism A Post Mortem, pp. 102 ff. 5 y l mt trch dn m ti mun ng. 6 im ny c ng s ca ti, Prof. C. G. F. Simkin, nhn mnh trong tho lun. 7 So vn bn cho ct. 11 ch. 14, v cui ct. 17 ch. 17.
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So H. A. L. Fisher, Historry of Europe (1935), Li ni u, vol. I, p. vii. on c trch y hn ct. 27 ch. 25. CH THCH CHO CHNG 22 V cuc chin u ca Kierkegaard chng li o C c chnh thc, so c bit Book of the Judge ca ng (German ed., by H. Gottsched, 1905). 2 So J. Townsend, A Dissertation on the Poor Laws, by a Wellwisher of Mankind (1817); c trch trong Capital, 715. p. 711 (n. 1) Marx trch Abb Galiani sinh ng v d dm c quan im tng t: N xy ra nh mong i, Galiani ni, rng sinh ra nhiu ngi c ngh thit thc hng u. Xem Galiani, Della Moneta, 1803, p. 78. S thc rng ngay c cc nc Phng Ty, o C c vn khng hon ton thot khi tinh thn bo v s quay li x hi ng phn ng v p bc, c th thy t lun chin xut sc ca H. G. Wells chng li thi thin v v ng h pht xt i vi ni chin Ty Ban Nha ca Linh mc Inge. So H. G. Wells, The Common Sense of War and Peace (1940), pp. 38-40. (Nhc n sch ca Wells, ti khng mun lin kt mnh vi bt c g ng ni v lin bang, bt lun ph phn hay xy dng; v c bit khng vi tng c a ra pp. 56 ff., v cc u ban th gii c trao quyn hon ton. C v vi ti cc mi nguy him pht xt dnh n tng ny l rt ln). Mt khc, c s nguy him ngc li, ca mt Gio phi thn cng sn; so ct. 12 ch. 9. 3 So Kierkegaard, op. cit., 172. 4 Nhng Kierkegaard ni g v Luther l ci c th ng c vi Marx: tng sa cha ca Luther .. to ra .. dng tinh vi nht ca .. ngoi gio. (Op. cit., 147). 5 So H.o.M., 231 (= Ludwig Feuerbach, 56); so cc ct. 11 v 14 ch. 13. 6 So ct. 14 ch. 13, v vn bn. 7 So S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s ca ti, mc 19. 8 So H.o.M., 247 f. (= GA, Special Vol., 97). 9 V cc trch dn ny, so H.o.M., 248, v 279 (on sau c rt ngn = GA, Special Volume, 97 v 277). 10 So L. Laurat, Marxism and Democracy, p. 16. (Ti nhn mnh). 11 V hai trch dn ny, so The Churches Survey Their Task (1937), p. 130, v A. Loewe, The Universities in Transformation (1940), p. 1. Vi nhn xt kt thc ca ch. ny, so c quan im do Parkes by t cc cu cui ca ph phn ca ng v ch ngha Marx ( Marxism A Post Mortem, 1940, p. 208). CH THCH CHO CHNG 23 V Mannheim, xem c bit Ideology and Utopia (c trch y t bn ting c, 1929). C hai t mi trng x hi v thc h ton b l do Mannheim; cc t ch ngha x hi hc v thuyt lch s c nhc n chng trc. tng v mi trng x hi l Platonic. V mt ph phn ca Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction (1941) ca Mannheim, kt hp cc xu hng lch s ch ngha vi mt chnh th lun lng mn v thm ch thn b, xem The Poverty of Historicism, II (Economica, 1944) ca ti. 2 So din gii ca ti trong What is Dialectic? (Mind, 49, c bit p. 414; c Conjectures and Refutations, c bit p. 325).
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T l ca Mannheim (so Ideology and Utopia, 1929, p. 35). V tr c thng bng t do, xem op. cit., p. 123, ni t ny c quy cho Alfred Weber. V l lun v mt tng lp tr thc b neo lng vo truyn thng, xem op. cit., pp. 121-34; v c bit p. 122. 4 V l thuyt, hay ng hn, thc hnh sau, so cc ct. 51 v 52 ch. 11. 5 So What is Dialectic? (417; Conjectures and Refutations, p. 327). So ct. 33 ch. 12. 6 S tng t gia phng php phn tm hc v phng php ca Wittgenstein c Wisdom, Other Minds (Mind, vol. 49, p. 370, n.) nhc n: Mt s h nghi nh Ti khng bao gi thc s bit ngi khc cm thy g c th ny sinh t nhiu hn mt trong cc ngun ny. S qu-xc nh ny ca cc triu chng hoi nghi lm phc tp s iu tr ca h. iu tr l ging iu tr phn tm hc ( m rng s tng t ca Wittgenstein) ch iu tr l chn on v chn on l m t, mt m t rt y , v cc triu chng. V v.v. (Ti c th nhn xt l, dng t bit theo ngha thng thng, tt nhin, ta c th chng bao gi bit ngi khc cm thy g. Ta ch c th a ra gi thuyt v n. iu ny gii quyt ci gi l vn . L sai i ni v hoi nghi y, v cn sai t hn i th loi b hoi nghi bng mt tr liu phn-k hiu hc). 7 Cc nh phn tm hc c v ngh cng nh cc nh tm l hc c nhn, v c l h ng. So Freud, History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement (1916), p. 42, ni Freud ghi l Adler a ra nhn xt sau (hp kho vi s tm l hc c nhn ca Adler, theo cc cm gic t ti hu ht l quan trng): ng c tin l mt iu thch th vi ti ng sau bng ng sut i? iu ny m ch Adler khng p dng thnh cng cc l thuyt ca ng cho chnh ng, t nht khi . Nhng c v cng ng th v Freud: Khng ai trong cc nh sng lp ra phn tm hc c iu tr bng phn tm hc. Vi s trch c ny h thng tr li rng h t iu tr bng phn tm hc. Song h chng bao gi chp nhn mt s bo cha nh th i vi bt c ai khc; v, qu ng vy. 8 V phn tch sau v tnh khch quan khoa hc, so The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti, mc 8 (pp. 44 ff.). 9 Ti mun t li cc nh Kantian v ni n h cng mt mch vi cc nh Hegelian. 10 So cc ct. 23 ch. 8 v 39 (on vn th hai) ch. 11. 11 So cc ct. 34 ff., ch. 11. 12 So K. Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia (German ed., p. 167). 13 V trch dn u trong hai trch dn ny, so op. cit., 167. ( n gin, ti dch c thc cho phn tnh- reflexive). V trch dn th hai, so op. cit., 166. 14 So Handbook of Marxism, 255 (= GA, Spec. Vol., 117-18): Hegel l ngi u tin pht biu ng mi quan h gia t do v tnh tt yu. i vi ng t do l s nh gi ng tnh tt yu. V trnh by ring ca Hegel v tng yu qu ca ng, so Hegel Selections, 213 (= Werke, 1832-1887, vi, 310): Chn l ca s tt yu, v vy, l t do. 361 (= WW, xi, 46): .. nguyn l C c v s t gic T do. 362 (= WW, xi, 47): Bn tnh cn bn ca t do, bao hm trong n tnh tt yu tuyt i, c biu l ra nh vic t c mt s nhn r bn thn (v trong chnh bn tnh ca n l, s t gic) v v th n thc hin s tn ti ca n. V v.v. CH THCH CHO CHNG 24 y ti dng t ch ngha duy l i lp vi ch ngha phi duy l ch khng vi ch ngha kinh nghim. Carnap vit trong Der Logische Aufbau der Welt (1928) ca ng, p. 260: T ch ngha duy l bt gi thng c ngha .. theo ngha hin i: tng phn vi ch ngha phi duy l.
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Khi dng t ch ngha duy l theo cch ny, ti khng mun m ch rng cch dng khc ca t, y l, i lp vi ch ngha kinh nghim, c l t quan trng hn. Ngc li, ti tin l s i lp ny c trng cho mt trong cc vn l th nht ca trit hc. Song ti khng mun cp n n y; v ti cm thy rng, tng phn vi ch ngha kinh nghim, hay hn ta c th dng t khc c l thuyt duy l tr hay thuyt trc gic tr tu thay cho ch ngha duy l theo ngha ca Descartes. Ti c th lu trong ng cnh ny l ti khng nh ngha cc t l tr hay ch ngha duy l; ti dng chng nh cc nhn, cn thn sao cho chng g ph thuc vo cc t c dng. So ch. 11, c bit ct. 50. (V dn chiu n Kant, xem ct. 56 ch. 12, v vn bn). 2 * y l ci ti th lm Towards a Rational Theory of Tradition (The Rational Annual, 1949, pp. 36 ff., v by gi trong Conjectures and Refutations, pp. 120 ff.).* 3 So Plato, Timaeus 51e. (Xem c dn chiu cho ct. 33 ch. 11). 4 So ch. 10, c bit cc ct. 38-41, v vn bn. Trong cc tc phm ca Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Plato, cc yu t thn b v duy l c trn ln. c bit Plato, bt chp mi s nhn mnh ca ng n l tr, kt hp vo trit hc ca ng mt hn hp c trng lng ca ch ngha phi duy l n mc n gn nh gt ch ngha duy l m ng k tha t Socrates ra. iu ny cho php cc nh tn-Platonist t c s ch ngha thn b ca h ln Plato; v ch ngha thn b sau nht truy nguyn v tn cc ngun ny. C l l tnh c, nhng trong bt c trng hp no l ng ch rng vn c mt bin gii vn ho gia Ty u v cc khu vc Trung u trng rt st vi cc khu vc khng nm di s cai tr ca ch La M ca Augustus, v khng c hng s may mn ho bnh La M, tc l ca nn vn minh La M. Cng cc khu vc man r l c bit d b nh hng bi ch ngha thn b, cho d h khng sng ch ra ch ngha thn b. [Thnh] Bernard x Clairvaux c thnh cng ln nht ca ng c, ni mun hn Eckhart v trng phi ca ng hng thnh, c Boehme. Mun hn nhiu Spinoza, ngi th kt hp thuyt duy l tr ca Descartes vi cc xu hng thn b, ti khm ph ra l thuyt v mt trc gic tr tu thn b, m, bt chp s phn i mnh m ca Kant, dn n s ni ln hu-Kantian ca Ch ngha Duy tm, n Fichte, Schelling, v Hegel. Hu nh mi ch ngha phi duy l hin i truy nguyn li n ci sau, nh c cho thy ch. 12. (So c cc ct. 6, 29-32 v 58, di y, v cc ct. 32-33 ch. 11, v cc dn chiu cho v ch ngha thn b ). 5 Vi cc hot ng my mc, so cc ct 21 v 22 ch. ny. 6 Ti ni b loi b nhm bao trm cc quan im (1) rng mt gi thit nh vy s l sai, (2) rng s l phi thc tin (hay khng th cho php), tuy c l n c th tnh c ng, (3) rng n l v ngha hay khng c ngha, th d theo ngha ca Tractatus ca Wittgenstein; so ct. 51 ch. 12, v ct. 8 (2) ch. ny. V quan h vi s phn bit gia ch ngha duy l ph phn v khng ph phn, c th nhc n l gio hun ca Duns Scotus cng nh ca Kant c th c din gii nh ti gn ch ngha duy l ph phn. (Ti ngh n cc hc thuyt ca h v a v th nht ca ch, c th c din gii nh v tr hng u ca mt quyt nh phi duy l). 7 Trong ct. ny v ct. tip theo s a ra vi nhn xt v cc nghch l, c bit v nghch l k ni di. Khi a ra cc nhn xt ny, c th ni rng ci gi l cc nghch l logic v ng ngha khng cn ch l cc chi ca cc nh logic. Chng khng ch t ra quan trng cho s pht trin ca ton hc, m chng cng tr nn quan trng cc lnh vc t duy khc. C mt mi quan h xc nh gia cc nghch l ny v cc vn nh nghch l t do m, nh ta thy (so ct. 20 ch. 17 v cc ct. 4 v 6 ch. 7), c

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tm quan trng ng k trong trit hc chnh tr. im (4) ca ct. ny, s cho thy ngn gn rng cc nghch l v quyn t quyt khc nhau (so ct. 6 ch. 7, v vn bn) l rt ging nghch l k ni di. V cc phng php hin i gii cc nghch l ny (hoc hay hn: xy dng cc ngn ng trong chng khng xut hin), ti s khng a ra bnh lun no y, v n s a ta vt qu phm vi ca cun sch ny. (1) Nghch l k ni di c th c trnh by theo nhiu cch. Mt trong s chng l th ny. Hy gi s l mt ngy no ai ni: Tt c ci ti ni ngy hm nay l ni di; hay chnh xc hn: Tt c cc mnh ti a ra hm nay l sai; v sut ngy anh ta khng ni g khc. By gi nu chng ta hi mnh liu anh ta ni ng hay khng, y l ci chng ta thy. Nu ta bt u vi gi s rng ci anh ta ni l ng, th, xt k ci anh ta ni, ta i n kt qu rng n phi l sai. V nu ta bt u vi gi s rng ci anh ta ni l sai, th ta phi kt lun, xt k ci anh ta ni, rng n l ng. (2) Nghch l i khi c gi l mu thun. Song iu ny c l hi lm lc. Mt mu thun bnh thng (hay mt t-mu thun) n gin l mt mnh sai v logic, nh Plato hnh phc hm qua v ng khng hnh phc hm qua. Nu ta cho rng mt cu nh vy l sai, th khng sinh ra kh khn thm. Song v mt nghch l, ta khng th cho rng n ng cng chng th cho rng n sai, m khng dnh vo kh khn. (3) Tuy vy, c cc mnh c quan h mt thit vi cc nghch l, song, ni nghim khc hn, chng ch l t mu thun. Th d hy xt mnh : Tt c cc mnh l sai. Nu ta gi s rng mnh ny l ng, th, xt k ci n ni, ta i n kt qu rng n l sai. Nhng nu ta gi s n l sai, th ta thot khi kh khn; v gi s ny ch dn n kt qu rng khng phi tt c cc mnh l sai, ni cch khc, c cc mnh no ng - t nht c mt. V kt qu ny l v hi; v n khng hm rng mnh gc ca chng ta l mt trong cc mnh ng. (iu ny khng hm rng thc ra chng ta c th xy dng mt ngn ng khng b nghch l trong cc mnh Tt c cc mnh l sai v Tt c cc mnh l ng c th c trnh by). Bt chp s thc rng mnh Tt c cc nh l sai ny thc s khng phi l mt nghch l, n c th, do x giao, c gi l mt dng nghch l k ni di, bi s ging nhau hin nhin ca n vi ci sau; v qu thc, cch trnh by Hy Lp c x ca nghch l ny (Epimenides ngi Creta ni: Mi ngi Creta lun ni di), theo thut ng ny, ng hn l mt dng ca nghch l k ni di, tc l mt mu thun hn l mt nghch l. (So c ct. tip, v ct. 54 ch. ny, v vn bn). (4) By gi ti s cho thy ngn gn s ging nhau gia nghch l k ni di v cc nghch l v quyn t quyt khc nhau, th d, v nguyn l rng ngi gii nht hay sng sut nht hay a s phi cai tr. (So ct. 6 ch. 7 v vn bn). C. H. Langford m t cc cch khc nhau din t nghch l k ni di, gia chng l cch sau. Ta xt hai mnh , do hai ngi, A v B, a ra. A ni: Ci B ni l ng. B ni: Ci A ni l sai. Bng p dng phng php c m t trn, chng ta d dng thuyt phc mnh rng mi trong hai cu ny l nghch l. By gi hy xt hai cu sau, m cu u l nguyn l rng ngi sng sut nht phi cai tr: (A) Nguyn l ni: Ci m ngi sng sut nht ni (B) phi l lut. (B) Ngi sng sut nht ni: Ci m nguyn l ni (A) khng c l lut. 8 (1) Rng nguyn l v trnh mi gi nh trc l mt dng ca nghch l k ni di theo ngha ca ct. 7 (3) trn, v v th t mu thun, s c thy d dng nu ta m t n th ny. Mt trit gia bt u vic nghin cu ca mnh bng gi s nguyn l

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m khng c l l: Mi nguyn l c gi s m khng c l l u b cm. R rng nu ta cho rng nguyn l ny l ng, xt k ci n ni, ta phi kt lun rng n b cm. (Gi thit ngc li khng dn n bt c kh khn no). Nhn xt mt li khuyn v s hon ho m ch n ph phn thng thng v nguyn l ny c, th d, Husserl ra. J. Laird (Recent Philosophy, 1936, p. 121) vit v nguyn l ny rng n l nt c bit ct yu ca trit hc Husserl. Thnh cng ca n c th ng ng hn, v cc gi nh trc c mt cch ln vo. n y, ti hon ton ng ; nhng khng hon ton vi nhn xt tip: .. vic trnh mi gi nh trc rt c th l mt li khuyn v s hon ho, khng thc tin trong mt th gii v . (Xem c ct. 5 ch. 25). (2) Ta c th xem xt ch ny vi nguyn l na m, theo ngha ca ct. 7 (3) ch. ny, l cc dng ca nghch l k ni di, v v th t mu thun. (a) T quan im trit hc x hi, nguyn l ca ch ngha x hi hc (v nguyn l ca thuyt lch s tng t) sau l l th. Chng c th c trnh by theo cch ny. Khng mnh no l ng tuyt i, v mi mnh khng th trnh khi l tng i vi mi trng x hi (hay lch s) ca cc nh sng to ra chng. R rng l cc cn nhc ca ct. 7 (3) p dng hu nh khng thay i. V nu ta cho rng mt nguyn l nh vy l ng, th suy ra l n khng ng nhng ch tng i vi vi mi trng x hi (hay lch s) ca cc nh sng to ra chng. Xem c ct. 53 ch. ny, v vn bn. (b) Vi th d thuc loi ny c th thy Tractatus ca Wittgenstein. Mt th d l nh ca Wittgenstein (c trch y ct. 46 ch. 11): Ton b ca cc nh ng .. l tng ca khoa hc t nhin. V nh ny khng thuc v khoa hc t nhin (m, ng hn, thuc v mt siu-khoa hc, tc l mt l thuyt ni v khoa hc) suy ra rng n khng nh s khng ng ca chnh n, v v th l mu thun. Hn na, r rng l nh ny vi phm nguyn l ring ca Wittgenstein (Tractatus, p. 57), Khng nh no c th ni bt c g v chnh n * Nhng ngay c nguyn l va c trch dn m ti s gi l W ho ra l mt dng ca nghch l k ni di, v l khng nh s khng ng ca chnh n. (V th hu nh khng th -nh Wittgenstein tin - tng ng vi, hay l mt tm tt ca, hay mt s thay th cho, ton b l thuyt v cc loi, tc l l thuyt ca Russell, c nh loi b cc nghch l m ng khm ph ra bng chia cc din t trng ging cc nh thnh ba loi cc nh ng, cc nh sai, v cc nh v ngha hay cc ginh ). V nguyn l W ca Wittgenstein by gi c th c trnh by li nh sau: (W+) Mi din t (v c bit ci ging nh mt nh ) c cha mt dn chiu n chnh n - hoc do cha tn ca chnh n hay cha mt bin s ring to khp mt lp m bn thn n thuc v - khng phi l mt nh (m l mt gi-nh v ngha). By gi gi s W+ l ng, th xt s thc rng n l mt din t, v n dn chiu n mi din t, n khng th l mt nh , v v th a fortiori [hn l] khng ng. Gi thit rng n ng v th l khng th ng vng; W+ khng th ng. Song iu ny khng chng t rng n phi sai; c hai gi thit rng n sai v n l mt din t [biu thc] khng c ngha (v ngha), khng ko chng ta vo cc kh khn trc mt. Wittgenstein c l c th ni rng bn thn ng thy iu ny khi ng vit (p. 189; so ct. 51 (1) ch. 11): Cc nh ca ti l sng t theo cch th ny: ai hiu ti cui cng nhn ra chng l v ngha ..; trong mi trng hp, ta c th phng on rng ng thin v m t W+ l khng c ngha hn l sai. Tuy vy, ti tin rng n khng v ngha m n gin l sai. Hay chnh xc hn, ti tin rng trong mi ngn ng c hnh thc ho (th d trong ngn ng m cc mnh khng th quyt nh c ca Gdel c th c din t) m n cha cc phng tin ni v cc din t [biu thc] ca

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chnh n, v trong chng ta c tn ca cc lp ca cc din t nh cc nh v cc phi-nh , cch trnh by mt mnh , ging W+, khng nh s v ngha ca chnh n, s l t mu thun v khng v ngha cng chng nghch l; chng s l mt nh c ngha ch bi v n khng nh v mi din t thuc loi no rng n khng l mt nh (tc khng l mt cng thc ng n [c cu to ng] ); v mt khng nh nh vy s l ng hoc sai, nhng khng v ngha, n gin v l (hay khng l) mt nh ng n l mt tnh cht ca din t. Th d, Mi din t u l v ngha s t mu thun, nhng khng tht s nghch l, v cng th vi din t Din t [biu thc] x l v ngha, nu ta thay tn ca biu thc ny vo x. Sa i mt tng ca J. N. Findlay, chng ta c th vit: Biu thc nhn c bng thay cho bin s trong biu thc sau Biu thc nhn c bng thay cho bin s trong biu thc sau x trch dn tn ca biu thc ny, khng phi l mt mnh , trch tn ca biu thc ny, khng phi l mt mnh . V ci chng ta va vit ho ra l mt mnh t mu thun. (Nu ta vit hai ln l mt mnh sai thay cho khng phi l mt mnh , ta nhn c mt nghch l k ni di; nu ta vit l mt mnh khng chng minh c, ta nhn c mt mnh Gdelian trong tc phm ca J. N. Findlay). Tm tt li. Ngc vi n tng u tin, chng ta thy rng mt l thuyt hm tnh v ngha ca chnh n l khng v ngha m l sai, v v ng v ngha, tri vi sai, khng gy ra cc nghch l. V l thuyt ca Wittgenstein v th khng v ngha, nh ng tin, m n gin l sai (hay, c th hn, l t-mu thun). (3) Mt s nh thc chng i hi rng mt s phn ba ca cc din t ca mt ngn ng thnh (i) cc mnh ng, (ii) cc mnh sai, v (iii) cc din t v ngha (hoc, hay hn, cc din t khc vi cc mnh c cu to ng), l t nhiu t nhin v rng n to vic loi b cc nghch l v ng thi cc h thng siu hnh hc, v s v ngha ca chng. Ci tip sau c th cho thy s phn ba ny l khng . Trng Phng Phn Gin ca vin Tng c cp ba hm, gn nhn (i) Hm ca Tng, (ii) Hm ca ch ( cho gin ip ca nh c th tip cn c), v (iii) Giy Ln, v c lnh phn tt c thng tin n trc 12 gi vo ba hm ny, theo thng tin ny l (i) ng, (ii) sai, hay (iii) khng c ngha. Mt lc, ng nhn thng tin m ng c th d phn (gia c cc mnh ng v cc s t nhin, v.v., v c th cc mnh logic nh L: T mt tp ca cc mnh , khng mnh sai no c th c dn ra mt cch hp l). Thng ip cui M, t vn th va nhn c trc 12 gi, lm ng hi bi ri, v M ni: T tp ca mi mnh c t, hay s phi t, vo trong hm c nhn Hm ca Tng, mnh 0 = 1 khng th dn ra mt cch hp l. u tin, Trng Phng Phn Gin lng l liu khng phi t M vo hm (ii). Nhng v ng nhn ra rng, nu t vo (ii), M c th cung cp cho nh thng tin ng c gi tr, cui cng ng quyt nh t M vo (i). Nhng vic ny ho ra l mt sai lm ln. V cc nh logic biu tng (cc chuyn gia v hu cn?) trong Ban Tham mu, sau khi hnh thc ho (v s hc ho) ni dung hm ca Tng, pht hin ra rng h nhn c mt tp cc mnh cha mt khng nh v s nht qun ca chnh n; v iu ny, ph hp vi nh l th hai ca Gdel v tnh c th quyt nh c, dn ti mt mu thun, cho nn 0 =1 c th thc s c suy ra t thng tin c l ng c cung cp cho v Tng. Li gii ca kh khn ny ct vic tha nhn s thc rng i hi phn ba l khng c c s, t nht cho cc ngn ng thng thng; v chng ta c th thy t l thuyt v chn l ca Tarski rng khng c s xc nh no ca cc hm l . ng thi chng ta

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thy rng s v ngha theo ngha ca khng thuc v cc cng thc c cu to ng khng h l mt ch bo v li ni v ngha theo ngha ca cc t khng c ngha g, mc d chng lm ra v rt quan trng; nhng khm ph ra rng siu hnh hc ng c c tnh ny l i hi chnh ca cc nh thc chng.* 9 C v l kh kt ni vi ci gi l vn quy np ci dn Whitehead khng m xa n l l c by t trong Process and Reality. (So c cc ct. 35-7 ch. ny). 10 N l mt quyt nh o c v khng ch l vn s thch v n khng phi l chuyn ring m nh hng n nhng ngi khc v i sng ca h. (V s i lp gia cc vn thm m v s thch v cc vn o c, so vn bn cho ct. 6 ch. 5, v ch. 9 c bit vn bn cho cc ct. 10-11). Quyt nh m chng ta i mt l quan trng nht t quan im rng nhng ngi c hc, nhng ngi i mt vi n, hnh ng nh nhng ngi c u thc cho nhng ngi khng i mt vi n. 11 Ti tin, c l mt mnh nht ca o C c l n ku gi c bn khng n s suy on tru tng m n s tng tng, bng m t s au kh ca con ngi mt cch rt c th. 12 Kant, nh bnh ng v i v quyt nh o c, nhn mnh s may mn gn vi s khc nhau ca con ngi. ng thy s a dng v c tnh ca tnh cch v kin con ngi mt trong cc iu kin chnh ca s tin b o c cng nh vt cht. 13 m ch n Brave New World ca A. Huxley. 14 V s phn bit gia cc s thc v cc quyt nh hay cc yu sch, so vn bn cho cc ct. 5 ff. ch. 4. V ngn ng ca cc yu sch chnh tr (hay kin ngh theo ngha ca L. J. Russell) so vn bn cho cc ct. 41-43 ch. 6 v ct. 5 (3) ch. 5. Ti thin v ni rng l thuyt v s bnh ng tr tu bm sinh ca mi ngi l sai; nhng v nhng ngi nh Niels Bohr cho rng nh hng mi trng l ci duy nht chu trch nhim v nhng khc nhau c nhn, v v khng c d liu th nghim quyt nh vn ny, c l tt c ci nn ni l c l sai. 15 Xem, th d, on t Statesman ca Plato, c trch vn bn cho ct. 12 ch. 9. Mt on khc nh vy l Republic, 409e-410a. Sau khi ni (409b&c) v quan to tt .. l ngi tt bi v tnh tt trong linh hn ng ta, Plato tip tc (409e, f.), V chng phi anh i sp t cc thy thuc v cc quan to .. nhng ngi chm lo cho cc cng dn m th tng thn th v tm thn ca h l kho mnh v tt? Nhng ngi m sc kho th xc l ti, h cht. V nhng ngi m tm thn ca h c nui dng ti v khng th cha c, h s thc s git. Vng, ng ni, v anh chng t rng y l vic tt nht, cho c nhng ngi , ln cho nh nc. 16 So cc ct. 58 ch. 8 v 28 ch. 10. 17 Mt th d l H. G. Wells, ngi cho chng u cun sch The Common Sense of War and Peace ca ng, nhan tuyt vi: Nhng ngi Ln Khng Cn cc Th Lnh. (So c ct. 2 ch. 22). 18 V vn v nghch l v khoan dung, so ct. 4 ch. 7. 19 Th gii l khng duy l, nhng l nhim v ca khoa hc duy l ho n. X hi l khng duy l, nhng nhim v ca k s x hi i duy l ho n. (Tt nhin, iu ny khng c ngha rng chng ta phi iu khin n, hoc rng k hoch ho tp trung hay tp th ch ngha l ng mong mi). Ngn ng bnh thng l khng duy l, nhng nhim v ca chng ta l duy l ho n, hay ch t theo kp cc tiu chun v tnh sng sa. Thi c c trng y c th c m t nh ch ngha duy l thc dng. Ch ngha duy l thc dng ny c quan h vi ch ngha duy l khng ph phn v ch ngha phi duy l theo cch tng t nh ch ngha duy l ph phn c quan h

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vi hai ci ny. V mt ch ngha duy l khng ph phn c th l l rng th gii l duy l v rng nhim v ca khoa hc l i khm ph ra tnh duy l ny, cn mt nh phi duy l c th nht nh rng, do c bn l phi duy l, th gii phi c tri nghim v c vt cn bng cc xc cm v say m (hay bng trc gic tr tu) ca chng ta hn l bng cc phng php khoa hc. Tri vi iu ny, ch ngha duy l thc dng c th tha nhn th gii l khng duy l, nhng n i rng chng ta quy phc hay bt n chu l tr, chng mc c th. Dng t ca Carnap (Der Logische Aufbau, ect., 1928, p. vi) ngi ta c th m t ci ti gi l ch ngha duy l thc dng nh thi phn u v s trong sng mi ni nhng tha nhn s ri rm chng bao gi c th hiu c hon ton hay chng bao gi hon ton duy l ca cc s kin ca i sng. 20 V cc tiu chun trong sng ca ngn ng chng ta, so ct. trc v ct. 30 ch. 12. 21 Cng nghip ho v Phn cng Lao ng b, th d, Toynbee tn cng, A Study of History, vol. I, pp. 2 ff. Toynbee than phin (p. 4) l uy th ca H thng Cng nghip p t mnh ln nhng ngi lao ng tr thc ca Th gii Phng Ty ..; v khi h th gia cng cc vt liu ny thnh cc vt phm c ch to hay na ch to, h li phi cu vin n Phn cng Lao ng .. mt ch khc (p. 2) Toynbee ni v cc tp ch khoa hc: Cc tp ch l H thng Cng nghip dng sch, vi s Phn cng Lao ng ca n v u ra cc i ca n c duy tr lin tc v cc vt phm c ch to t nguyn liu mt cch my mc. (Ti nhn mnh). Toynbee nhn mnh (p. 3, n. 2) cng vi nh Hegelian Dilthey rng cc khoa hc tinh thn t nht phi trnh xa cc phng php ny. (ng trch Dilthey: Cc phm tr thc t .. chng u l nh nhau trong cc khoa hc v Tinh thn nh chng l trong cc khoa hc T nhin). Din gii ca Toynbee v phn cng lao ng trong lnh vc khoa hc i vi ti c v cng sai lm ht nh n lc ca Dilthey nhn thy c h su gia cc phng php khoa hc t nhin v khoa hc x hi. Ci Toynbee gi l phn cng lao ng c m t hay hn c l nh s hp tc v ph phn ln nhau. So vn bn cho cc ct. 8 f. ch. 23, v cc bnh lun ca Macmurray v hp tc khoa hc c trch ch. ny, vn bn cho ct. 26. (V phn-ch ngha duy l ca Toynbee, so ct. 61 ch. 11). 22 So Adolf Keller, Church and State on European Continent (Beckly Social Service Lecture, 1936). Ti mang n Mr. L. Webb lu ti v on l th ny. 23 V ch ngha v lai o c nh mt loi ch ngha thc chng o c, so ch. 12 (c bit vn bn cho cc ct. 9 ff.). Ti c th lu n s thc rng tri ngc vi mt hin thi (so cc ct. 51 f. ch. 11), ti coi cc nhn xt ca Keller mt cch nghim tc v t vn s ng n ca chng, thay cho gt b chng v v ngha, nh mt thc chng ch ngha i hi. 24 So ct. 70 ch. 10 v vn bn, v ct. 61 ch. 11. 25 So Kinh Matthew 7, 15 f.: Hy phng cc nh tin tri gi, n vi con trong o ca cu, nhng bn trong h l cc con si i. Con s bit h bng hoa tri ca h. 26 Hai on l t J. Macmurray, The Clue yo the History (1938), pp. 86 v 192. (V s bt ng ca ti vi Macmurray so vn bn cho ct. 16 ch. 25). 27 So sch Philosophy and the Physicists ca L. S. Stebbing, v nhn xt ngn ca ti v ch ngha Hegel ca Jeans trong What is Dialectic? (Mind, 1940, 49, p. 420; by gi trong Conjectures and Refutations, p. 330). 28 So, th d, cc ct. 8-12 ch. 7, v vn bn. 29 So ch. 10, c bit cui ch. , tc l cc ct. 59-70, v vn bn (xem c bit dn chiu n McTaggart ch. 59); ct. cho Dn Nhp; cc ct. 33 ch. 11 v 36 ch. 12; cc ct. 4, 6, v 58 ch. ny. Xem c s nht quyt ca Wittgenstein (c trch ct. 32

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ch. ny) rng s trm ngm v, hay cm gic i vi, th gii nh mt ton b c gii hn l mt cm gic thn b. Mt cng trnh c tho lun nhiu mi y v ch ngha thn b v vai tr thch ng ca n trong chnh tr l Grey Eminence ca Huxley. N l th ch yu v tc gi c v khng nhn ra rng cu chuyn ring ca ng v nh thn b v chnh tr gia, Cha Joseph, bc b thng thng lun im chnh ca cun sch ca ng. Lun im ny l, o to v thc tin thn b l mn gio dc duy nht c bit, c kh nng m bo cho con ngi c s o c v tn gio vng tuyt i cc k cn thit cho nhng ngi c nh hng n chnh sch cng. Song cu chuyn ring ca ng cho thy Cha Joseph, bt chp s o to ca cha, ri vo s cm d - s cm d thng thng ca ngi nm quyn v cha khng c kh nng cng li; quyn lc tuyt i lm i bi cha mt cch tuyt i. Tc l, bng chng lch s duy nht c tc gi trnh by chi tit hon ton bc b lun im ca ng, m, tuy th, c v khng lm ng phin. 30 So F. Kafka, The Great Wall of China (E. Muir dch ra ting Anh, 1933), p. 236. 31 So c ct. 19 ch. ny. 32 So Tractatus ca Wittgenstein, p. 187: Khng phi th gii l th no, l thn b, m n l th. Suy ngm v th gii sub specie aeterni [di dng bt dit] l s suy ngm n nh mt ci ton th c gii hn. Cm gic v th gii nh mt ci ton th c gii hn l cm gic thn b. Ta thy rng ch ngha thn b ca Wittgenstein l chnh th lun in hnh. - V cc on khc ca Wittgenstein (loc. cit.) nh : Qu thc c ci khng th din t c. iu ny l r; l thn b, so ph phn ca Carnap Logical Syntax of Language (1937) ca ng, p. 314 f. So c ct. 25 ch. 25, v vn bn. Xem c ct. 29 ch. ny v cc dn chiu cho . 33 So ch. 10, th d cc ct. 40, 41. Xu hng b lc v b truyn ca loi trit hc ny c th c minh ho bng th d bi mt trch dn t H. Blueher (so Kolnai, The War against the West, p. 74, ti nhn mnh): o C c dt khot l mt tn iu qu tc, thot khi o c, khng th dy c. Nhng ngi C c bit ln nhau bi tp b ngoi ca h; h to thnh mt nhm trong x hi nhng ngi chng bao gi thiu hiu bit ln nhau, v l nhng ngi chng ai hiu c tr bn thn h. H to thnh mt lin on b mt. Hn na, loi tnh yu hot ng trong o C c l loi ri sng cc thnh ng ngoi o; n khng c quan h g vi s sng ch Do Thi v ci gi l tnh yu nhn loi hay yu thng hng xm ca mnh. Mt th d khc l t sch The Outlaws ca E. von Salomon (c trch c ct. 90 ch. 12; trch dn ny l t p. 240; ti nhn mnh): Chng ta nhn ra nhau ngay lp tc, mc d chng ta n t mi phn ca ch, c nghe phong phanh v nhng x xt v nguy him. 34 Nhn xt ny khng c hiu theo mt ngha lch s ch ngha. Ti khng c ni tin tri rng xung t s khng c vai tr g trong cc din bin tng lai. Ti ch mun ni rng by gi chng ta c th hc c rng vn khng tn ti, hay c tn ti, d sao i na, l khng quan trng khi so vi vn ca cc tn gio xu, nh ch ngha ton tr hay ch ngha phn bit chng tc, m chng ta i mt. 35 Ti m ch n Principia Mathematica ca A. N. Whitehead v B. Russell. (Trong Process and Reality, p. 10, n.1, Whitehead ni rng cc tho lun dn nhp hu nh l do Russell, v trong ln xut bn th hai l hon ton nh vy). 36 So dn chiu ti Hegel (v nhiu ngi khc trong c Plato v Aristotle) trong A. N. Whitehead, Process and Reality, p. 14. 37 So Whitehead, op. cit., pp. 18 f.

