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Groundwater: The Hydrologic Cycle
Groundwater: The Hydrologic Cycle
Groundwater: The Hydrologic Cycle
9/19/2011
Groundwater
Geology 11 Principles of Geology A. M. P. Tengonciang & D. D. N. Javier Department of Physical Sciences University of the Philippines, Baguio
Saline
Fresh
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/graphics/earthwheredistribution.gif
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Groundwater
Sources of groundwater
Connate water water that has remained trapped in a sedimentary rock since the original sediments were deposited in the water prior to lithification; may be very old and saline Meteoric water water of atmospheric origin, which reaches the Earths surface as rainfall or seepage from surface water bodies Juvenile water original water formed from magmatic processes; has never been in the atmosphere
- all water in the ground occupying the pore spaces within rock and regolith - that portion of precipitation (rainfall, snow, etc.) which seeps through the ground and is stored below the surface Geologic importance: erosional agent; equalizes streamflow (reservoir for rivers during periods of no rain) Economic importance: drinking water, irrigation, livestock, power generation, industrial cooling
Zone of aeration unsaturated zone, vadose zone (Lat., shallow) water is able to pass through to reach the water-table (vadose water) pore spaces are not completely filled with water Zone of saturation phreatic zone (Gr., well/spring) pore spaces are saturated with water Water table upper surface of zone of saturation
Capillary fringe zone where water is drawn upward by capillary action; immediately above the water table
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Water Table
Important in predicting the productivity of wells Explains the changes in flows of springs and streams Accounts for fluctuation in levels of lakes Unobservable directly, but can be mapped and studied in detail in areas where wells are numerous The shape of the water table is usually a subdued replica of the surface topography Irregularities are due to: variations in rainfall nature of carrying material slow and varied groundwater movement under different conditions
Porosity
Measure of how much of a rock is open space Percentage of total volume of rock or sediment that consists of pore spaces (absolute porosity) Effective porosity the proportion of the rock or sediment consisting of interconnected pores Dictates the amount of water stored by material
Porosity in Sediments
Porosity in different sediments. A.) A porosity of 30 percent in a reasonably well-sorted sediment. B.) A porosity of 15 percent in a poorly sorted sediment in which fine particles fill spaces between larger grains. C.) Reduction in porosity in an otherwise very porous sediment due to cement that binds particles together.
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Porosity
Primary created by the same processes that formed the material sediments & sedimentary rocks vesicular lava deposits Secondary develops after the material was formed rock fractures (joints and faults) cavities formed by dissolution of soluble rocks
22 Bedient et al., 1999.,
Permeability
Measure of the ease with which water can move through a porous rock The ability of a material to transmit fluid Related to the effective porosity of a material the smaller the pore spaces, the slower the movement of water sandstone good permeability shale poor permeability
Porous and Permeable
shale
sandstone
limestone
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Groundwater Movement
HYDRAULIC HEAD/ FLUID POTENTIAL = h
(length units)
Measure of energy potential (essentially is a measure of elevational/gravitational potential energy) The driving force for groundwater flow Water flows from high to low fluid potential or hydraulic (even if this means it may go "uphill"!) Hydraulic head is used to determine the hydraulic gradient
Hydraulic head = the driving force that moves groundwater. The hydraulic head combines fluid pressure and gradient, and can be thought of as the standing elevation that water will rise to in a well allowed to come to equilibrium with the subsurface. Groundwater always moves from an area of higher hydraulic head to an area of lower hydraulic head. Therefore, groundwater not only flows downward, it can also flow laterally or upward.
S. Hughes, 2003
Groundwater Movement -- Darcys Law Q = KIA -- Henry Darcy, 1856, studied water flowing through porous
material. His equation describes groundwater flow. Darcys experiment: Water is applied under pressure through end A, flows through the pipe, and discharges at end B. Water pressure is measured using piezometer tubes
Q = KIA
Q = Discharge = volumetric flow rate, volume of water flowing through an aquifer per unit time (m3/day) A = Area through which the groundwater is flowing, cross-sectional area of flow (aquifer width x thickness, in m2) Rearrange the equation to Q/A = KI, known as the flux (v), which is an apparent velocity
Hydraulic head = dh (change in height between A and B) Flow length = dL (distance between the two tubes) Hydraulic gradient (I) = dh / dL
S. Hughes, 2003 S. Hughes, 2003
Groundwater Movement
Table 10.6 in textbook (Keller, 2000)
Porosity and hydraulic conductivity (rate at which water moves through a material) of selected earth materials
High K materials
Material Unconsolidated Clay Sand Gravel Gravel and sand Rock Sandstone Dense limestone or shale Granite
Porosity (%) 45 35 25 20 15 5 1
Hydraulic Conductivity (m/day) 0.041 32.8 205.0 82.0 28.7 0.041 0.0041
Hydraulic conductivity = ability of material to allow water to move through it, expressed in terms of m/day (distance/time). It is a function of the size and shape of particles, and the size, shape, and connectivity of pore spaces.
