Where Energy To train Comes From

Overview
For most of our training life we simply do it without thinking about the science, or concerned concerned with how any human physical activity is fueled. However, if we want to get the best out of our physical capabilities we should spend some time getting to understand the mechanics of what fuels our activity. Essentially, we are talking about the production of energy and the rst thing to know is that this is time and intensity related. It is obvious to state that, say, running at very high intensity, as in sprinting, means an athlete can operate eectively for only a very short period. Running at a low intensity, as in gentle jogging, means that an athlete can sustain activity for a long period. Training introduces another variable, and the sprinter who uses sound training principles is able to run at a high intensity for longer periods. Similarly, the endurance athlete who uses sound training methods can sustain higher intensities during a set period. There is also a relationship between the exercise intensity and the energy source.

Central to the study of exercise physiology is energy. Exercise physiologists are interested in; Where we get our energy to exercise from. How we optimise our energy usage during exercise How we recover our energy stores following exercise This unit will look at how the body converts energy from food into energy for muscular contractions which enable us to carry out physical exercise. This knowledge allows us to better coach ourselves, and others in the martial arts, to maximum performance. Energy exists, as we know, in a number of dierent forms - electrical, light, heat and we must rst understand that energy is never lost; it is constantly recycled, often from one form to another. Boiling a kettle transfers electrical energy to heat. Similarly, energy found in the chemical bonds of food fuels that we eat are transformed into mechanical energy, enabling us to move. It is the conversion of chemical energy into mechanical and heat energy that this unit is about.

Sources of Energy in the Body For movement to occur, chemical energy must be transferred into mechanical energy and the chemical energy is stored in an easy-access, energy rich compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP exists in all cells and consists of a number of atoms held together by high energy bonds. It is through breaking down these bonds that energy is released. ATP is the energy currency of cells and is the only direct source of energy for all energy-requiring processes in the body. When energy is required, the enzyme ATPase is released which initiates the breakdown of ATP. It is the outermost bond of ATP that attracts ATPase as it is that bond that stores most energy. Through the breakdown of ATP, energy is released leaving adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate (Pi). This process also gives o heat and is termed exothermic. Through the breakdown of ATP, energy is released to help the heart beat, muscles to contract and the brain to re electrical impulses.

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There is, however, only a limited supply of ATP within the muscle cell, probably only enough to perform maximal exertion for two to three seconds, such as a maximal weight lift or a sprint start. If we had to carry an unlimited supply of ATP we would have to carry the bodys equivalent weight around with us so, more practically, the body has adapted to becoming an ATP recycling machine. This recycling or resynthesising of ATP itself requires energy and this comes from the food we eat. The fuels for ATP resynthesis are derived from the following sources; Phosphocreatine (PCr) - a high-energy compound which exists in the muscles alongside ATP and provides the energy for ATP resynthesis during high-intensity exercise. PCr is used in the rst 10 seconds of intense exercise and the close proximity of PCr to ATP in the muscle helps this immediate synthesis, but, like ATP PCr stores are limited. Glycogen (stored carbohydrate) - the form of carbohydrate stored in the muscles (350g) and liver (100g), which is rst converted into glucose before being broken down to release the energy for ATP resynthesis. It is important to know that during high-intensity exercise, glycogen can be used without the presence of oxygen (anaerobic metabolism). However, much more energy can be released from glycogen during aerobic metabolism (when oxygen is present). Triglycerides (muscular stores of fat) - at rest, up to two-thirds of our energy requirement is met through the breakdown of fatty acids (the component of fat used for energy production). This is because fat can provide more energy per gram than glycogen (1g of fat provides 9.1 kcal of energy compared to 4.1 kcal of energy for every 1g of glycogen). The downside is that fat requires 15 per cent more oxygen than glycogen to metabolise, but it remains the favoured fuel source at rest and during endurance (long/slow) based activity. One molecule (mole) of fatty acid typically yields around 130 moles of ATP.

Fats, as an energy source, need a plentiful supply of oxygen and the transport of fatty acids in the blood is poor (slow) due to their insolubility, requiring the necessity for glycogen to be present so as to provide supplementary energy for muscle contractions. Proteins - the least favoured source of energy, only containing 5 to 10 percent of total energy yield. In the presence of oxygen protein can be used as an energy provider if, say, glycogen stores are low. Protein facilitates growth and repair of the bodys cells, such as muscle tissue and are its primary functions.