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So Ph lc ca Kant cho Prolegomena ca ng. (Works, ed. by Cassirer, vol. IV, 132 f. V cch dch ci chn p, so bn ting Anh ca Carus v Prolegomena ca Kant, 1902 v 1912, p. iv). 39 So Whitehead, Process and Reality, p. 20 f. V thi chp nhn hay gt b n, c m t on vn tip, so ct. 53 ch. 11. 40 So Whitehead, op. cit., 492. Hai trong cc phn khc l: Cng ng ni rng Th gii l vn c trong Cha, nh rng Cha l vn c trong Th gii .. Cng ng ni rng Cha to ra Th gii, nh rng Th gii to ra Cha. iu ny rt gi nh n Scheffler nh thn b c (Angelus Silesius), ng vit: Ti v i nh Cha, Cha b nh nh ti, ti khng th thiu ngi, ngi cng chng th thiu ti. V nhn xt ca ti, mun hn trong on vn, rng ti hon ton khng hiu tc gi ca n mun truyn t ci g, ti c th ni rng ch rt do d m ti vit iu ny. Ph phn ti khng hiu l mt loi th thao kh r tin v nguy him. Ti n gin vit cc t ny bi v, bt chp cc n lc ca ti, chng vn ng. 41 So th Kant gi Mendelssohn, 8-4-1766. (Works, ed. by Cassirer, vol. IX, 56 f.). 42 So Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. VI, 536 f. 43 Toynbee ni (op. cit., 537) v nhng ngi chnh thng truyn thng rng h s thy nghin cu ca chng ta nh mt tn cng ln tnh c thc, tnh lch s, ca cu chuyn v Jesus Christ nh c trnh by trong cc Kinh Phc m. V ng cho rng (p. 538) Cha t biu l thng qua thi ca cng nh qua chn l; theo l thuyt ny, Cha t bc l trong vn hc dn gian. 44 Bm st n lc ny p dng cc phng php ca Toynbee cho chnh ng, ngi ta c th hi liu Study of History ca ng m ng d kin gm 13 tp l khng tht nhiu nh ci ng gi l mt tour de force [thnh tu phi thng] nh lch s ging nh nhiu lot cc tp hin nay ang trong qu trnh xut bn bi Cambridge University Press hay khng cng vic m ng so snh mt cch ti ba (vol. I, p. 4) vi cc ng hm v cc chic cu v cc con v cc tu thu v cc tu chin v cc nh chc tri v cng to ln. V ngi ta c th hi liu tour de force ca Toynbee khng phi l, c bit hn, s ch to ra ci ng gi l mt my thi gian, tc l mt s trn trch vo qu kh hay khng. (So c bit trung c hc ca Toynbee, c tho lun ngn gn ct. 61 ch. 11. So thm ct. 54 ch. ny). 45 Cho n nay ti cha thy nhiu hn su tp u. Einstein l mt trong vi nh khoa hc c nhc n. 46 Toynbee, op. cit., vol. II, 178. 47 Toynbee, op. cit., vol. V, 581 ff. Trong quan h vi s sao nhng ca Toynbee, c ni ti trong vn bn, v cc hc thuyt Marxian v c bit v Tuyn ngn C.S., c th ni rng p. 179 (n.5) ca tp ny, Toynbee vit: Nhng ngi Bolshevik hay cnh a s ca ng X hi Dn ch Nga t i tn thnh ng Cng sn Nga (v tn knh Cng x Paris ca 1871) vo thng 3-1918 .. Mt nhn xt tng t c th thy cng tp, p. 582, n. 1. Song iu ny khng ng. Vic i tn (do Lenin trnh i hi ng 4-1917; so Handbook of Marxism, 783; so c p. 787) ni, r, n s thc rng Marx v Engels gi mnh l nhng ngi Cng sn, nh Lenin din t, v n Tuyn ngn C.S. 48 So Engels, Socialism: Utopian and Scientific (xem ct. 9 ch. 13). V hai ngun gc lch s ca ch ngha cng sn ca Marx (ca Plato v, c l, Pythagoras - s phc c, v Acts, c v b n nh hng) xem c bit ct. 29 ch. 5; xem c cc ct. 30 ch. 4, 35-36 ch. 6, v cc ct. 3 v 8 ch.13 (v vn bn).

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So Toynbee, op. cit., vol. V, 587. So ch. 22, c bit vn bn cho cc ct. 1-4, v cui chng . 51 on ny khng c lp; Toynbee rt thng biu l s knh trng ca mnh vi phn quyt ca lch s; mt s thc ph hp vi hc thuyt ca ng l, i hi ca o C c .. rng Cha t bc l Mnh ra trong lch s. Hc thuyt Tin Lnh mi ny (nh K. Barth gi n) s c tho lun ch. tip (So c bit ct. 12 ch. ). Trong quan h vi cp ca Toynbee v Marx, c th ni l ton b cch tip cn ca ng b ch ngha Marx nh hng mnh. ng ni (op. cit., vol. I, p. 41, n. 3): Hn mt trong cc t mi Marxian ny tr nn ph bin ngay c gia nhng ngi bc b cc gio iu Marxian. Khng nh ny ni c bit n vic s dng t giai cp v sn. Nhng n bao ph nhiu hn vic s dng n thun ca cc t. 52 Toynbee, op. cit., vol. III, 476. on m ch li vol. I, phn I, A, The Relativity of Historical Thought. (Ch. tip tho lun vn s tng i ca t duy lch s). V mt ph phn sm xut sc v ch ngha tng i lch s (v thuyt lch s), xem H. Sidgwick, Philosophy Its Scope and Relations (1902), Lecture IX, c bit p. 180 f. 53 V nu mi t duy theo ngha nh vy l tng i khng th trnh c i vi mi trng x hi ca n rng n khng ng tuyt i (tc l khng ng), th iu ny phi ng cho lun im ny na. Nh th n khng th ng, v v th khng l Qui lut khng th trnh khi v Bn tnh con Ngi. So c ct. 8 (2,a) ch. ny. 54 V lun im rng Toynbee trn trnh vo qu kh, so ct. 44 ch. ny v ct. 61 ch. 11 (v trung c hc ca Toynbee). Bn thn Toynbee cho mt ph phn xut sc v s phc c, v ti hon ton ng vi s cng kch ca ng (vol. VI, 65 f.) ln cc mu toan dn tc ch ngha lm sng li cc ngn ng c, c bit Palestine. Nhng s cng kch ca chnh Toynbee ln t chc cng nghip (so ct. 21 ch. ny) c v khng t phc c hn.- V mt s trn trnh vo tng lai, ti khng c bng chng no hn l nhan tin tri c cng b ca phn XII ca cng trnh ca ng: The Prospects of the Western Civilization [Cc Trin vng ca nn Vn minh Phng Ty]. 55 V thnh cng trn tc bi thm ca nh sng lp Hi gio c Toynbee nhc ti op. cit., III, p. 472. V Ignatius Loyola, so vol. III, 270; 466 f. 56 So op. cit., vol. V, 590. - on c trch tip l t cng tp, p. 588. 57 Toynbee, op. cit., vol. VI, 13. 58 So Toynbee, vol. VI, 12 f. (Dn chiu n Bergson, Two Source of Morality and Religion). Dn chiu lch s ch ngha sau y t Toynbee (vol. V, 585; ti nhn mnh) l l th ng cnh ny: Nhng ngi C c tin v mt nghin cu v Lch s chng t chc chn h ng - rng tnh anh em ca con Ngi l khng th t c i vi con Ngi theo bt c cch khc no ngoi cch lm mt cng dn ca mt Civitas Dei [Nc ca Cha] vt qu th gii con ngi v bn thn Cha l vua ca n. Lm sao mt nghin cu lch s c th chng minh mt i hi nh vy? Phi chng l mt vn c trch nhim cao khng nh rng n c th c chng minh? V Two Source ca Bergson, ti hon ton ng rng c mt yu t phi duy l hay trc gic trong mi t duy sng to; nhng yu t ny c th thy c trong t duy khoa hc duy l na. T duy duy l khng phi l phi-trc gic; n, ng hn, l trc gic phc tng s kim nghim v kim tra (ngc vi trc gic phng tng). p dng iu ny cho vn sng to ca x hi m, ti tha nhn rng nhng ngi nh Socrates c trc gic truyn cm hng; nhng trong khi ti cng nhn s thc ny, ti tin rng tnh duy l ca h l ci phn bit cc nh sng lp ra x hi m khi nhng ngi th

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lm ngng s pht trin ca n, v nhng ngi cng c trc gic truyn cm hng, nh Plato nhng bi mt trc gic khng c tnh hp l (theo ngha trong t ny c dng ch. ny) kim tra. Xem c ct. cho Dn nhp. 59 So ct. 4 ch. 18. CH THCH CHO CHNG 25 Ci gi l cc nh theo thuyt quy c (H. Poincar, P. Duhem, v gn y hn, A. Eddington); so ct. 17 ch. 5. 2 So The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti. 3 L thuyt thng v tm tr c nhc n ch. 23. (*V l thuyt n pha khoa hc, xem c Towards a Rational Theory of Tradition, by gi trong Conjectures and Refutations, c bit pp. 127 f.*). L thuyt n pha, c l, cha chnh cc yu t ca ch ngha Kant nhng ci c th ng vng. C th ni rng sai lm ca Kant l i ngh bn thn n pha khng c kh nng ci thin; v ng khng thy rng cc n pha (cc l thuyt) no c th khng soi sng cc s kin m cc n pha khc li lm r ni bt ln. Song y l cch ta t b dng cc n pha no , v lm nn s tin b. 4 So ct. 23 ch. 8. 5 V n lc trnh mi gi nh trc, so ph phn (v Husserl) ct. 8 (1) ch. 24, v vn bn. tng u tr rng c th trnh gi nh trc (hay mt quan im) cng b tn cng cc tuyn khc bi H. Gomperz. (So Weltanschauungshehre, I, 1905, pp. 33 v 35; cch dch ca ti c l hi thong). Gomperz tn cng cc nh kinh nghim ch ngha trit . (Khng chng Husserl). Mt thi trit hc hay khoa hc i vi cc s thc, Gomperz vit, lun lun l mt thi v t duy, v khng n thun l mt thi v hng th cc s thc theo li ca mt con b, hay v chim nghim cc s thc theo li ca mt ho s, hay b trn ngp bi cc s thc theo li ca mt ngi ho huyn. V th ta phi gi s rng nh trit hc khng tho mn vi cc s thc nh chng l, m ngh v chng. .. Nh th c v r l ng sau thuyt cp tin trit hc , ci lm ra v .. truy nguyn v cc s thc hay d liu trc tip, lun lun c mt s chp nhn khng ph phn c che giu ca cc hc thuyt truyn thng. V t duy no v cc s thc phi xut hin ngay c i vi nhng ngi cp tin ny; song v h khng bit v chng n mc cho rng h n thun chp nhn cc s thc, ta khng c la chn no ngoi vic cho rng t duy ca h l .. khng ph phn. (So c nhn xt ca cng tc gi v Din gii trong Erkenntnis, vol. 7, pp. 225 ff.). 6 So cc bnh lun ca Schopenhauer v lch s (Parerga, ect., vol. II, ch. XIX, 238; Works, vol. VI, p. 480, bn ting c xut bn ln 2). 7 (1) Theo hiu bit ca ti, l thuyt v nhn qu c phc ho y trong vn bn ln u tin c trnh by trong cun Logik der Forschung (1935) ca ti nay dch ra l The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1959). Xem pp. 59 f. ca bn dch. Nh c dch y, cc du ngoc nguyn bn c b i, v cc s trong cc du ngoc cng nh bn on ngn trong cc du ngoc c a thm vo, mt phn lm cho on hi b nn c th d hiu hn, v mt phn (trong trng hp hai du ngoc sau cng) tnh n mt quan im m ti khng thy r nm 1935, quan im v ci Tarski gi l ng ngha hc. (Xem, th d, Grundlegung der wissenschaftlichen Semantik ca ng, trong Actes du Congrs International Philosophique, vol. III, Paris, 1937, pp. 1 ff., v Carnap, Introduction to Semantics, 1942). Nh vic Tarski pht trin nn mng ca ng ngha hc, ti khng cn do d (nh ti do d khi vit cun sch c ni ti)
1

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dng y cc thut ng nguyn nhn v kt qu. V nhng t ny c th c nh ngha, dng khi nim ca Tarski v chn l, bng mt nh ngha ng ngha nh sau: S kin A l nguyn nhn ca s kin B, v s kin B l kt qu ca s kin A, khi v ch khi tn ti mt ngn ng trong chng ta c th trnh by ba nh , u, a,v b, sao cho u l mt qui lut ph qut ng, a m t A, v b m t B, v b l mt h qu logic ca u v a. ( y t s kin hay s thc c th c nh ngha bng mt phin bn ng ngha ca nh ngha ca ti v s kin trong The Logic of Scientific Discovery, pp. 88ff., th d, bng nh ngha sau: Mt s kin E l tn [designatum] chung ca mt lp cc mnh n nht c th dch c sang nhau). (2) y c th ni thm vi nhn xt lch s v vn ca nguyn nhn v kt qu. Khi nim Aristotlian v nguyn nhn (tc l, nguyn nhn hnh thc, vt cht v c hiu lc ca ng; ta khng quan tm n nguyn nhn cui cng [mc ch] y, cho d nhn xt ca ti cng ng cho n) c tnh bn cht lun in hnh; vn l gii thch s thay i hay chuyn ng, v n c gii thch bng dn chiu n cu trc n giu ca s vt. Bn cht lun ny vn c th thy cch nhn ca Bacon, Descartes, Locke, v thm ch Newton v vn ny; nhng l thuyt ca Descartes m ng cho mt cch nhn mi. ng thy bn cht ca mi vt th vt l s chon ch khng gian hay hnh th hnh hc ca chng, v kt lun rng cch duy nht theo cc vt th c th tc ng ln nhau l bng y; mt vt th chuyn ng nht thit y vt th khc khi ch ca n bi v c hai u chon ch, v v th khng th chim cng ch. Nh vy kt qu tip theo nguyn nhn do tt yu, v mi gii thch nhn qu ng (ca cc s kin vt l) phi dng y. Quan im ny vn c p dng bi Newton, ngi ni v l thuyt hp dn ring ca ng ph hp vi quan im tt nhin, dng tng v ht hn l y - m khng ai, bit bt c th g v trit hc, c l c th coi n l mt gii thch tho mn; v n vn cn c nh hng trong vt l hc dng mt s khng thch bt c loi tc ng xa no. Berkeley l ngi u tin ph phn s gii thch bng cc bn cht n giu, bt lun chng c a vo gii thch sc ht ca Newton, hay chng dn n l thuyt y ca Descartes; ng i khoa hc phi m t, hn l gii thch bng cc mi quan h bn cht hay tt yu. Hc thuyt ny, tr thnh mt trong cc c trng chnh ca ch ngha thc chng, mt ngha ca n nu chp nhn l thuyt ca chng ta v gii thch nhn qu; v gii thch nhn qu khi tr thnh mt loi m t; n l mt m t s dng cc gi thuyt ph qut, cc iu kin ban u, v suy din logic. Ci c th c gi l ng gp quan trng nht cho l thuyt nhn qu l do Hume (mt phn c thy trc bi Sextus Empiricus, AlGazzli, v nhng ngi khc); ng ch ra (ngc vi cch nhn ca Descartes) rng ta khng th bit bt c th g v mt mi quan h tt yu gia mt s kin A v mt s kin B khc. Tt c ci ta c th bit l cc s kin loi B (hay cc s kin ging B) cho n nay k theo cc s kin loi A (hay cc s kin ging A). Ta c th bit, thc t l, cc s kin nh vy c lin h vi nhau; nhng v ta khng bit rng mi quan h ny l mi quan h tt yu, ta ch c th ni rng chng ng trong qu kh. L thuyt ca chng ta hon ton tha nhn ph phn ny ca Hume. Nhng n khc Hume (1) ch n trnh by r rng gi thuyt ph qut rng cc s kin loi B mi ni v lun lun i theo cc s kin loi A; (2) rng n khng nh chn l ca mnh rng A l nguyn nhn ca B, vi iu kin gi thuyt ph qut l ng. Ni cch khc, Hume ch nhn vo bn thn cc s kin A v B; v ng khng th thy bt c du vt no ca mt lin h nhn qu hay mi quan h tt yu no gia hai loi s kin ny. Nhng chng ta cho thm mt ci th ba, mt qui lut ph qut; v i vi qui lut ny, ta c th ni v mt

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lin kt nhn qu, hay thm ch mt mi quan h tt yu. Th d, ta c th nh ngha: S kin B c lin kt nhn qu (hay c kt ni tt yu) vi s kin A khi v ch khi A l nguyn nhn ca B (theo ngha ca nh ngha ng ngha ca chng ta nu trn). V vn chn l ca mt qui lut ph qut, ta c th ni rng c v s cc qui lut ph qut m chn l ca n ta chng bao gi nghi ng trong i sng hng ngy; v do , cng c v s trng hp nhn qu ni trong cuc sng hng ngy ta chng bao gi nghi ng v lin kt nhn qu tt yu. T quan im khoa hc, lp trng l khc. V ta chng bao gi c th xc lp mt cch duy l chn l ca cc qui lut khoa hc; tt c ci ta c th lm l kim tra chng mt cch nghim ngt, v loi b cc gi thuyt sai (y c l l im then cht ca The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti). Do , mi qui lut khoa hc vn mi mi c tnh gi thuyt; chng l cc gi thit. V v vy, mi mnh v cc quan h nhn qu c th vn c cng tnh gi thuyt. Ta chng bao gi chc chn (theo mt ngha khoa hc) rng A l nguyn nhn ca B, chnh xc v chng ta chng bao gi chc chn liu qui lut ph qut c ni n c ng khng, du cho n c th c kim nghim tt n u. Th m, chng ta s thin v tm thy gi thuyt c th rng A l nguyn nhn ca B cng c th chp nhn c hn nu chng ta kim tra v xc nhn gi thuyt tng ng k hn. (V l thuyt ca ti v xc nhn [confirmation], xem ch. X v c Ph lc *ix ca The Logic of Scientific Discovery, c bit p. 275, ni tho lun cc h s tm thi hay cc ch s ca cc cu xc nhn). (3) V l thuyt gii thch lch s ca ti, c trnh by y trong vn bn (di na), ti mun thm vi bnh lun ph phn cho mt bi bo ca Morton G. White, c tn Gii thch Lch s c cng b trong Mind (vol. 52, 1943, pp. 212 ff). Tc gi chp nhn phn tch ca ti v gii thch nhn qu, nh ban u c trnh by trong Logic der Forschung ca ti (nay c dch l The Logic of Scientific Discovery). (ng quy nhm l thuyt ny cho mt bi bo ca C. G. Hempel, c cng b Journal of Philosophy, 1942; xem, tuy vy, ph bnh ca Hempel v cun sch ca ti Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 1937, (8), pp. 310 n 314). Sau khi thy ci chng ta gi ni chung l mt s gii thch, White tip tc hi gii thch lch s l g. tr li cu hi ny, ng ch ra rng c trng ca mt gii thch sinh hc (tri, chng hn, vi mt gii thch vt l) l s xut hin ca cc thut ng sinh hc c th trong cc qui lut ph qut c tnh gii thch; v ng kt lun: mt gii thch lch s l mt gii thch trong cc thut ng lch s c th xut hin cng th. ng cn thy rng tt c cc qui lut, trong bt c th g ging cc thut ng lch s c th xut hin, c c trng tt hn nh thuc x hi hc, v cc thut ng c ni n c tnh x hi hc hn l lch s; v nh th cui cng ng buc phi ng nht gii thch lch s vi gii thch x hi hc. i vi ti c v hin nhin rng cch nhn ny khng n ci c m t y trong vn bn nh s phn bit gia cc khoa hc lch s v cc khoa hc khi qut, v cc vn v phng php c th ca chng; v ti c th ni rng cc tho lun v vn v phng php ca s hc t lu lm ni bt s thc l s hc quan tm n cc s kin c th hn l cc qui lut chung. Ti ngh, th d, n cc tiu lun ca Lord Acton, vit nm 1858, chng li Buckle (tm thy Historical Essays and Studies, ca ng, 1908), v tranh lun gia Max Weber v E. Meyer (xem Gesammelte Aufsaetze zur Wissenschaftshehre, 1922, pp. 215 ff.). Ging Meyer, Weber lun lun nhn mnh ng rng s hc quan tm n cc s kin n nht, khng n cc qui lut ph qut, v rng, ng thi, n quan tm n gii thch nhn qu. Tuy vy, ng tic cc quan im ng ny dn ng quay sang lp i lp li nhiu ln (th d, op. cit., p. 8) chng quan im rng tnh nhn qu gn b vi cc qui lut ph qut. C v i vi ti l l thuyt

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ca chng ta v gii thch lch s, nh c trnh by trong vn bn, loi b kh khn v ng thi gii thch n c th ny sinh ra sao. 8 Hc thuyt rng cc th nghim mang tnh quyt nh c th c tin hnh trong vt l hc b cc nh theo thuyt quy c tn cng, c bit l Duhem (so ct. 1 ch. ny). Nhng Duhem vit trc Einstein, v trc quan st thin thc c tnh quyt nh ca Eddington; ng thm ch vit trc th nghim ca Lummer v Pringsheim dn n thuyt Lng t bng chng minh cc cng thc ca Rayleigh v Jeans l sai. 9 S ph thuc ca s hc vo mi quan tm ca chng ta c c E. Meyer v nh ph bnh ca ng M. Weber tha nhn. Meyer vit (Zur Theorie und Methodik der Geschichte, 1902, p. 37): S la chn cc s kin ph thuc vo mi quan tm lch s ca nhng ngi sng hin thi Weber vit (Ges. Aufsaetze, 1922, p. 259): Mi quan tm .. ca chng ta .. s xc nh di ca cc gi tr vn ho xc nh .. lch s. Weber, i theo Rickert, lin hi nht quyt rng mi quan tm ca chng ta, n lt n, li ph thuc vo cc tng v gi tr; v im ny chc chn ng khng sai, song ng khng thm vo bt c g cho phn tch phng php lun. Tuy vy, khng ai trong s cc tc gi ny rt ra kt lun cch mng rng, v mi s hc ph thuc vo s quan tm ca chng ta, ch c th c cc lch s, v chng bao gi c mt lch s, mt cu chuyn v din tin ca nhn loi nh n xy ra. V hai din gii lch s tri vi nhau, so ct. 61 ch. 11. 10 V s t chi ny tho lun vn v ngha ca ngha (Ogden v Richards) hay ng hn v cc ngha ca ngha (H. Gomperz), so ch. 11, c bit cc ct. 26, 47, 50, v 51. Xem c ct. 25 ch. ny. 11 V ch ngha v lai o c, so ch. 22. 12 So K. Barth, Credo (1936), p. 12. V nhn xt ca Barth chng li hc thuyt Tin lnh mi v s ri sng ca Cha trong lch s, so op. cit., 142. Xem c ngun Hegelian ca hc thuyt ny, c trch vn bn cho ct. 49, ch. 12. So c ct. 51 n 54 ch. 24. V trch dn tip so Barth, op. cit., 79. * V nhn xt ca ti rng cu chuyn v Christ khng phi l cu chuyn ca mt cuc cch mng dn tc ch ngha .. khng thnh cng, by gi ti thin v tin rng n c th chnh xc l th ny; xem cun Jesus Basileus ca R. Eisler. Nhng trong mi trng hp, n khng l cu chuyn v thnh cng th tc.* 13 So Barth, op. cit., 76. 14 So Journal nm 1854 ca Kierkegaard; xem bn ting c (1905) ca cun Book of the Judge ca ng, p. 135. 15 So ct. 57 ch. 11, v vn bn. 16 So cc cu kt thc ca The Clue to History ca Macmurray (1938; p. 237). 17 So c bit ct. 55 ch. 24, v vn bn. 18 Kierkegaard hc ti i hc Copenhagen trong mt thi k ca ch ngha Hegel y nhit huyt v thm ch hi hung hng. Nh thn hc Martensen c bit c nh hng. (V thi hung hng ny, so nh gi ca Vin Hn Lm Copenhagen chng li tiu lun c gii thng ca Schopenhauer v Nn mng ca o c, 1840. Rt c th l v ny l nguyn nhn khin Kierkegaard lm quen vi Schopenhauer, lc m Schopenhauer vn cha c bit n c). 19 So Journal nm 1854 ca Kierkegaard; xem bn ting c (1905) ca cun Book of the Judge ca ng, p. 129, m t on trong vn bn c dch hi thong. Kierkegaard khng l nh t tng C c duy nht chng li ch ngha lch s ca Hegel; ta thy (so ct. 12 ch. ny) Barth cng chng li n. Mt ph phn c bit l

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th i vi din gii mc ch lun ca Hegel v lch s c trit gia C c, M. B. Foster, mt ngi rt ngng m (nu khng phi l mn ca) Hegel, a ra cui cun sch The Political Philosophies of Plato and Hegel ca ng. im chnh ca ch ngha lch s, nu ti hiu ng ng, l th ny. Bng din gii lch s theo mc ch lun, Hegel khng thy cc mc ch t chng trong cc giai on khc nhau ca n, m ch thy cc phng tin mang li mc ch cui cng. Nhng Hegel sai khi cho rng cc hin tng hay cc giai on lch s l cc cng c cho mt mc ch c th c din t v pht biu nh ci g khng th phn bit c khi bn thn cc hin tng, theo cch m mt nh c th c phn bit khi hnh ng tm cch thc hin n, hay mt o c khi mt v kch (nu ta gi s mt cch sai lm rng nh ca v kch l i truyn t o c ny). Foster cho rng, v gi thit ny cho thy s tht bi nhn ra s khc bit gia cng vic ca mt nh sng to v vic ca mt ngi to cng c, mt k thut vin hay Demiurge [K sng to]. .. mt chui cng vic sng to c th c hiu nh mt s pht trin, Foster vit (op. cit., pp. 201-3), .. m khng c mt khi nim r rt v mc ch m chng tin ti .. bc tranh v, th d, mt thi i c th c hiu l c biu l ra t thi i trc n, m khng c hiu nh mt xp x gn hn ti mt s hon chnh hay mc ch. .. Lch s chnh tr, tng t, .. c th c hiu nh mt s pht trin, m khng c din gii nh mt qu trnh mc ch lun. Nhng Hegel, y v ni khc, thiu s nhn thu vo tm quan trng ca sng to. V mun hn, Foster (op. cit., p. 204; ti nhn mnh mt phn): Hegel coi n nh mt du hiu v thiu hnh tng tn gio m nhng ngi nm gi n, trong khi khng nh l c mt k hoch ca Thng , li i ph nhn rng c th bit c k hoch i ni rng k hoch ca Thng l khng th d c, r rng, l mt din t khng tho ng, nhng s tht m n biu l mt cch khng tho ng khng phi l k hoch ca Cha l c th bit c, m l, vi t cch ng Sng to v khng nh mt Demiurge, Cha khng h lm theo k hoch. Ti ngh rng ph phn ny l xut sc, cho d s sng to ca mt cng trnh ngh thut, theo mt ngha rt khc, c th tin hnh theo mt k hoch (tuy khng phi mt mc ch hay nh); v n c th l mt c gng thc hin ci g ging nh tng Platonic v cng trnh ci model hon ho trc con mt hay l tai tinh thn m ho s hay nhc s c gng sao chp. (So ct. 9 ch. 9 v cc ct. 25-26 ch. 8). 20 V cc cng kch ca Schopenhauer ln Hegel, m Kierkegaard nhc n, so ch. 12, th d, vn bn cho ct. 13, v cc cu kt thc. S tip tc c trch mt phn ca on ca Kierkegaard l op. cit., 130. (Trong mt ch thch mun hn Kierkegaard chn t ngi theo thuyt phim thn trc thi ra). 21 So ch. 6, c bit vn bn cho ct. 26. 22 V o c hc Hegelian v thng tr v phc tng, so ct. 25 ch. 11. V o c hc v sng bi anh hng, so ch. 12, c bit vn bn cho cc ct. 75 ff. 23 So ch. 5 (c bit vn bn cho ct. 5). 24 Ta c th biu l mnh theo nhiu cch m khng truyn t bt c th g. V nhim v dng ngn ng cho nh truyn thng duy l, v v nhu cu gi cc tiu chun v s trong sng ca ngn ng, so ct. 19 v 20 ch. 24, v ct. 30 ch. 12. 25 Cch nhn ny v vn ngha cuc sng meaning of life c th c tng phn vi cch nhn ca Wittgenstein v cc vn mc ch cuc sng sense of life trong Tractatus (p. 187): Li gii ca vn nhn sinh c thy trong s bin mt ca vn ny. (Chng phi y l l do v sao nhng ngi m i vi h sau thi gian di ng vc mc ch ca cuc sng tr nn r rng, khi khng th ni mc ch

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ny ct ci g?) V ch ngha thn b ca Wittgenstein, xem c ct. 32 ch. 24. V din gii lch s c gi y, so cc ct. 61 (1) ch. 11, v 27 ch. ny. 26 So, th d, ct. 5 ch. 5 v ct. 19 ch. 24. C th nhn xt rng th gii ca cc s thc bn thn n l y (v quyt nh hng ngy c th c din gii nh mt s thc). V th chng bao gi c th bc b mt nht nguyn lun nht quyt rng ch c cc s thc. Nhng tnh khng th bc b khng phi l mt c hnh. Th d, ch ngha duy tm cng chng th b bc b. 27 C v rng mt trong cc l do ca ch ngha lch s l nh lch s ch ngha khng thy c mt la chn kh d th ba, bn cnh hai th m ng ta cho php: hoc th gii c cai tr bi cc quyn lc cao hn, bi mt vn mnh bn cht hay L tr Hegelian, hoc n l s run ri n thun, phi duy l, mc ca cuc nh bc. Nhng c kh nng th ba: rng chng ta c th a l tr vo n (so ct. 19 ch. 24); rng tuy th gii khng tin b, chng ta c th tin b, tng ngi mt cng nh trong hp tc. Kh nng th ba c by t r rng bi H. A. L. Fisher trong History of Europe ca ng (vol. I, p. vii, ti nhn mnh; c trch mt phn ct. 8 ch. 21): Mt kch thch tr tu .. t chi ti. Nhng ngi thng minh hn v c hc hn ti thy r trong lch s mt s , mt nhp iu, mt hnh mu xc nh trc. Nhng s hi ho ny n giu vi ti. Ti ch c th thy mt tnh trng khn cp bm theo tnh trng khc nh sng bm theo sng, mt s thc ln lao duy nht vi s lu tm n n, v n l duy nht, khng th c cc khi qut ho, ch mt quy tc chc chn cho s gia: rng ng ta phi nhn ra .. tr chi ca ci ngu nhin v ci khng c d kin. V ngay sau s tn cng xut sc ny ln ch ngha lch s (vi on in nghing, so ct. 13 ch. 13), Fisher tip tc: y khng phi l hc thuyt v s v tuyt vng. S thc v tin b c vit r rng v to trn trang ca lch s; nhng s tin b khng l mt qui lut t nhin. t m mt th h ginh c c th b mt bi th h tip theo. Ba cu cui ny i din rt r cho ci ti gi l kh nng th ba, lng tin vo trch nhim ca chng ta, nim tin rng mi th tu thuc vo chng ta. V l th thy rng tuyn b ca Fisher c Toynbee (A Study of History, vol. V, 414) din gii nh nim tin Phng Ty hin i vo quyn tuyt i ca May Ri. Chng g c th cho thy r rng hn thi ca nh lch s ch ngha, s bt lc ca ng ta thy kh nng th ba. V n c l gii thch v sao ng ta trn trnh t quyn tuyt i c cho l ca may ri ny sang mt nim tin vo quyn tuyt i ca quyn lc hu trng - tc l vo ch ngha lch s. (So c ct. 61 ch. 11). C l ti c th trch y hn cc bnh lun ca Toynbee v on ca Fisher (m Toynbee trch n cc t ci khng c d kin): on c din t ti tnh ny, Toynbee vit, khng th b gt b nh s t ph ca mt hc gi; v tc gi l mt ngi theo Ch ngha T do trnh by mt tn iu m Ch ngha T do chuyn t l thuyt thnh hnh ng Nim tin Phng Ty hin i ny vo quyn tuyt i ca May Ri c sinh ra trong th k th mi chn ca Thi i C c, khi s vic vn c v tin trin tt vi Ngi Phng Ty, vi chnh sch laissez-faire .. (V sao nim tin vo tin b m bn thn chng ta chu trch nhim phi ng mt nim tin vo quyn tuyt i ca May Ri, hay v sao n phi to ra chnh sch laissez-faire, Toynbee mc khng gii thch). 28 Bng ch ngha hin thc v la chn cc mc ch ca chng ta, ti mun ni rng chng ta phi chn cc mc ch c th c thc hin trong mt khong thi gian hp l, v rng chng ta phi trnh cc l tng xa vi v Khng tng m h, tr khi

368

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/CH THCH

chng xc nh cc mc tiu trc tip hn m bn thn chng l xng ng. So c bit cc nguyn l v k thut x hi tng phn, c tho lun ch. 9. Bn tho cui cng ca tp I ca ln xut bn u tin ca cun sch ny c hon tt vo thng Mi, 1942, v ca tp II vo thng Hai, 1943.

