Mathematical Model For Semiconductors: Fabrizio Bonani

Mathematical model for semiconductors
Fabrizio Bonani
Dipartimento di Elettronica
Politecnico di Torino
High speed electron devices (PoliTo) Mathematical model for semiconductors 1 / 37
Contents
1
Charge transport
Microscopic Ohms law
Semiconductor out of equilibrium
Diffusion current
Drift current
Injection level
Generation and recombination phenomena
2
Continuity equation
Poisson equation
Mathematical model
3
Quasi-Fermi levels
Electrical conduction
Free carriers in the material are accelerated by any electric eld E
Moving charges correspond to electrical current
The (average) drift velocity v of carriers is proportional to E
through the corresponding mobility [cm
2
V
1
s
1
]
v
n
=
n
E, v
p
=
p
E (
n
,
p
> 0)
since negative charges move in the opposite direction with respect
to E, positive charges in the same direction
Scattering phenomena
During motion, free carriers are scattered by interactions with any
perturbation to the spatial periodicity of the lattice potential energy
lattice vibrations due to the atoms thermal energy (phonons)
impurity atoms in the lattice (i.e., elements different from the
semiconductor)
lattice defects
Mobility is not constant, due to the random scattering events; in
general
is constant for low electric eld: the value for E 0 is called
low-eld mobility
0
For large electric eld, v becomes constant, the saturation velocity,
whose value is around 10
7
cm/s
The v(E) curve may be monotonic (Si, Ge) or show negative
differential mobility
d
= d|v|/dE regions (compound
semiconductors, electrons only)
Velocityeld curve
Mobilitydoping curve
Mobilitytemperature curve
Beyond ambient
temperature (300 K),
the low-eld mobility is
a decreasing function
of T

Let us consider an n doped sample,
with p 0
Applying a uniform electric eld E,
current I ows:
I =
dQ
dt
=
dQ
ds
ds
dt
=
dQ
dV
Av
n
= qnAv
n
= qnA
n
E
The current density J = I/A [A/cm
2
] is given by J = E, where is
the electric conductivity due to free electrons with mobility
n
:
= qn
n
In a sample where p holes per unit volume are also present (
p
mobility):
J = J
el
+ J
hol
= qn
n
E + qp
p
E
therefore = qn
n
+ qp
p
Resistivitydoping curve

For a physical system, thermal equilibrium corresponds to the
absence of any energy exchange with the environment
Any electron device works out of equilbrium, since it transforms
electrical signals
Out of equilibrium, carrier concentrations are varied from the
equilibrium values
Concentration variations
Carrier concentrations depend in general on position and time
n = n(x, t ), p = p(x, t ) 1D case
Their variations are due to
carrier motion due to diffusion: diffusion current
carrier motion due to drift (if E is present): drift current
dielectric displacement current: only for fast (i.e., high frequency)
time-varying electric eld
generation and recombination (GR) phenomena
Carrier diffusion
Diffusion is the natural tendency of a
gas to make the particle
concentration spatially uniform
Diffusion intensity is proportional to
the concentration gradient (rst
derivative), movement goes in the
opposite direction
Diffusion current
Since particles in a semiconductor
carry a charge, a current density is
associated to their diffusion
Electrons and holes have opposite
charge, thus diffusion results in
currents with opposite direction
J
n,diff
= qD
n
n
x
J
p,diff
= qD
p
p
x
Diffusion Coefcients
D
n
and D
p
are electron and hole diffusion coefcients or
diffusivities [cm
2
/s]
At thermal equilibrium (and, approximately, near equilibrium) the
Einstein relation holds
D
n
= V
T
n
, D
p
= V
T
p
where V
T
= k
B
T/q is the electrical equivalent of temperature
V
T
= 26 mV at 300 K
Drift current
Drift current corresponds to carrier motion induced by an electric
eld E
Microscopic Ohms law holds
J
n,dr
= qn
n
E J
p,dr
= qp
p
E
Neglecting the displacement current, total current is
J = J
n,diff
+ J
n,dr
. .
J
n
+ J
p,diff
+ J
p,dr
. .
J
p
Semiconductor out of equilibrium: nomenclature
Symbology:
if n type: n
n
, p
n
; if p type: n
p
, p
p
thermal equilibrium: n
n0
, p
n0
, n
p0
, p
p0
intrinsic concentration: n
i
= p
i
We dene the excess concentrations:
_
n
n
= n
n
n
n0
p
n
= p
n
p
n0
_
n
p
= n
p
n
p0
p
p
= p
p
p
p0
If n
, p
> 0 injection takes place, if n
, p
< 0 we have depletion