S. Hughes, 2003
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Discharge area
Discharge area
Wells
Confining beds Decades Confined aquifers Centuries Flow lines Millennia Confined aquifers
Confining beds
Flow lines
Discharge area
Discharge area
Wells
Flow lines
Flow lines
Discharge area
Discharge area
Wells
Confining beds Decades Confined aquifers Centuries Flow lines Confined aquifers
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Effluent streams
Receive water emerging from a submerged spring or other groundwater seepage The surface of the stream directly relates to the water table, thus will rise and fall as the water table rises and falls Common in temperate to tropical climates; run year round
Influent streams
May or may not be directly connected to the water table Supplement the water in the zone of saturation, producing an upward bulge in the water table directly underneath Common in arid climates; may be temporary, only present when rainfall or flash flooding occurs
Aquitard impermeable rock strata or sediment that slows down or retards water movement (e.g. clay, non-fractured rock) Aquiclude (aquifuge) porous rock stata or sediment with poor permeability such that it blocks groundwater movement
Unconfined aquifer
Unconfined Aquifer
They are not sealed off at any point. Recharge can occur anywhere. Water at w.table under atm pressure. Must lower bucket or pump to access water.
-Sealed off -Transmits water down from R.A. -Water confined in aquifer unless drilled. -Water under hydrostatic pressure. - Water rises; well may flow. Unconfined aquifer an aquifer whose upper limit is the water table; has no confining layers that retard vertical water movement Confined aquifer an aquifer sandwiched between two impermeable strata; Confined aquifers have non-permeable layers, above and below the aquifer zone, referred to as aquitards or aquicludes.
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Springs
Form when an aquiclude blocks the downward movement of groundwater and forces it to move laterally towards a more permeable bed or area of less confinement Dependent on rock types and relationships, primary & secondary porosity and permeability
Perched aquifer an unconfined groundwater body supported by a small impermeable or slowly permeable layer Spring natural flow of groundwater resulting from the intersection of the water table with the land surface
Porous limestone overlies an impermeable shale unit, and a line of springs occurs along the hillside where the two rock units meet
Springs issue from the contact between a highly jointed lava flow and the underlying impermeable mudstone
Springs
Springs flow from the place where a fault intersects the ground surface
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Springs
Desert Oases
Wells
Openings bored into the zone of saturation
Successful and Unsuccessful Wells
Yields to wells from non homogeneous rock can be variable. A.) wells that penetrate fractures in metamorphic and igneous rocks produce water. Dry wells result if no water-bearing fractures are encountered. B.) Perched water bodies above the main water table are held up by aquicludes and provide shallow sources of groundwater. Wells that miss the perched water body and do not reach the deeper water table are dry.
Wells
Drawdown lowering of water table resulting from the removal of water from a well cone of depression Hydraulic gradient slope of the water table; increases with more groundwater extraction, thereby increasing the rate of groundwater flow into the well
Artesian wells
Groundwater under pressure rises above the level of the aquifer Conditions for an artesian system: Water must be confined to an aquifer that is inclined so that one end can receive water Aquicludes or aquitards, both above and below the aquifer, must be present to prevent the water from escaping; the pressure created on the aquifer will cause the water to rise Does not always connote free-flowing surface discharge Nonflowing artesian wells pressure surface is below ground level Flowing artesian wells pressure surface is above ground level
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Saltwater Intrusion
Animation
Before
After
Animation #1 Animation #2
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Contaminant Plumes
If contaminants are soluble (completely dissolved in the water) they move with the local groundwater flow
Contaminant Plumes
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USGS scientist, Joe Poland shows the amount of ground subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley, California between 1925 and 1977 due to fluid withdrawal and soil consolidation.
http://www.aegweb.org/images/Geologic%20Hazards/subsidence_Poland.jpg
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The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italy) tilts because the removal of groundwater caused its foundation to subside Land subsidence is most severe for clay- and organic-rich sediments
In coastal areas, land subsidence may even make the land surface sink below sea level The flooding in Venice, Italy, is due to land subsidence accompanying the withdrawal of groundwater
Nixa, Missouri
A sinkhole collapse early morning of 13 Aug 2006 in Nixa, Missouri is responsible for the disappearance of a garage and the Chevy Cavalier once parked inside. The sinkhole was initially estimated to be approximately 18 m in diameter and 23 m deep.