PH LC
I CC S THC , CC TIU CHUN, V CHN L: MT PH PHN THM V CH NGHA TNG I (1961)
*

Cn bnh trit hc chnh ca thi i chng ta l mt ch ngha tng i tr thc v o c, ci sau ch t mt phn da vo ci trc. Di ch ngha tng i- hay, nu thch, ch ngha hoi nghi ti c ni, ngn gn, n l thuyt rng s la chn gia cc l thuyt tranh ua nhau l tu tin; v hoc, l khng c ci nh chn l khch quan; hoc, nu c, khng c ci nh l thuyt ng hay l thuyt (tuy c l khng ng) d sao i na gn vi chn l hn l thuyt khc; hoc, nu c hai hay nhiu l thuyt hn, khng c cch hay cc phng tin quyt nh liu mt trong s chng c tt hn l thuyt khc hay khng. Trong ph lc1 ny u tin ti s gi rng mt liu thuc ca l thuyt Tarski v chn l (xem c cc tham kho n Tarski Ch dn ca cun sch ny), c l c cng c thm bi l thuyt ca ti v tin gn hn n chn l, c th gp phn vo cha tr cn bnh ny, tuy ti tha nhn rng cng cn n mt s phng thuc khc, nh l thuyt phi-c on v tri thc m ti trnh by ni khc.2 Ti cng s th chng t ( cc mc 12 ff. di y) rng tnh hnh trong lnh vc tiu chun c bit trong lnh vc o c v chnh tr - l hi ging ci nhn c lnh vc cc s thc. 1. Chn l Cc l l no ng h ch ngha tng i ny sinh t cu hi, c hi vi ging ca mt ngi hoi nghi qu quyt, ngi bit chc rng khng c cu tr li: Chn l l g? Nhng cu hi ca Pilate c th c tr li theo cch n gin v hp l tuy hu nh khng theo cch c th lm ng tho mn nh sau: mt khng nh, nh , mnh , hay nim tin, l ng, khi v ch khi, n tng ng vi cc s thc.
* 1

Fact = s thc, c ngi dch l s kin. Trong bn dch ny, s kin = event. Ti mang n su sc ph phn sc so ca Dr. William W. Bartley, khng ch gip ti ci thin chng 24 ca cun sch ny (c bit trang 231) m cng khin ti a ra nhng thay i quan trng trong ph lc ny. 2 Xem th d On the Sources of Knowledge and Ignorance, by gi l Dn nhp cho cun Conjectures and Refutations ca ti v, c bit hn, Ch. 10 ca cun sch ; tt nhin, c cun The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti na.

370

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Th nhng ta c ni g khi ni rng mt mnh tng ng vi cc s thc? Tuy i vi ngi hoi nghi hay tng i ch ngha cu hi th hai ny c v cng khng th tr li c ht nh cu hi u, n tht s c th c tr li d dng ngang th. Cu tr li l khng kh nh ngi ta c th ch i nu suy ngm v s thc rng mi thm phn u gi s rng nhn chng bit chn l (theo ngha tng ng vi cc s thc) ngha l g. Qu thc, cu tr li ho ra gn nh tm thng. chng mc no n l tm thng - tc l, mt khi ta hc c t Tarski rng vn l ci trong ta nhc ti hay ni v cc mnh v cc s thc v quan h no v s tng ng gia mnh v cc s thc; v, v th, li gii cng phi nhc n hay ni v cc mnh v cc s thc, v quan h no gia chng. Hy xem xt on vn sau: Mnh Smith bc vo hiu cm khng lu sau 10h15 tng ng vi cc s thc, khi v ch khi, Smith bc vo hiu cm khng lu sau 10h15. Khi c on vn in nghing ny, ci chc gy n tng cho ta u tin l s tm thng ca n. Song ng bn tm n tnh tm thng ca n: nu ng n n ln na, v cn thn hn, ta thy n nhc n (1) mt mnh , v (2) n cc s thc no ; v (3) rng v th n c th ni r cc iu kin rt hin nhin m ta mong i l ng khi ta mun ni rng mnh c ni n tng ng vi cc s thc c ni n. Nhng ngi ngh rng on vn in nghing ny l qu tm thng hay qu n gin cha bt c th g l th phi nh li s thc, c nhc ti ri, rng v mi ngi bit chn l, hay s tng ng vi cc s thc, ngha l g (min l anh ta khng cho php mnh suy xt v n), theo mt ngha no y, iu ny phi l mt vn tm thng. Rng tng c trnh by trong on vn in nghing l ng, c th c lm r bng on vn in nghing th hai sau. Khng nh do nhn chng a ra, Ti nhn thy Smith bc vo hiu cm khng lu sau 10h15 l ng, khi v ch khi, Smith bc vo hiu cm khng lu sau 10h15. R rng on vn in nghing th hai ny li rt tm thng. Th m, n ni r y cc iu kin p dng v ng l ng cho bt c mnh no do mt nhn chng a ra. Vi ngi c th ngh cch hay hn trnh by on vn nh sau: Khng nh do nhn chng a ra, Ti nhn thy Smith bc vo hiu cm khng lu sau 10h15 l ng, khi v ch khi, nhn chng thy Smith bc vo hiu cm khng lu sau 10h15.

I: CC S THC, CC TIU CHUN V CHN L

371

So snh on vn in nghing th ba ny vi on th hai ta thy rng trong khi on th hai a ra cc iu kin cho chn l ca mt mnh v Smith v vic ng ta lm, on th ba a ra cc iu kin cho chn l ca mt mnh v nhn chng v vic anh ta lm (hay nhn thy). Nhng y l s khc bit duy nht gia hai on vn: c hai nu r y cc iu kin cho chn l ca hai mnh khc nhau c trch dn trong chng. L mt quy tc v a ra bng chng l cc nhn chng bng mt phi gii hn bn thn h ni r ci h thc s nhn thy. Tun th quy tc ny i khi c th lm cho thm phn phn bit d dng hn gia bng chng tht v bng chng gi. Nh vy c l c th ni on vn in nghing th ba c u im no so vi on th hai, nu nhn t quan im tm-chn l v tm ra-chn l. Nhng ct yu cho mc tiu hin ti ca chng ta l ng trn ln cc cu hi v tm kim-chn l hay tm ra-chn l tht s (tc l cc cu hi nhn thc lun hay phng php lun) vi cc cu hi v chng ta mun ni g, hay c nh ni g, khi chng ta ni v chn l, hay v s tng ng vi cc s thc (cu hi logic hay bn th hc v chn l). M t quan im sau, on vn in nghing th ba khng c u im no so vi on th hai. C hai u ni r y cc iu kin cho chn l ca mnh m n nhc n. V th mi on u tr li cho cu hi Chn l l g? chnh xc theo cng cch; tuy mi on ch lm vic mt cch gin tip, bng a ra cc iu kin cho chn l ca mt mnh no v mi on cho mt mnh khc nhau. 2. Cc Tiu chun Quan trng nhn ra rng bit chn l c ngha l g, hay di cc iu kin no mt mnh c gi l ng, l khng ht nh, v phi c phn bit r rng vi, vic c c mt phng tin quyt nh mt tiu chun cho quyt nh - bt lun mnh cho c ng hay sai. S phn bit m ti ang ni n l mt s phn bit rt tng qut, v n c tm quan trng ng k cho mt s nh gi ch ngha tng i, nh chng ta s thy. Chng ta c th bit, th d, chng ta hiu tht ti v tht i ngha l g; nhng chng ta c th khng bit phn bit ci ny vi ci kia th no, t nht trong mt s trng hp: y l ci chng ta ngh khi ni rng chng ta khng c tiu chun v s ti ca tht ti. Tng t, mi bc s u bit, t hay nhiu, vi bnh lao ng ta mun ni g;

372

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nhng ng ta c th khng lun lun nhn ra n. V cho d (hin nay) c th c cc b dng c xt nghim gn nh mt phng php quyt nh,tc l, nh mt tiu chun su mi nm trc chc chn khng c cc b dng c xt nghim nh vy cho cc bc s dng, v khng c tiu chun no. Nhng cc bc s khi bit rt k h mun ni g - mt bnh phi ly nhim do mt loi vi khun no . Phi tha nhn, mt tiu chun -mt phng php quyt nh r rngnu c c, c th lm cho mi th r rng, xc nh v chnh xc hn. Cho nn c th hiu c l mt s ngi, khao kht s chnh xc, i cc tiu chun. V nu ta c th c c chng, i hi c th l hp l. Nhng s l mt sai lm i tin rng, trc khi ta c mt tiu chun quyt nh liu mt ngi c b lao hay khng, cu ni X b lao l v ngha; hay rng, trc khi ta c mt tiu chun v tnh ti hay i ca tht, khng c ngha thit thc xt liu mt ming tht c b i hay khng; hoc rng, trc khi ta c mt my d ni di, chng ta khng bit ta mun ni g khi ni rng X c ni di, v v th thm ch khng phi xt n kh nng ny, v n khng h l kh nng, m l v ngha; hoc rng, trc khi c mt tiu chun v chn l, chng ta khng bit ta mun ni g khi ta ni v mt mnh rng n ng. Nh th nhng ngi khng khng rng, khng c mt tiu chun mt kim nghim tin cy - v bnh lao, hay ni di, hay chn l, chng ta khng th cho cc t bnh lao hay ni di hay ng bt c ngha g, chc chn l sai lm. Thc ra, vic xy dng mt b dng c xt nghim cho bnh lao, hay cho ni di, xy ra sau khi chng ta xc lp c l i th - chng mun ni bnh lao hay ni di l g. R rng l trong tin trnh pht trin cc xt nghim cho bnh lao, chng ta c th hc c nhiu v cn bnh ny; nhiu n mc, c l, chng ta c th ni rng chnh ngha ca t bnh lao thay i di nh hng ca tri thc mi ca chng ta, v sau khi xc lp tiu chun, ngha ca t khng cn nh trc na. Vi ngi, c l thm ch c th ni rng bnh lao by gi c th c nh ngha di dng tiu chun. Nhng iu ny khng lm thay i s thc rng trc y chng ta c ni ci g - mc d c th, tt nhin, chng ta bit t hn v s vt. N cng khng lm thay i s thc rng c t bnh (nu c) m chng ta hoc c mt tiu chun hoc c mt nh ngha r rng, v rng c t tiu chun (nu c) ng tin cy. (Nhng nu chng l khng ng tin cy, tt hn ta ng gi chng l cc tiu chun). C th khng c tiu chun no gip chng ta xc nh liu mt t giy bc (ng bng) l tht hay khng. Nhng nu ta thy hai t giy

I: CC S THC, CC TIU CHUN V CHN L

373

bc c cng s, chng ta c l do xc ng khng nh, ngay c thiu mt tiu chun, rng ch t mt trong hai t l tin gi; v vic thiu mt tiu chun v tnh tht khng lm cho khng nh ny v ngha. Tm li, l thuyt rng xc nh mt t c ngha l g phi thit lp mt tiu chun cho vic s dng ng ca n, hay cho s p dng ng n n, l sai lm: hu nh ta chng bao gi c mt tiu chun nh vy. 3. Cc Trit hc Tiu chun Cch nhn va b bc b - quan im rng phi c cc tiu chun bit chng ta ni v ci g, bt lun n l bnh lao, ni di, hay s tn ti, hay ngha, hay chn l- l c s cng khai hay ngm ngm ca nhiu trit hc. Mt trit hc loi ny c th c gi l trit hc tiu chun. V i hi c bn ca mt trit hc tiu chun thng thng khng th c tho mn, r rng l s chp nhn mt trit hc tiu chun, trong nhiu trng hp, s dn n tht vng, v n ch ngha tng i hay ch ngha hoi nghi. Ti tin rng chnh i hi v mt tiu chun v chn l l ci khin nhiu ngi n vy cm thy rng cu hi Chn l l g? l khng th tr li c. Nhng thiu mt tiu chun v chn l khng khin cho khi nim v chn l khng-c ngha cht no hn thiu mt tiu chun v sc kho khin cho khi nim v sc kho khng c ngha. Mt ngi m yu c th mu cu sc kho cho d anh ta khng c tiu chun no cho n. Mt ngi phm sai lm c th tm kim chn l cho d anh ta khng c tiu chun no cho n. V c hai c th n gin tm kim sc kho, hay chn l, m khng my bn tm v ngha ca cc t ny m h (v nhng ngi khc) hiu r cho cc mc ch ca h. Mt kt qu tc th ca cng trnh ca Tarski v chn l l nh l logic sau: khng th c tiu chun chung ca chn l (tr cc h thng ngn ng nhn to no thuc loi hi ngho nn). C th chng minh kt qu ny mt cch chnh xc; v vic chng minh n dng khi nim v chn l nh s tng ng vi cc s thc. y chng ta c mt kt qu l th v rt quan trng v mt trit hc (quan trng c bit trong mi quan h vi vn v mt l thuyt c on v tri thc3). Nhng kt qu ny c chng minh vi s gip ca mt khi nim trong trng hp ny khi nim v chn l- m cho
V mt m t v ph phn ca cc l thuyt c on (hay khng theo thuyt c th sai lm) v tri thc xem c bit cc mc v, vi, v x ff., ca Dn nhp cho Conjectures and Refutations ca ti.
3

374

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n ta khng c tiu chun no. i hi v l ca cc trit hc tiu chun rng chng ta khng c coi mt khi nim l nghim tc trc khi mt tiu chun c xc lp, nu c tn trng trit trong trng hp ny, v th s mi mi ngn cn chng ta khi t mt kt qu logic c tm quan trng trit hc ln. Tnh c, kt qu rng khng th c tiu chun chung v chn l l mt h qu trc tip ca kt qu cn quan trng hn (m Tarski nhn c bng kt hp nh l khng th quyt nh ca Gdel vi l thuyt ring ca ng v chn l) rng khng th c tiu chun chung v chn l thm ch cho lnh vc tng i hp ca l thuyt s, hay cho bt c khoa hc no s dng y s hc. N p dng a fortiori [tt nhin] cho chn l trong bt c lnh vc ngoi ton hc no s dng khng hn ch s hc. 4. Ch ngha C th Phm Sai lm Tt c iu ny cho thy khng ch rng mt s dng vn cn thi thng ca ch ngha hoi nghi v ch ngha tng i l sai lm, m c rng chng l li thi; chng da trn mt s nhm ln logic - gia ngha ca mt t v tiu chun v s p dng ng ca n - mc d cc phng tin dn sch nhm ln ny c sn khong ba chc nm ri. Ti phi tha nhn, tuy vy, rng c ci li v chn l trong c ch ngha hoi nghi v ch ngha tng i. Ci li v chn l chnh l khng tn ti tiu chun chung no v chn l. Nhng iu ny khng bin h rng s la chn gia cc l thuyt tranh ua nhau l tu tin. N ch c ngha, n gin, rng ta lun c th sai trong la chn ca mnh - rng ta lun c th khng nm c chn l, hay khng t ti chn l; rng khng c s chc chn (cng chng c thm ch tri thc c kh nng cao, nh ti cho thy nhiu ni, th d ch. 10 ca Conjectures and Refutations) cho chng ta; rng chng ta c th mc sai lm. iu ny, trong chng mc chng ta bit, l khng hn s tht r rt. C t lnh vc n lc con ngi, nu c, c min tr khi tnh c th sai ca con ngi. Ci mt thi chng ta ngh l c xc lp tt, hay thm ch chc chn, mun hn c th ho ra l khng hon ton ng (m iu ny c ngha l sai), v cn sa i. Mt th d c bit gy n tng l s pht minh ra nc nng, v hydrogen nng (deuterium, c Harold C. Urley tch ra u tin nm 1931). Trc pht minh ny, chng c th tng tng c g chc chn hn v n nh hn hiu bit ca chng ta v nc (H2O) v v cc nguyn t ho hc to thnh nc. Nc thm ch c dng cho nh ngha tc nghip ca gram, n v khi lng chun ca h thng

I: CC S THC, CC TIU CHUN V CHN L

375

metric tuyt i; nh th n to thnh mt trong cc n v c bn ca cc php o vt l th nghim. iu ny minh ho s thc rng tri thc ca chng ta v nc c tin l c xc lp rt k n mc c th c dng nh c s vng chc ca mi o lng vt l khc. Nhng sau khi pht minh ra nc nng, mi hiu ra rng ci chng ta tin l mt hp cht thun khit v ho hc li thc ra l mt hn hp ca cc hp cht khng th phn bit c v mt ho hc nhng rt khc nhau v mt vt l, vi cc t trng, im si, v im ng bng rt khc nhau mc d cho cc nh ngha ca tt c cc im ny, nc c dng nh mt c s chun. S c lch s ny l in hnh; v chng ta c th hc t n rng ta khng th bit trc nhng phn no ca tri thc khoa hc ca chng ta c th gp tai ho mt ngy no . Nh th nim tin vo s chc chn khoa hc v vo thm quyn ca khoa hc ch l iu m tng: khoa hc l c th mc sai lm, v khoa hc mang tnh ngi. Nhng tnh c th sai ca tri thc ca chng ta hay lun rng mi tri thc l s phng on, mc d mt s gm cc phng on c kim tra rt nghim ngt khng th c vin dn ng h ch ngha hoi nghi hay ch ngha tng i. T s thc rng chng ta c th phm sai lm, v rng khng tn ti mt tiu chun v chn l ci c th cu chng ta khi sai lm, t khng suy ra rng s la chn gia cc l thuyt l tu tin, hay khng-duy l: rng chng ta khng th hc, hay tin gn hn n chn l: rng tri thc ca chng ta khng th tng ln. 5. Ch ngha C th Phm Sai lm v s Tng ln ca Tri thc Vi ch ngha c th sai lm y ti mun ni n quan im, hay s chp nhn s thc, rng chng ta c th sai, v s truy tm iu chc chn (hay thm ch tm xc sut cao) l mt s truy tm sai lm. Song iu ny khng ng s truy tm chn l l sai lm. Ngc li, khi nim v sai lm hm khi nim v chn l nh tiu chun m ta c th khng t ti. N hm rng, d cho ta c th tm kim chn l, v d cho thm ch ta c th tm thy chn l (nh ti tin chng ta thy trong rt nhiu trng hp), ta chng bao gi c th hon ton chc chn rng ta tm thy n. Lun c mt kh nng sai lm; cho d trong trng hp ca mt s chng minh logic v ton hc, kh nng ny c th c coi l nh. Nhng ch ngha c th phm sai lm tuyt nhin khng gy ra bt c kt lun hoi nghi hay tng i ch ngha no. iu ny s tr nn r nu chng ta xt rng tt c cc th d lch s c bit v tnh c th sai ca con ngi bao gm tt c cc th d c bit v sai lm t php

376

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l cc th d v s tin b ca tri thc chng ta. Mi s khm ph ra mt sai lm to thnh mt s tin b tht s v tri thc ca chng ta. Nh Roger Martin du Gard ni trong Jean Barois, l ci g nu chng ta bit chn l khng c tm thy u. Th d, tuy s khm ph ra nc nng cho thy rng chng ta mc sai lm trm trng, y khng ch l mt tin b v tri thc ca chng ta, m n lt n gn kt vi cc tin b khc, v n to ra thm nhiu tin b na. Nh th chng ta c th hc t cc li lm ca mnh. S thu hiu c bn ny, qu thc, l c s ca mi nhn thc lun v phng php lun; v n cho chng ta mt gi lm th no hc c h thng hn, lm th no tin b nhanh hn (khng nht thit v cc li ch ca cng ngh: i vi mi c nhn i tm chn l, vn lm sao thc y s tin b ca mnh l khn cp nht). Gi ny, rt n gin, l chng ta phi tm cc sai lm ca mnh hay ni cch khc, chng ta phi th ph phn cc l thuyt ca chng ta. Ph phn, hnh nh, l cch duy nht chng ta c pht hin ra cc sai lm ca chng ta, v hc t chng mt cch c h thng. 6. Tin Gn hn n Chn l Trong tt c vic ny, tng v s tng ln ca tri thc - v t gn hn ti chn l l quyt nh. Bng trc gic, tng ny l r nh tng v bn thn chn l. Mt mnh l ng nu n tng ng vi cc s thc. N gn chn l hn mt mnh khc nu n tng ng vi cc s thc st hn mnh khc. Song tuy tng ny l r v trc gic, v tnh chnh ng ca n hu nh khng b ngi dn thng v cc nh khoa hc nhi ng, ging nh tng v chn l, n b mt s nh trit hc (th d kh mi y W. V. Quine4) tn cng coi l khng chnh ng. V th c th nhc ti y rng, kt hp hai phn tch ca Tarski, mi y ti c kh nng cho mt nh ngha v tng tin gn ti chn l di dng logic thun tu ca l thuyt Tarski. (Ti n gin kt hp cc tng v chn l v v ni dung, nhn c tng v ni dung-chn l ca mt mnh a, tc l lp ca mi mnh ng suy ra t a, v ni dung-sai lm ca n, ci c th c nh ngha, i th, nh ni dung ca n tr i ni dung chn l. Sau ta c th ni l mt mnh a n gn chn l hn mnh b khi v ch khi ni dungchn l ca n tng ln m khng lm tng ni dung-sai lm ca n; xem ch. 10 ca Conjectures and Refutations ca
4

Xem W. V. Quine, Word and Object, 1959, p. 23.

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ti). V th khng c l do no hoi nghi v khi nim tin gn hn n chn l, hay s tin b ca tri thc. V tuy ta c th lun lun mc sai lm, trong nhiu trng hp (c bit trong cc trng hp ca cc xt nghim ct yu quyt nh gia hai l thuyt) chng ta c mt tng hp l v liu chng ta c thc s n gn chn l hn hay khng. Phi hiu rt r tng v mt mnh a tin gn chn l hn mnh b tuyt nhin khng xen vo tng l mi mnh hoc ng hoc sai, khng c kh nng th ba. N ch tnh n s thc l c th c nhiu s tht trong mt mnh sai. Nu ti ni Ba gi ri qu mun kp tu 3h35 th mnh ca ti c th sai v khng qu mun cho tu 3h35 (v 3h35 xy ra 4 pht mun hn). Song vn c nhiu s tht -v thng tin ng trong mnh ca ti; v tuy ti c th ni thm tr khi tu 3h35 b chm (iu him khi xy ra), v nh th lm tng ni dung-chn l ca n, nhn xt thm ny cng c th c coi nh c hiu. (Mnh ca ti c th sai bi v khi ti ni mi ch 3h28 ch khng phi 3h30. Song ngay c khi c nhiu s tht trong n). Mt l thuyt nh l thuyt ca Kepler m t qu o cc hnh tinh vi chnh xc c bit c th c coi l cha nhiu thng tin ng, cho d n sai bi s trch khi qu o ellip c xy ra. V l thuyt Newton (cho d y ta c th cho rng n sai), chng mc chng ta bit, cha mt lng thng tin ng gy kinh ngc - nhiu hn l thuyt Keppler rt nhiu. Nh th l thuyt Newton l mt xp x tt hn l thuyt Keppler n n gn chn l hn. Nhng iu ny khng lm cho n ng: n c th gn chn l hn v n c th ng thi l mt l thuyt sai. 7. Ch ngha Tuyt i tng v mt ch ngha tuyt i trit hc ng l ng ght vi nhiu ngi v, thng thng, n kt hp vi mt i hi gio iu v c on l n c c chn l, hay mt tiu chun v chn l. Song c mt dng khc ca ch ngha tuyt i - mt ch ngha tuyt i c th phm sai lm n qu thc bc b tt c iu ny: n n thun khng nh rng cc sai lm ca chng ta, ch t, l cc sai lm tuyt i, theo ngha rng mt l thuyt i lch khi chn l, n n gin l sai, cho d sai lm trong n l t r rng hn trong l thuyt khc. Nh th cc khi nim v chn l, v v khng t c chn l, c th miu t cc tiu chun tuyt i cho nh theo thuyt c th phm sai lm. Loi ch ngha tuyt i ny l hon ton khng b mt vt nh no ca ch ngha c on. V n rt c ch trong cc tho lun ph phn nghim tc. Tt nhin, n lt, n c th b ph phn, ph hp vi nguyn l l

378

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chng g c min khi b ph phn. Nhng ch t hin ti i vi ti c v khng chc rng vic ph phn l thuyt (logic) v chn l v l thuyt v tin gn hn n chn l s thnh cng. 8. Cc ngun Tri thc Nguyn l rng mi th c cng khai cho ph phn (m bn thn nguyn l ny khng c min tr) dn n mt li gii n gin cho vn v cc ngun ca tri thc, nh ti th chng t ni khc (xem Dn nhp cho Conjectures and Refutations ca ti), N l th ny: mi ngun - truyn thng, l tr, s tng tng, quan st, hay g na u c th chp nhn v c th c dng, nhng chng ngun no c bt c uy quyn no. S ph nhn uy quyn ny i vi cc ngun tri thc quy cho chng mt vai tr rt khc vi vai tr m chng c cho l phi ng trong cc nhn thc lun qu kh v hin ti. Nhng n l phn ca cch tip cn ph phn v c th phm sai lm ca chng ta: mi ngun u c hoan nghnh, song khng mnh no c min tr khi ph phn, bt lun ngun ca n l g. Truyn thng, c bit hn, m c nhng ngi duy l tr (Descartes) ln duy kinh nghim (Bacon) u c khuynh hng vt b, c th c ta tha nhn nh mt trong cc ngun quan trng nht, v hu nh mi th chng ta hc (t nhng ngi gi hn, trng hc, t sch v) dng nh l t . V th ti cho rng phn-ch ngha truyn thng phi b vt b v v ch. Song ch ngha truyn thng - nhn mnh uy quyn ca truyn thng cng phi b vt b; khng v v ch, m v l sai lm sai lm ht nh bt c nhn thc lun no khc chp nhn ngun tri thc no (th d, trc gic tr tu, hay trc gic tri gic) nh mt uy quyn, hay mt m bo, hay mt tiu chun ca chn l. 9. Mt Phng php Ph phn c Kh d? Nhng nu chng ta thc s vt b bt c i hi no n quyn uy, v bt c ngun c bit no ca tri thc, lm sao chng ta c th ph phn bt c l thuyt no? Chng phi mi ph phn u xut pht t cc gi thit no ? Phi chng tnh hp l ca bt c ph phn no, v th, ph thuc vo chn l ca cc gi thit ny? V c li g i ph phn mt l thuyt nu ph phn t ra l khng hp l? Th m chng t rng n hp l, chng phi chng ta phi chng minh, hay bin minh, cc gi thit ca n? V chng phi vic chng minh hay bin minh ca bt c gi thit no ng l ci mi ngi c th (tuy thng v vng) v l ci

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ti tuyn b y l khng th? Nhng nu l khng th, th chng phi ph phn (hp l) cng l khng th ? Ti tin chnh lot cu hi hay phn i ny l ci cn ng n mt s chp nhn (cha dt khot-tentative) quan im c ch trng y: nh cc cu hi ny cho thy, ngi ta d b khin tin rng phng php ph phn, xt v logic, l cng thuyn vi tt c cc phng php khc: v n khng th hot ng m khng a ra cc gi thit, v n phi chng minh hay bin minh cc gi thit ny; th m ton b vn ca l l ca chng ta l chng ta khng th chng minh hay bin minh bt c th g nh chc chn, hay thm ch nh c kh nng, nhng chng ta phi t tho mn vi cc l thuyt tr vng s ph phn. Hin nhin, cc phn i ny l rt nghim trng. Chng lm ni bt tm quan trng ca nguyn l ca chng ta rng khng g c min tr ph phn, hay phi c cho l c min ph phn ngay c bn thn nguyn l ny v phng php ph phn cng khng c min tr. Nh th cc phn i ny to thnh mt ph phn l th v quan trng i vi lp trng ca ti. Nhng ph phn ny n lt n li c th b ph phn; v n c th b bc b. u tin, cho d chng ta tha nhn rng mi ph phn xut pht t cc gi thit no , iu ny khng nht thit c ngha rng, l ph phn hp l, cc gi thit ny phi c chng minh hay bin minh. V cc gi thit c th, th d, l mt phn ca l thuyt m ph phn hng chng li. (Trong trng hp ny ta ni v ph phn ni ti). Hoc chng c th l cc gi thit ni chung c chp nhn, cho d chng khng to thnh mt phn ca l thuyt b ph phn. Trong trng hp ny ph phn chung quy l ch ra rng l thuyt b ph phn mu thun vi cc quan im no ni chung c chp nhn (m nhng ngi bnh vc n khng bit). Loi ph phn ny c th rt c gi tr khi n khng thnh cng; v n c th khin nhng ngi bnh vc l thuyt b ph phn i nghi ng cc quan im ni chung c chp nhn, v iu ny c th dn n cc pht minh quan trng. (Mt th d l th l lch s ca l thuyt Dirac v cc phn-ht). Hoc chng c th l cc gi thit l bn cht ca mt l thuyt i ch (trong trng hp ny ph phn c th c gi l ph phn siu nghim, phn bit vi ph phn ni ti): cc gi thit, th d, c th l cc gi thuyt, hay cc phng on, nhng ci c th c ph phn v kim nghim mt cch c lp. Trong trng hp ny ph phn chung quy l thch thc tin hnh cc kim nghim ct yu no quyt nh gia hai l thuyt knh ch nhau.