Within the quasi neutrality assumption, n

Injection level
n doped Si sample with N
D
= 10
16
cm
3
Low injection level: if |n
n
|, |p
n
| N
D
;
minority carriers only feel
concentration variations, while
n
n
N
D
High injection level: if |n
n
|, |p
n
| N
D
;
both carriers feel concentration
variations
Generation and recombination
These phenomena correspond to
creation and destruction events for
free carriers
direct mechanisms: band-band
transitions
indirect mechanisms: transitions
assisted by recombination centers
Generation and recombination: parameters
GR phenomena are characterized by
generation rate G, i.e. the number of carriers generated per unit
time and volume
recombination rate R, i.e. the number of carriers recombinated per
unit time and volume
We dene the net recombination rate:
U
n
= R
n
G
n
U
p
= R
p
G
p
In thermal equilibrium, U
n
= U
p
= 0 must hold
There are many expressions for U, depending on the physical
mechanism for the GR
A rst order approximation is
U
n

n n
0
n
=
n
n
U
p

p p
0
p
=
p
p
where
n
and
p
are the electron and hole lifetime. For this reason,
this is called lifetime approximation
Contents
1
Charge transport
Diffusion current
Drift current
Injection level
2
Continuity equation
Poisson equation
Mathematical model
3
Quasi-Fermi levels
Continuity equation
An equation describing the time and space evolution of charge
concentrations can be derived based on the charge conservation
principle
Let us consider electrons crossing a volume dV = Adx. The time
variation of the total number of electrons within the volume is:
n
t
dV =
n
t
Adx
x
x+@x
J
n
x+@x
J
n
x
A
Continuity equation: charge ux balance
Such variation is due to 4 contributions:
(a) electrons entering the volume per unit time
(b) electrons exiting the volume per unit time
(c) electrons generated in the volume per unit time
(d) electrons recombinated in the volume per unit time
therefore, being electrons negative charges:
n
t
Adx =
J
n
(x)
q
A
. .
(a)
J
n
(x + dx)
q
A
. .
(b)
+ G
n
Adx
. .
(c)
R
n
Adx
. .
(d)
Using the rst order approximation
J
n
(x + dx) J
n
(x) +
J
n
x
dx
and letting dx 0, we get the electron continuity equation
n
t
=
1
q
J
n
x
U
n
Continuity equation: lifetime approximation
Similarly, the hole continuity equation is found
p
t
=
1
q
J
p
x
U
p
In the lifetime approximation:
n
t
=
1
q
J
n
x

n n
0
n
p
t
=
1
q
J
p
x

p p
0
p
Current densities are expressed by the drift-diffusion model:
J
n
= q
n
nE + qD
n
n
x
J
p
= q
p
pE qD
p
p
x
Poisson equation
Continuity equations involve three unknowns: n, p and E
A third equation is required to close the model, Poisson equation:
E
x
=

, E =
x
where is the semiconductor dielectric constant [F/cm], and [C
cm
3
] is the positive net charge density:
= q
_
p n + N
+
D
N
A
_
Mathematical model: equations
The two continuity equations and Poisson equation form the
mathematical model for semiconductors (1D case)
n
t
=
1
q
J
n
x
U
n
J
n
= q
n
nE + qD
n
n
x
p
t
=
1
q
J
p
x
U
p
J
p
= q
p
pE qD
p
p
x
x
2
=
= q
_
p n + N
+
D
N
A
_
where E = /x
Mathematical model: approximations
A simplied analysis of electron devices calls to approximate the
mathematical model equations to allow for an analytical solution
electron and hole mobility is assumed constant and equal to the low
eld value
diffusivity is approximated by Einstein relation (D = V
T
)
generation and recombination phenomena are treated within the
lifetime approximation
dopant atom ionization is complete
Mathematical model: approximate equations
Simplied equations read
n
t
=
n
(nE)
x
+ D
n
2
n
x
2

n n
0
n
p
t
=
p
(pE)
x
+ D
p
2
p
x
2

p p
0
x
2
=
q
(p n + N
D
N
A
)
where E = /x
Example: neutral region
A semiconductor region is called quasi-neutral if = 0
In many practical cases, quasi-neutrality is associated to E = 0,
thus implying J
dr
= 0
The mathematical model reduces to
n
t
= D
n
2
n
x
2

n n
0
n
p
t
= D
p
2
p
x
2

p p
0
p
An omogeneous sample in thermal equilibrium is neutral,
therefore
p
0
n
0
= N
A
N
D
Out of equilibrium, quasi-neutrality implies
= p
0
+ p
n
0
n
+ N
D
N
A
= 0
therefore
n
= p