Guatemala City
Guatemala City
This 100 m-deep sinkhole swallowed about a dozen homes on 23 Feb 2007, and is so far blamed in the deaths of three peopletwo teenagers, found floating in torrent of sewage, and their father, who was pulled from the chasm. Rainstorms and a ruptured sewer main may have caused the sinkhole. After the collapse, the seemingly bottomless depths gave off tremors, sounds of flowing water, and the scent of sewage.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/02/070226-sinkhole-photo.html
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2001
0.5 cm/yr
1.76 cm/yr
2.7
40.6 cm/yr
Legend
Benchmarks (DPWH 2001) Roads Emerging wells (cm/yr) Lineaments 0
N
10 kms
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At Manilas South Harbor mean sea level rose at about 2 millimeters per year from 1902 to the early 1960s . . . . . . then started rising ten times as fast. WHY?
Groundwater withdrawal!
Global warming
250 MLD
Other East Asian Coastal Cities Sinking from Excessive Groundwater Usage
LOCATION PERIOD Tokyo, Japan 1918-87 SUBSIDENCE Meters cm/year 4.5 2.8 2.63 0.66 6.5 8.2 6 8.25 Shanghai Hanoi Bangkok Yun-Lin Manila Tokyo Osaka
Osaka, 1934-68 Japan Shanghai, 1921-65 China Yun-Lin, 1989-97 Taiwan (Fishpond area!) Hanoi, 1988-93 Vietnam Manila Bay 1964-2002 Bangkok, 1980-90 Thailand Jakarta, 1991-99 Indonesia
0.3-0.8 4-10
Ca++ + 2HCO3
calcium ion bicarbonate ion
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stalactites: icicle-like pendants of dripstone hanging from cave ceilings, generally slender and are commonly aligned along cracks in the ceiling, which act as conduits for ground water stalagmites: cone-shaped masses of drip-stone formed on cave floors, generally directly below stalactites
Acid produced when CO2 dissolves in water (carbonic acid) Rock dissolves below water table Dropping water table leaves behind caverns
Water moves along fractures and bedding planes in limestone, dissolving the limestone to form caves below the water table
Falling water table allows cave system, now greatly enlarged, to fill with air. Calcite precipitation forms stalactites, stalagmites, and columns above the water table
Formation of Sinkholes
Sinkholes
December giant sinkhole, Alabama (130 m long x 46m deep) formed 1972
Weakened cave roofs collapse Often due to pumping of groundwater (water helps support overlying rock) Over 4000 sinkholes have formed since 1900 in Alabama alone!
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Cavern Features
Composed of dripstone (travertine) calcite deposited as dripping water evaporates. Collectively, they are called speleothems. Stalactites (ceiling) and stalagmites (floor).
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Karst topography
an area with many sinkholes and with cave systems beneath the land surface
Karst topography is marked by underground caves and numerous surface sinkholes. A major river may cross the region, but small surface streams generally disappear down sinkholes
Natural development of sinkholes and underground streams in limestone areas is a major factor in the subsidence of certain areas of Baguio City including Crystal Cave Dominican Irisan Lourdes
Burnham U.P.
MGB, 200x
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(MGB, 2006)
Karstic Area
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Restificar et al. (2006) Protection of Karst in the Philippines. Acta Carsologica 35, 1, 121 130.
Restificar et al. (2006) Protection of Karst in the Philippines. Acta Carsologica 35, 1, 121130.
Restificar et al. (2006) Protection of Karst in the Philippines. Acta Carsologica 35, 1, 121130.
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Coron, Palawan
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Geysers:
geyser: a type of hot spring that periodically erupts hot water and stream; the water is generally near boiling (100oC)
1 3
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Geothermal Energy
Electricity can be generated by harnessing naturally occurring stream and hot water in areas that are exceptionally hot underground (geothermal areas); nonelectric uses of geothermal energy include space heating, as well as paper manufacturing, ore processing, and food preparation
Wallys and Deannas Groundwater Adventure http://earth.uwaterloo.ca/outreach/ museum/wally-and-deannasgroundwater-adventure Isang Maikling Kwento
Sa buhay ng tubig
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