380

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Cc th d ny cho thy rng cc phn i quan trng ny sinh y chng l thuyt ca ti v ph phn da vo mt gio iu khng th ng vng rng ph phn, l hp l, phi xut pht t cc gi thit c chng minh hay c bin minh. Hn na ph phn c th l quan trng, lm sng t, v thn ch c kt qu, m khng l hp l: cc l d dng bc b ph phn khng hp l no c th ri nhiu nh sng mi ln mt l thuyt, v c th c dng nh mt l l (cha dt khot) ng h n; v v l thuyt c th t bo v mnh nh vy chng li ph phn, chng ta rt c th ni rng n c cc l l ph phn ng h. Hon ton tng qut, chng ta c th ni rng ph phn hp l i vi mt l thuyt ct ch ra rng l thuyt khng thnh cng trong gii quyt cc vn m n c cho l phi gii quyt; v nu xem xt ph phn theo nh sng ny th n chc chn khng cn ph thuc vo bt c tp no ca cc gi thit (tc l, n c th l ni ti), cho d rt c th l mt s gi thit khng thuc v l thuyt ang c tho lun (tc l, cc gi thit siu nghim no ) gy cm hng lc bt u. 10. Cc Quyt nh T quan im c trnh by y, ni chung cc l thuyt khng c kh nng c chng minh hay bin minh; v d chng c th c cc l l ph phn ng h, s ng h ny khng bao gi l [conclusive] xc chng. Do , thng xuyn phi quyt nh liu cc l l ph phn ny c mnh hay khng bin minh cho s chp nhn cha dt khot ca l thuyt hay ni cch khc, di nh sng ca tho lun ph phn liu l thuyt c v c a thch hn cc l thuyt knh ch hay khng. Trong ngha ny, cc quyt nh bc vo phng php ph phn. Nhng n lun lun l mt quyt nh thm d, cha dt khot, v mt quyt nh phi chu ph phn. Vi t cch nh th n phi c tng phn vi ci thng c mt s trit gia phi duy l hay phn-duy l hay hin sinh ch ngha gi l quyt nh hay nhm mt nhy liu [leap in the dark]. Cc trit gia ny, c l di nh hng ca l l (b bc b mc trn) v tnh khng th c ph phn m khng c cc gi nh trc, pht trin l thuyt rng mi gio l ca chng ta phi da vo quyt nh c bn no vo bc nhm mt nhy liu no . N phi l mt quyt nh, mt c nhy, c nhy khi ta nhm mt, c th ni nh vy; v ta khng th bit m khng c cc gi thit, m khng ly sn mt lp trng c bn ri, lp trng c bn ny khng th c ly trn c s tri thc. N, ng

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hn, l mt la chn nhng l mt loi la chn c tnh nh mnh v hu nh khng th hu b c, mt la chn ta ly mt cch m qung, hay do bn nng, hay do ngu nhin, hay nh n hu ca Cha. Vic ta bc b cc phn i c nu mc trc cho thy, quan im phi duy l v quyt nh l mt s cng iu cng nh mt s qubi kch ho. Phi th nhn, ta phi quyt nh. Song tr phi ta quyt nh chng nghe l l v l tr, chng hc t cc sai lm ca mnh, v chng lng nghe nhng ngi khc ngi c th phn i quan im ca chng ta, cc quyt nh ca chng ta khng cn l cui cng; khng ngay c quyt nh xem xt s ph phn. (Ch v quyt nh ca n khng ly mt bc nhy khng th ly li c vo bng ti ca tnh phi duy l m ch ngha duy l c th ni l c lp, theo ngha ca chng 24). Ti tin, l thuyt ph phn v tri thc c phc tho y ri mt cht nh sng ln cc vn ln ca mi l thuyt v tri thc: lm sao m chng ta bit nhiu n vy v t n vy; v lm sao m chng ta c th dn dn nng mnh khi m ly v minh - bng n lc ca bn thn chng ta, c th ni nh vy. Chng ta lm vy bng hot ng vi cc phng on, v bng ci thin cc phng on ca mnh, qua ph phn. 11. Cc Vn X hi v Chnh tr L thuyt v tri thc c phc ho cc mc trc ca ph lc ny i vi ti c v c cc h qu quan trng cho nh gi tnh hnh x hi ca thi i chng ta, mt tnh hnh phn ln b nh hng bi s suy sp ca tn gio c on. S suy sp ny dn n mt ch ngha tng i v h v rng ln: n s suy sp ca mi nim tin, ngay c nim tin vo l tr con ngi, v nh th vo chnh chng ta. Song l l c trnh by y cho thy l khng c c s no rt ra cc kt lun tuyt vng nh vy. Cc l l tng i v h v ch ngha (v thm ch hin sinh ch ngha) tt c u da vo lp lun sai lm. Tnh c, chng cho thy cc trit hc ny thc t c chp nhn l tr, nhng khng c kh nng dng n mt cch ng n; mn thut ng ca chng, ta c th ni rng chng khng hiu tnh th con ngi, v c bit kh nng ca con ngi pht trin, v mt tr tu v o c. Nh mt minh ho ni bt v s hiu lm ny - v cc hu qu tuyt vng c rt ra t s thiu hiu bit tnh hnh nhn thc lun ti s trch mt on t Tracts Against the Times ca Nietzsche (t mc 3 ca tiu lun ca ng v Schopenhauer).
y l mi nguy him u tin m trong bng ca n Schopenhauer ln ln: s c lp. Ci th hai l: tht vng v s tm ra chn l. Mi nguy him sau l bn ng trung

382

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thnh ca mi nh t tng ngi ly trit hc Kant lm im xut pht; tc l nu anh ta l mt ngi tht, mt ngi sng, c kh nng chu ng v khao kht, ch khng ch l ci my t ng chy m o, ch l ci my ngh v tnh Mc d ti nghe mi ni rng [nh Kant] mt cuc cch mng bt u trong mi lnh vc t duy, cho n nay ti khng th tin rng iu ny l nh th Nhng nu mt ngy no Kant bt u c nh hng ph bin hn, th chng ta s thy rng iu ny s c dng ca mt ch ngha hoi nghi v ch ngha tng i gm nhm dn v hu dit; v ch c nhng u c tch cc nht v cao qu nht s tri nghim c sc xc cm su sc v s tht vng v chn l m nhng ngi nh Heinrich von Kleist cm thy .. Mi y, ng vit, vi ging xc ng, ti lm quen vi trit hc ca Kant; v ti phi ni vi bn v mt t tng m ti khng cn phi s rng n s lm bn bng hong cng su sc v au n nh n gy ra cho ti: -L khng th i vi chng ta quyt nh liu ci m ta cu khn n nh chn l c thc s l chn l hay khng, hay liu n ch c v l nh vy i vi chng ta. Nu l trng hp sau, th tt c chn l m chng ta c th t c y s khng l g c sau ci cht ca chng ta, v mi n lc ca chng ta to ra v t c ci g ci c th sng lu hn chng ta phi l v ch. - Nu mi sc nhn ca t tng ny khng xuyn nhi tim bn, hy ng ci ngi cm thy b n lm tn thng trong su thm linh thing nht ni linh hn ng ta. Mc tiu cao nht, duy nht ca ti ri xung t, v ti chng cn g c.

Ti ng vi Nietzsche rng li ni ca Kleist tht cm ng; v ti ng rng hiu bit ca Kleist v hc thuyt ca Kant, rng l khng th t bt k tri thc no v cc s vt t n, l kh trung thc, cho d n mu thun vi nh ring ca Kant; v Kant tin vo kh nng ca khoa hc, v ca vic tm ra chn l. (Chnh vic cn gii thch nghch l v s tn ti ca mt khoa hc t nhin a priori dn ng i chp nhn ch ngha ch quan m Kleist thy ng l sng st). Hn na, s tuyt vng ca Kleist ch t mt phn l kt qu ca s tht vng do s suy sp ca mt nim tin qu-lc quan vo mt tiu chun n gin v chn l (nh tnh hin nhin). Nhng d lch s ca s tuyt vng trit hc ny c th no, ta khng cn n n. Tuy chn l khng t-bc l (nh cc mn ca Descartes v Bacon ngh), tuy s chc chn c th khng th t c, tnh th con ngi i vi tri thc khng h tuyt vng. Ngc li, n gy phn chn: chng ta y, vi nhim v v cng kh khn trc mt hiu v th gii ti p ni ta sng, v v chnh chng ta; du cho chng ta c th sai lm tuy th chng ta thy rng nng lc hiu bit ca chng ta, tht ngc nhin, l hu nh thch hp vi nhim v nhiu hn ci chng ta tng m trong cc gic m in r nht ca chng ta. Chng ta tht s hc t cc sai lm ca mnh, bng th v sai. V ng thi chng ta hc l ta bit t n th no nh khi leo ln mt ngn ni, mi bc ln m ra mt khung cnh mi vo ci cha bit, v cc cnh gii mi t tri ra, m s tn ti ca chng, ta chng bit t g khi chng ta bt u leo.

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Nh th chng ta c th hc, chng ta c th tng ln v tri thc, cho d chng ta chng bao gi bit - tc l, bit chc chn. V chng ta c th hc, khng c l do g tuyt vng v l tr; v v chng ta chng bao gi bit, khng c c s no cho s t mn thin cn, hay cho tnh kiu ngo v s tng trng ca tri thc ca chng ta. C th ni rng con ng hiu bit ny l qu tru tng v qu tinh vi thay cho vic mt tn gio c on. iu ny c th ng. Nhng chng ta khng c nh gi thp nng lc ca tr tu v ca cc tr thc. Chnh cc tr thc nhng k bun c v t tng, nh F. A. Hayek gi h, l nhng k truyn b ch ngha tng i, ch ngha h v, v ni tuyt vng tr thc. Khng c l do v sao mt s tr thc cc tr thc c khai sng hn - cui cng li khng thnh cng truyn b tin tt lnh rng s ri rt h v ch ngha qu thc chng l g c. 12. Ch ngha Nh nguyn v cc S thc v cc Tiu chun Trong cun sch ny ti ni v ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v cc quyt nh, nh ti ch ra, i theo L. J. Russell (xem ch thch 5 (3) chng 5, tp I, pp. 234-35), rng ch ngha nh nguyn ny c th c m t nh ch ngha nh nguyn v cc nh v cc xut (propositions and proposals). Thut ng sau c u im v nhc nh chng ta rng c cc nh ni r v cc s thc, v cc ngh nu ra cc chnh sch, bao gm cc nguyn l hay tiu chun v chnh sch, l ng cho tho lun duy l. Hn na, mt quyt nh th d, quyt nh lin quan n chp nhn mt nguyn l ng x - t c sau khi tho lun mt kin ngh, rt c th l cha dt khot, v trong nhiu kha cnh n c th rt ging mt quyt nh thng qua (cng cha dt khot), nh gi thuyt tt nht sn c, mt nh ni r mt s thc. Tuy vy, c mt s khc bit quan trng y. V ngh thng qua mt chnh sch hay mt tiu chun, vic tho lun n, v quyt nh thng qua n, c th ni l to ra chnh sch ny hay tiu chun ny. Mt khc, xut mt gi thuyt, vic tho lun n, v quyt nh chp nhn n hay chp nhn mt nh - theo cng ngha, khng to ra mt s thc. y, ti ngh, l l do v sao ti ngh rng t quyt nh c th c kh nng by t s tng phn gia s chp nhn cc chnh sch hay tiu chun, v s chp nhn cc s thc. Th nhng khng c nghi ng g rng c th r hn gi nh ti ni v ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v cc chnh sch, hay v mt ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v cc tiu chun, hn l v mt ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v cc quyt nh.

384

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thut ng sang bn, ci quan trng l tnh bt kh quy ca bn thn ch ngha nh nguyn: Bt k cc s thc c th l g, v bt k cc tiu chun c th l g (th d, cc nguyn l v cc chnh sch ca chng ta), vic u tin l phn bit hai th, v hiu r rng v sao cc tiu chun li khng th quy gin v cc s thc. 13. Cc Kin ngh v cc nh Khi , c mt s phi i xng quyt nh gia cc tiu chun v cc s thc: qua quyt nh chp nhn (ch t cha dt khot) mt kin ngh, ta to ra tiu chun tng ng (ch t cha dt khot); cn qua quyt nh chp nhn mt nh , ta khng to ra s thc tng ng. Phi i xng khc l cc tiu chun lun lun gn lin vi cc s thc, v cc s thc c nh gi bng cc tiu chun; y l cc quan h khng th n gin o ngc. Bt c khi no chng ta i mt vi mt s thc v c bit hn, vi mt s thc m chng ta c kh nng thay i chng ta c th hi liu n c tun theo cc tiu chun no hay khng. Quan trng nhn ra rng iu ny hon ton khng h ging cht no vic hi liu chng ta c thch n hay khng; v mc d chng ta c th thng chp nhn cc tiu chun ph hp vi s thch v khng thch ca chng ta, v mc d s thch v khng thch ca chng ta c th ng mt vai tr quan trng khin chng ta chp nhn hay bc b tiu chun c kin ngh no , s thng thng c nhiu tiu chun kh d khc m chng ta khng chp nhn; v s c th phn x, hay nh gi, cc s thc bng bt c tiu chun no trong s chng. iu ny cho thy rng quan h v nh gi (s thc ng ng no bng tiu chun c chp nhn hay b bc b no ), xt v mt logic, l hon ton khc quan h tm l ca mt c nhn (n khng l mt tiu chun m l mt s thc) v s thch hay khng thch, i vi s thc ang c ni n, hay i vi tiu chun ang c ni n. Hn na, s thch v khng thch ca chng ta l cc s thc c th c nh gi ging bt c s thc khc no. Tng t, s thc rng mt tiu chun no c chp nhn hay b bc b bi c nhn no hay bi x hi no , vi t cch l mt s thc, phi c phn bit vi bt c tiu chun no, k c tiu chun c chp nhn hay b bc b. V v n l mt s thc (mt s thc c th thay i c) n c th c phn xt hay c nh gi bng cc tiu chun (khc) no . y l vi l do v sao cc tiu chun v cc s thc, v v th cc kin ngh v cc nh , phi c phn bit r rng v dt khot. Song mt

I: CC S THC, CC TIU CHUN V CHN L

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khi chng c phn bit, ta c th ng khng ch n s khc nhau ca cc s thc v cc tiu chun m c s ging nhau ca chng. Th nht, c cc ngh v cc nh l ging nhau ch ta c th tho lun chng, ph phn chng, v i n quyt nh no v chng. Th hai, c loi no v tng iu tit c hai th. Trong lnh vc ca cc s thc n l tng v s tng ng gia mt mnh hay nh v mt s thc; tc l, tng v chn l. Trong lnh vc ca cc tiu chun, hay cc xut, tng iu tit c th c m t theo nhiu cch, v c gi bng nhiu t, th d bng cc t ng hay tt. Ta c th ni v mt xut rng n ng (hay sai) hay c l tt (hay ti); v bng vic ny c l chng ta c th mun ni rng n tng ng (hay khng tng ng) vi cc tiu chun no m chng ta quyt nh chp nhn. Nhng ta cng c th ni v mt chun mc rng n ng hay sai, tt hay xu, hoc hp l hay khng hp l, hoc cao hay thp; v vi iu ny c l chng ta c th mun ni rng nn hay khng nn chp nhn xut y. V th phi tha nhn rng tnh th logic ca cc tng iu tit, ca th d ng, hay tt, l t r rng hn nhiu tnh th logic ca tng v s tng ng vi cc s thc. Nh c ch ra cun sch ny, kh khn ny l kh khn logic v khng th c khc phc bng a ra mt h thng tn ngng v cc tiu chun. S thc rng Cha, hay bt c uy quyn no khc, lnh cho ti lm mt vic no khng m bo rng mnh lnh l ng. Chnh ti phi quyt nh liu c chp nhn cc tiu chun ca bt c uy quyn no nh tt hay xu (v mt o c). Cha ch tt nu cc li rn ca Ngi l tt; l mt sai lm nghim trng -thc ra l mt s chp nhn tri o c ca ch ngha c on - ni cc li rn ca Ngi l tt n gin v chng l ca Ngi, tr phi u tin ta quyt nh (vi ri ro ca chnh ta) rng Ngi ch c th yu cu cc th tt hay ng chng ta. y l tng ca Kant v s t tr, tri vi s d tr. Nh th khng c s ku gi n uy quyn no, ngay c uy quyn tn gio, c th ko chng ta khi kh khn rng tng iu tit v tnh ng n hay tnh tt tuyt i, khc v a v logic ca n vi a v logic ca chn l tuyt i; v ta phi tha nhn s khc bit. S khc bit ny chu trch nhim v s thc, c m ch trn, rng theo mt ngha ta to ra chun mc bng xut, tho lun, v chp nhn n. Phi tha nhn tt c iu ny; tuy nhin c th coi tng v chn l tuyt i - v s tng ng vi cc s thc nh mt loi m hnh cho lnh vc cc chun mc, lm cho n r vi chng ta rng, ht nh ta c th tm cc nh ng tuyt i trong lnh vc cc s thc hay ch t

386

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cc nh tin gn hn ti chn l, ta c th tm cc xut ng hay hp l tuyt i trong lnh vc cc chun mc hay ch t tm cc xut tt hn, hay hp l hn. Tuy nhin, theo ti, s l mt sai lm i m rng thi ny qu vic tm kim hay tm ra. V mc d ta phi tm cc xut ng hay hp l tuyt i, ng bao gi thuyt phc mnh rng chng ta dt khot tm thy chng; v r rng, khng th c mt tiu chun v ci ng tuyt i - thm ch cn t hn tiu chun v chn l tuyt i. Ti a ho hnh phc c th c d kin nh mt tiu chun. Mt khc ti chc chn khng bao gi kin ngh rng chng ta chp nhn ti thiu ho au kh nh mt tiu chun, mc d ti ngh rng n l mt s ci thin v mt s tng ca thuyt v li. Ti cng gi rng, vic gim au kh c th trnh c, l thuc v chng trnh ngh s ca chnh sch cng (m n khng c ngha rng bt c vn chnh sch cng no c quyt nh bng mt tnh ton ti thiu ho au kh) trong khi ti a ho hnh phc phi cho n lc t nhn. (Ti hon ton ng vi cc nh ph bnh ca ti nhng ngi cho thy rng nu dng nh mt tiu chun, nguyn l ti thiu ho kh au s c cc h qu v l; v ti ch i rng c th ni cng th v tiu chun o c khc). Song mc d khng c tiu chun v ci ng tuyt i, ta chc chn c th tin b trong lnh vc ny. Nh trong lnh vc cc s thc, chng ta c th thc hin cc khm ph. Rng s tn c l lun lun xu; rng lun nn ngn nga n khi c th; rng quy tc vng [ca Kant] l mt chun mc tt thm ch c th c ci thin bng p dng cho nhng ngi khc, ni c th, khi h mun: y l cc th d s ng v cc k quan trng v nhng khm ph trong lnh vc cc chun mc. Cc khm ph ny to ra cc chun mc, ta c th ni, t h v: nh trong lnh vc khm ph s thc, chng ta phi t nng mnh ln. y l s thc l thng: rng chng ta c th hc; bng cc sai lm ca mnh, v bng ph phn; v rng chng ta c th hc trong lnh vc cc chun mc tt ht nh trong lnh vc cc s thc. 14. Hai Ci Sai Khng Lm ra Hai Ci ng Mt khi chng ta chp nhn l thuyt tuyt i v chn l, c kh nng tr li cho mt l l c xa v nghim trng nhng d gy lm ln ng h ch ngha tng i, thuc c loi tr tu v nh gi, bng dng php tng t gia cc s thc ng v cc tiu chun hp l. L l d gy lm lc m ti ngh n vin dn n khm ph rng nhng ngi khc c cc tng v nim tin khc xa vi ca chng ta. Ai l ngi

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nht quyt rng cc cc tng v lng tin ca chng ta l ng? 2500 nm trc, Xenophanes ct li ca ri (Diels-Kranz, B, 16, 15):
Ngi Ethiopy ni cc thn ca h mi tt, da en, Cn ngi Thrace bo cc thn ca mnh mt xanh, tc . Nhng nu gia sc hay nga hay s t c tay v c th v, V c th iu khc nh ngi, th nga s v cc thn ca chng Ging nga, v ca gia sc ging gia sc; v mi loi s nn Thn hnh ca cc thn, ca mi loi, ging ca ring mnh.

Nh th mi chng ta thy cc thn ca mnh, v th gii ca mnh, t quan im ring ca mnh, ph hp vi truyn thng v s gio dc ca mnh; v chng ai trong chng ta khng mc thnh kin ch quan ny. L l ny c trnh by theo nhiu cch; v c lp lun rng ni ging chng ta, tnh dn tc ca chng ta, hu trng lch s ca chng ta, hay thi i lch s ca chng ta, hay li ch giai cp ca chng ta, hay mi trng x hi ca chng ta, hay ngn ng ca chng ta, hay kin thc nn c nhn ca chng ta, l mt cn tr khng th vt qua, hay hu nh khng th vt qua i vi tnh khch quan. Cc s thc m l l ny da vo phi c tha nhn; v qu thc, ta chng bao gi c th thot khi nh kin. Tuy vy, khng cn chp nhn bn thn l l, hay cc kt lun tng i ch ngha ca n. V trc tin, dn dn, ta c th thot khi mt cht nh kin ny, bng cch t duy ph phn v c bit lng nghe s ph phn. Th d, Xenophanes chc chn khng h nghi g c khm ph ca chnh ng gip nhn cc s vt theo cch t thnh kin hn. Th hai, l mt s thc rng ngi dn vi cc nn tng vn ho ht sc khc nhau c th tham gia tho lun c kt qu, min l h quan tm tin gn hn ti chn l, v sn sng lng nghe nhau, v hc hi t nhau. iu ny cho thy, tuy c cc ro cn vn ho v ngn ng, chng khng phi l khng th vt qua c. Nh th cc k quan trng thu li t khm ph ca Xenophanes mi lnh vc; t b tnh kiu ngo cc k, v tr nn ci m cho ph phn. Nhng cng cc k quan trng ng hiu lm khm ph ny, bc ny ti ph phn, cho mt bc ti ch ngha tng i. Nu hai bn bt ng, iu ny c th c ngha bn ny sai, hay bn kia sai, hay c hai u sai: y l cch nhn ca nh ph phn. N khng c ngha, nh nh tng i ch ngha ngh, rng c hai c th c l ngang nhau. H c th sai nh nhau, chng nghi ng g, song h khng cn l th. Nhng bt c ai, ni rng l sai nh nhau c ngha l c l nh nhau, ch n thun chi ch, hay a vi n d. L mt bc tin b ln hc l t ph phn; hc suy ngh rng ng bn khc c th ng ng hn bn thn chng ta. Nhng c mt

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nguy him ln dnh n vic ny: chng ta c th ngh rng c hai, ng bn khc v bn thn chng ta, c th u c l. Nhng thi ny, khim tn v t ph bnh nh n c th t ra vi chng ta, khng khim tn cng chng t ph bnh nh chng ta c th c thin hng ngh vy; v c v hn l c hai, bn thn chng ta v g kia, u sai. Nh th t ph bnh khng phi l mt l do bo cha cho s li bing v s chp nhn ch ngha tng i. V v hai ci sai khng lm nn mt ci ng, hai bn sai i vi mt s tranh chp khng to thnh hai bn ng. 15. Kinh nghim v Trc gic nh cc Ngun Tri thc S thc rng chng ta c th hc t cc sai lm ca mnh, v thng qua ph phn, trong lnh vc cc chun mc cng nh trong lnh vc cc s thc, c tm quan trng c bn. Nhng s ku gi n ph phn l ? Ta c cn ku gi n uy quyn ca kinh nghim hay (c bit trong lnh vc cc chun mc) ca trc gic? Trong lnh vc cc s thc, ta khng ch ph phn cc l thuyt ca chng ta, ta ph phn chng bng mt vin dn n kinh nghim th nghim v quan st. L mt sai lm nghim trng, tuy vy, i tin rng chng ta c th ku gi n bt c g nh mt uy quyn v kinh nghim, mc d cc nh trit hc, c bit cc nh trit hc theo ch ngha kinh nghim, miu t tri gic, c bit th gic, nh mt ngun tri thc cung cp cho chng ta d liu xc nh t ci m kinh nghim ca chng ta bao gm. Ti tin bc tranh ny l hon ton sai lm. V ngay c kinh nghim th nghim v quan st ca chng ta khng gm c d liu. ng hn, n bao gm mt mng li cc phng on cc c on, cc k vng, cc gi thuyt, vi chng c ton b s hiu bit v nh kin truyn thng, khoa hc, v phi khoa hc, c chp nhn an xen nhau. n gin khng c ci nh kinh nghim th nghim v quan st thun tu kinh nghim khng b nhim bi k vng v l thuyt. Khng c d liu thun tu, khng c cc ngun tri thc cho trc v kinh nghim m chng ta c th vin dn, trong s ph phn ca chng ta. Kinh nghim, bt lun l kinh nghim thng thng hay khoa hc, ging hn nhiu ci Oscar Wilde ngh n trong v kch Ngi m B Windermere, Hi iii:
Dumby: Kinh nghim l ci tn m mi ngi cho cc sai lm ca mnh. Cecil Graham: Ngi ta khng nn phm sai lm no c. Dumby: Khng c chng i s chn ngt.

Hc t cc sai lm ca mnh khng c n i qu thc bun t cng l ngha ca kinh nghim c ng trong tiu lm ni ting

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ca Dr. Johnson v chin thng ca hi vng trn kinh nghim; hay trong nhn xt ca C. C. King (trong Story of the British Army, ca ng, 1897, p. 112): Nhng cc nh lnh o Anh phi hc ch cc tr xun ngc hc ng, vic di dt ca kinh nghim. Vy th, c v l ch t mt s cch dng t kinh nghim bnh thng hp st hn nhiu vi ci ti tin l c trng ca c kinh nghim khoa hc v tri thc kinh nghim thng thng hn l vi cc phn tch truyn thng ca cc trit gia thuc cc trng phi kinh nghim ch ngha. V tt c iu ny c v cng hp vi ngha gc ca empeiria (t peira - th, kim tra, thm tra) v nh th ca experientia v experimentum [th nghim]. Nhng khng c cho l to nn mt l l; chng phi mt l l t cch dng thng thng cng khng l l l t ngun gc. N nh dng ch minh ho phn tch logic ca ti v cu trc kinh nghim. Theo phn tch ny, kinh nghim, v c bit hn kinh nghim khoa hc, l kt qu ca cc phng on thng sai lm, ca vic kim chng chng, v ca vic hc t cc sai lm ca chng ta. Kinh nghim (theo ngha ny) khng phi l mt ngun tri thc; n cng khng c bt c uy quyn no. Nh th s ph phn vin dn n kinh nghim khng c c tnh uy quyn. N khng ct i snh cc kt qu kh nghi vi cc kt qu c xc lp, hay vi bng chng ca tri gic chng ta (hay vi ci cho trc). N, ng hn, ct so snh kt qu kh nghi no vi kt qu khc, thng cng kh nghi ngang th, m, tuy nhin, tm thi lc ny c th coi nh khng c vn , mc d chng c th b thch thc bt k lc no khi cc nghi ng mi ny sinh, hay bi v nim m h hay phng on no ; mt nim m h hay mt phng on, th d, rng mt th nghim no c th dn n mt pht minh mi. M tnh hnh trong vic kim c tri thc v cc chun mc i vi ti c v hon ton tng t. y cng vy, cc trit gia tm kim cc ngun c uy quyn ca tri thc ny, v h thy, ch yu, hai th: cc cm gic khoi lc v au kh, hay ngha o c hay mt trc gic o c v ci g l ng hay sai (ging nh tri gic trong nhn thc lun v tri thc s kin), hay nh la chn kh d, mt ngun c gi l l tnh thc tin (tng t vi l tnh thun tu, hay vi nng lc trc gic tr tu, trong nhn thc lun v tri thc s kin). V cc cuc tranh ci tip tc din ra c lit v vn liu tn ti mi, hay ch vi, trong s cc ngun uy quyn ny v tri thc o c.

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Ti ngh rng vn ny l mt vn gi. im chnh khng phi l vn v s tn ti ca bt c nng lc no trong cc nng lc ny mt vn tm l hc rt m h v kh nghi m l liu cc ngun tri thc c th c uy quyn ny c cung cp cho chng ta d liu hay cc im xut pht r rng khc cho vic xy dng ca chng ta hay, ch t, mt khung dn chiu cho s ph phn ca chng ta hay khng. Ti ph nhn rng chng ta c bt c ngun c uy quyn no thuc loi ny, c trong nhn thc lun v tri thc s kin ln trong nhn thc lun v tri ca cc chun mc. V ti ph nhn rng ta cn n bt c khung dn chiu no cho ph phn ca chng ta. Ta hc th no v cc chun mc? Trong lnh vc ny, ta hc th no t cc sai lm ca mnh? u tin ta hc bt chc nhng ngi khc (tnh c, ta lm vy bng th v sai), v nh th hc coi cc chun mc ng x c nh chng l cc quy tc c nh, cho trc. Mun hn ta thy (cng bng th v sai) rng mnh phm sai lm th d, chng ta c th lm hi nhn dn. Nh th ta c th hc c quy tc vng; song ta mau thy rng chng ta c th nh gi sai thi ca mt ngi, tri thc nn ca anh ta, cc mc tiu v cc chun mc ca anh ta; v ta c th hc t cc sai lm ca mnh chm lo thm ch qu quy tc vng. Phi tha nhn, cc th nh s ng cm v s tng tng c th ng mt vai tr quan trng trong s pht trin ny; nhng chng khng l cc ngun uy quyn ca tri thc khng hn bt c ngun no ca chng ta trong lnh vc tri thc v cc s thc. V mc d ci g nh mt trc gic v ci g l ng v ci g l sai cng c th ng mt vai tr quan trng trong s pht trin ny, n, li ln na, khng phi mt ngun quyn uy v tri thc. V hm nay chng ta c th thy rt r l chng ta ng, th nhng ngy mai bit rng mnh phm mt sai lm. Ch ngha trc gic l tn ca trng phi trit hc dy rng c nng lc hay kh nng no v trc gic tr tu cho php chng ta nhn thy chn l; cho nn ci ta thy l ng phi qu thc l ng. N nh vy l mt l thuyt v ngun quyn uy no v tri thc. Cc nh phn-trc gic thng ph nhn s tn ti ca ngun tri thc ny trong khi thng khng nh s tn ti ca ngun khc no nh tri gic gic quan. Quan im ca ti l c hai u sai, v hai l do. Th nht, ti khng nh l c ci g ging mt trc gic tr tu khin chng ta cm thy, cc k thuyt phc, rng ta nhn thy chn l (mt im b cc i th ca ch ngha trc gic ph nhn). Th hai, ti khng nh rng trc gic tr tu ny, tuy trong chng mc no y l khng th thiu c, thng dn chng ta i lc li theo cch cc k nguy him. Ta, ni chung,

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khng nhn thy chn l khi chng ta c thuyt phc nht rng ta nhn thy n; v ta phi hc, qua cc sai lm, ng vc cc trc gic ny. Th th ta tin ci g? Chng ta chp nhn ci g? Cu tr li l: bt c g ta chp nhn, chng ta phi ch tin mt cch thm d, khng dt khot, lun lun nh rng, may nht, chng ta nm c mt phn chn l (hay s ng n), v nht thit chng ta mc ch t sai lm hay nh gi sai no u khng ch v cc s thc m c v cc chun mc c chp nhn; th hai, ta nn tin (thm ch khng dt khot) trc gic ca chng ta ch nu n n nh kt qu ca nhiu n lc dng tr tng tng ca chng ta; ca nhiu sai lm, ca nhiu kim nghim, ca nhiu nghi ng, v ca tm ti ph phn. S thy rng dng ny ca phn-ch ngha trc gic (hay ai c th ni, c l, ca ch ngha trc gic) l hon ton khc vi cc dng c ca phn-ch ngha trc gic. V s thy rng c mt thnh phn c bn trong l thuyt ny: tng rng chng ta c th c l lun lunkhng t ti tiu chun no v chn l tuyt i, hay tnh ng n tuyt i, trong kin cng nh trong cc hnh ng ca chng ta. C th phn i tt c iu ny rng, bt lun cc quan im ca ti v bn tnh ca tri thc o c v kinh nghim o c c chp nhn c hay khng, chng vn l tng i ch ngha hay ch quan ch ngha. V chng khng xc lp bt c chun mc o c tuyt i no: may nht chng cho thy tng v mt chun mc tuyt i l mt tng iu tit, hu ch cho nhng ngi c ci bin ri nhng ngi ho hc ri hc v, tm kim, cc chun mc o c ng hay hp l hay tt. Tr li ca ti l ngay c s thit lp th d, bng logic thun tu - ca mt chun mc tuyt i, hay mt h thng ca cc chun mc o c, s chng to ra khc bit g v kha cnh ny. V gi s ta thnh cng chng minh v logic tnh hp l ca mt tiu chun tuyt i, hay mt h thng cc chum mc o c, nh th ta c th chng minh v mt logic cho ai l anh ta nn hnh ng th no: ngay c khi anh ta c th chng ; hay khc i anh ta c th tr li: Ti chng h quan tm n ci nn ca anh, hay n cc quy tc o c ca anh cng chng quan tm nhiu hn n cc chng minh logic ca anh, hay th d, n ton hc cao cp ca anh. Nh th ngay c mt chng minh logic cng khng th lm thay i tnh hnh c bn rng ch anh ta, ngi sn sng coi cc th ny mt cch nghim tc v hc v chng, mi s b n tng bi cc l l o c (hay bt c g khc). Bng l l bn khng th buc bt c ai coi cc l l mt cch nghim tc, hay tn trng l tr ca ring anh ta.

392

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16. Ch ngha Nh nguyn v cc S thc v Tiu chun v tng ca Ch ngha T do Ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v cc tiu chun, ti cho rng, l mt trong cc c s ca truyn thng t do. V mt phn c bn ca truyn thng ny l nhn ra s bt bnh ng tn ti trn th gii ny, v quyt tm th gip nhng ngi l nn nhn ca n. iu ny c ngha rng, c, hay ch t c th c, mt xung t, hay ch t mt l hng, gia cc s thc v cc chn mc: cc s thc c th khng t c cc tiu chun ng (hay hp l hay phi) c bit cc s thc x hi hay chnh tr m ct s chp nhn v thc thi tht s ca lut php no . Trnh by n theo cch khc, ch ngha t do da trn ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v cc tiu chun theo ngha rng n tin vo s tm kim cc chun mc ngy cng tt hn, c bit trong lnh vc chnh tr v php lut. Nhng ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v cc chun mc ny b mt s nh tng i ch ngha bc b vi cc l l ging nh sau: (1) S chp nhn mt xut v nh th mt tiu chun l mt s thc x hi hay chnh tr hay lch s. (2) Nu tiu chun c chp nhn c nh gi bng mt tiu chun khc cha c chp nhn, v thy khng t, th nh gi ny (bt lun ai a ra) cng l mt s thc x hi hay chnh tr hay lch s. (3) Nu mt nh gi thuc loi ny tr thnh c s ca mt phong tro x hi hay chnh tr, th y cng l mt s thc lch s. (4) Nu phong tro ny thnh cng, v nu do h qu cc chun mc c c ci cch hay c thay th bng cc tiu chun mi, th y cng l mt s thc lch s. (5) Nh th - nh tng i ch ngha hay nh thc chng o c l l nh vy chng ta chng bao gi vt qu lnh vc ca cc s thc, nu chng ta bao hm trong cc s thc x hi hay chnh tr hay lch s: khng c ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v cc tiu chun. Ti coi kt lun (5) ny l sai lm. N khng c suy ra t cc tin (1) n (4) m ti tha nhn tnh ng n ca chng. L do bc b kt lun (5) l rt n gin: chng ta c th lun lun hi liu mt s pht trin nh c m t y - mt phong tro x hi da vo s chp nhn mt cng lnh cho ci cch cc tiu chun no c tt hay xu. Bng nu ra cu hi ny, chng ta m li h su ngn cch gia cc tiu chun v cc s thc m l l nht nguyn lun (1) n (5) c lp li.