Example: stationary regime
Stationary regime corresponds to a time-constant solution of the
mathematical model (/t 0)
0 =
n
d(nE)
dx
+ D
n
d
2
n
dx
2

n n
0
n
0 =
p
d(pE)
dx
+ D
p
d
2
p
dx
2

p p
0
p
d
2
dx
2
=
q
(p n + N
D
N
A
)
Contents
1
Charge transport
Diffusion current
Drift current
Injection level
2
Continuity equation
Poisson equation
Mathematical model
3
Quasi-Fermi levels
Quasi-Fermi levels: denition
They are dened postulating Shockley equations out of
equilibrium:
n = n
i
exp
_
E
Fn
E
Fi
k
B
T
_
p = n
i
exp
_
E
Fi
E
Fp
k
B
T
_
E
Fn
is the electron quasi-Fermi level, E
Fp
the hole one
In general, E
F{n,p}
= E
F{n,p}
(x, t ), and E
Fi
= E
Fi
(x)
Quasi-Fermi levels: use
Since the electrostatic potential is related to the electron potential
energy
E
Fi
(x) = q(x) =E(x) =
x
=
1
q
E
Fi
x
From the quasi-Fermi level denition
n
x
=
n
k
B
T
_
E
Fn
x

E
Fi
x
_
Because of Einstein relation D = V
T
= k
B
T/q, diffusion current
reads
J
n,diff
= qD
n
n
x
= n
n
_
E
Fn
x

E
Fi
x
_
Substituting into the drift-diffusion current expressions
J
n
= qn
n
E + qD
n
n
x
= n
n
E
Fn
x
J
p
= qp
p
E qD
p
p
x
= p
p
E
Fp
x
Multiplying the denitions
np = n
2
i
exp
_
E
Fn
E
Fp
k
B
T
_
In thermal equilibrium
E
Fn
= E
Fp
= E
F
In presence of injection:
np > n
2
i
=E
Fn
> E
Fp
In presence of depletion:
np < n
2
i
=E
Fn
< E
Fp
Quasi-Fermi levels are functions of x admitting rst derivative, and
therefore continuous. In fact:
J
n
= n
n
E
Fn
x
, J
p
= p
p
E
Fp
x
1D case
Quasi-Fermi levels: example
In neutral regions with low injection,
majority carriers have their
equilibrium value
n
n
N
D
p
p
N
A
Majority carrier quasi-Fermi levels
coincide with the equilibrium value of
the Fermi level

The distance between the quasi-Fermi levels at the borders of the
depletion region is
E
Fn
(x
n
) E
Fp
(x
p
) =
[E
Fn
(x
n
) E
c
(x
n
)]
. .
k
B
T ln(N
c
/N
D
)
+ [E
c
(x
n
) E
c
(x
p
)]
. .
q(V
bi
V)
+ [E
c
(x
p
) E
v
(x
p
)]
. .
E
g
+
_
E
v
(x
p
) E
Fp
(x
p
)
. .
k
B
T ln(N
v
/N
A
)
Taking into account
qV
bi
= E
g
k
B
T ln(N
v
/N
A
) k
B
T ln(N
c
/N
D
)
We nd
E
Fn
(x
n
) E
Fp
(x
p
) = qV
The distance between the majority carrier quasi-Fermi levels in
the two neutral regions is equal to the the applied bias
The costancy of the majority carrier quasi-Fermi levels in the two
neutral sides corresponds to a negligible majority carrier current

Mathematical Model For Semiconductors: Fabrizio Bonani

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Mathematical Model For Semiconductors: Fabrizio Bonani

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Mathematical model for semiconductors

Microscopic Ohms law

> 0 injection takes place, if n

< 0 we have depletion

High speed electron devices (PoliTo) Mathematical model for semiconductors 16 / 37

High speed electron devices (PoliTo) Mathematical model for semiconductors 28 / 37

Quasi-Fermi levels: example

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