The institute is trying to make at least part of the economy run on fuel from vegetation.

It has taken over a lab building once used to answer the purely scientific question of how plants convert carbon dioxide into chemical energy. Now, Christopher Somerville and his colleagues hope to exploit that chemical energy by converting cellulose into fuel. Cellulose is really nothing more than sugar molecules glucose all linked together with indigestible chemical bonds. "Glucose is the principal fuel of all life on the planet," Somerville says. The challenge is to liberate all that energy-rich glucose from the cellulose. If it can be converted to simple sugar, it can either be fed to yeast, which will turn it into ethanol, or it can be converted chemically into liquid fuels that could directly replace diesel and gasoline. Converting plant cellulose into fuel could transform the economy with a less damaging alternative to fossil fuels. Fuel made from cellulose is relatively clean because the plants that it comes from actually get their carbon out of the atmosphere. So, carbon cycles from the exhaust pipe into the air, back to the plants and then to the fuel again. Somerville says researchers already know how to convert cellulose into fuel. In fact, about 20 start-up companies are already making small amounts of fuel from cellulose. "It's not like fusion," Somerville says, "where it really doesn't work. This is something that works and just needs to work a bit better in order to make it compete with fossil fuels." To be competitive, Somerville's institute needs to develop not just a fuel but an entire industry and the researchers want to make sure this new industry is green and socially responsible. The Key Ingredient The first question is what starting ingredients to use. One of the first to be tested is Miscanthus, a relative of sugar cane that looks a bit like bamboo or straw when it's dry. "It's native to Southeast Asia," Somerville says, "and has been used in Japan and China for a thousand years for thatching, and also for making paper." The institute will look at many different species, but researchers like Miscanthus because it grows fast with no fertilizers, no irrigation and no chemicals. Whatever plant is used, farmers will have to grow millions of acres if the industry is going to compete with fossil fuels. Somerville says it's important to find a plant that will not displace food crops. That's

where corn-based ethanol is failing and why corn is not on the menu in Berkeley. But even nonfood plants such as Miscanthus could be bad news if farmers decided to plant it instead of food or cut down the rain forest to grow it. "We're only interested in it, frankly, if it can be environmentally positive and socially positive," Somerville says. "So as we proceed with the technical innovation, we want to make sure we understand these other dimensions, and so that we can make appropriate choices, including one possible choice is that we shouldn't do this." That's something the sponsor of this research might not want to hear. That's because the lab is funded by one of the world's largest oil companies, BP. It has committed $500 million over 10 years. At first blush, it seems strange that the company is putting this technology to the test, on one of the most progressive campuses in the country. But BP Vice President Paul Willems says the choice is deliberate. "If biofuels are going to become a big part of our company in the long run, then our view is the only way that can be the case is if biofuels are done in a sustainable way that is clearly good for the environment and land use," Willems says. "We don't want to be building a big part of our company on a shaky foundation." ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Second generation biofuels are biofuels produced from sustainable feedstock. Sustainability of a feedstock is defined among others by availability of the feedstock, impact on GHG emissions and impact on biodiversity and land use. [29] Many second generation biofuels are under development such as Cellulosic ethanol, Algae fuel, biohydrogen, biomethanol, DMF, BioDME, Fischer-Tropsch diesel, biohydrogen diesel, mixed alcohols and wood diesel. Cellulosic ethanol production uses non-food crops or inedible waste products and does not divert food away from the animal or human food chain. Lignocellulose is the "woody" structural material of plants. This feedstock is abundant and diverse, and in some cases (like citrus peels or sawdust) it is in itself a significant disposal problem. Producing ethanol from cellulose is a difficult technical problem to solve. In nature, ruminant livestock (like cattle) eat grass and then use slow enzymatic digestive processes to break it into glucose (sugar). In cellulosic ethanol laboratories, various experimental processes are being developed to do the same thing, and then the sugars released can be fermented to make ethanol fuel. In 2009 scientists reported developing, using "synthetic biology", "15 new highly stable fungal enzyme catalysts that efficiently break down cellulose into sugars at high temperatures", adding to the 10 previously known.[30] The use of high temperatures, has been identified as an important factor in improving the overall economic feasibility of the biofuel industry and the identification of enzymes that are stable and can operate efficiently at extreme temperatures is an area of active research.[31] In addition, research conducted at TU Delft by Jack Pronk has shown that elephant yeast, when slightly modified can also create ethanol from non-edible ground sources (e.g. straw).[32][33]