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T ci ti va ni, c th suy din mt cch ng n rng lp trng nht nguyn lun trit hc v s ng nht ca cc s thc v cc tiu chun l nguy him; v ngay c ni n khng ng nht cc tiu chun vi cc s thc ang tn ti ngay c ni n khng ng nht sc mnh hin thi v l phi - n nht thit dn n s ng nht sc mnh tng lai vi l phi. V cu hi liu mt phong tro no cho ci cch c l ng hay sai (hoc tt hay xu) khng th c nu ra, theo nh nht nguyn lun, tr dng ca mt phong tro khc vi cc xu hng i lp, chng g c th c hi tr cu hi l, cui cng, phong tro no trong cc phong tro i lp ny thnh cng trong thit lp cc tiu chun ca mnh nh mt vn v s thc x hi hay chnh tr hay lch s. Ni cch khc, trit hc c m t y - n lc vt qu ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v cc tiu chun v dng ln mt h thng nht nguyn lun, mt th gii ch ca cc s thc - dn n s ng nht cc tiu chun hoc vi sc mnh hin ti hoc vi sc mnh tng lai: n dn n mt ch ngha thc chng o c, hay n mt ch ngha lch s o c, nh c m t v tho lun chng 22 ca cun sch ny. 17. Li Hegel Chng ti vit v Hegel b ph phn nhiu. Hu ht ph phn ti khng th chp nhn, bi v n khng tr li c cc phn i chnh ca ti chng li Hegel - rng trit hc ca ng minh ho bng th d, nu so vi trit hc Kant (ti vn thy phm thnh t hai ci tn ny cnh nhau), mt s sa st khng khip v tnh chn tht v tnh trung thc tr tu; rng cc l l trit hc ca ng khng c coi l nghim tc; v trit hc ca ng l mt nhn t chnh gy ra thi i bt lng tr tu, nh Konrad Heiden gi n, v chun b cho trahision des clercs [s phn bi ca cc tr thc] ng thi (ti m ch n cun sch tuyt hay ca Julien Benda) m n nay gip to ra hai cuc chin tranh th gii. Khng c qun l ti coi cun sch nh n lc chin tranh ca ti: tin nh ti tin vo trch nhim ca Hegel v cc nh Hegelian i vi phn ln ci xy ra c, ti cm thy l nhim v ca mnh, vi t cch mt trit gia, cho thy rng trit hc ny l mt trit hc gi. Thi im cun sch c vit c l cng gii thch gi thit lc quan ca ti (m ti c th quy cho Schopenhauer) rng thc t chin tranh khc nghit c th l nguyn hnh cc chi, nh ch ngha tng i, ca nhng ngi tr thc, v rng ma qu ngn t ny s bin mt.

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Chc chn ti qu lc quan. Qu thc, c v hu ht cc nh ph bnh ca ti coi dng ch ngha tng i no l d nhin n mc hon ton khng c kh nng tin l ti thc s nghim chnh bc b n. Ti th nhn phm mt s sai lm s kin: Mr. H. N. Rodman, i hc Harvard, bo l ti sai khi vit hai nm dng th ba t di ln trang 28, v rng ti nn vit l bn nm. ng cng bo ti rng, theo ng, c mt s li lch s nghim trng hn - nu t dt khot hntrong chng y, v c vi trong s cc quy kt ca ti v cc ng c kn o cho Hegel, theo ng, l khng c bin minh v lch s. Nhng chuyn nh vy l rt ng tic, tuy chng cng xy ra vi cc s gia gii hn ti. Nhng vn quan trng tht s l: cc sai lm ny c nh hng n nh gi ca ti v trit hc ca Hegel, v v nh hng tai hi ca n hay khng? Cu tr li ca ti cho cu hi l: Khng. Chnh trit hc ca ng, ch khng phi tiu s ca ng, l ci khin ti coi Hegel nh ti coi. Thc ra, ti vn ngc nhin rng cc nh trit hc nghim tc b xc phm bi s tn cng phi th nhn c phn bng a ca ti ln mt trit hc m ti vn khng c kh nng coi l nghim tc. Ti th biu l iu ny bng phong cch hng trng (scherzo-style) ca chng v Hegel, hi vng phi by s l bch trong trit hc ny m ti ch c th nhn vi mt s pha trn khinh mit v gh tm. Tt c iu ny c biu l r trong sch ca ti; c s thc rng ti chng th5 cng khng mun dng qu nhiu thi gian nghin cu su vo lch s ca mt trit gia m tc phm b ti gh tm. C nh tnh hnh y, ti vit v Hegel theo mt cch gi s rng t ngi c th coi ng ta l nghim tc. V tuy cc nh ph bnh Hegelian ca ti khng th, v nht quyt khng, thng thc cch ny, ti vn hi vng l mt s c gi ca ti nm c chuyn ci. Nhng tt c iu ny tng i khng quan trng. Ci c th quan trng l cu hi liu thi ca ti i vi trit hc ca Hegel c c bin minh khng. Ti mun a ra y mt ng gp cho cu tr li ca cu hi ny. Ti ngh hu ht cc nh Hegelian s tha nhn mt trong cc ng c v ch ca trit hc Hegel chnh xc thay th v vt qu quan im nh nguyn v cc s thc v chun mc c Kant trnh by, v l c s trit hc ca t tng v ch ngha t do v ci cch x hi.
Xem Dn nhp ca ti, Li ni u ca ti cho ln xut bn Th hai, v on vn th hai ca tp 1, p. 202.
5

I: CC S THC, CC TIU CHUN V CHN L

395

vt qu, siu vit nh nguyn lun ny v cc s thc v tiu chun l mc tiu quyt nh ca trit hc v ng nht ca Hegel- s ng nht ca l tng v thc t, ca l phi v sc mnh. Mi chun mc u c tnh lch s: chng l cc s thc lch s, cc giai on trong s pht trin ca l tnh, ci cng ht nh s pht trin ca l tng v ca thc t. Chng c g ngoi s thc; v vi trong s cc s thc x hi v lch s, ng thi, l cc chun mc. M l l ca Hegel, v c bn, c nu r (v b ph phn) mc trc tuy Hegel trnh by n dng m h, kh hiu, v bnh m mt cch phi thng. V li, ti cho rng trit hc ng nht ny (bt chp vi gi theo thuyt tin b, v vi biu l ho nh ng cm vi cc phong tro tin b khc nhau m n bao hm) ng vai tr ch yu lm suy sp phong tro t do c; mt phong tro, di nh hng ca trit hc Kant, to ra cc nh t tng t do ln nh Schiller v Wilhelm von Humboldt, v cc tc phm quan trng nh Tiu lun v Xc nh cc Gii hn Quyn lc ca Nh nc ca Humboldt. y l li kt ti u tin v c bn ca ti. Li buc ti th hai ca ti, gn mt thit vi ci th nht, l trit hc ng nht ca Hegel, bng ng gp cho ch ngha lch s v cho mt s ng nht sc mnh v l phi, khuyn khch cc phng thc t duy ton tr. Li buc ti th ba ca ti l l l ca Hegel (ci phi th nhn i hi ng mt mc tinh t, tuy khng nhiu hn mc mt trit gia ln c mong i phi c) y ry cc sai lm logic v cc tr gian tr, c trnh by vi v uy nghi t ph. iu ny lm xi mn v cui cng h thp cc tiu chun truyn thng v trch nhim v tnh trung thc tr tu. N cng gp phn vo s ni ln ca thi trit hc ho ton tr v, thm ch nghim trng hn, vo vic thiu bt c phn khng tr tu kin quyt no i vi n. y l cc phn i ch yu ca ti vi Hegel, ti tin, c ni kh r chng 12. Song chc chn ti khng phn tch vn c bn trit hc v tnh ng nht ca cc s thc v cc tiu chun hon ton r nh ti l ra phi lm. V th ti hi vng ti b sung trong ph lc ny khng phi cho Hegel, m cho nhng ngi c th b ng lm hi. 18. Kt lun Kt thc cun sch ca ti, li ln na, ti thc nh tng thc c v s bt hon ho ca n. Mt phn, s bt hon ho ny l h qu ca phm vi ca n, vt qu ci ti coi nh cc mi quan tm chuyn

396

PH LC

nghip ca mnh. Mt phn chng n gin l h qu ca tnh c th sai ca ring ti: khng phi v khng g m ti l mt ngi theo theo ch ngha c th phm sai lm. Nhng d ti rt c thc v tnh c th sai ring ca ti, ngay c n nh hng n ci ti sp ni by gi, ti tin mt cch tip cn theo ch ngha c th phm sai lm c nhiu hin cho trit gia x hi. Bng cng nhn c tnh ph phn c bn v v th cch mng ca mi t duy con ngi - ca s thc rng ta hc t cc sai lm ca mnh, hn l bng tch t d liu v mt khc tha nhn rng hu ht mi vn cng nh cc ngun (phi-uy quyn) v t duy ca chng ta bn r vo cc truyn thng, v rng hu nh lun lun cc truyn thng m chng ta ph phn, mt ch ngha c th phm sai lm ph phn (v tin b) c th cho chng ta mt vin cnh rt cn nh gi c hai, truyn thng v t duy cch mng. Thm ch quan trng hn, n c th cho ta thy rng vai tr ca t duy l thc hin cc cuc cch mng bng cc tranh lun ph phn hn l bng bo ng v chin tranh; rng truyn thng v i ca ch ngha duy l Ty Phng l nh cc trn bng li hn l bng gm. y l v sao nn vn minh Phng Ty ca chng ta l mt nn vn minh a nguyn c bn, v v sao cc mc ch x hi nguyn khi s c ngha l ci cht ca t do: ca quyn t do t duy, ca t do tm kim chn l, v vi n, ca tnh duy l v phm gi con ngi.
II LU V CUN SCH CA SCHWARZSCHILD V MARX

Vi nm sau khi ti vit cun sch ny, ti bit cun sch The Red Prussian v Marx ca Leopold Schwarzschild (do Margaret Wing dch: London 1948). Ti khng nghi ng g rng Schwarzschild nhn Marx vi con mt khng thin cm v thm ch th ch, v rng ng thng m t Marx trong cc mu en nht c th. Nhng cho d cun sch khng lun cng bng, n cha cc bng chng t liu, c bit t th t ca Marx-Engels, cho thy rng Marx t nhn o hn, v t yu t do hn, nh ng c m t trong sch ca ti. Schwarzschild m t ng nh mt ngi thy trong giai cp v sn ch yu mt cng c cho tham vng ring ca ng. Tuy iu ny c th din t vn cay nghit hn l bng chng m bo, phi tha nhn rng bn thn bng chng gy chong vng.

CH MC V TN (i = tp 1, ii = tp 2)
Achilles, i, 327 f. Acton, Lord, i, 137; ii, 303 f., 364. Adam, J., i, 42, 83, 97, 141, 149, 206, 209, 212-14, 220 f., 223-5, 228 f., 236, 240, 242-6, 254, 257, 262 f., 273, 275 f., 282 f., 299, 301, 315; ii, 282. Adeimantus, i, 258, 262 f. Adler, A., ii, 100, 326, 352. Aeschines, i, 304. Agassi, J., i, x. Agrippa Menenius, i, 294; ii, 305. Alcibiades, i, 154, 191-3, 281 f., 296, 303. Alcidamas, i, 70, 95, 114, 152, 185, 236, 261, 278, 294; ii, 282. Alcmaeon, i, 79, 173, 242, 254, 294. Alexander, S., ii, 305. Alexander i , i, 236, 278 f.; ii, 2, 22, 50. Al-Gazzli, ii, 363. Anaximander, i, 189, 204-6, 211, 300 f. Ancillon, ii, 43. Anderson, E. N., ii, 53-5, 307, 310, 313-15. Anderson, Maxwell, i, 336. Antiphon Nh hng bin Rhamnus, i, 256, 296 Anthiphon Nh Sophist Athens, i, 69, 74, 95, 233, 236, 240, 256, 278, 294, 299. Antisthenes, i, 95, 129, 152-4, 185, 194, 237, 241, 276-9, 282, 298, 311; ii, 21, 283, 292, 300-301. Anytus, i, 192-4, 268. Apollo, i, 328. Aquinas, xem Thomas Archelaus, i, 233. Archimedes, i, 167; ii, 283. Archytas, i, 196, 319. Aristophanes, i, 182, 185, 218, 256, 307 f., 310. Aristotle, i, 10, 12, 16, 26, 28-31, 33, 38, 43, 70, 91 f., 96, 102, 112, 114, 180, 205, 207-9, 211-19, 222, 228 f., 231, 235-7, 240 f., 248 f., 253, 255 f., 258, 260 f., 268, 273 f., 277 f., 280, 283, 294-6, 299 f., 308, 311, 314, 320 f.; ii, 1-18, 21, 26 f., 30, 36, 40, 50, 69, 75, 221, 281, 283-9, 292, 294 f., 299-303, 305-6, 308-11, 317, 325, 359. Aristoxenus, i, 300. Armstrong, H. E., ii, 305. Arndt, E. M., ii, 313. Aspasia, i, 255. Athenian, Ngi L, i, 331. Augustine, Saint [Thnh], i, 221. Augustus, Hong , i, 298; ii, 353. Bacon, Francis, ii, 16, 248, 297, 363, 378. Badian, E., i, 237, 279. Bakunin, M. A., ii, 329 Banse, E., ii, 70, 316. Barker, Sir Ernest, i, 104, 114 f., 236, 240, 246 f., 259, 261-3, 273, 282. Barth, K., i, 235; ii, 272, 361, 365. Bartley, W. W., i, x; ii, 369. Bavink, B., ii, 305 Beethoven, L. van, i, 334; ii, 210 f. Bellamy, A., ii, 338. Benda, J., ii, 393. Bentham, J., ii, 237. Bergson, H., i, 202, 294, 314; ii, 62, 229, 258, 305, 308, 315 f., 361. Berkeley, G., ii, 301, 363. Bernard x Clairvaux, ii, 353. Bernays, P., ii, 290. Bernstein, A., ii, 340. Best, W., ii, 75, 317. Bevan, E., ii, 304. Bias, i, 13; ii, 306. Bismarck, O., von, ii, 58. Blanc, L., i, 241; ii, 321. Blueher, H., ii, 359. Bodin, Jean, i, 121. Boehme, J., ii, 353. Bohr, N., ii, 357. Borel, E., i, 252. Bosanquet, B., ii, 79. Bowra, Sir C. M., 216. Bradford, Gim mc x, i, 203, 292. Bradley, F. H., i, 232. Broadhead, H. D., i, 279. Bruno, Giordano, ii, 42. Bryson, i, 252. Buckle, H. T., ii, 364. Burke, E., i, Motto, 112, 260; ii, 35, 60, 136, 226, 306, 308 f., 333. Burnet, J., i, 66, 190, 240-7, 210, 214-216, 233, 235, 240, 267, 273, 294, 300 f., 3049, 311-13.

398

CH MC V TN
Crossman, R. H. S., i, 87, 130f., 133, 139, 169, 216, 246 f., 267, 270, 304, 313, 315; ii, 16, 293-295. Cyrus, Tr, i, 226, 305. Dalziel, Margaret, i, x. Damon, i, 229 f. Daniel (Nh Tin tri), i, 272. Darwin, Charles, i, 314, 317; ii, 40, 212, 244. Davies, J. L., i, 247, 258, 271, 313. Democritus, i, 12, 185 f., 206, 233, 276, 278 f., 294, 299, 320; ii, 22, 26 f., 54, 299, 304-5. Demos, i, 311. Demosthenes, ii, 281. Descartes, R., ii, 54, 301, 353, 363, 378. Dickens, C., i, 100 f., 258, 271, 313; ii, 341. Diels, H., i, 204, 206 f., 213, 230, 233, 235, 254, 259, 273, 279, 294, 299-301, 303, 319, 321; ii, 387. Dilthey, W., ii, 358. Dio, i, 136, 154, 200, 282, 316 f. Diogenes, Ngi theo phi Cynic, i, 241, 278 f., 282; ii, 300. Diogenes Laertius, i, 241, 279. Dionysius (Gi), i, 18, 43, 283, 297, 304, 311. Dionysius (Tr), i, 44, 136, 283, 303, 316. Dirac, P. A. M., ii, 379. Djilas, ii, 335. Dropides, i, 208, 282. Dudley, D. R., i, 277. Duemmler, F., i, 277. Duhem, P., ii, 362, 365. Duns Scotus, ii, 353. Durkheim, E., i, 175. Eastman, M., i, 210, 284; ii, 320. Eckhart, Thy, ii, 353. Eddington, A. S., i, 237; ii, 244, 259, 362, 365. Einstein, A., ii, 20, 27, 165, 220 f., 266, 289, 326, 360, 365. Eisler, R., i, 204, 211, 227, 233, 242, 254, 256, 272, 282, 321; ii, 365. Empedocles, i, 208 f., 214, 217 f.; ii, 285. Empiricus, Sextus, xem Sextus. Engels, F., i, 220; ii, 83, 100, 102, 105, 111, 118, 120, 154, 159-62, 164, 171 f., 187

Burns, E., i, 220, 241; ii, 318, 332. Bury, R. G., i, 218, 331, 339, 341. Butler, Samuel, i, Motto, 136, 268, 317. Bywater, Ingram, i, 206, 301. Caesar, ii, 128, 265. Caird, E., ii, 8, 286, 307, 316. Callicles, i, 116-18, 184, 262, 303. Callippus, i, 136, 268. Campbell-Smith, M., Xem Smith. Capek, K., ii, 312. Carlyle, ii, 329-330. Carnap, R., i, 216, 234, 274; ii, 290 f., 2946, 309, 317, 352, 358, 359, 362. Carneades, i, 118, 263, 315. Carruthers, J., i, 291; ii, 321. Carus, P., ii, 327, 360. Cassirer, i, E., 270, 276; ii, 310, 313, 360. Catlin, G. E. G., i, 30, 238 f., 256 f., 292, 316. Chaerephon, i, 193, 304, 310. Chairon, i, 268. Chaplin, Charlie, ii, 309. Charicles, i, 268. Charles, V., ii, 128. Charmides, i, 19, 191-3, 303, 310. Cherniss, H., i, 222, 268. Chiapelli, A., i, 321. Chion, i, 136. Christ Jesus, i, 88, 104, 117; ii, 24, 257, 272 f., 360, 365. Cicero, i, 263, 278 f., 300. Clausewitz, K., von, ii, 67. Clearchus, i, 136. Clenias, i, 224. Codrus, i, 19, 153, 208, 282. Cohen M. R., ii, 293, 295. Cole, G. D. H., ii, 325-6, 330, 345f. Comte, A., i, 35, 40, 207 f., 220 f.; ii, 87, 144, 187, 212, 299. Constantine, Hong , ii, 24, 303 f. Cope, G., i, 203, 292. Corpernicus, N., i, 319. Coriscus, i, 268. Cornford, F. M., i, 210, 212 f., 215, 223 f., 240 f., 250 f., 253, 270 f., 279; ii, 283. Costelloe, B. F. C., ii, 281. Crantor, i, 224; ii, 320. Cristias, i, 19, 142, 184, 187, 191-3, 208, 259, 268, 272 f., 294, 299 f., 303 f., 310 f., 317, 324-6; ii, 24, 303, 319.

CH MC V TN
f., 202 f., 205, 223, 326-330, 332-33, 338 9, 341 f., 346, 350, 360, 396. England, E. B., i, 104, 216, 222 f., 259. Epictetus, i, 279; ii, 301. Epicurus, ii, 304. Epimenides, ngi Creta, ii, 354. Estabrooks, G. H., i, 317. Euclid, i, 249, 251, 267, 319 f., 322. Euken, W., ii, 346. Euphacus, i, 268. Eurastus, i, 268. Eupirides, i, 70, 95, 185, 236, 259, 278 f., 299. Euthyphro, i, 197, 315. Ewer, T. K., i, x. Ewing, A. C., i, 246. Falkenberg, R., ii, 305. Faraday, M., ii, 244. Farber, M., ii, 298. Farrington, B., i, 217. Ferdinand x o, ii, 310. Feuerbach, A., ii, 201, 314, 322 f. Fichte, I, H., ii, 316. Fichte, J. G., i, 247, 280; ii, 21, 53-5, 58, 70 f., 81, 306-8, 313 f., 316, 319, 353. Field, G. C., 88, 208, 210, 214 f., 236, 247, 260, 273, 277, 281, 307, 311, 313; ii, 281, 301. Findlay, J. N., ii, 356. Fisher, H. A. L., ii, 197, 351, 367 f. Fite, W., i, 217, 313. Fitzgerald, E., ii, 339. Ford, H., ii, 341. Foster, M. B., ii, 312, 366. Fourier, C., ii, 194, 350. Fowler, H., i, 326, 328. Francis I x o, ii, 310. Frederick II ca x Ph, i, 276, 304. Frederick William III x Ph, ii, 31 f., 34 f., 41, 43, 49, 55, 58, 307, 313. Freud, S., i, 295, 313; ii, 100, 299, 352. Freyer, A., ii, 64-6, 70, 316. Fried, M., ii, 309. Friedlein, G., i, 320. Fries, J. F., ii, 27, 309. Fritz, Kurt von, i, 277. Galiani, Abb, ii, 351. Galileo, G., i, 319; 42, 252. Gandhi, ii, 272.

399

Gans, E., ii, 305. Gard, Roger Martin du, i, 157, 164, 284; ii, 376. Gassendi, P., ii, 304. Gauss, C. F., ii, 16. Gazzli, Al-, xem Al-Gazzli. Gedye, G. E. R., ii, 337. Geffken, J., ii, 302. Gilbert, Sir W. S., ii, 265. Ginsberg, M., 324. Glaucon, i, 97-9, 116-18, 150 f., 166, 228, 241, 254, 258, 262 f., 272, 312, 315. Glockner, H. von, ii, 305. Gobineau, Count J. A., i, 9, 203. Gdel, K., ii, 355-6, 374. Goethe, ii, 307, 313-14. Gogarten, F., ii, 76. Gombrich, E. H., i, x, 253; ii, 311, 325. Gomperz, H., ii, 287, 262, 365. Gomperz, T., i, 88, 187, 214, 224, 228, 236, 246, 257, 259, 276, 299, 301 f., 304 f.; ii, 2, 4, 281, 284-6. Gorgias, i, 70, 114, 152, 185, 261, 276, 278. Green, T. H., i, 260; ii, 79. Greenidge, ii, 282. Grenfell, B. P., and Hunt, A. S., i, 229. Grote, G., i, 80, 88, 204, 208, 211, 216, 226, 242, 246 f., 255, 268, 273, 275, 297, 303, 305, 315, 330; ii, 281-3, 287-8, 301. Haeckel, E., ii, 61, 315. Haiser, F., ii, 67 f., 316. Haldane, Elizabeth S., ii, 301. Harris, W. T., ii, 286. Harvey, W., ii, 252. Hastie, W., i, 247. Hatfield, H. Stafford, ii, 305. Hayek, F. A. von, i, x, 207 f., 285 f., 315; ii, 299, 316, 324, 331, 332, 336, 348, 383. Heath, T., i, 249, 251 f. Hecker, J. F., ii, 326, 334. Hegel, F., i, 10, 17, 40, 107, 121, 144, 161, 203, 207, 221, 232, 238 f., 246 f., 297, 314, 325; ii, 1, 7-9, 16, 21 f., 27-82, 87, 91, 99, 102-4, 107, 111, 115, 133, 197 f., 206, 211 f., 214, 216, 221, 223-6, 247, 249, 257, 274, 286-7, 298, 305-320, 325, 328, 330, 336, 339 f., 350, 352, 359, 365 f., 393-5. Hegemann, W., i, 298, 304; ii, 313-4, 318.

400

CH MC V TN
Jowett, B., i, 261, 295. Julian ngi B o, ii, 23, 302. Jung, E., 70, 316. Justinian, Hong , ii, 24, 302. Kafka, F., ii, 245, 359. Kant, I., i, 1, 73, 102, 139, 152, 202, 232, 237, 246 f., 256 f., 270, 276, 284, 325, 334, 336; ii, 15, 21, 33, 38-41, 44 f., 524, 65, 78, 107, 213 f., 224, 229, 238, 24750, 297, 300, 307-10, 312-14, 333, 357, 360, 362, 382, 385, 393-5. Kapp, von, 163. Katz, D., ii, 323. Kaufmann, E., ii, 70, 316. Kautsky, K., i, 230; ii, 323, 342. Keeling, S. V., i, 314. Keller, A., ii, 241, 358. Kelsen, H., i, 217, 284, 313. Kepler, J., i, 319; ii, 27, 377. Kierkegaard, S., ii, 200 f., 273, 275, 307, 351, 365-6. King, C. C., ii, 389. Kirchoff, i, 299. Kirk, G. S., i, 312. Kleist, H. von, ii, 382. Kolnai, A., i, 230; ii, 71 f., 78, 316-18, 359. Kraft, J., i, 269; ii, 292, 317, 336. Kraus, K., ii, 334, 338. Krieck, E., ii, 72, 317. Krohn, A., i, 257. Kuratowski, K., i, 232. Lagarde, P. de (Boetticher), ii, 76. Laird, J., ii, 355. Lakatos, I., ii, 294. Lamarck, J. B., ii, 212. Lamb, W. R. M., i, 335. Larsen, H., x. Lassalle, F. von, i, 203, 208. Laurat, L., ii, 332, 339-42, 351. Lauwerys, J. A., i, 325. Lenin, V. I., i, 160, 167; ii, 83, 102, 108 f., 118, 166, 179, 188, 318, 320-21, 326, 328, 338-39, 342-44, 350, 360. Lenz, F., ii, 70, 316. Leptines, i, 136. Lessing, G. E., ii, 313. Leucippus, i, 206. Levinson, R. B., i, 323-42. Lewis, Sinclair, i, 316.

Heidegger, M., ii, 76-8, 297, 317. Heiden, K., ii, 28, 393. Heine, H., ii, 109, 327, 333. Hempel, C. G., ii, 364. Heraclides, i, 136, 316. Heraclitus, i, 10-21, 24, 28, 38 f., 42, 55 f., 60, 73, 80, 83, 124, 148, 172 f., 189, 2039, 214, 216, 232 f., 294 f., 301, 312 f.; ii, 27, 30, 36 f., 40, 47, 67, 102, 212, 275 f., 306, 316, 326, 353. Herder, J. G., i, 232, 247, 293; ii, 52, 306, 312. Hermias, i, 268. Hermocrates, i, 311. Hermodorus, i, 13. Herodotus, i, 95, 173, 185, 222, 233, 255, 294, 299. Hesiod, i, 11 f., 15, 37 f., 55, 153, 188, 204, 209, 211, 218 f., 228, 235, 254, 271, 295. Hilbert, D., ii, 290. Hippias, i, 70, 95, 233, 236, 278, 294, 333. Hippodamus, i, 173, 211, 294 f. Hobbes, T., i, 118, 142, 315; ii, 287-289, 291, 301. Hobhouse, L. T., ii, 79. Homer, i, 11, 204, 226, 228 f., 280, 295, 312, 327; ii, 272, 275. Hook, S., ii, 339. Humboldt, W., von, ii, 54, 395. Hume, D., i, 230, 261; ii, 38, 54, 213, 248, 295, 297, 363. Hunt, A. S., xem Grenfell, B. P. Husserl, E., i, 216; ii, 16, 76, 292, 309, 317, 323, 355, 362. Hutton, H. D., ii, 299. Huxley, A. i, 121; ii, 357 f. Huxley, T. H., ii, 284, 383. Hyndman, H. H., ii, 341. Inge, W. R., i, 316; ii, 351. Isocrates, i, 136, 153 f., 224; ii, 281, 300, 320. Jamblichus, ii, 302. Jaspers, K., ii, 76, 78, 317. Jeans, J., ii, 244, 358, 365. Jesus, xem Christ. Joad, C. E. M., i, 87, 246. John, Thnh ( Tc gi Kinh Phc m), ii, 302. Johnson, S., ii, 398.

CH MC V TN
Linddell, H. G., and Scott, R., i, 327, 341. Lindsay, A. D. (Lord), i, 221, 271, 275-7, 288. Lippmann, W., i, 203; ii, Motto, 81, 128, 331. Livy, i,294. Locke, J., ii, 54, 287, 295, 301, 304, 363. Loewe, A., ii, 351. Loewenberg, J., ii, 286, 305-6, 308. Loyola, I, Thnh, ii, 257, 361 Lucian, i, 205. Lucretius, ii, 304. Ludendorff, Tng von, ii, 70, 316. Lummer, O., ii, 365. Luther, Martin, ii, 201, 351. Lutoslawski, W., i, 312. Lybyer, A. H., i, 227. Lycophron, i, 70, 76, 95, 114-17, 152, 185, 236, 241, 261 f., 273, 278, 294, 315; ii, 282, 310. Lycurgus, i, 256. Lysander, i, 184, 304. Lysias, i, 296. Mabbott, J. D., i, x, 211. Macaulay, T. B. (Lord), i, 264. Machiavelli, N., i, 221, 230; ii, 323, 325. MacIver, R. M., i, 216. Macleod, W. C., i, 230. Macmurray, J., ii, 243 f., 269, 273, 358, 365. MacTaggart, John MacT. E., i, 314; ii, 29, 358. Magee, B., i, x, 210, 286; ii, 321, 335. Malebranche, ii, 299. Malinowski, ii, 322. Malthus, T. R., i, 314. Mannheim, H., i, 288. Martin du Gard, R., xem Gard. Marx, K., i, viii, ix, 9, 10, 38, 40, 164, 203, 216, 220 f., 241; ii, 1, 61, 81-9, 93 f., 98128, 130, 133-136, 138-50, 152-5, 159, 164, 166-190, 193 f., 196-205, 207 f., 211 f., 214, 224, 241, 252-5, 274, 316, 318-352, 360-1, 396. Masaryk, T. G., ii, 51, 312, 319. Matthew, Thnh, ii, 302, 358. Meletus, i, 234. Mendelssohn, M., ii, 308, 360 Menger, A., ii, 321. Menger, K., i, 234; 290, 325.

401

Metz, R., ii, 79. Meyer, E., i, 180 f., 207 f., 214, 255, 265, 268, 283, 295-301, 303 f., 316; ii, 68, 316, 364. Miksch, L., ii, 346-7. Milford, P., i, 298. Mill, James, i, 264; ii, 349. Mill, J. S., i, 29, 35, 40, 216, 221, 246, 263 f., 316; ii, 54, 87-9, 91-3, 97, 99, 101, 104, 106, 197, 212, 299, 320, 322-5. Miller, D. W., i, x. Mitchell, A., ii, 308. Moeller van den Bruck, A., 76. Mohammed, ii, 256 f. Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de, ii, 306. Moore, G. E., ii, 296. Morgenthau, H. J., i, 260 f. Morrow, G. R., i, 225, 247. Mueller, A., ii, 54, 79. Muirhead, J. H., ii, 281. Mure, G. R. G., ii, 289. Nagel, E., ii, 293, 295. Napoleon, I., i, 63 f.; ii, 51, 54, 58, 313. Napoleon III, ii, 206. Nelson, Leonard, i, 232, 265, 269. Nestle, W., i, 205. Neurath, O., i, 325. Newton, I., i, 319; ii, 27, 252, 266, 363, 377. Nicolovius, ii, 314. Nietzsche, F. von, i, 230, 284; 381 f. North (ngi dch Lives ca Plutarch), ii, 283. Oedipus, i, 22. Offenbach, J., ii, 32. Ogden, C. K., ii, 365. Old Oligarch [u s C], i, 187, 195, 198, 222, 278, 294, 299, 304, 325; ii, 50. Oppenheimer, F., i, 230. Osborn, H. F., ii, 285. Paine, Thomas, i, 73. Pareto, V., i, 38, 199, 223, 315 f.; ii, 23, 56, 58, 138, 278, 303, 314, 318-9, 325. Paris, i, 326. Parkes, H. B., ii, 158, 183, 186, 339, 341-2, 345, 349-51.

