CS 464 /CS 564 INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE MANAGEMENT

Lecturer: Lydia Tapia Lecture Eight: Introduction to SQL http://www.cs.unm.edu/~tapia/ cs464_cs564/

Source: Slides by Jeffrey Ullman

INTRODUCTION TO SQL
Select-From-Where Statements Subqueries Grouping and Aggregation

Why SQL?
SQL is a very-high-level language. Say what to do rather than how to do it. Avoid a lot of data-manipulation details needed in procedural languages like C++ or Java. Database management system figures out

best way to execute query.

Called query optimization.

Select-From-Where Statements
SELECT desired attributes FROM one or more tables WHERE condition about tuples of the tables

Our Running Example

All our SQL queries will be based on the following

database schema.

Underline indicates key attributes.

Candies(name, manf) Stores(name, addr, license) Consumers(name, addr, phone) Likes(consumer, candy) Sells(store, candy, price) Frequents(consumer, store)

Example
Using Candies(name, manf), what candies are

made by Hershey? SELECT name FROM Candies WHERE manf =

Hershey ;

Notice SQL uses single-quotes for strings. SQL is case-insensitive, except inside strings.

Result of Query
name Twizzler Kitkat AlmondJoy ...
The answer is a relation with a single attribute, name, and tuples with the name of each candy by Hershey, such as Twizzler.

Meaning of Single-Relation Query

Begin with the relation in the FROM clause. Apply the selection indicated by the WHERE

clause. Apply the extended projection indicated by the SELECT clause.

Operational Semantics
To implement this algorithm think of a tuple

variable (tv) ranging over each tuple of the relation mentioned in FROM. Check if the current tuple satisfies the WHERE clause. If so, compute the attributes or expressions of the SELECT clause using the components of this tuple.

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Operational Semantics
name tv Twizzler Hershey Check if Hershey Include tv.name in the result manf

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* In SELECT clauses
When there is one relation in the FROM clause, *

in the SELECT clause stands for all attributes of this relation. Example using Candies(name, manf): SELECT * FROM Candies WHERE manf = Hershey ;

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Result of Query:
name manf Twizzler Hershey Kitkat Hershey AlmondJoy Hershey ... ...

Now, the result has each of the attributes of Candies.

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Renaming Attributes
If you want the result to have different attribute

names, use AS <new name> to rename an attribute. Example based on Candies(name, manf): SELECT name AS candy, manf FROM Candies WHERE manf = Hershey

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Result of Query:
candy Twizzler Hershey Kitkat Hershey AlmondJoy Hershey ... ... manf

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Expressions in SELECT Clauses

Any expression that makes sense can appear as

an element of a SELECT clause. Example: from Sells(store, candy, price): SELECT store, candy, price * 79 AS priceInYen FROM Sells;

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Result of Query
store 7-11 Smiths candy Twizzler Snickers priceInYen 285 342

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Another Example: Constant Expressions

From Likes(consumer, candy) :

SELECT consumer, likes Kitkats AS whoLikesKitkats FROM Likes WHERE candy = Kitkat ;

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Result of Query
consumer Sally Fred whoLikesKitkats likes Kitkats likes Kitkats

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Complex Conditions in WHERE Clause

From Sells(store, candy, price), find the price that

7-11 charges for Twizzlers: SELECT price FROM Sells WHERE store = 7-11 AND candy = Twizzler ;

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Patterns
WHERE clauses can have conditions in

which a string is compared with a pattern, to see if it matches. General form: <Attribute> LIKE <pattern> or <Attribute> NOT LIKE <pattern> Pattern is a quoted string with % = any string ; _ = any character.

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Example
From Consumers(name, addr, phone) find the

consumers with exchange 555: SELECT name FROM Consumers WHERE phone LIKE

%555-_ _ _ _ ;

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NULL Values
Tuples in SQL relations can have NULL as a

value for one or more components. Meaning depends on context. Two common cases:
Missing value : e.g., we know 7-11 has some

address, but we don t know what it is. Inapplicable : e.g., the value of attribute spouse for an unmarried person.