The recent discovery of the fungus Gliocladium roseum points toward the production of socalled myco-diesel from cellulose. This organism (recently discovered in rainforests of northern Patagonia) has the unique capability of converting cellulose into medium length hydrocarbons typically found in diesel fuel.[34] Scientists also work on experimental recombinant DNA genetic engineering organisms that could increase biofuel potential. Scientists working with the New Zealand company Lanzatech have developed a technology to use industrial waste gases such as carbon monoxide from steel mills as a feedstock for a microbial fermentation process to produce ethanol.[35][36] In October 2011, Virgin Atlantic announced it was joining with Lanzatech to commission a demonstration plant in Shanghai that would produce an aviation fuel from waste gases from steel production.[37] Scientists working in Minnesota have developed co-cultures of Shewanella and Synechococcus that produce long chain hydrocarbons directly from water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight.[38] The technology has received ARPA-E funding. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Cellulosic ethanol is a biofuel produced from wood, grasses, or the non-edible parts of plants. It is a type of biofuel produced from lignocellulose, a structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants. Lignocellulose is composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Corn stover, switchgrass, miscanthus, woodchips and the byproducts of lawn and tree maintenance are some of the more popular cellulosic materials for ethanol production. Production of ethanol from lignocellulose has the advantage of abundant and diverse raw material compared to sources like corn and cane sugars, but requires a greater amount of processing to make the sugar monomers available to the microorganisms that are typically used to produce ethanol by fermentation. There are four or five stages to produce ethanol using a biological approach:[7] 1. A "pretreatment" phase, to make the lignocellulosic material such as wood or straw amenable to hydrolysis, 2. Cellulose hydrolysis (cellulolysis), to break down the molecules into sugars; 3. Separation of the sugar solution from the residual materials, notably lignin; 4. Microbial fermentation of the sugar solution; 5. Distillation to produce roughly 95% pure alcohol. 6. Dehydration by molecular sieves to bring the ethanol concentration to over 99.5% However, in 2010, a genetically engineered yeast strain has been developed that produces its own cellulose-digesting enzymes.[14] Assuming this technology can be scaled to industrial levels, it would eliminate one or more steps of cellulolysis, reducing both the time required and costs of production.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanol Algae fuel might be an alternative to fossil fuel and uses algae as its source of natural deposits. Several companies and government agencies are funding efforts to reduce capital and operating

costs and make algae fuel production commercially viable.[1] Harvested algae, like fossil fuel, release CO2 when burnt but unlike fossil fuel the CO2 is taken out of the atmosphere by the growing algae.

Biodiesel
Currently most research into efficient algal-oil production is being done in the private sector, but predictions from small scale production experiments bear out that using algae to produce biodiesel may be the only viable method by which to produce enough automotive fuel to replace current world diesel usage.[15] If algae-derived biodiesel were to replace the annual global production of 1.1bn tons of conventional diesel, a land mass of 57.3 million hectares would be required. This compares highly favourable to other biofuels.[16] Microalgae have much faster growth rates than terrestrial crops. The per unit area yield of oil from algae is estimated to be from between 5,000 to 20,000 US gallons per acre per year (4,700 to 18,000 m3/km2a).[17] This is 7 to 30 times greater than the next best crop, Chinese tallow (700 US gal/acrea or 650 m3/km2a).[dubious discuss] Studies[18] show that some species of algae can produce up to 60% of their dry weight in the form of oil. Because the cells grow in aqueous suspension, where they have more efficient access to water, CO2 and dissolved nutrients, microalgae are capable of producing large amounts of biomass and usable oil in either high rate algal ponds or photobioreactors. This oil can then be turned into biodiesel which could be sold for use in automobiles. Regional production of microalgae and processing into biofuels will provide economic benefits to rural communities.[19]

[edit] Biobutanol
Main article: Butanol fuel Butanol can be made from algae or diatoms using only a solar powered biorefinery. This fuel has an energy density 10% less than gasoline, and greater than that of either ethanol or methanol. In most gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of gasoline with no modifications. In several tests, butanol consumption is similar to that of gasoline, and when blended with gasoline, provides better performance and corrosion resistance than that of ethanol or E85.[20] The green waste left over from the algae oil extraction can be used to produce butanol. BiobutanolMain article: Butanol fuel

[edit] Biogasoline
Biogasoline is gasoline produced from biomass such as algae. Like traditionally produced gasoline, it contains between 6 (hexane) and 12 (dodecane) carbon atoms per molecule and can be used in internal-combustion engines.

[edit] Methane
Methane[21] a form of natural gas can be produced from algae in various methods, namely Gasification, Pyrolysis and Anaerobic Digestion. In Gasification and Pyrolysis methods

methane is extracted under high temperature and pressure. Anaerobic Digestion[22] is a straight forward method involved in decomposition of algae into simple components then transforming it into fatty acids using microbes like acidific bacteria followed by removing any solid particles and finally adding methanogenic bacteria to release a gas mixture containing methane.

[edit] Ethanol
The Algenol system which is being commercialized by BioFields in Puerto Libertad, Sonora, Mexico utilizes seawater and industrial exhaust to produce ethanol.