402

CH MC V TN
Pythagoras, i, 15, 129, 188, 248 f., 301; ii, 353, 360. Qutelet, I. A. J., ii, 346. Quine, W. van O., i, 232; ii, 376. Rader, M. M., i, 300; ii, 316. Ramsey, F. P., ii, 9. Raven, J. E., i, 312. Rayleigh, Lord, ii, 365. Renan, E., i, 230; ii, 315. Ricardo, D., ii, 170-2, 335-6, 350. Richards, I. A., ii, 365. Rickert, H., ii, 365. Ritter, C., i, 322. Robespierre, M., ii, 109. Robinson, R., i, x, 332, 339, 342, 345. Rodman, H. M., ii, 394. Rogers, A. K., i, 210, 307. Rosenberg, A., ii, 71, 73, 316. Rosenkranz, K. von, ii, 305. Ross, W. D., ii, 282, 287-8, 293, 301. Rousseau J. J., i, 40, 121, 211, 223, 246, 257, 293; ii, 37, 40, 44 f., 52, 55, 74, 81, 91, 109, 306, 310, 312. Russell, B. (Lord), i, 131, 233, 274; ii, 55, 128, 212, 247, 293, 297, 304, 331, 355, 359. Russell, L. J., i, 234 f.; ii, 328, 357, 383. Rstow, A., i, 204. Ryazanow, D., ii, 318. Sachs, E., i, 321. Salomon, E. von, ii, 318, 359. Sanazzaro, Jacob, i, 221, 246. Sandys, J. E., i, 300. Santayana, G., i, 316. Schallmeyer, W., i, 317; ii, 61, 315. Scheffler, J. (Angelus Silesius), ii, 360. Scheler, M., ii, 70, 76, 213, 316. Schelling, F. W., ii, 21, 28, 53, 306, 353. Schiller, F. C. S., i, 334; ii, 306, 314, 395. Schlegel, F., ii, 306. Schleiermacher, F. E. D., ii, 306. Schlick, M., ii, 294, 299. Schneeberger, G., ii, 317. Schopenhauer, A., ii, 21, 27 f., 32-5, 38, 41, 54, 61, 63, 70, 77, 79 f., 82, 261, 275, 299-300, 305-8, 314-5, 317, 362, 365-6, 381, 393. Schwarzschild, L., ii, 396.

Parmenides, i, 12, 14, 21, 28 f., 211 f., 214, 236, 275 f., 301, 312, 314; ii, 287, 353. Pascal, B., ii, 54. Pasteur, L., ii, 252. Patroclus, i, 327. Paul, C., and Paul, E., ii, 318. Perdiccas III, i, 268. Pericles, i, 7, 42, 95 f., 102, 105, 181, 1857, 189, 197, 199, 203, 221, 228, 230, 255, 258, 299, 339-41; ii, 22. Phaedrus, i, 327. Phaleas x Chalcedon, i, 173, 294. Philip II x Macedonia, ii, 2. Philo Judaeus, i, 205. Philodemus, i, 278. Pilate (Pontius), ii, 272, 369. Pindar, i, 69, 77, 233, 236, 241, 262. Plato, i, viii, ix, x, 7, 10-12, 1416-22, 2457, 59, 67-70, 72-84, 86-109, 115-21, 123, 125-8, 130-57, 161, 164-7, 169-71, 180, 184,186 f., 191 f., 194-200, 202-31, 233, 235 f., 240-59, 261-3, 265-84, 292 f., 295 f., 298-317, 319-43; ii, 1-7, 9-13, 15, 21, 23 f., 26 f., 30 f., 35-7, 40 f., 446, 50-52, 61, 66, 69, 81 f., 92, 116, 118, 133, 162, 197, 211 f., 227, 229, 236, 245, 249 f., 267, 277, 281-9, 300-303, 305-6, 310-14, 319-20, 323, 325-8, 334, 353, 357, 359-62. Plutarch, i, 243, 248, 250, 254, 296; ii, 283. Plutarch-Gi, xem Pseudo-Plutarch. Poincar, H., i, 237; ii, 362. Polanyi, K., i, 216; ii, 324. Polybius, ii, 303. Popper, K. R., i, 3, 203, 210 f., 216, 227, 232, 234, 237, 264, 266, 274, 285 f., 291, 293, 300, 319-21, 323-43; ii, 212, 260, 262, 289, 291, 295-8, 308-9, 320, 322-3, 326-7, 336, 351-2, 359, 362-4, 369, 373 f., 376, 378, 394. Popper-Lynkeus, J., i, 294; ii, 321. Pound, Roscoe, i, 210, 284, 286. Pringsheim, E., ii, 365. Proclus, i, 249, 320. Prodicus, i, 228. Protagoras, i, 57, 61, 65-7, 76 f., 142, 185, 189 f., 228, 233, 235, 241, 255, 262, 294. Proudhon, ii, 123. Pseudo[Gi]-Plutarch, i, 236. Pseudo[Gi]-Xenophon, xem Old Oligarch Pyrilampes, i, 311.

CH MC V TN
Schwegler, F., C. A., ii, 33 f., 307. Scott, R., xem Linddell, H. G. Scott, R. F., Thuyn trng, ii, 75. Sextus Empiricus, ii, 363. Shakespeare, W., i, 246, 294; ii, 32, 283. Shaw, G. B., i, 246, 294; ii, 62, 232 f., 315. Shelley, P. B., i, 153. Sherrington, C., i, 233, 258 f. Shorey, P., i, 327, 334-6, 338. Sibree, J., ii, 286, 312. Sidgwick, H., ii, 361. Simkhovitch, V. G., i, 298. Simkin, C. G. F., i, x, 211, 285; ii, 348, 350. Simmel, G., i, 216. Simplicius, i, 214, 247, 312; ii, 300. Smith, A., ii, 170, 187, 346, 350. Smith, M. Campbell, i, 270, 276. Socrates, i, 18, 29 f., 34, 42, 52, 61, 66 f., 69, 72, 76, 95, 97-9, 104-6, 109, 116 f., 128-34, 137-9, 143 f., 150-2, 154-6, 166, 185, 188-97, 199 f., 210, 214 f., 221 f., 229, 262 f., 266-8, 272 f., 277-9, 282 f., 296, 299-314, 317, 321 f., 330-2; ii, 21-3, 42, 224, 227, 236, 244, 276, 283, 301, 303, 314, 353, 361. Socrates Tr, i, 329. Solon, i, 19, 60, 208. Sophocles, i, 185, 299. Spearman, D., i, 343. Spencer, H., i, 35. Spengler, O., i, 55, 231 f., 280; ii, 71, 76, 197, 316 f. Speusippus, i, 217, 235; ii, 5, 36, 285. Spinoza, B. de, i, 260; ii, 54, 306, 308, 353. Stafford Hatfield, H., xem Hatfield. Stapel, W., ii, 72, 76, 317. Stebbing, L. S., ii, 358. Stern, G. B., i, 284. Stevenson, C. L., i, 247. Stewart, J. A., i, 292. Stirling, J. H., ii, 27, 29, 33 f., 307. Strabo, i, 268; ii, 303. Tarn, W. W., i, 224, 236, 278 f., 281, 299. Tarski, A., i, 216, 234, 273 f.; ii, 290, 294, 356, 362-3, 369 f., 373 f., 376. Taylor, A. E., i, 153, 204, 210, 215, 224 f., 244 f., 262, 282, 284, 303-8, 311 f., 330; ii, 283. Teutames, i, 13.

403

Thales, i, 204. Theaetetus, i, 321 f. Theages, i, 154. Themistocles, i, 178. Theophrastus, i, 212, 214, 312; ii, 300. Theopompus, ii, 300, 301. Theramenes, i, 303. Thomas Aquinas, i, 237, 316; ii, 237. Thrasybulus, i, 192. Thrasymachus, i, 69, 105 f., 116-18, 184, 262 f., 303. Thucydides, i, 95, 178-81, 183-5, 187, 192, 221, 228, 255 f., 283, 295 f., 299 f. Timochares, i, 254. Tocqueville, A. de, i, 159, 286. Townsend, J., ii, 200, 300, 351. Toynbee, A. J., i, 221, 226 f., 230-232, 268, 294 f., 298; ii, 23, 251-8, 302-4, 358, 360-1, 367. Treitschke, H. von, ii, 65, 67, 316. Twain, M., i, 270. Ueberweg, F., i, 205, 321. Urey, H. C., ii, 374. Vaughan, C. E., i, 247, 258, 271, 313; ii, 311. Veblen, T., i, 231. Vico, G., i, 221; ii, 306. Vicrkandt, A., i, 216. Viner, J., i, x, 314; ii, 321, 345, 347, 349. Voltaire, i, 293, 304; ii, 205. Wagner, Richard, i, 230; ii, 32, 211. Waismann, F., ii, 299. Wallace, G., ii, 305. Wallas, G., i, 203. Webb, L., ii, 358. Webb, Sidney and Beatrice, i, 210; ii, 320. Weber, Alfred, ii, 352. Weber, Max, i, 216; ii, 97, 292, 325, 364-5. Weber (ngi dch Vico), ii, 306. Wells, H. G., i, 258; ii, 351, 357. Whitehead, A. N., ii, 231, 247-50, 305, 357, 359-60. Wiener, N., i, 232. Wilde, O., ii, 388. Wilson, Woodrow, ii, 50 f., 319. Winckelmann, J. J., ii, 313. Wing, M., ii, 396. Winspear, A. D., i, 217, 267, 315.

404

CH MC V TN
Xenophon (v Xenophon-Gi, xem Old Oligarch), i, 241, 273, 277, 283, 303, 305-7, 311; ii, 283. Zeller, E., i, 204 f., 217; ii, 7, 281-2, 284-6. Zeno, i, 276. Ziegler, H. O., ii, 79, 318. Zimmern, Sir Arthur, ii, 62, 312, 315-16, 319. Zinovief, G. C., ii, 331. Zinsser, H., i, 298; ii, 25, 270, 304.

Wisdom, J., ii, 352. Wittgenstein, L., i, 205, 234; ii, 9, 16, 20, 246, 287, 293-4, 297-9, 317, 352-3, 3555, 358-9, 366-7. Xenocrates, i, 268. Xenophanes, i, 15, 189, 214, 235, 295, 312; ii, 285, 387.

CH MC V NI DUNG
S trang in nghing biu th rng dn chiu c tm quan trng c bit. Ch t, c ngha l thut ng, c t sau mt s trang, biu th rng ngha ca thut ng c tho lun. Ch n c ngha l ch thch. (i = tp 1, ii = tp 2) A Ai Cp; Egypt, i, 224, 231, 275; ii, 320, 326. alogos, i, 320. an ninh; security, 111, 198, 201, 315; ii, 130, 132, 194. anh hng, s sng bi ~, ch ngha ~; hero worship, heroism, ii, 67-70, 73-5, 270, 271, 276. Anh, nc; England, ii, 140, 182, 331 (xem c gio dc); Haeckel ni v, ii, 315; Hegel ni v, ii, 57, 64, 314, 330 (so ii, 34); Marx, Engels v Lenin ni v, ii, 135-6, 154-5, 187-8, 328, 338, 340, 341. nh hng ng phng, nhng; oriental influences, i, 11, 204, 231, 233, 242, 272, 300; ii, 22. Aristotle, ii, 1-7, ch. 11 (I), 281, 284-295, 301; tnh tr tro ca, cynicism of, i, 273, 296, ii, 303; nh hng ca, influcence of, i, 236, ii, 4, 7, 27, 283; nh hng ca Plato ln, Platos influence on, i, 217, ii, 11, 282, 285. Athens, i, 46, 177-83, ch. 10 (II), 228, 256, 325 f., 334; thnh kin chng, bias against, i, 228, 296-7, ch. 10, n. 15; Trng hc ca Hy Lp c, School of Hellas, i, 181, 187; phong tro Athenian chng s n l, xem n l; Hi Bn hu ca Laconia, Society of Friends of Laconia, i, 179, 180, 183, 187. antinomy (ca Kant), xem tng phn. n chung, cc ba; common meals, i, 48, 259. m mu, l thuyt ~ v x hi; conspiracy theory of society, ii, 94t, 95, 101, 133, 330.

B Ba mi Bo cha; Thirty Tyrants, i, 18, 128, 142, 192, 193, 195, 200, 266, 299, 300-4, 326, ch. 10, n. 48. Babbitt (S. Lewis), i, 316. Bi n, ch ngha, xem ch ngha bi n. bn cht lun; essentialism, ii, 9-21. bn cht; essence, i, 29, 31, ii, 5-8, 13 (xem c nh ngha, bn cht lun phng php lun); Aristotle, ii, 6, 912, 288-9, 362; Hegel, ii, 36; Heidegger, ii, 77; Marx, ii, 107, 177, 319, 326, 328-9, 346-7; Plato, i, 28-30, 74, 75, 200; Socrates, i, 29-30 (tuy vy xem ii, 301). bn a, autochthonous, xem huyn thoi v ngi sinh ra t t. bo lc; violence, i, 331, 336; ii, 143, 149-52, ch. 19 (II); s nhp nhng ca Marx v nhng ngi Marxist v, ii, 150, 154, 156, 157, ch. 19 (IV), 342-3; kinh t, ii, 124-5; v ch ngha phi duy l, ii, 212, 234, 257. bn cng, xem kh cc. b truyn, ch ngha, thuyt; esotericism, 241, 299. bin chng, php, ; dialectics, Do Thi, ii, 302; ca Hegel, ii, 28, 37t-39, 42, 309, 341; ca Kant, ii, 308; ca Marx, ii, 88, 102, 138, 320, 334, 340; ca Plato, i, 133, 274-5, ii, 11. bit mnh; know thyself: hc thuyt ca Socrates, ch. 7, n. 26; i, 228-30, 266, 269 (so i, 129, 146, 287); s xuyn tc ca Plato, i, 132, 137; xem c sophocracy, trit tr. bnh ng; equality; ii, 234, 278, 357; hnh thc, ii, 342; s hc v hnh hc,

406

CH MC NI DUNG

i, 248, 250, 262; trc lut, i, 89, 96, 254, 255, ii, 234. bc lt; exploitation, ii, 122-4, 168, 173, 178, 184, 329; gi thuyt Marxist v ~ thuc a, ii, 187-9, ch. 20(VI), 336, 338. Brave New World (A. Huxley), i, 121, ii, 357 (so ii, 227). C c nhn, cc, v x hi; individuals and society, i, 30, ii, 257-276; Hegel ni v, ii, 43, 56, 73, 310, 315; Kant ni v, ii, 357; Mannheim ni v, ii, 213, 215; Plato ni v, i, 76, 78-9, 102, 107-8, 139, 228, 279-80 (so i, 239, ii, 210). cch mng, cc cuc; revolutions, ii, 1389, 349; Heine ni v, ii, 109; Marx ni v, ii, 109, 119, 146, 159, 326, 328, 340, 341; quy lut ca Plato v, i, 38t, 44-5, 223; ~ thng trc, ii, 336, 340, 350. Cch mng Cng nghip; Industrial Revolution, i, 17, ii, 121, 327. Cch mng Php; the French Revolution, i, 17, 203, 208, 294, 334; ii, 30, 52, 53, 55, 87, 207; Heine ni v, ii, 109. cai tr, cc nh; rulers, i, 122, 333-4; ii, 228, 257. cai tr, s; ruling, i, 120-1 (xem c vua trit gia; kim sot dn ch; nghch l v quyn t quyt). Ci cch, Phong tro; the Reformation, ii, 30, 48. cm gic tri dt; sense of drift, xem cng thng ca nn vn minh. can thip, ch ngha; interventionism, ii, 125t, ch. 17(III), 130, 140, 143, 178-9, 182, 193, 330, 335; hai loi ca, ii, 131-2, cnh tranh; competition, ii, 330; di ch ngha t bn, xem kinh t hc. Cartesian, thuc v Descartes Carthage, i, 297-8. cng thng ca nn vn minh; strain of civilization, i, 5, 171, 176t, 188-9, 195, 199, 295t, ch. 10(VII), 301, 316, 317; ii, 64, 98, 161, 228, 276.

cm k, tc cm k; taboo, tabooism, i, 15, 60, 65, 148, 172, 173, 300, ii, 302 (xem c ch ngha b lc). cn bng x hi; social equilibrium, i, 469, ch. 4(III), 52. cp tin, xem thuyt cp tin. chc chn, truy tm s; quest for certainty, ii, 375. chn l; truth, i, 273-4, ii, 221, 261, 36996 (xem c ng ngha hc); l thuyt ca Hegel v, i, 144, 274, ii, 41-2, 60, 68; l thuyt ca Plato v, i, 143-4; khoa hc v, ii, 12-13, 20, 221, 244, 261, 263, 363-4; thc dng, i, 274. ch chuyn ch; tyranny, i, 124-5, 151-2, 159, 235, 315, ii, 160-1, 306, 342; Plato chng li, i, 40-4, 123, 170, 198, 200, 315 (xem tuy vy 317); Plato ni v s khng th trnh khi ca chin tranh di ~, i, 43, 198; Plato ni v ch chuyn ch v k thut Khng tng, i, 44, 222. ch c ti, xem ch chuyn ch. ch qun ch; monarchy, ii, 2; Hegel ni v, ii, 45-7, 312; Plato ni v, i, 222, 283. ch qu tc, xem qu tc ch ti phit; plutocracy, Plato ni v, i, 256, 267, 316. Cht en, ci; Black Death, ii, 25. chim tinh, thut; astrology, i, 210, 244 (so ii, 279, 304). Chin tranh; War, xem quan h quc t; Ni chin M, ii, 329; v kinh t, ii, 105; tn gio, ii, 237, 244; Th chin I, ii, 116; Th chin II, i, viii; Hegel ni v, ii, 37, 58, 65, 68-9 (xem c danh ting v nh mnh); Heraclitus ni v, i, 16 (xem c danh ting v nh mnh); Kolnai ni v, ii, 72; Plato ni v, i, 43, 198, 259. Ch d Glauconic; the Glauconic edict, i, 150t, 151. chnh th lun; holism, i, 80t, 100 (xem c cc c nhn v x hi; ch ngha thn b; thuyt trc gic); Hegel, ii, 69, 305, 310, 315; Heraclitus, i, 16; Marx,

CH MC NI DUNG

407

ii, 130, 133; Parmenides, i, 301, 314; Plato, i, 48, 80-1, 100, 242t, 274-5, 279, 314; Toynbee, ii, 258; Wittgenstein, ii, 246, 359. chnh khch; statesmen, xem nh cai tr. Chnh sch Kinh t Mi; New Economic Policy, i, 167, ch. 13, n. 7, ii, 83, 320-1. Chnh sch Kinh t X hi Mi; New Deal, ii, 336. chnh th u s, Hy Lp; oligarchy, Greek, i, 177-8, 187; Plato ni v, i, 40t, 41, 222 (xem c i, 302-3; ch qu tc; ch ti phit); Aristotle ni v, i, 296. chnh th ho hip; timocracy, i, 40t-41, 47. chnh th, chnh ph; government, i, 124 (xem c nh nc); Marx ni v, ii, 120; Plato ni v, i, 222, 261. chnh tr hc; politics, i, 111, 113, 135, 189 (xem c cc th ch chnh tr; o c hc, v chnh tr hc); nguyn l ca, ii, 334; Kant ni v, i, 139; Marx ni v s bt lc ca, 119, 120, 322-3; u s C ni v, i, 187-8; Pericles ni v, i, 186; Plato ni v, i, 138-9; Socrates ni v, i, 130. chnh xc, tnh, ; precision, ii, 19, 20, 296. ch-ngi gi nh, human watchdog, i, 46, 51, 52, 149, 226, 227t, 241, 254. Christ, ii, 272-3, 357; din gii gio hun ca Ngi, ii, 24; v s thnh cng trn th, ii, 257, 272-3. Christians in the Class Struggle, Nhng ngi c c trong u tranh giai cp (G. Cope), i, 203, 292, ch. 9, n. 12 (xem c thanh ton). Ch ngha bi n, bng chng v s tn ti ca n thi Plato; Abolitionism, evidence for its existence in Platos time, xem n l. ch ngha bo h chnh tr; protectionism, political, i, 111t, ch. 6(VI), 115, 261, ii, 130, 331; Aristotle v Burke chng li, i, 112, 261; Hegel chng li, ii, 309-10;

Lycophron ng h, i, 114-15, ch. 6(VII), 117, 261; trnh by ca Plato v, i, 69, 117-18, 262-3, ch. 6, n. 52. ch ngha bi quan; pessimism; pht xt, ii, 76-8; ca Hegel, ii, 75; ca Hesiod; i, 37-8, 188, 235; ca Schopenhauer, ii, 79. ch ngha bnh ng; equalitarianism, i, 69, 70, 95, ch. 6 (IV), 235, ch.5, n.6, 284, ch.9 n.2; Hy Lp, i, 46, 69, 70, 95, 186, 236, 261, 278, 299 (xem c n l, phong tro Athenian bi n); phn i chun ca Plato v tr li ca Rousseau, i, 256-7; ch. 6, n.20 (so ii, 44); ca Kant, i, 256; v ch ngha duy l, ii, 234-6. ch ngha b lc; tribalism, i, 9t, 172, 174, ii, 228 (xem c ch ngha tp th); s v ca, i, 176-7, 294; Aristotle, i, 261; Do Thi, i, 17, 203, 279, ii, 22, 301; hin i, i, 316; Hegel, ii, 30 (xem c ch ngha dn tc); Hy Lp, i, 1767, ii, 281 (xem c Sparta); Marxist, ii, 337; Plato, i, 80, 199; Scott, ii, 301; tn cng ca Toynbee ln, ii, 251. ch ngha c nhn; individualism, i, 1002, ch. 6(V), 190, 268, ch. 7, n. 23, ii, 91, 226, 245-6, 275 (xem c ch ngha v tha). ch ngha chng tc; racialism, i, 9, 49, 231, 288, 317, ii, 61-2 (xem c gy ging); ca Aristotle, ii, 284; ca Plato, i, 49, 51, 75, 82-3, 141, 149-52, 240, 242, 279, ch. 8, n. 50, 331, 336-8 (xem c i, 27; huyn thoi v kim loi trong con ngi). ch ngha cng sn; communism, Athenian, i, 315; C c ban u, i, 241, ii, 254, 301; Marx, i, 241, ii, 254, 321; Plato, i, 48, 102, 104, 221, 256, 315 (xem tuy vy ch ti phit); chm ngn, Pythagorean, i, 104, 241, 259; Nga, ii, 83, 361. ch ngha dn tc, nationalism, i, 288-9, ii, 55, 63, 244, 306-7, 312-15, 361 (xem c Ngi c); Fichte, ii, 53; Hegel , ii, 58, 63-4, 69; Herder, ii, 52.

408

CH MC NI DUNG

ch ngha duy danh, xem duy danh. ch ngha duy l; rationalism, ii, 224-6, ch. 24(I), 229, 238-9, 243, 258, 352-3t; ph phn, i, 32, ii, 229-32, 233, 237, 238, 253; v x hi m, i, 173, 202; v o c hc, i, 287, ii, 232, 238-40; v thuyt trng th ch, ii, 132, 238; thc dng, ii, 357-8t, ch. 24, n. 19; tht v gi, ii, 227, 229, 230; khng ph phn, ii, 229-31, ch. 24 (II), 246, 353, 357-8. ch ngha duy tm, xem duy tm. ch ngha duy vt lch s, historical materialism, i, 38, ii, 105-6, ch. 15 (II). ch ngha duy vt; materialism, ii, 229; vs. ch ngha duy tm, ii, 326; ca Antiphon, i, 240; Php, ii, 85, 102; Marxist, ii, 102, 326. ch ngha quc; imperialism, i, 181, 182; Athen, i,, 176-83, 278; c, ii, 56, 65-6, 311, 314; Roma, i, 181-2, 297; Alexander, ii, 50 (xem c i, 236, 278; Marx v cc nh Marxist ni v, ii, 187-9, 336-7, 339; Napoleon, ii, 55; Plato chng, i, 283, 302-3. ch ngha c on, xem c on. ch ngha ng vt hc, xem thuyt ng vt hc. ch ngha hin thc; realism, ii, 280, 368t. ch ngha hoi nghi; scepticism, i, 267, 287, ii, 369-95. ch ngha khoa hc; scientism, i, 286t. ch ngha khoi lc, hedonism xem thuyt v li. ch ngha khng can thip, xem khng can thip. ch ngha Khng tng; Utopianism, i, 157t, 164, ii, 367 (xem c tnh thm m; lm sch bc vi v; ch ngha lng mn; k thut x hi Khng tng). ch ngha kinh t; xem kinh t. ch ngha lng mn; romanticism, i, 168t, 218, 288, 292, ii, 237, 239, 241, 333-4, ch. 18, n. 4; trong gio dc, ii, 275-7; c, ii, 21, 60, 302, 317; ca Heraclitus, i, 17; ca Marx, ii, 130, 333, 337, ch. 18, n.4; trung c, i, 16,

25, ii, 241-2, 302-3, 360-1; ca Plato, i, 84, 218; ~ thn d v ng qu ca Rousseau, i, 246, 293. ch ngha lch s; historicism, i, 2, 3t-8, 21, 114-15, 260, ii, 125, 193, 322, 393, 395; v bn cht lun, 28, 216; v chim tinh hc, i, 210, 244; v ch ngha khoa hc, i, 286; v ch ngha tm l, ii, 92; v o c hc, ii, 279, 366-7 (xem c o c hc, lch s ch ngha); v ho bnh, i, 260, 290-1; nh mt kt qu ca p bc, i, 1, 17, 203, 207, 300, ii, 122, 329; v quyt nh lun, ii, 32, 85; thi ca tc gi i vi, i, 34; v thay i, i,14, 21 (so i, 314); v tn gio, i, 300, ii, 279; Aristotle, ii, 7; Hegel, ii, 7, 37-8, ch. 12 (II), 47-8; Heraclitus, i, 14-16; Hesiod, i, 11; Jaspers, ii, 78; Lenin, ii, 320; Mannheim, ii, 352; Marx, i, 164, ii, 86, 106, 193, 202, 319, 322, 337; Mill, ii, 87, 92, 322; Morgenthau, i, 260; Plato, i, 19, 21, 24-5, 55, 75, 78, 84; Do thi, i, 17, 203, 207, 300 (xem c Dn tc c Chn); Theistic, i, 8, ii, 271; cc dng hin i khc, i, 221, ii, 241, 2734, ch. 15, n. 4, p. 326 (Hecker). Ch ngha Marx, xem Marx, ch ngha. ch ngha nhn vn; humanitarianism, i, 263, 266, 317, 329 f., 332 f.; ii, 198, 205-6, 234, 238, 240, 258, 303, 318; v ch ngha duy l, ii, 238-40. ch ngha nh nguyn trong trit hc ca Plato; dualism in Platos philosophy, ch. 5 (IX), i, 84-5, 103-4, 279. ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v quyt nh hay ch ngha nh nguyn ph phn; dualism of facts and decisions or critical dualism, i, 60t-61, 73, 211, 234-5, ch. 5(III), n.5, 239, 334; ii, 233, 278-9, 383-5, 391-3, 394-5 (so ii, 209). ch ngha nh nguyn v th xc v tinh thn; dualism of body and mind, ii, 102-3, 107-10, 333-4.

CH MC NI DUNG

409

ch ngha Plato mi; neo-Platonism, i, 210, 314, ii, 23, 301, 302, 353 (xem ch ngha Plato). ch ngha Plato, Platonism , cc Platonist, i, 112, 221, 236, 284, 342, ii, 246, 249-50 (xem c ch ngha Plato mi). ch ngha qun l; managerialism, i, 4 (xem c ch k tr). ch ngha quy np; inductivism, ii, 291, 295; Aristotle, i, 321, ii, 288-9; Bacon, ii, 248; Comte, ii, 299; Mill, i, 264, ch. 7, n. 2. ch ngha stoic; stoicism (chp nhn nghch cnh), i, 277, 298. ch ngha tm l; psychologism, i, 84t, 234, 290, ii, 88t, 90-9, 232; v ch ngha lch s, ii, 92; v huyn thoi v kh c x hi, ii, 93-4, 106. ch ngha tp th; collectivism, i, 9t, 1001, 203, 258t, ii, 57, 81, 226, 246, 322, 326 (xem c ch ngha v k; chnh th lun; thuyt v li, tp th ch ngha); Hegel, ii, 45, 57, 69-70, 99, 310, 315; Mannheim, ii, 336; Marx, ii, 99, 319; Plato, i, 80, 102-3, 106, 108, 324 f. ch ngha tp th phng php lun; methodological collectivism, ii, 324t; bn cht lun, i, 31-2t, ii, 17, 287, 289, 300-1, ch. 11, n. 54, 319 ; thuyt duy danh, nominalism, i, 32t, 109, 216, ii, 13-15, 18, 287, 289, 290, 291, 301. Ch ngha Thm m, xem Thm m. ch ngha thn b; mysticism, i, 84, 202, 314-15, ch. 10, n. 59; Hy Lp, i, 31415, ii, 353 (xem phi Pythagorean; cc phi Orphic); trung c, ii, 229, 241, 353; hin i, ii, 241-2; v ngh thut, ii, 243; v ch ngha lch s, ii, 279; v khoa hc, 244-5; Aristotle, i, 314, ii, 11, 289; Bergson, i, 202, 315 (so ii, 361) Hegel, ii, 309; Heraclitus, i, 15, 205; Marx, ii, 333; Parmenides, i, 301, 314; Plato, i, 56, 84, 314-15, ii, 353; Wittgenstein, ii, 246, 359, 366. ch ngha th gii Hy Lp; cosmopolitanism in Greece, i, 185,

236, 276, 278, 279, 281, 299 (xem c s thng nht ca nhn loi). ch ngha thc chng logic, logical positivism; l thuyt thc chng v ngha, i, 234, ii, 20, 215, 293, ch. 11, 296-9, 351, 353, 355-6, 358, 363, 366, n. 46, n. 47, n. 50, n. 52. ch ngha thc chng o c; moral positivism, ii, 392, 393. ch ngha thc chng, o c hay php l; positivism, ethical or juridicial, i, 68t, 71-2, 73, ii, 206, 392-5; Catlin, i, 238-9, 257; Hegel, ii, 8, 37, 41, 57, 206, 305-6, 308, 393-5; Heraclitus, i, 16, 207; Marx, 206, 319; Spinoza, ii, 305; Toynbee, ii, 255, 360. ch ngha thc dng, xem thc dng. ch ngha ton tr; totalitarianism, i, 1, 2, 4, 5, 107-8, 113, 119, 170, 182, 189, ii, 66-8, 302, 395; ca Hegel, ii, 69-70, 72-3, 310; ca Plato, i, 86, 87, 138-9, 338, 341. ch ngha tuyt i, xem tuyt i. ch ngha t bn; capitalism, i, 287, ii, 111t-115, 120, 135, 153-4, 183, 186, 191, 330, 335; ~ nh nc, ii, 334, 335t; ~ v , ii, 117t, 122, 124, 169, 327t, 335; s bin mt ca, ii, 125, 140-1, 335, 339. ch ngha t do; liberalism, i, 111, ii, 88, 284, 392-5 (xem c quyn t do); Hegel tn cng ln, ii, 309, 314; ~ ca Kant, i, 102, ii, 309; thi ca Marx vi, ii, 112, 319. Xem c gio dc. ch ngha t nhin; naturalism, i, 68t, ch. 5(V), 69-73, 95, 237-8, 299, 317, ii, 297; s cn ci ca, i, 70, 78-9, 241, 262; ngy th, i, 6ot; dn tc ch ngha, ii, 51; Aristotle, ii, 2, 282; Kant, i, 73, 237 (tuy vy xem ii, 238, 353); Marx, i, 241, ii, 325; Plato, i, 70, ch. 5(VI), 73, 74-8, 96; Socrates ni v, i, 117, 262. ch ngha t nhin tm l hc; psychological naturalism, xem ch ngha t nhin.