The Three Pathways

The conversion, therefore, of these fuels into energy which can be used to resynthesise ATP occurs through one of the pathways, or energy systems. Remember, it is the intensity and duration of the exercise which dictates whether oxygen is present and, ultimately, which system predominates. The three energy systems are; 1. ATP-PC or alactic system 2. The lactic acid system 3. The aerobic (oxidative) process The more intense the exercise, the more the performer will rely on the production of energy from anaerobic pathways such as the ATP-PC system, or lactic acid system. Heavy, stressful and dynamic martial arts drills are fueled by these systems. If we separate the initial ATP breakdown that ignites us for the rst 2/3 seconds we have four pathways.

1. The ATP-PCr (alactic)system As we now know, ATP stores are depleted after about three seconds, so for high intensity eort to continue, the immediate recycling of ATP is necessary, but without oxygen available (oxygen decit) during high intensity work, the body relies on PCr. Without getting too technical, this breakdown takes place in the sarcoplasm (uid that surrounds the muscle). PCr is broken down by an enzyme, creatine kinase which will have been stimulated by the increase of ADP and inorganic phosphate (both products of ATP breakdown as described above). The initial ATP utilisation will be over before these athletes reach the rst hurdle. The issue to remember is that the breakdown of PCr is not used for muscle contractions, but instead used to recycle ATP so that it can again be broken down. This reaction is known as Endothermic. The ATP-PC system is of particular use to athletes who compete at high intensity for about 10 seconds - such as 100m sprinters, or a martial artist performing an intense combination of kicks and punches.

Advantages of the ATP-PC System The resynthesis of ATP by PCr happens rapidly. PCr stores are recovered very quickly, within 2-3 minutes of stopping exercise. It is an anaerobic process so doesnt need to wait for three minutes for sucient oxygen to be present. There are no fatiguing by-products which could delay recovery. Creatine supplementation has been shown to extend the time usage Drawbacks are that PCr can only be restored when oxygen is present, say, during rest and its usage is only about the 10 sec mark. So, for a 100m sprint, ATP will initially split to enable the athlete to drive away from the blocks, with PCr breaking down to maintain a constant supply of energy for the rest of the race. 2. The Lactic Acid (lactate anaerobic) System The word threshold is used to describe the point where one energy system is exhausted and another takes over as the predominant one and for most activity that lasts longer than the 10

second threshold of ATP-PC, the body switches to glycogen as the next fuel source to resynthesise ATP. Stored in the liver and muscle, glycogen is rst broken down into glucose 6-phosphate, before it is broken down into pyruvate (pyruvic acid) by another enzyme in a process known as glycolysis. The glycolysis also takes place in the sarcoplasm to facilitate ATP resynthesis. This energy process will fuel an athlete for some 1 3 minutes and a 400m runner is an obvious example of an athlete for whom this process is the ideal energy system.

Advantages of the Lactic Acid System Because there are few chemical reactions, ATP can be resynthesised relatively quickly for bouts of exercise that take place between 10 secs 3 mins. It is an anaerobic system and therefore doesnt need to wait 3 minutes for sucient oxygen. Any lactic acid produced as a by-product can be converted back into liver glycogen. Even during long aerobic activities, i.e. 10k run, the lactic acid system can be called upon to produce an extra burst of energy, for example, a sprint nish. Drawbacks of the lactic system are rst, the accumulation of lactic acid which make glycotic enzymes acidic, causing them to lose their catalytic ability, inhibiting further energy production by glycolysis. Activity, therefore, has to be reduced or stopped; only a small amount of energy is locked in a glycogen molecule (approx. 5%), that can be released in the absence of oxygen (the remaining 95% can only be released in the presence of oxygen).

3. The Aerobic System During resting conditions, or where demands for energy is low, oxygen is readily available (hence the name aerobic system) to release stored energy from glycogen, fats and proteins. The aerobic system is the bodys preferred energy pathway, as it is, by far, the most eective in terms of ATP resynthesis the yield from aerobic metabolism is some 18 times greater than anaerobic processes. As outlined above, under anaerobic conditions, pyruvic acid (pyruvate) is converted into a fatigue-inducing lactic acid. However, when oxygen is present, pyruvic acid is instead converted into acetylcoenzyme-A by combination with an enzyme with an even longer name! This reaction now moves, from taking place in the sarcoplasm, to the mitochondria.

Mitochondria are known as the powerhouse of the cell, being specialised structures within all cells that are the site of ATP production under aerobic conditions. Mitochondria are the ultimate destination of the oxygen that we breathe in. It is inside these factories that all our aerobic energy is produced. The more t we are the more and larger mitochondria we possess. If we remember the work on the previous Unit on muscle types, it is interesting to note that slow twitch muscle bres house many more mitochondria than fast twitch bres and, hence, are more suited to aerobic activity, such as marathon running. Two Stages of the Aerobic System Without going into the complicated mechanisms of these two systems, we should know that these are; 1. The Krebs Cycle 2. The Electron Transport System As mentioned, earlier, it is not only glycogen that can be utilised in the aerobic energy system and long, endurance exercise will use a mixture of both glycogen and fats and also, reluctantly, protein. By preference, the body will look to fats for its greatest energy return, thereby sparing glycogen for later in the event, when intensity may increase. Water and carbon dioxide are byproducts of these processes.