[edit] SVO
The algal-oils feedstock that is used to produce biodiesels can also be used for fuel directly as "Straight Vegetable Oil", (SVO). The benefit of using the oil in this manner is that it doesn't require the additional energy needed for transesterification, (processing the oil with an alcohol and a catalyst to produce biodiesel). The drawback is that it does require modifications to a normal diesel engine. Transesterified biodiesel can be run in an unmodified modern diesel engine, provided the engine is designed to use ultra-low sulfur diesel, which, as of 2006, is the new diesel fuel standard in the United States.

[edit] Hydrocracking to traditional transport fuels

Main article: Vegetable oil refining Vegetable oil can be used as feedstock for an oil refinery where methods like hydrocracking or hydrogenation can be used to transform the vegetable oil into standard fuels like gasoline and diesel.[23]

[edit] Jet fuel

Main article: Aviation biofuel Rising jet fuel prices are putting severe pressure on airline companies,[24] creating an incentive for algal jet fuel research. The International Air Transport Association, for example, supports research, development and deployment of algal fuels. IATAs goal is for its members to be using 10% alternative fuels by 2017.[25] Trials have been carried with aviation biofuel by Air New Zealand,[26] and Virgin Airlines.[27] In February 2010, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency announced that the U.S. military was about to begin large-scale production oil from algal ponds into jet fuel. After extraction at a cost of $2 per gallon, the oil will be refined at less than $3 a gallon. A largerscale refining operation, producing 50 million gallons a year, is expected to go into production in 2013, with the possibility of lower per gallon costs so that algae-based fuel would be competitive with fossil fuels. The projects, run by the companies SAIC and General Atomics, are expected to produce 1,000 gallons of oil per acre per year from algal ponds. [28]

[edit] Algae cultivation

Algae can produce up to 300 times more oil per acre than conventional crops, such as rapeseed, palms, soybeans, or jatropha. As algae have a harvesting cycle of 110 days, it permits several harvests in a very short time frame, a differing strategy to yearly crops (Chisti 2007). Algae can also be grown on land that is not suitable for other established crops, for instance, arid land, land with excessively saline soil, and drought-stricken land. This minimizes the issue of taking away pieces of land from the cultivation of food crops (Schenk et al. 2008). Algae can grow 20 to 30 times faster than food crops.[29]

[edit] Photobioreactors
Most companies pursuing algae as a source of biofuels are pumping nutrient-laden water through plastic or borosilicate glass tubes (called "bioreactors" ) that are exposed to sunlight (and so called photobioreactors or PBR). Running a PBR is more difficult than an open pond, and more costly, but also more effective. Algae can also grow on marginal lands, such as in desert areas where the groundwater is saline, rather than utilize fresh water.[30] Because algae strains with lower lipid content may grow as much as 30 times faster than those with high lipid content,[31] the difficulties in efficient biodiesel production from algae lie in finding an algal strain, with a combination of high lipid content and fast growth rate, that isn't too difficult to harvest; and a cost-effective cultivation system (i.e., type of photobioreactor) that is best suited to that strain. There is also a need to provide concentrated CO2 to increase the rate of production.

[edit] Closed loop system

Another obstacle preventing widespread mass production of algae for biofuel production has been the equipment and structures needed to begin growing algae in large quantities. Maximum use of existing agriculture processes and hardware is the goal.[32] In a closed system (not exposed to open air) there is not the problem of contamination by other organisms blown in by the air. The problem for a closed system is finding a cheap source of sterile CO2. Several experimenters have found the CO2 from a smokestack works well for growing algae. [33][34] To be economical, some experts think that algae farming for biofuels will have to be done as part of cogeneration, where it can make use of waste heat, and help soak up pollution.[30][35]

[edit] Open pond

Open-pond systems for the most part have been given up for the cultivation of algae with high-oil content.[36] Many believe that a major flaw of the Aquatic Species Program was the decision to focus their efforts exclusively on open-ponds; this makes the entire effort dependent upon the hardiness of the strain chosen, requiring it to be unnecessarily resilient in order to withstand wide swings in temperature and pH, and competition from invasive algae and bacteria. Open systems using a monoculture are also vulnerable to viral infection. The energy that a high-oil strain invests into the production of oil is energy that is not invested into the production of proteins or carbohydrates, usually resulting in the species being less hardy, or having a slower growth rate. Algal species with a lower oil content, not having to

divert their energies away from growth, have an easier time in the harsher conditions of an open system. Some open sewage ponds trial production has been done in Marlborough, New Zealand
Biohydrogen is defined as hydrogen produced biologically, most commonly by algae and bacteria. Biohydrogen is a potential biofuel obtainable from both cultivation and waste organic materials. Algaeic biohydrogen