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ch ngha tng i o c; ethical relativism, i, 16t, 369-96; ii, 202-3; ca Heraclitus, i, 16, 17; ca Marx, ii, 2023, 319. ch ngha tng i trit hc, philosophical relativism, xem nghch l, chn l. ch ngha v k; egoism, i, 100, 101, 104 (xem c ch ngha tp th; thuyt v li, tp th ch ngha). ch ngha v tha, xem v tha, ch ngha ch ngha v chnh ph, xem v chnh ph. ch ngha x hi; socialism, ii, 139, 193, 198, 333; ngun gc ca, ii, 254 (xem c ch ngha cng sn); Marxist, ii, 83, 86, 108, 115, 140, 254, 360 (xem c Marx). ch ngha yu nc, xem nh nc gia trng. ch ngha, thuyt h v; nihilism, i, 72t, 184 (xem c ch ngha thc chng); ca Cristias, i, 142, 299, 304; c, ii, 78, 317; Hy Lp, i, 184; Plato ni v, i, 116, 118, 262, 263. chun mc, cc, lut chun tc; norms, normative laws, xem lut; logic ca cc chun mc. chung, ci; universals, ii, 245, 290. chng minh, hc thuyt v; the doctrine of proof, ii, 13, 21, 291, 294. Chng lo Uyn thm ca Zion, cc; Learned Elders of Zion, ii, 95. c th b bc b hay c th chng minh l sai hay c th kim tra, tnh; refutability or falsifiability or testability, ii, 13, 222, 260, 263, 327, 332, 364. Constitution of Athens; Hin php ca Athens (tc gi u s C Old Oligarch), i, 187, 324. c, phc c; archaism, ii, 251t, 360, 361. cng bng, xem cng l. cng l; justice, i, 89, ch. 6(I), 113, 247, 256, 326; Anaximander ni v, i, 301; Aristotle ni v, i, 256; Hegel ni v, ii, 43; Kant ni v, i, 247, ch. 6, n. 4;

Marx ni v, ii, 123, 202; Plato ni v, i, 89, 90, 94, 96, 97, 106, 107, 119, 221, 235, 248, 256, 263, ii, 5; Plato ni v sc mnh ca nim tin vo, i, 92-3; Socrates ni v, i, 105, 117; hai loi, i, 91-2 (xem c o c hc); nhn o ch ngha, i, 89, 91, 94 (xem c o c hc; bnh ng); quan im Hy Lp, i, 91-8, ch. 6(II), 254; ton tr, i, 90, 94, 107-8, 119. cng lun; public opinion, Hegel ni v, ii, 68, 73, 305; Heraclitus ni v, i, 13. cng ngh; techology, i, 163, ii, 143, 324; xem c cng ngh x hi. cng ngh x hi; social techology, i, 211, 285; ii, 82, 87, 94, 143, 194, 222. cng nhn, giai cp lao ng, giai cp cng nhn; workers, working class, ii, 343 f.; Aristotle ni v, i, 261, ii, 3, 282-3; Hegel ni v, ii, 315; Marx ni v, ii, 108,, 114, 115, 121, 146, 189-90, 198, 337; Plato ni v, i, 47, 76, 98, 225, 258, 259 (xem c gia sc ngi). cng ng; community, ii, 98 (xem c ch ngha tp th; ch ngha cng sn; nhm c th). cng sn, cc ng, Nhng ngi; communist parties, communists, ii, 144, 152, 158, 164-5, 190-2, 339, 340, 341. Credo (K. Barth), i, 236, ii, 272. Crete, i, 228. Crusoe, xem Robinson. cu cnh, xem mc ch. cynic, nhng ngi theo phi, i, 277, 279, 282; ii, 22. D danh ting v nh mnh, trit l ca Heraclitus v Hegel; fame and fate, Heraclitean and Hegelian philosophy, i, 17t, ii, 8t, 71-2, 276-7. Darwin, ch ngha; Darwinism, i, 317, ii 61. dn ch, nn; democracy, i, 4, 124-5t, 127, 189, ii, 151-2, 160-1t, ch. 19 (V); Athenian, i, 178-83; Marx v nhng ngi Marxist ni v, ii, 120, 122, 157-

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9, 161, 163, 164, 341, 343; u s C ni v, i, 187-8; Pericles ni v, i, 42, 95, 186; Plato ni v, i, 40-3, 123, 221, 254-6, ch. 6, n. 14; Socrates ni v, i, 305; v ch ngha duy l ph phn, i, 130; hot ng chnh tr ca ng, ii, 162-3; v pht trin khoa hc, ii, 322. dn ch, cc nn ~ nh; smaller democracies, ii, 140-1, 189, 335, 336. dn ch x hi, nhng ngi; social democrats, ii, 144, 152, 159, 164-5, 189, 336, 339. dn c d tha; surplus population, ii, 176, 179. dn du c, ngi chn cu trn i (v Plato ni v xm chim Dorian); nomads, hill shepherds (and Plato on Dorian conquest), i, 50, 220, 225-7, ch. 4, n. 32, 230-1, 246, 293, ii, 283. dn s, tng, xem tng dn s. Decline of the West, s suy tn ca Phng Ty (O. Spengler), i, 55, 2312, ch. 4, n. 45. Dn tc c Chn, hc thuyt v; doctrine of the Chosen People, i, 8-9, 203, 300, ii, 22, 252-3 (xem c ch ngha b lc, Do thi; ch ngha lch s Do thi). di truyn; heredity, l thuyt ca Plato v, xem gy ging. dch theo ngha en; literal translations, i, 328. din gii; interpretations; ni chung, ii, 266t; lch s, i, 171, 266, 267-8, ch. 25(III), 303, 336, 337; c th, ii, 2667t; cch mng Nga, ii, 336; gio hun ca Heraclitus, i, 204; cch mng x hi ca Marx, ii, 152-6, ch. 19(III), 339-41; gio hun ca Parmenides, i, 214; gio hun ca Plato, i, 54, 170-1, 246, 308, 331, ii, 267. Dik, i, 254. Do thi, nhng ngi; Jews, ch ngha lch s ca, xem ch ngha lch s Do Thi; ch ngha b lc ca, i, 17, 203, 279 (xem c Dn tc c Chn); thuyt duy l tr ca, ii, 22, 301.

Dorian, xm chim, xem dn du c. dng chy [s thay i lin tc]; flux, l thuyt ca Heraclitus v, i, 12, 189, 204-7, ch. 2, n. 2, 208, 211, 214, 217, 300, 301, 314, ii, 36, 249. duy danh, thuyt, ch ngha; nominalism, 289-90. duy l ho; rationalization, ii, 238, 256, 278, 357, ch. 24, n. 19. duy l, thuyt, xem ch ngha duy l. duy l tr, xem thuyt duy l tr. duy tm, ch ngha; idealism, ii, 291, 325, 326, 352, 353, 367. duy tm, ch ngha, c; German idealism, ii, 28, 32, 134, 353; cm gic thp hn, ii, 64, 312, 313, ch. 12, n. 57; ch ngha dn tc, ii, 49-58, ch. 12(III), 311, 314 (xem c ch ngha quc); ch ngha h v, ii, 78; ch ngha lng mn, ii, 21, 60, 303, 317. duy thc, thuyt; realism, 290. d on, d bo; prognosis, ii, 262t-3. qu, ngc, ca trit gia; philosophers stone, ii, 304, 334. o C c; Christianity, i, 65, 102, 104, 117, 235, ii, 243, 251, 256, 357, 361; lch s ca, ii, 21-6, ch. 11(III), 301-4; nhn o ch ngha, xem o c C c ton tr v b lc, ii, 76, 242, 300, 303, 310; vs. ch ngha lch s, ii, 2723, 279; vs. s n l v ti sn t, i, 241, ii, 254, 301; nh hng ca Marx ln ~ hin i, ii, 201, 255. o c gi, tnh; pharisaism, i, 49t, 237, ii, 82. o c hc, o c, bnh ng ch ngha, nhn o ch ngha v C c; ethics, morals, morality, equalitarian, humanitarian and Christian, i, 65, 66, 73, 235, ch. 5, n.6, 257, 263, ii, 151, 200; ton tr tp th ch ngha v b lc, i, 1001-3, 107-8, 112-13, 139, 256, 258, 325, 311, 339 f., ii, 44, 52, 65-76, 310, 314; lch s ch ngha, ii, 202t, 205-6, 255 (xem c ch ngha lch s

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v o c); v thm m hc, i, 65, 165, 292, ii, 210, 357; v chnh tr hc, i, 113, 139, 260; v tn gio, xem tn gio; v khoa hc, ii, 233, 238, 243-4; khoa hc, i, 237, ch. 5, n. 18; xem c ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v quyt nh; ch ngha t nhin; ch ngha thc chng; ch ngha tng i; thuyt v li; mc ch v phng tin; au v vui thch. o c tp th ch ngha, collectivist morality, i, 107-8 (xem c o c hc, ton tr). au v vui thch, s bt i xng v; asymmetry of pain and pleasure, i, 158, 235, 284-5, ch. 9, n. 2, ii, 237, 304. xut, ngh; proposals, i 63t, 234, ii, 334 (xem c ngn ng ca cc yu sch v xut). iu vn ca Pericles; funeral oration of Pericles, i, 186, 255, ch. 6, n. 16. nh ch, xem th ch. nh kin, xem thnh kin. nh ngha, definition, i, 31-4, ch. 3(VI), ii, 10, 11, 16, 21 (xem c bn cht lun phng php); ngm, ii, 296t. v, s, ca cc x hi; breakdown of societies, xem x hi ng. c on, ch ngha; authoritarianism, i, 66, 71, 72, 129, 159, ii, 284; trung c, ii, 25, 30; ca Plato, i, 134, 136; Socrates ni v, i, 129-30. c quyn; monopoly, ii, 153, 172, 175, 178, 339. c ti, ch , xem ch chuyn ch. c ti, nh, l thuyt v ~ nhn t; dictator, theory of benevolent, i, 15960, 264, 316, ch. 10 n. 69 (so 123). ng hc x hi; social dynamics, i, 16, 39, 83 (xem c cn bng x hi). ng nht, s, ca cc i lp; identity of opposites, xem s thng nht ca cc i lp. ng thi, tnh, s; simultaneity, ii, 20, 220. ng vt hc x hi; social zoology, i, 317, ch. 10, n. 71.

c, nc ~ khc, ii, 78, 307. E Engels, tr mt v cc chin thut mi; change of front and new tactics, ii, 159, 160, 162, 188; ch ngha gio iu ca, ii, 327, 332, 342; v s gii phng con ngi, ii, 105. entelechy, ii, 6t, 286. Eros, i, 211, 218. F Fichte, cha ca ch ngha dn tc c, ii, 53-4, 71; v Kant, ii, 54, 313, ch. 12, n. 58. G gy ging, phi ging, l thuyt ca Plato v; Platos theory of breeding, i, 51-3, 82-83, 228, 245, 276, 281, 283, 331, 336-8 (xem c pha trn giai cp; ch ngha chng tc). ght l l duy l, tnh; misology, xem ght ngi. ght ngi, tnh; misantropy; tnh ght l l duy l; misology, i, 283, 299, 300, ii, 236. gia sc ngi; human cattle, i, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 53, 154, 226, 227t, 228. gi thuyt; hypothesis, i, 58, 239, ii, 12, 13, 221, 260, 262, 264, 284, 289, 299, 324, 363; cng tc, ii, 60; ph, ii, 266; ~ ph ca Marx v bc lt thuc a, xem bc lt. gia trng, nh nc, xem nh nc gia trng. giai cp, l thuyt lch s ch ngha v x hi; class, historicist theory of society, i, 38-41; Aristotle ni v, ii, 282-4; Marx ni v, i, 40, ii, 111; thc giai cp, ii, 112, ch. 16(I), 115-16; chuyn chnh giai cp, ii, 120, 122, 157, 162, 328 (xem c ch ngha t bn); li ch giai cp, ii, 112, 114; u tranh giai cp, ii, 111-13, ch. 16(II), 116, 120; giai cp trung lu, ii, 146-7; l thuyt ca Plato v, i, 46-7, 87, 106, 258;

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phn bit giai cp, i, 46, 49, 90, 148, 225; pha trn cc giai cp, i, 49, 82, 141, 225, 272 (xem c gy ging); c quyn giai cp, i, 51, 86, 90, 119, 227, 259, 267 (xem c Sparta); giai cp thng tr, i, 49, 54, ch. 4(IV); chin tranh giai cp, i, 38, ii, 116 (xem c th vt-ngi; ch canh-ngi; giai cp lao ng; n l). gii thch nhn qu, xem gii thch. gii thch; explanation, ii, 210 f., 362-4, ch. 25, n.7; nhn qu, i, 210 f., ii, 2623, 362-4; lch s, 263t, 266, 364. gio dc; education, i, 135, ii, 209, 275-8, 283-4, ch. 11, n. 6; cc nguyn l mi v ~, ii, 276; nguyn l mi v gio dc t do cc i hc, ii, 284; nh hng ca Aristotle ln, ii, 283; Aristotle ni v, ii, 3, 4; Frederick William III ni v, ii, 34-5; Anh, i, 316, ii, 284; Hy Lp, i, 53, 130-1; Marx ni v, ii, 141; nh hng ca Plato ln, i, 54, 148 (so i, 227); Plato ni v, i, 47, 49, 51-2, 133-4, ch. 7(V), 142, 147, 221, 227, 228, 258, 267-9, 328 f., ii, 227; Socrates ni v, i, 129-30, 133; kim sot nh nc v, i, 103, 111, 130-1; ton tr, i, 54, 103. gio iu, ch ngha; dogmatism, ii, 239, 249; c tng cng, c cng c, ii, 40, 215t-216, 241, 297, 298. gio phi dng Tn; jesuitism, 257. git tr s sinh, tc; infanticide, s bo v ~ ca Plato, i, 51, 228, 245, 295, 315, 338. git v trc xut; kill and banish (Plato), i, 116, 326-31, 336. ging nhau; resemblance, 27, n. 19 n n. 20, ch. 3, ii, 301, n. 54(3), ch. 11. Gorgias, i, 116, xem Plato, Republic, so vi Gorgias. H hi ho; harmony, i, 108, 197, 313. hnh phc; happiness, ii, 237; Hegel ni v, ii, 73; Plato ni v, i, 74, 169, 240.

h thng mt tri; solar system, i, 260, 286. h thng x hi; the social system, i, 167; l thuyt ca Marx v, ii, 118, 123, 326. Hegel, ii, 28, 38, 42, 54, 59-60, 79, 307; tnh tr tro ca, ii, 306, 310 (so ii, 56, 72); xuyn tc bin chng, ii, 40t, 42, 44, 49, 74, 310; phong cch, ii, 28, 32, 44, 287; v Kant, ii, 38, 44-5, 309; v Plato, ii, 31, 310; trit hc ng nht, ii, 40t, 308-9, 393, 395; v t nhin, ii, 27-8; chnh sch ca, ii, 32-5; The Secret of Hegel (J. H. Stirling), ii, 29; cha ca Ch ngha B lc Mi, 304, 56, 61-78, ch. 12(V), 311, 314; b Aristotle nh hng, ii, 7-8, 36, 286, 309; b Burke nh hng, ii, 60, ch. 12(IV), 308-9; b Heraclitus nh hng, i, 17, 203, ii, 36, 49; nh hng khc, ii, 305-6, ch. 12, n. 11. Hegel, nh hng ca; Hegels influence, i, 238, 297, ii, 29-31, 79, 215, 247, 249, 307, 311, 314 (xem c ch ngha Hegel; Marx); Foster ni v, ii, 366; Kierkegaard ni v, ii, 275; Schopenhauer ni v, ii, 32-3, 54, 63, 77-80 (xem c php bin chng; chn l;.trit hc v lch s). Hegel, ch ngha; Hegelism, ii, 29, 30, 31, 78=9, ch. 12(VI), 208, 223, 226, 275, 356. Heraclitus, i, 12, 189; v tr hc, i, 1213, 204-5; nh hng, i, 12, 203 (xem c Hegel); trit hc t nhin, i, 14, 60, 206, ch. 2, n. 7. hin nhin, s , tnh; self-evidence, ii, 291. h thng lut php, xem lut php, h thng. hin sinh, ch ngha; existentialism, ii, 76-7, 380-1. hin tng hc; phenomenology, i, 216, ii, 16, 292. hnh hc; geometry, ca Plato, i, 248-53, ch. 6, n. 9, 267, 319-20; vs. s hc, i, 248.

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hnh hc, l thuyt, xem l thuyt hnh hc. hnh hc; geometry, ca Plato, 248-53, ch. 6, n. 9, 267, 319-20; vs. s hc, 248. hnh thc, cc; forms, xem nim. Hoa K, Hp chng quc; United States, i, tr. ix, 197, ii, 158, 189, 329, 355, 340. ho bnh, xem quan h quc t. hc t cc sai lm ca chng ta; learning from our mistakes, ii, 376, 390. Hn o Thing ling, cc; Islands of the Blessed, i, 327. hi quy v tn; infinite regress, 10, 17, 288. hi tng, anamnesis, i, 219t. Hi ng Ban m; Noctural Council, i, 143, 195, 332. Hi Quc Lin; League of Nations, i, 288. hng bin, thut; rhetorics, i, 129, 263, ii 4. hu c, l thuyt, xem l thuyt hu c. Huyn thoi; Myth, ii, 245; huyn thoi ca Empedocles v Nm Ln, i, 208-9, ch. 3, n.6 (xem c Nm Ln); Huyn thoi Ln v Sparta, i, 41t; huyn thoi ca Hesiod v hn n, i, 211; v suy tn, i, 11, 188; v kim loi trong ngi, i, 219; huyn thoi ca Plato v th vt trong con ngi, i, 241, 313; v mu (huyt thng) v t, i, 139-41, ch. 8(II), ii, 61-2; v suy tn v sp , i, 55-6, 232-3, ch. 4(V), 244; v ngi sinh ra t t, i, 50, 140t, 209, 226, 270, 272, ii, 61; v s suy sp ca con ngi, i, 36, 37, 39, 81-3, ch. 5(VIII), 141, 151-3, 198, 209, 219, 281, 315, ii 282; v kim loi trong con ngi, i, 83, 140, 209, 225, 272 (xem tuy vy i, 281; c ch ngha chng tc ca Plato); v cc con s, i, 82, 141, 148-53, 198, 209, 242-4, ch. 5, n. 39, 272, 281-2; ngun gc cc loi do thoi ho, i, 37, 210, ii, 284-5; thi ca Plato i vi cc huyn thoi ca ng, i, 142-3, 272,

273; din gii cc huyn thoi ca Plato, i, 54. Hy Lp c, Hellas, Hellenic, i, 279, 282, 295, 299, ii, 304, 354. Hy Lp, nhng ngi; Greeks, i, 171-2, 294, 341. I ch k, tnh, xem ch ngha v k. K k hoch ho tp th ch ngha; collectivist planning, i, 2, 285, ii, 357. k hoch, lp; planning, ii, 130, ch. 17(VI), 143, 194, 238 (xem c k thut x hi); quy m ln, ii, 162, 212; Hayek ni v, ii, 336. khch quan, tnh; objectivity, ii, 217-18, 221, 238, 261, 268. Khai sng, thi; the Enlightenment, i, 333 f., ii, 303. kh c x hi, l thuyt v; social contract, theory of, i, 115; Cristias, i, 273; Lycophron, i, 76-7, 114, 261-2; Plato, i, 76-7, 226, 263; Roussaeu, i, 246; Barker ni v, i, 114-15, 261; Hume v Neitzsche ni v, i, 230; huyn thoi phng php tm l hc, ii, 93-4, 106. khoa hc x hi; social science, i, 2, 5, ii, 9, 21, 216, 221-2, 256 (xem c quy lut x hi hc); s lc hu ca, i, 2, 33, ii, 256; nhim v ca, i, 22, ii, 95, 222. khoa hc; science, ii, 85, 242, 245, 283, 289; l thuyt thng tm tr, ii, 214t, 260, 361; Crusonian, ii, 219-20; nh ngha trong, ii, 290, ch. 11, n. 39; ranh gii ca, ii, 297-9, ch. 11, n. 51 (xem c tnh c th b bc b); khi qut ho, ii, 263, 264, 364; lch s, ii, 264 t; t nhin v x hi, i, 33, 67, 216, 286, ii, 324; l thuyt n pha v khoa hc, ii, 260t-262 (xem c l thuyt thng v tm tr); c tit l (thin khi), ii, 218-19; cch tip cn Socratic n, i, 28-9, 131, 267 (xem c s trung thc tr tu); v o c hc, ii, 238; v trc

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gic, ii, 15-16, 292, 361; v ch ngha thn b, ii, 243-6 (xem ni lon chng li khoa hc); v tn gio, ii, 246, 359; x hi, xem khoa hc x hi. khoi lc, ch ngha, xem ch ngha khoi lc. khoan dung; tolerance, i, 235, 265, 266, ii, 109, 238, 257. kh cc, qui lut ~ tng ln; law of increasing misery, ii, 166, 168, 178-90. khng can thip, ch ngha; noninterventionism, ii, 88, 140, 146, 253, 327, 367 (xem ch ngha t bn v ). khng gian nh m ca cc s vt cm nhn c; space as mother of sensible things, i, 211-13, 274 (xem c nim, nh cha ca cc s vt cm nhn c). Khng tng, ch ngha, xem ch ngha khng tng. khung kh php l; legal framework, i, 286, ii, 131-3, ch. 17(VII), 162, 331; v kinh t hc, ii, 121. k thut; engineering, i, 68, 163, ii, 85, 222, 263, 324. k thut x hi; social engineering, i, 224, ch. 3(IV), 210t; Khng tng, i, 157t, 159-63, 167, 284, 285, 291 (xem c ch ngha cp tin; ch ngha Khng tng); Marx chng li, i, 164, ii, 82-3, 115, 130, 142, 144-5, 198, 337; Hayek ni v, i, 285. k thut x hi tng phn; piecemeal social engineering, i, 158t, 159, 162, 167, 285, 286t, 291, ch. 9, n. 8, ii, 125, 129, 130, 132, 142, 143, 194, 222, 237, 238, 367 (xem c cng ngh x hi). k tr, ch ; technocracy, ii, 335. kim ch v cn bng, l thuyt v; theory of checks and balances, i, 122t, 263-4, ii, 162 (xem c kim sot dn ch). kim nghim, tnh c th; testability, xem c th b bc b. kim sot dn ch; democratic control, i, 123-5, ch. 7(II) , 127, ii, 127, 129, 131, 132, 139, 143, 151, 331 (xem c kim ch v cn bng; ch ngha can thip).

kim sot, xem kim sot dn ch; cc th ch; kim ch v cn bng. kim tra, xem kim sot. kin ngh, xem xut. kin thc, xem tri thc. kinh nghim, ch ngha; empiricism, ii, 213-14, 224, 352, 362, 378. kinh t, ch ngha; economism, ii, 104t, 107. kinh t hc; economics, i, 173, ii, 29, 96, 97, 174-5, 196, 335, 339, 348 (xem c tin); tch t, tp trung, tp trung ho t bn, ii, 106, 136, 146, 147, 153, 166-8, ch. 20(I), 180, 183, 185-6, 194, 329, 338t; cnh tranh, ii, 140, 146-7, 166, 167, 169, 174, 175, 183, 330, 346; sut li tc gim dn, ii, 183-5, ch. 20(V), 196, 349, 350; trao i cht ca con ngi, ii, 103-4, 106-7, 112, 133, 137 (so ii, 333-4); i qun d b cng nghip, ii, 168, 175, 180, 186, 330; qui lut tng ngho kh v ca ci, ii, 123, 136, 146, 148, 155, 156, 159, 168, 169, 178, 179, 189, 190, 330; t liu sn xut, ii, 135, 326; quan h sn xut v iu kin sn xut, ii, 106, 113, 194, 326, ch. 15, n. 13, 329, 330, 333; dn c d tha v lng, ii, 176, 179, ch. 20(III), 346; l thuyt v gi tr, ii, 1707, ch. 20(II), 329, 335, 345-6, n. 10; chu k thng mi, ii, 166, 168, 17982, ch. 20(IV), 194-6, 330, 348; hai loi t bn, ii, 184, 348-9, ch. 20, n. 33, (xem c tin; phn cng lao ng; ch ngha t bn; Marx). kinh vin, trit hc; scholasticism, ii, 9, 20, 21, 222, 229 (xem c l thuyt v tri thc; gi thuyt; gii thch). L laissez faire (chnh sch t do, khng can thip), xem ch ngha khng can thip; trong gio dc, i, 130-1; trong o c hc, ii, 237. lm ngng thay i, xem thay i, l thuyt ca Plato v lm ngng thay i.

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lm sch bc vi v (Plato); canvascleaning, i, 166t-167, 200, 292, 328, 336, ii, 94. lng mn, ch ngha, xem ch ngha lng mn. lnh o, s, leadership, xem quyn ti cao; nh c ti; cc nh cai tr; Hegel ni v, ii, 73, 275 (xem c thng tr v quy phc; v nhn); nguyn l ln nht ca Plato, i, 7, 103; l thuyt ca Plato v, i, 126-7, 135, 169, 269, 340 f. lao ng; labour, ii, 131, 331 (xem c cng nhn). Lao ng tt c cc nc Lin hip li!; Workers, unite!, ii, 108, 145, 178, 185. lp php, legistlation; xem lut; ch ngha can thip; hai loi, ii, 331. l l; arguing, argument, ii, 13, 16-17, 225, 238, 242, 247, 249, 252, 289. l thuyt, l lun; theory, ii, 262-3, 363; v th nghim, ii, 260 (xem c th nghim); v thc tin, ii, 222, 243, 256, 263. l thuyt hnh hc v th gii, geometrical theory of the world, i, 248-253, 320, 343. l thuyt hu c v x hi v nh nc; organic theory of society and state, i, 173-4, 294-5, 316; ngun gc ng phng ca, i, 242; Plato, i, 22, 40-1, 56, 77, 79-81, ch. 5(VII), 108, 138-9, 220, 242; Hegel, ii, 31, 43, 45, 64; tn cng ca Popper-Lynken ln, i, 294, ch. 10, n. 7; Renan, ii, 314; Rousseau, ii, 52 (xem c nh nc quc gia). l thuyt sinh hc v nh nc, biological theory of the state, xem hu c. l thuyt thng tm tr; bucket theory of mind, ii, 214t, 260, 361 (xem c l thuyt n pha v khoa hc). l thuyt n pha v khoa hc; searchlight theory of science, ii, 260t262, 361. (xem c l thuyt thng tm tr).

l tr, l tnh, s hp l; reason, reasonableness, xem tuyt vng; nin tin; ch ngha duy l. lch s; history, ii, 261, 264, 269, 270, 364; ~ trit hc, ii, 54-5; ~ quyn lc chnh tr, ii, 270, 278; ~ khoa hc, ii, 107, 260, 262-3, 325, 362-3. lin ch quan, tnh; intersubjectivity, ii, 217t, 221 (xem c thuyt lin c nhn; ngn ng). linh hn; the soul, i, 301-2, ch. 10, n. 44; Aristotle ni v, ii, 6-7; Freud ni v, i, 313; Plato ni v, i, 75, 78, 80, 81, 197, 212, 217, 240, 302, 313; cc phi Pythagorean v Orphic ni v, i, 301-2, ii, 285. logic, i, 232, ii, 221, 291, 294, 301 (xem ng ngha hc; mu thun; nghch l) ca tnh hnh giai cp, ii, 113, 114, 117; ca t do, i, 315t; ca cc chun mc, 234t (xem c ngn ng ca cc yu sch chnh tr); ca tnh th, ii, 97t, 265t; ca quyn lc, i, 1, 137, 315t, 317, ii, 97. la; fire, l thuyt ca Heraclitus v, i, 14, 15, 73, 206-7, ch. 2, n. 7, 212. lut, (quy); laws, i, 57-9, ch. 5(I); lch s, ii, 264, 268, 322; t nhin, i, 57-9; chun tc, i, 57-9, 61, 62, 65, 239; x hi hc, i, 22, 62, 67, ch. 5(IV), 236, ii, 93, 322, 323; ph qut, ii, 262-5, 369. lut php, h thng; legal system, ii, 118, 121. lut, lp php; law, legislation, i, 110-11, ii, 121, 125, 170; trit hc ca Hegel v, ii, 43, 45-6, 66-7, 309, 310; trit hc ca Marx v, ii, 118, 123, 173, 329-32 (xem c lp php). lng t, thuyt, xem quantum. M maieutic, i, 321, 322. manh mi lch s; the clue to history, ii, 269, 274, ch. 25(IV) (xem c trit hc v lch s). Maori, nhng ngi, i, 171.

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Marx, i, tr. viii; ii, 81-8; nh kinh t, ii, 123, 173, 193, 323, 347; nh nhn vn, ii, 82, 207, 319; nh o c, ii, 199, 211 (xem o c hc lch s ch ngha; so i, 315, ii, 152); nh trit hc, ii, 133-4, ch. 17(VIII); nh x hi hc, ii, 82, 107, 193; v cc nh kinh t t sn, 136, 332 (so, ii, 173); Capital, ii, 135-6, 166, 169, 253, 323, 332, ch. 18, n. 3; Cng lnh 10 im, ii, 140-1, ch. 18(III); tng chnh ca, ii, 104, ch. 15(I), 124; ch ngha tp th, ii, 99, 200, 319; ch ngha khng tng, i, 164, ii, 333; v ph bnh cng trnh ca ring ng, ii, 327, 332-3; ch ngha duy l, ii, 224, 225, 303; ch ngha phi duy l, ii, 143, 333; tnh u tr, ii, 321, 338; cc li tin tri, ii, 133, 135-5, ch. 18(I), 329; nh gi cc li tin tri, ii, 193-4, 197-8; cc bc b v cc li tin tri, ii, 109, 140, 154, 159, 183, 186, 191, 329, 336; khng ng vi Hegel, ii, 99, 102, 111, 325; b nh hng bi, ii, 82, 99, 103, 124, 128, 211, 314, 319, 327, 340, 350; so vi Hegel, ii, 81, 224; so vi Mill, ii, 87-8; so vi Plato, i, 38, 40, 78, 168, ii, 118, 177; b nh hng bi cc nh duy vt Php, ii, 85, 102; b nh hng bi Cch mng Php, ii, 87, 207; b nh hng bi Vico, ii, 221; nh hng n o C c hin i, ii, 200, 201. Marx, ch ngha; Marxism, ii, 82-3; nh mt phng php, ii, 84, 331; nh mt tn gio, ii, 198, 255, 337; xt li ch ngha, ii, 339; cc chin thut ca, ii, 116, 144-5, ch. 18(V), 158, 163-5, 18992, ch. 20(VII) (so ii, 158-9); Dung tc, Th tc, ii, 100t, 101, 111, 215, 325, 329, 330. Marxist, cc nh, ii, 141-2, 342; ch ngha gio iu ca, ii, 182, 192, 216, 332; s v trch nhim ca cc lnh t, ii, 145, 366. mu thun, cc; contradictions, i, 205, ii, 39, 249-50 (xem c, tng phn [antinomy]; logic; nghch l).

m tn, s; superstition, ii, 95, 318 (xem c thnh kin). mnh lnh tuyt i; categorical imperative (Kant) xem quy tc vng. M, xem Hoa K. m t, khoa hc v lch s; scientific and historical description, ii, 261, ch. 25(I). m tng; wishful thinking, ii, 139, 197, 334. mc ch lun; teleology, ii, 5, 6, 285, 286. mc ch v phng tin; ends and means, i, 161, 286-7, ch. 9, n. 6. mc (tiu chun) sng; standard of living, ii, 195 (xem c ngho kh tng ln). Myth of the Twentieth Century [Thn thoi ca Th k Hai mi] (A. Rossenberg), ii, 101. N Nm Ln hay Chu k Ln; Great Year or Great Cycle, i, 19, 206t, 207, 208-19, ch. 3, n. 6, 219, 220. nng sut; productivity, ii, 106, 195, 241. nn vn minh, xem vn minh. Nga; Russia, ii, 108, 144, 327, 335-6, 349. ngn sch, lp; budgeting, i, 285, ii, 132. ngo mn, thi , Platonic; Platonic hauteur, i, 334. ngho kh, xem kh cc. nghch l, cc; paradoxes, ii, 354; v dn ch, i, 17, 121, 124, 125, 265; v t do, i, 123t-124, 265-6, ch. 7(I), n. 4, n.6, ii, 131, 354; Heraclitus ni v, i, 13; Hegel ni v, ii, 44, 309, 310; Kant ni v, ii, 44, 309 (xem c cc tng phn, antinomies); Marx ni v, ii, 124; Plato ni v, i, 265; Rousseau ni v, 309; k ni di, ii, 230, 354, ch. 24, n. 7; dng ~, 354t, 355, ch. 24, n. 8; ca trit hc khng c cc gi nh trc, ii, 230, 309; ca ch ngha tng i, ii, 256, 351; v quyn ti cao [quyn t quyt], i, 123-4, 266, ch. 7, n. 6; v k hoch ho nh nc, ii, 130; v khoan dung, i,

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265-6; v quyn t do kinh t, ii, 124, 179, 348. ngoi hn, ch , cc quy tc v; exogamy, rules of, ii, 89t. ngc bo bi, qu ca trit gia, xem qu. ngn ng; language, i, 32, 65, ii, 53, 235, 239, 307-8, 324, 361, 366 (xem c tnh sng sa); ca cc yu sch hay xut chnh tr, i, 109t, 112, 234-235t, ii, 328, 357; duy l ho ~, ii, 278, 357 (so ii, 361). ngun tri thc; sources of knowledge, ii, 378, 388, 389, 390. ng ngha hc (A. Tarski); semantics, i, 216, 234, 273-274, ch. 8, n. 23, ii, 290, 294, 353, 362. ngi v i, thin ti; great men, genius, i, 17, 231, ii, 32, 67-8, 73, 228, 276 (so i, p. vii). ngun gc ca nh nc; origin of the state, i, 115, 230-1. nguyn t, cc, thuyt, atoms, atomism, i, 250, 251, ii, 324; v ch ngha khoi lc, ii, 304; v ch ngha c nhn, ii, 314, 315. nh cai tr, xem cai tr, cc nh. nh c ti, xem c ti, nh. nh nc; state, i, 288, ii, 129, 328 (xem c ch ngha bo h; ch ngha can thip); ch ngha t bn, ii, 193, 328, 334; kim duyt, i, 53, 86, 132, 229, 267, 268, 275; kim sot gio dc, i, 103, 111, 130, 131; kim sot kinh t, i, 111, ii, 125-30; can thip, i, 110-11; ngun gc ca, i, 115, 230-1 (xem c l thuyt hu c v nh nc); phn loi nh nc ca Aristotle, i, 222; ca Hegel, ii, 48, 305, 311; ca Plato, i, 40, ch. 4(II), 44, 220, 222 (xem c giai cp); l thuyt ca Aristotle v, i, 112, ii, 3, 282; l thuyt ca Hegel, ii, 31, 45-7, 57, 63-6, 74, 305, 310, 311 (xem c nh nc quc gia); l thuyt ca Marx, ii, 118-20, 157, 162, 193, 328; l thuyt ton tr hin i, ii, 63, 65 (xem

c nh nc quc gia); l thuyt ca Plato, i, 25, 31, 39, 53, 45-9, 50-5, 226. nh nc gia trng, ch ngha yu nc; paternal state, patriotism, i, 184t, ch. 10(III), 272, 282, 299. nh nc quc gia v quyn t quyt quc gia, cc nguyn l v; national state and national self-determination, principles of, i, 288-9, ii, 50, 51, 318. nhc; music, i, 230, ii, 210-11, 337; nh vn Hy Lp n danh ni v, i 229-30; Plato ni v, i, 52-4, 229. nhn o, ch ngha; humanism, ii, 258 (xem c nim tin vo l tr). nhn qu, quan h; causality, ii, 262-3, 363 (xem c gii thch). nhn s, thuyt trng, xem thuyt trng nhn s. nht nguyn lun ngy thi [u tr]; nave monism, i, 59t, 73, 172. nht nguyn lun; monism, i, 73t, ii, 366 (xem c nht nguyn lun ngy th); ca Catlin, i, 237-9, ch. 5, n. 18. nhm c th; concrete group, i, 175 (xem c x hi tru tng). nim tin vo l tr; faith in reason, i, 185, ii, 231t, 233, 243, 246, 258. ni di; lying, i, 142-3, 183-4, 331, 336 f. ni di cao thng; noble lie, i, 270, xem c ni di vng gi. ni di vng gi, s; the lordy lie, i, 138-40, ch. 8(I), 150, 270-2, ii, 68. n l, s, tnh trng; slavery, i, 62, 65, 330, 241, 278, 329, 340; cc x hi ng, i, 295; phong tro Athenian bi n v bng chng cho s tn ti ca n trong cc cng khch ca Plato v Aristotle, i, 43, 46, 47, 53, 70, 221, 222, 224-5 (ch. 4, n. 18, n. 29), 236, ch. 8, n. 48, 261, 278, 299, 316, 333-6, ii, 2-3, 282, 286-7; thi ca Socrates i vi, i, 129; Hegel ni v, xem thng tr v quy phc; Marx ni v, ii, 183, 187, 328. ni lon chng khoa hc; revolt against science, ii, 57, 241-2 (xem c ii, 228).