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Comparing NULL s to Values

The logic of conditions in SQL is really 3-valued

logic: TRUE, FALSE, UNKNOWN. When any value is compared with NULL, the truth value is UNKNOWN. But a query only produces a tuple in the answer if its truth value for the WHERE clause is TRUE (not FALSE or UNKNOWN).

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Three-Valued Logic
To understand how AND, OR, and NOT work in

3-valued logic, think of TRUE = 1, FALSE = 0, and UNKNOWN = . AND = MIN; OR = MAX, NOT(x) = 1-x. Example: TRUE AND (FALSE OR NOT(UNKNOWN)) = MIN(1, MAX(0, (1 - ))) = MIN(1, MAX(0, ) = MIN(1, ) = = UNKNOWN.

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Surprising Example
From the following Sells relation:

store candy price 7-11 Twizzler NULL SELECT store FROM Sells WHERE price < 2.00 OR price >= 2.00;

UNKNOWN UNKNOWN

UNKNOWN

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Reason: 2-Valued Laws != 3-Valued Laws

Some common laws, like commutativity of AND,

hold in 3-valued logic. But not others, e.g., the law of the excluded middle : p OR NOT p = TRUE.
When p = UNKNOWN, the left side is MAX( , (1

)) = != 1.

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Multirelation Queries
Interesting queries often combine data from more

than one relation. We can address several relations in one query by listing them all in the FROM clause. Distinguish attributes of the same name by <relation>.<attribute>

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Example
Using relations Likes(consumer, candy) and

Frequents(consumer, store), find the candies liked by at least one person who frequents 7-11. SELECT candy FROM Likes, Frequents WHERE store = 7-11 AND Frequents.consumer = Likes.consumer;

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Formal Semantics

Almost the same as for single-relation queries:

Start with the product of all the relations in the FROM clause. Apply the selection condition from the WHERE clause. Project onto the list of attributes and expressions in the SELECT clause.

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Operational Semantics
Imagine one tuple-variable for each relation in the

FROM clause.
These tuple-variables visit each combination of tuples,

one from each relation.

If the tuple-variables are pointing to tuples that

satisfy the WHERE clause, send these tuples to the SELECT clause.

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Example
consumer store tv1 Sally Sally 7-11 check for 7-11 check these are equal Likes to output Twizzler consumer candy tv2

Frequents

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Explicit Tuple-Variables
Sometimes, a query needs to use two copies

of the same relation. Distinguish copies by following the relation name by the name of a tuple-variable, in the FROM clause. It s always an option to rename relations this way, even when not essential.

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Example
From Candies(name, manf), find all pairs of

candies by the same manufacturer.

Do not produce pairs like (Twizzler, Twizzler). Produce pairs in alphabetic order, e.g. (Kitkat,

Twizzler), not (Twizzler, Kitkat).

SELECT c1.name, c2.name FROM Candies c1, Candies c2 WHERE c1.manf = c2.manf AND c1.name < c2.name;

tuple variables

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Subqueries
A parenthesized SELECT-FROM-WHERE

statement (subquery ) can be used as a value in a number of places, including FROM and WHERE clauses. Example: in place of a relation in the FROM clause, we can place another query, and then query its result.
Can use a tuple-variable to name tuples of the

result.

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Subqueries That Return One Tuple

If a subquery is guaranteed to produce one

tuple, then the subquery can be used as a value.

Usually, the tuple has one component. A run-time error occurs if there is no tuple or more

than one tuple.

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Example

From Sells(store, candy, price), find the stores that sell Kitkats for the same price 7-11 charges for Twizzlers. Two queries would surely work:
Find the price 7-11 charges for Twizzlers. Find the stores that sell Kitkats at that price.

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Query + Subquery Solution

SELECT store FROM Sells WHERE candy = Kitkat AND price = (SELECT price FROM Sells WHERE store= 7-11 The price at which 7-11 AND candy = Twizzler );
sells Twizzlers

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The IN Operator
<tuple> IN <relation> is true if and only if the

tuple is a member of the relation.