Advantages of the Aerobic System Signicantly more ATP can be resynthesised under aerobic conditions than anaerobic (36 ATP aerobically to 2 ATP anaerobically from one mole of glycogen). The body has substantial stores of muscle glycogen and triglycerides to enable exercise to last for hours. Oxidation of glycogen and fatty acids do not produce any fatiguing by-products. Drawbacks of the system are that from a resting state to exercise, it takes a while for sucient oxygen to become available to meet demands; although fatty acids are the fuel during endurance events, fatty acid transport is slow and requires 15% more oxygen than required to break down the same amount of glycogen; glycogen is required alongside fatty acids, but if it

becomes depleted and the body attempts to metabolise fatty acids as a sole source of fuel, muscle spasms may result commonly known as hitting the wall. Energy Proling This term is used to describe the importance of each energy system to a particular activity. In reality, the 3 energy systems work alongside each other, each contributing dierent amounts of energy to resynthesise ATP. We can think of the relationship to fuel states and specic sports in 3 blocks;

AT P - P C
35%

LACTIC
35%

ACID

AEROBIC
30%

This block diagram illustrates the energy prole of a squash player who will, largely, use anaerobic systems during each point. However, the aerobic system will be called upon between points and games to ensure swift recovery. By contrast, if we thought about the energy prole of a traditional karate competitor, he or she will spend by far the majority of his or her time utilising the ATP and ATP PC for an attack or defence with if the exchange continues for more than 3 seconds - rarely are exchanges longer than 10 seconds. Whilst waiting to attack or defend the aerobic system may have come into play, but not if the ght is over quickly. What should take place, prior to the ght, is a warm-up period, so as to bring the aerobic system into play, which will then continue to function between the high energy activity.

Improving Efficiency Whatever our particular training needs, we should try to improve the eciency of our energyproducing systems. There are a number of support systems that can be brought into play; 1. Glycogen Loading - favoured by endurance athletes, seeks to deplete the bodys glycogen levels seven days prior to the event, through endurance based training and carbohydrate avoidance and then, with three days to go, consuming a diet rich in carbohydrates with little or no exercise.

2. Creatine Supplementation - used to extend the threshold of the ATP-PC system by ingesting creatine monohydrate, although some people may experience stomach problems. 3. Soda Loading - is a method of neutralising the negative eects of lactic acid by ingesting bicarbonate of soda, thereby increasing the bloods pH buering it against the eects. Again, stomach problems are likely. 4. Training - various training regimes can be used to improve the eciency of each of the three energy pathways. The following highlights those that have a direct impact on ATP resynthesis, as we know that many other adaptations also occur with all programmes.

Some Training Regimes to Improve Efficiency

ENERGY SYSTEM

D U R AT I O N E X A M P L E S T R A I N I N G A DA P TAT I OF OF ON METHOD ACTIVITY ACTIVITY FOLLOWIN

G

TRAINING
ATP-PC

3 to 10 seconds

100m sprint Gym Vault

Sprint interval training Plyometrics

Increased stores of ATP and PC Increased activity of ATPase and creatine kinase

Lactic Acid System

10 seconds to 400m run 3 minutes 100m swim Squash rally

Aerobic System

Over 3 mins

Marathon Triathlon Recovery during events

Weight training (80-95% 1RM/4-8 reps) Interval Increased training stores of muscle Fartlek glycogen Weight Increased training number of (65-80% glycolytic 1RM/8-15 enzymes reps) (PFK) Circuit training Continuous Increased training Fartlek Distance Interval training

muscle glycogen and triglycerides Increased number of oxydative enzymes

One way to think about energy pathways is that they are time duration restricted although there is some disagreement about the actual threshold points, but the key issue is exercise

intensity. We havent dealt with food types in this unit and it is up to students to make their own links between food types and energy sources. In later units we will look at combat training and tness routines and the factors that contribute to successful performance, irrespective of its nature. We may be coaching full contact competitors, police ocers, members of the public with little, or no physical activity history, or particularly t individuals, but who are not t specic for high intensity combat oriented drills. Peter Consterdine can be contacted at the British Combat Association www.britishcombatassociation.co.uk and also at www.peterconsterdine.com