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ni lon chng l tr; revolt against reason, i, 317, ii, 239. ni lon chng t do; revolt against freedom, i, 188, 199, 315, 317, ii, 62, 72, 75, 81. nc nng; heavy water, ii, 374-5. O Oedipus, phc cm; Oedipus complex, i, 314; s mnh mt kt qu ca li tin tri (c gi l hiu ng Oedipus trong S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s ), i, 22 (so ii, 198). Orphic, cc phi; sects, 188, 300-1, 313, 285. P Peloponnesian, chin tranh; war, i, 17880, 183, 192-93, 296. phm tr, b my; categorical apparatus, ii, 214t, 200. php tr; rule of law, i, 166, 326. pht xt, ch ngha; fascism, ii, 30-1, 6078 (xem c ch ngha dn tc; ch ngha chng tc); thi ca cc ng Marxist vi, 162-4, ch. 19(VI), 336-7, 343-4. phn cng lao ng, division of labour, i, 173; Marx ni v, ii, 319; Plato ni v, i, 78, 90, 226, ii, 319; s phn i hin i i vi, ii, 241, 358. phn tm hc; psychoanalysis, i, 313, ii, 215, 216, 242, 267, 351, 352. ph bnh, s, ph phn; criticism; phng php ph phn, critical method; tho lun ph phn, critical discussion; i, tr. vii, 129, 186, 222, ii, 238, 239, 360, 376, 378-81, 386-7, 390 (xem c l l, ch ngha duy l); v gio dc, i, 130, 135, ii, 209, 284; Plato ni v, i, 53, 86, 229, 267, 268, 270, 275, 276-7, 298, ii, 310; Socrates ni v, i, 129, 130; v chnh tr hc, xem chnh tr hc; duy l v khoa hc, ii, 218, 221, 222, 238, 284, 322; truyn thng duy l ca, i, 188, 300. ph phn, xem ph bnh.

phi duy l, ci; the irrational, ii, 245, 357. phi duy l, ch ngha; irrationalism, ii, 224, 227-9, 249; phn cng ca tc gi ln, ii, 240-6, ch. 24(IV); nh s tuyt vng v l tr, ii, 231, 256, 279; hai th d v, ii, 247-58, ch. 24 (V); v tng v s thng nht ca nhn loi, xem s thng nht ca nhn loi; v tnh yu, ii, 235-7; v ch ngha thn b, ii, 242; v thuyt nhn cch, ii, 133; v khoa hc, ii, 247; ca Toynbee, ii, 251-8, 360-1, 366; ca Whitehead, ii, 247-50, 359. phong kin, ch ngha; feudalism (dng theo ngha n d v s hu t), ii, 3, 30, 113, 345. phi ging xem gy ging. phc c, xem c. Phc hng, thi; the Renaissance, i, 221, 293, ii, 30, 151, 303. phng php khoa hc; scientific method, i, 3, 163, 285, 307, ii, 13, 82, 230, 233, 260, 289, 298, 324, 363 (xem c phng php lun); v ph bnh, ii, 218; v quyt nh lun, ii, 321; v o c hc, i, 1, 69, 233, 285; v k thut x hi tng phn, i, 126, 291; v logic tnh th, ii, 97; c tnh cng cng v kha cnh x hi ca, ii, 217-222. phng php lun lch s ch ngha; historicist methodology, i, 21, 75. phng ty; the west, nn vn minh phng ty; western civilization, i, 102, 171, 175, 232, 267, ii, 24, 243, 257. Plato, ch ngha, xem ch ngha Plato. Plato, i, tr. viii, 34, 155, 198-9; ngun gc qu tc, i, 19, 27, 153, 208, 282; thi tr v nn tng lch s, i, 18, 19, ch. 3(I), 84, 171 ff.; do Socrates ci bin, i, 109, 191-2, 303; ngi sng lp Vin hn Lm, i, 136-55, 300; hot ng chnh tr, i, 18, 43-5, 136, 153, 282; xung t ni b, i, 109, 196-7, 199, 313, ch. 10(VI), n. 59(1); ch trng bo lc (lm sch bc vi v), i, 166, 195, 200, 327, 331 f., 336; bp mo gio hun ca Socrates, i, 194-5,

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305, ch. 10, n. 55, n. 56; nh ngh s, i, 42, 165; nh nh ton hc, i, 248, 267, 319, 343; nh trit gia, i, 98, 246, ch. 5, n. 45, 343; nh nh khoa hc x hi, i, 35, 38, 54, 56, 70, 84, 101, 171, 198; nh nh gio, i, 43, 268, 269; ch ngha c on ca Plato, i, 103, 134, 136; tnh ngo mn, i, 330; thuyt trc gic, 145, 274, ii, 11, 227, 288-9; ch ngha phi duy l, i, 84, 141, ii, 236, 238; tnh ght ngi, i, 283, 299 (so i, 51, 139, 228, ii, 357); ch ngha thn b, i, 314; ch ngha lng mn, i, 84, 165, 218; chn dung t ho, xem vua trit gia; s l tng ho Plato, i, 87-8, 104, 141, 152, 223, 229, 244, 247, 271, 275, 276, 299, 323-43, ii, 26, 312; cc hc tr ca ng tr thnh cc bo cha, i, 136-7, 268, 316-17; b nh hng bi Anaximander, i, 301; bi Herodotus, i, 222, 255; bi Heraclitus, i, 11, 16, 205, 208 (xem c dng chy); bi u s C, i, 300; bi Parmenides, i, 21, 28-9, 212, 301; bi phi Pythagorean, i, 83, 148, 196, 211-12, 246, 301, 319; bi Socrates, i, 29, 72, 109, 144, 197, 221, 240, 317; so vi Socrates, i, 42, 128, 138, 143, 146, 154, 195, 268, 269, 3012, 305, 313 (xem c t cp t tc, l thuyt Socratic vs. Platonic v vn Socratic); v Antisthenes, i, 276-7, ch. 8, n. 47; v Homer, i, 228-9, 280; v Socrates, i, 222, 267, 273, 313; v Th h V i, i, 199; nh hng ca ng, i, 42, 54, 115, 127, 136, 199, 221, 228, 246, 273, 293, 313-14, 315, 316, ii, 52, 226, 245-6, 248, 249, 277, 306, 351; ng thi, i, 236; v Chu u trung c, i, 200, 293, ii, 24 (xem c Hegel; Marx). Platonist, xem ch ngha Plato. Principa Mathematica (B. Russell and A. N. Whitehead), ii, 301, 360. Process and Reality (A. N. Whitehead), ii, 249. Pythagorean, phi; sect, 148, 188-9, 250, 301, ii, 325; ch ngha cng sn, i, 104,

241, 259; chng trnh ton hc, i, 248-9, 267, 319 f.; trit hc t nhin, i, 308; bng cc i lp, i, 211, 212; cc cm k, i, 148, 300. Q quan im; point of view, ii, 259-68; v gi thuyt, ii, 260; v din gii, i, 171, 328, 331, ii, 267. quan h quc t; international relations, ti phm quc t v ho bnh; international crime and peace, i, 107, 113, 161, 260, 288-91, ch. 9, n.7, ii, 8, 258, 270-2, 278. quantum, l thuyt, ii, 85, 293, 364. qun ch, xem ch qun ch. quy lut v cch mng ca Plato; Platos law of revolution. i, 38t. 44-5, 223. quy lut ph qut; universal laws, xem lut. quy lut x hi; social laws, xem lut. quy tc vng (ca Kant); Kants golden rule, 102, 256; bin minh cho, ii, 238, 386. qu tc, ch , Plato ni v; aristocracy, Plato on, i, 222, 283. quyn bnh ng chnh tr; isonomy, xem bnh ng, trc php lut. quyn lc, power, ii, 129 (xem c logic quyn lc); kinh t, ii, 124, 127; chnh tr, ii, 127-9, ch. 17(V), 162, 270; Plato ni v lm dng, i, 260, 269; nh nc, ii, 130. quyn ti cao; sovereignty, i, 121-2 (xem c nghch l v quyn ti cao); Hegel ni v, ii, 56; Rousseau ni v, ii, 52 (so i, 125). quyn t do; freedom, ii, 126-9, ch. 17(V); cc hn ch v, i, 110-11, 247, 131, ii, 44, 331 (xem c nghch l v quyn t do); Hegel ni v, ii, 56, 72; Marx ni v, ii, 101, 103, 105, 207 (xem c t do hnh thc n thun); Spinoza ni v, ii, 305; hnh thc n thun, ii, 57, 124t, 127, 173, 199, 314, ch. 12, n. 62, 330, 341, 346 (so ii, 207); ~ ph bnh, ii, 238 (so ii, 220, 222); v

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t duy v ngn lun, Plato chng, i, 267, 268, 270, 275 (xem c nh nc, kim duyt nh nc; gio dc); Hegel ni v, ii, 42-3, 305, 310. quyn t quyt, xem quyn ti cao. quyt nh o c; moral decision, i, 61, 62, 64, ii, 232-4, 240, 380-1, 383 (xem c ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v quyt nh; trch nhim). quyt nh lun; determinism, ii, 85, 210, 305, 321; x hi hc v lch s, ii, 87, 101, 208, 211 (xem c ch ngha x hi hc, ch ngha lch s). R ranh gii gia siu hnh hc v khoa hc, vn v; problem of demarcation between metaphysics and science, ii, 293, 297t-8 (so ii, 260; xem c tnh c th b bc b). Robinson Crusoe, ii, 219-20, 225. Rome, ch ngha quc Roman, Roman imperialism, i, 233, 297-8, ch. 10, n. 19, ii, 23, 301-2. S sai lm, ch ngha c th phm; fallibilism, ii, 374, 375, 377. sai, tnh c th chng minh l sai; fasifiability, xem tnh c th bc b c, refutability. sng sa, tnh; clarity, ii, 218, 239, 296, 307, 357 (xem c ngn ng). sng sut, s; wisdom, Plato ni v, i, 128, 144, ch. 8(III), 145, 146, 269, 275; Socrates ni v, i, 128-9, 308-9. sm truyn, trit hc; oracular philosophy, ii, 21, 53, 229, 233, 243, 300t, ch. 11. n. 53. siu hnh (phi-khoa hc); metaphysical (non-scientific), ii, 38, 108, 174, 177, 293, 297-9, 326. siu hnh hc; metaphysics, ii, 38, 247-8, 290, 299. siu-sinh hc; meta-biology, i, 84, 246, ii, 62t, 315.

sinh hc, l thuyt ~ v nh nc, xem l thuyt hu c v nh nc. s hc, xem s v t; hnh hc, Plato, nh ton hc. s v t; irrational numbers, i, 212, 24853, 319 f. s, cc; numbers; xem cc s v t; huyn thoi v cc s; hnh hc vs. s hc. Socrates, i, 189-99, ch. 10(V), 283, 313, 315, 332 f.; xem ch ngha th gii; ph bnh dn ch, i, 128, 188, 191, 194, 303; nh ci cch o c, i, 29, 193; nh c nhn ch ngha, i, 128, 196, 267, 301, 333; nh gio, i, 130, 191-2, 222, 303; s trung thc tr tu, i, 128, 129, 190, 222; v Ba mi Bo cha, i, 128, 193, 266, 303, 310; x n v s cht v ngha, i, 193, 194, 268, 304, 305, 310; s bng quang, th ca ng vi trit hc t nhin, i, 301, 308; Aristophanes ni v, i, 308; Aristotle ni v, i, 311; Crossman ni v, i, 267; v Plato, xem Plato; xem vn Socratic; gio hun ca ng, i, 105, 128-32, ch. 7(IV), 185, 189-192; thuyt bt kh tri, i, 128, 267, 308; v dn ch, i, 305; v s sng sut, i, 128-30, 308-9 (xem c linh hn; t tc t cp; khoa hc). Sophist, cc nh, i, 57, 128, 131, 132, 142, 173, 263, 308. sophocracy; ch trit tr, i, 144t, 283. Sparta, i, 177, 182, 184, 198, 227, 228, 259, 295, 298, 325 f.; huyn thoi ln v, i, 41. status quo, hin trng, i, 110, 117, 288. Study of History, A (A. J. Toynbee), ii, 251, 360. Sumer, i, 296, ii, 50. suy tn, l thuyt ca Plato v; Platos theory of decay, i, 19, 20, 36, 37, 55, 76, 217 (xem c thay i; thi nt, mc nt; v tr hc); lm ngng ~, i, 20-1, ch. 3(II), 37.

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T tm hn, xem linh hn. Tm l hc; psychology, ii, 97-8. tng dn s; population increase, i, 245, 295. tp th, ch ngha, xem ch ngha tp th. thanh ton, thanh trng; liquidation, Plato ni v, i, 166; ngha hin i ca, i, 292. thnh kin; prejudice, i, 129, 267, ii, 217, 220-3, 226, 318. thao tc, thuyt; operationalism, ii, 296. thay i lin tc, xem dng chy. thay i; change, i, 314, ii, 212; l thuyt ca Heraclitus v, i, 12, 14, 204, 205 (xem c dng chy); l thuyt ca Plato v lm ngng ~, i, 21, ch. 3 (III), 37, 38, 86, 146, 218, ch. 4, n.3, 268, 318; v ngng, ngh, Plato ni v, 36, 37, ch. 4(I), 276, 317 (xem c suy tn; dng chy); vn v khi u ca, i, 39, 81, 219, 220; Aristotle ni v, ii, 4, 5, 7, 285, 286; Hegel ni v, i, 314-315 (xem c php bin chng Hegel). Thm m hc; aesthetics, i, 230, 292, ii, 210, 211, 302, 365-6;; v o c hc, 65, 165, 292, ii, 210, 357; v ch ngha thn b, ii, 243, 246. Thm m, ch ngha, tnh; aestheticism, i, 165t, 167, 292, ii, 302; ca Plato; i, 78, 145, 165 (xem c lm sch bc vi v). thn diu, ma thut; magic, i, 15, 57, 60, 148, 172, 206 (xem c cc cm k). Thn thoi, Myth, xem Huyn thoi. Thn, Thng , Cha; God (xem thuyt mt thn); Antisthenes ni v, i, 276, 278; Aristotle ni v, ii, 285; Plato ni v, i, 213, 276, ii, 283; ch ca, v ch ngha lch s, i, 8, 24. tht nghip; unemployment, ii, 168-9, 178, 180-2, 194, 195; bo him, ii, 140, 182, 183; v chu k thng mi, ii, 348. th (nh) ch, cc; institutions, ii, 90; quc t, i, 288-9; chnh tr, i, 109, 121, 123, 125, ii, 130; x hi, i, 23, 67, 125, ch. 7(III), 159, 172, 173, 294, ii, 85, 90,

93, 94, 280, 322-4; ci thin v lp k hoch cho ~ x hi, i, 127, 163, ii, 143, 278; cho k s kinh t, ii, 131, 193, 195; cho quyn t do ph bnh, ii, 227, 238; cho tnh khch quan khoa hc, ii, 218. th ch, thuyt trng, xem thuyt trng th (nh) ch. th ch x hi, cc; social institutions, xem th ch. Th h Ln, xem Th h V i. Th h V i; the Great Generation, i, 70, 185t-189, 194, 196, 199, 278, 299, 332, ii, 22, 26, 30. Theaetetus, tnh nin i ca; dating of, i, 321. Themis, i, 253. th nghim x hi; social experiment, xem th nghim. th nghim; experiment; ii, 218, 220, 233, 238; c tnh quyt nh, ii, 12, 266, 365; x hi, i, 162, 163, 167; (xem c k hoch; k thut x hi; khoa hc x hi). Thin ng trn tri t; Heaven on earth, i, 165, ii, 237, 333. thin ti, xem ngi v i. Thin, xem ci Tt tho hip, s; compromise, i, 159, ii, 143, 155, 163, 191, 236. thot li thc t; escapism, i, 238, 314, ii, 139, 243, 256-7, 360, 361. thi k en ti, cc; dark ages, i, 200, ii, 302. Thi k Hong kim; Golden Age, i, 11, 19, 21, 25, 43, 204, 209, 210, 218. thi nt, quy lut v tr v; cosmic law of corruption, i, 19, 20, 35, 40, 209, 210, 217, 218, 222-3 (xem c suy tn, mc nt). Thi Trung c; Middle Ages, i, 293, ii, 24-5, 116, 229, 241, 302; hai din gii v, ii, 303, ch. 11, n.6 (xem c trung c hc). thng nht, s, ca cc i lp; unity of opposites, i, 16, 17t, 204-5, 207, 209, ii, 40, 76, 249.

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thng nht, s, ca nhn loi; unity of mankind, i, 152, 236, 278, 279, 281, ii, 214, 224, 225, 232, 239, 244, 246, 258, 361. thng tr v phc tng (quy phc); domination and submission, l thuyt ca Hegel v, ii, 8t, 276, 286-7. thut chim tinh, xem chim tinh. thu, nh thu; taxation, taxes, ii, 141, 170, 334, 335. thuyt (ch ngha) cp tin; radiaclism, i, 164, 167, 291-2, ch. 9, n. 12. thuyt duy danh, nominalism, xem duy danh; bn cht lun phng php. thuyt duy l tr; intellecualism, ii, 224t, 229, 253t. thuyt ng vt hc; zoologism, i, 317t318. thuyt lch s; historism, ii, 208t, 255-8, 351, 361. thuyt lin c nhn; interpersonalism, ii, 226, 227 (xem c tnh lin ch quan). thuyt lng t, xem quantum. thuyt mt thn; monotheism, i, 276, 278, 279, ii, 22. thuyt phc v v lc; persuation and force, i hi ca Plato v li khuyn ca Pareto, i, 118, 119, 140, 142, 195, 199, 263, 270-2, ch. 8, n. 10, 273, 316, ii, 23, 56, 58, 81, 138, 302, 318, ch. 13, n. 1. thuyt quy c ph phn hay ch ngha nh nguyn ph phn, xem ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v quyt nh. thuyt quy c; conventionalism, ph phn hay o c, xem thuyt nh nguyn v cc s thc v quyt nh; u tr, ngy th, i, 14-15, 60t; ~ tn gio ca Plato, i, 77-8, 141-2; trong khoa hc, i, 237t, ii, 259, 260, 362, 365. thuyt tin b; progressivism, ii, 186, 198, 322 (xem c thuyt tin ho); v o c hc, i, 234; v thuyt tin ho, i, 40; Hegel, ii, 47, 48; Marx, ii, 197, 319; Mill, ii, 88, 322; Speusippus v

Aristotle, ii, 5, 285; tn cng ca Fisher ln, ii, 197-8, 366.. thuyt tin ho; evolutionism, i, 40, ii, 322 (so i, 314; xem c thuyt tin b); pht xt, ii, 61-2; ca Hegel, i, 314, ii, 36-7; Speusippus v Aristotle, ii, 5, 284-5, ch. 11, n.11. thuyt trng nhn s; personalism, i, 126, 268, ii, 132-3 (xem c thuyt trng th ch). thuyt trng th ch; institutionalism, ii, 90t, 131, 132, 160-2; v ch ngha c nhn, i, 268. thuyt v lai; futurism; o c, ii, 206t208, 271, 274; thm m, i, 230. thuyt v li; utilitarianism, i, 235, 254, 284-5, ii, 304; ~ tp th ch ngha ca Plato, i, 107, 108, 138; ca Antiphon, i, 69; tn cng ca Hegel ln, ii, 75. th v sai; trial and error, i, 167, 286, ii, 82, 132, 221 (so ii, 238, 244, 288-9). thc dng, ch ngha; pragmatism, ca Marx, ii, 84, 86, 322. thc dng, ch ngha duy l; pragmatic rationalism, ii, 358t. thng mi; commerce, i, 176, 177, 295; (so i, 184, 187, 283). tim nng; potentiality, Aristotle ni v, ii, 6, 286; Bergson ni v, ii, 307; Hegel ni v, ii, 8, 37, 307. tin tri lch s, li, s; historical prophecy, ii, 85, 87, 139, 141-2, 256, 260, 273, 361; ca Marx, ii, 133, 136, ch. 18(I), 329; nh gi v, ii, 193-4, 197-8; bc b cc ~, ii, 109, 140, 154, 159, 183, 186, 191, 329, 336. tin b; progress, ii, 197-8, 279, 366; trong ngh thut, i, 230; trong siu hnh hc, ii, 247-8; trong khoa hc, ii, 12, 13, 39, 244, 247, 322, 352. tin on; prediction, i, 3, 260, 286, ii, 84-6, 260, 262-3. tin; money, i, 316, ch. 10, n.67, ii, 166, 181, 196, 345-7, 384. tiu chun; criterium, criteria, ii, 371-5, 382. tn dng, xem tin.

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tnh khng th bc b; irrefutability, ii, 367 (xem c siu hnh hc). Tnh Thm m, xem Thm m. tnh trung thc tr tu Socratic; Socratic intellectual honesty, i, 129, 190, 222, ii, 227, 244. To d gio, the Inquisition, i, 104, 200, ii, 24, 273; Plato kin ngh, i, 195. Tom Sawyer (Mark Twain), i, 270. tn gio; religion, i, 1, 9, 65, 235, ii, 198, 242, 337, 341 (xem o C c; nim tin vo l tr; siu-sinh hc); Cristias ni v, i, 142; Plato ni v, i, 141-3, 213, 273, ii, 283; Protagoras ni v, i, 235; Hy Lp, i, 27; trong ch La M, ii, 23, 301, 302; lch s ch ngha, i, 207, 300; v ch ngha thn b, ii, 243, 258; v khoa hc, ii, 246, 359; v khoan dung, ii, 257, 258; v chin tranh, ii, 244; ch ngha Marx nh, ii, 198, 225, 337; l thuc phin, i, 273, ii, 303; tin b ch ngha, ii, 198. tng tuyn c; general elections, i, 124-5, ii, 129, 151, 160, 331 (xem c nghch l dn ch; nghch l quyn ti cao). tt, thin, ci; the good, i, 237-8, ii, 296; Aristotle ni v, ii, 5, 285; Moore ni v, ii, 295-6; nim ca Plato v, 1456, ch. 8(IV), 217, 274-5, ch. 8, n. 32, ii, 357; Whitehead ni v, ii, 248. trch nhim; responsibility, i, 4, 5, 49, 61, 65, 66, 113, 173, 200-1, ii, 24, 208, 237, 238, 242, 243. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (L. Wittgenstein), i, 205, 234, ii, 16, 246, 293, 296-8, 317, 353, 355, 359, 366. trao i cht; metabolism, ca con ngi, xem kinh t hc. tri thc, kin thc; knowledge, xem khoa hc; gi thuyt; gii thch; v kin, i, 82, 214, 236, ii, 12, 13, 287, 289, 305; cc kha cnh x hi ca, ii, 217-8; x hi hc v, xem ch ngha x hi hc; l thuyt v, ii, 213-14, 260, 262-3, 361-3.

tri thc, l thuyt c on v; authoritarian theory of knowledge, ii, 373, 377-8. tri thc, l thuyt phi-c on v; nonauthoritarian theory of knowledge, ii, 369-96. tri thc, s tng ln ca ~; growth of knowledge, ii, 375, 376, 377, 383. trit hc sm truyn, xem sm truyn. trit hc v ng nht; philosophy of identity, xem Hegel. trit hc v lch s; philosophy of history, Hegel, ii, 47-9, 69; Herder, ii, 52; Marx, ii, 101, 112; Plato, i, 84, 209. trit tr, xem sophocracy. trong sng, s, xem sng sa, tnh. tri git, xem cm gic tri git. tr v thnh th vt; return to the beasts, i, 201, 232, 317-318, ch. 10, n. 71, ii, 242, 304, 317. trung c hc; medievalism, ii, 25, 241, 302, 303, 360-1. trung thc tr tu, tnh, xem tnh trung thc tr tu. truyn thng; tradition, i, 115, 124, 231, 266, 268, ii, 60, 308; duy l, i, 188, 204, 300. truyn thng duy l bn trong bin gii ca ch La M; rationalist tradition within borders of the Roman Empire, ii, 229, 253. trc gic, thuyt trc gic; intuition, intuitionism, ii, 15-16, 288-9, 291, ch. 11, n. 44, 361 (xem c ch ngha thn b); Aristotle, i, 314, ii, 10, 11, 289; Bergson, ii, 361 (so ii, 307); Hegel ii, 309; Heraclitus, i, 15; Husserl, ii, 292; Plato, i, 145, 274, ii, 11; Spinoza, ii, 353. trng pht, s; punishment, i, 261, 28990; Antiphon ni v, i, 69; Hegel ni v, i, 246; Heraclitus ni v, i, 14, 60; Plato ni v, i, 138, 143, 195, 222, 261. trng phi Ionian, the Ionian school, xem truyn thng, duy l. tru tng ho; abstraction, ii, 245-6.

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tng phn, mu thun, tri ngc, cc; antinomies, ca Kant, ii, 38-9, 308 (xem c nghch l) tuyn truyn; propaganda, i, 300, ii, 143, 331; Cristias ni v, i, 273; Plato ni v, i, 184, 298, 336 f. (xem c thuyt phc). tuyt i, ch ngha; absolutism, ii, 377, 385, 391. tuyt vng v l tr; despair of reason, ii, 231, 256, 279. t biu hin; self-expression, ii, 239, 276, 278, 367. t cp t tc; autarky, self-sufficiency, ca c nhn, l thuyt Socratic vs. Platonic v, i, 76, 236, 240, 259; ca nh nc, l thuyt ca Plato v, i, 76, 87, 182; Hegel ni v, ii, 310. t do, xem quyn t do. tng t, s; similarity xem ging nhau. tng ng vi cc s thc, s; correspondence with the facts, ii, 36995. tng tng, s, sc; imagination, ii, 233, 239-40, 246, 357. V vn ho, cc bin gii ~ ca Ty u; Cultural frontiers of Western Europe, ii, 353. vn minh, nn; civilization, i, 317, ii, 194 (xem c nn vn minh phng ty); cy thnh gi ca, ii, 245 (xem c s cng thng ca nn vn minh). Vn Socratic; Socratic Problem, i, 210, 221, 299, 301, 306-13, ch. 10, n. 56, 332 f., (xem c ii, 313). Versailles, Hip c, ii, 319. v nhn, xem ngi v i v tha, ch ngha; altruism, i, 100-2, ii, 275, 277 (xem c ch ngha c nhn; ch ngha v k). Vin Hn Lm ca Plato, Platos Academy, i, 18, 42, 136, 235, 248, 253, 268, 316-17. Virgo, hnh trng, constellation, i, 254.

v chnh ph, ch ngha; anarchism, ii, 328, 334. v thn, thuyt, Plato ni v; atheism, Plato on, i, 331. v t, tnh; impartiality, ii, 234-6, 238. v tr hc; cosmology, Ionian, i, 204; Heraclitus, i, 12-13, 204-5; Plato, i, 1920, 26-8, 211-13 (xem c i, 248-53, ch. 6, n. 9; cc nim; hnh hc). vua trit gia; philosopher king, i, 132, 138-56, ch. 8(V), 328, 331; Kant ni v, i, 152; Mill ni v, i, 263-4; chn dung t ho ca Plato, i, 153-6, 282-4, ch. 8(VIII). X x hi b ngng, cc; arrested societies, i, 55, 224, 232, 268 (xem c Sparta). x hi ng, the closed society, i, 1, 57t, 108, 173, 190, 195, 200, 202t, 232, 294, 295, ii, 22, 75, 94 (xem c cc x hi b ngng); v ca, i, 177, 198, 232, 294t, 295. x hi hc; sociology, xem khoa hc x hi; lut x hi; s t tr ca, ii, 89-90, 106, 111-12; tri thc, xem x hi hc, ch ngha. x hi hc, ch ngha; sociologism, x hi hc tri thc; sociology of knowledge, phn tch x hi, tr liu x hi; socio-analysis and sociotherapy, ii, 208-16, 222-3, 242, 251-2, 267 (so i, 76) x hi phi giai cp; classless society, i, 46, ii, 137-9, 333-4, ch. 18(II), n. 4. x hi m, the open society, i, 7, 173t, 174, 183, 189, 191, 197, 201, ch. 10(VIII), 202t, 232, 294t, 303, 315-6, ii, 22, 23, 30, 32, 49, 82, 94, 125, 162, 198, 200, 243, 361; s ni ln ca, i, 174-5, ch. 10 (I). X hi tru tng; Abstract society, i, 174t, 175, 176 (xem c nhm c th) Xm chim Dorian, cuc, xem dn du c.

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Y y hc; medicine, nguyn l ca, ii, 276; Plato ni v, i, 138-39, 270, 316, ii, 357. ch chung; general will, ii, 52, 81. ngha, l thuyt v, theory of meaning, xem ch ngha thc chng. ngha ca lch s meaning of history, ii, 278-80, 364, 366. nim, cc; ideas, ca Plato nh cha ca cc s vt cm nhn c, i, 211-15, ch. 3, n. 15, 219-220, 274 (xem c khng gian, nh m ca cc s vt c th cm nhn c); Platonic, khng phi Socratic, ngun gc ca l thuyt ca Plato v, i, 210, 215 (xem c Bng Pythagorean v cc i lp; Vn Socratic); vn ca ngi th ba, i, 220; cc giai on pht trin ca, i, 214-15, ch. 3, n. 26, 219-20; nh cc tam gic, i, 253, 319 f. (xem c thm m hc); Antisthenes tn cng l thuyt ca Plato, ii, 299; Aristotle sa i l thuyt ca Plato, ii, 5, 6, 286, 301; Hegel bp mo l thuyt ca Plato, ii, 40-1, 325.

thc h; ideology, ii, 134; Marx ni v, ii, 108, 142, ch. 18(IV), 254, 326; ~ ton b, 213t, 216, 217. yu sch, chnh tr, xem ngn ng ca cc yu sch v xut chnh tr. yu thng, tnh, s; love, ii, 235-7, 240, 244; Jaspers ni v, ii, 317. Z Zeus, i, 15, 16, 43, 66.

Karl R. Popper X hi M v nhng K th ca n HEGEL V MARX

Mt tc phm quan trng loi mt nn c c rng ri v s ph bnh ti gii ca n i vi cc k th ca dn ch, c xa v hin i.Bertrand Russell c l l quyn sch th v, c o, v tht s quan trng nht xut hin trong nhiu nm [N], c ton b hay mt phn, cng l mt tng quan v trit hc Hy Lp v trit hc hin i k t Kant, mt tiu lun v logic kho cu, mt chuyn lun v ngh thut cai tr, mt thm vn cc mc tiu ca cc khoa hc x hi, mt lch s v s ni ln v sp ca Athens, mt ph phn trit hc hnh thc i vi ch ngha duy tm, mt phn tch thc h ca ch ngha pht xt v s thnh cng trn khp ca n, mt nghin cu v ngha ca Marx, mt kho tng quan li lc, v mt s bo v, v trong nhiu phng din l tm gng, v s sng sa, phng php khoa hc, v th tc dn ch. Khng ngi bit suy ngh no c th b qua cun sch ca Popper. Joseph Kraft, The Nation Thnh tu ca Popper l tuyt diu v kp thi Ti coi cun sch ca ng nh cng trnh vt tri quan trng nht v x hi hc ng thi. Hugh Trevor-Roper, Polemic Mt tc phm ln v trit hc x hi ng thi. Kt hp t duy sng t ca mt nh khoa hc lnh ngh vi s trnh by d hiu, Popper vit mt cun sch su sc v khiu khch khc thng. Hans Kohn, Yale Review uyn bc, lp lun ti tnh v c vit nhit thnh Popper vit mt cun sch kch thch mt cch khc thng. Sidney Hook, New York Times KARL R. POPPER sinh 1902 Vin, nc o, cui cc nm 1930 ng di c sang New Zeland, sau nh c Anh. Cc tc phm chnh ca ng l The Logic of Scientific Discovery, S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s, X hi M, v Conjectures and Refutations. ng c nh gi l trit gia ln nht ca th k XX.