<tuple> NOT IN <relation> means the opposite.

IN-expressions can appear in WHERE clauses. The <relation> is often a subquery.

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Example
From Candies(name, manf) and Likes(consumer,

candy), find the name and manufacturer of each candy that Fred likes. SELECT * FROM Candies WHERE name IN (SELECT candy The set of FROM Likes candies Fred likes WHERE consumer = Fred );

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The Exists Operator

EXISTS( <relation> ) is true if and only if the

<relation> is not empty. Example: From Candies(name, manf) , find those candies that are the unique candy by their manufacturer.

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Example Query with EXISTS

SELECT name FROM Candies c1 WHERE NOT EXISTS( SELECT * Set of candies FROM Candies with the WHERE manf = c1.manf AND same name <> c1.name); manf as
c1, but not the same candy Notice scope rule: manf refers to closest nested FROM with a relation having that attribute.

Notice the SQL not equals operator

From Candies(name, manf) , find those candies that are the unique candy by their manufacturer.

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The Operator ANY

x = ANY( <relation> ) is a boolean condition true

if x equals at least one tuple in the relation. Similarly, = can be replaced by any of the comparison operators. Example: x > ANY( <relation> ) means x is not the smallest tuple in the relation.
Note tuples must have one component only.

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The Operator ALL

Similarly, x <> ALL( <relation> ) is true if and

only if for every tuple t in the relation, x is not equal to t.

That is, x is not a member of the relation.

The <> can be replaced by any comparison

operator. Example: x >= ALL( <relation> ) means there is no tuple larger than x in the relation.

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Example
From Sells(store, candy, price), find the candies

sold for the highest price. SELECT candy FROM Sells WHERE price >= ALL( SELECT price FROM Sells);

price from the outer Sells must not be less than any price.

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Union, Intersection, and Difference

Union, intersection, and difference of relations are

expressed by the following forms, each involving subqueries:

( subquery ) UNION ( subquery ) ( subquery ) INTERSECT ( subquery ) ( subquery ) EXCEPT ( subquery )

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Example

From relations Likes(consumer, candy), Sells (store, candy, price), and Frequents (consumer, store), find the consumers and candies such that:

The consumer likes the candy, and The consumer frequents at least one store that sells the candy.

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Solution
(SELECT * FROM Likes) INTERSECT (SELECT consumer, candy FROM Sells, Frequents WHERE Frequents.store = Sells.store );
The consumer frequents a store that sells the candy.

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Bag Semantics
Although the SELECT-FROM-WHERE

statement uses bag semantics, the default for union, intersection, and difference is set semantics.
That is, duplicates are eliminated as the operation is

applied.

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Motivation: Efficiency
When doing projection, it is easier to avoid

eliminating duplicates.
Just work tuple-at-a-time.

For intersection or difference, it is most

efficient to sort the relations first.

At that point you may as well eliminate the

duplicates anyway.

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Controlling Duplicate Elimination

Force the result to be a set by

SELECT

DISTINCT . . . Force the result to be a bag (i.e., don t eliminate duplicates) by ALL, as in ... UNION ALL . . .

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Example: DISTINCT
From Sells(store, candy, price), find all the

different prices charged for candies: SELECT DISTINCT price FROM Sells; Notice that without DISTINCT, each price would be listed as many times as there were store/ candy pairs at that price.

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Example: ALL
Using relations Frequents(consumer, store) and

Likes(consumer, candy): (SELECT consumer FROM Frequents) EXCEPT ALL (SELECT consumer FROM Likes); Lists consumers who frequent more stores than they like candies, and does so as many times as the difference of those counts.

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Join Expressions
SQL provides several versions of (bag) joins. These expressions can be stand-alone queries or

used in place of relations in a FROM clause.

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Products and Natural Joins

Natural join:

R NATURAL JOIN S; Product: R CROSS JOIN S; Example: Likes NATURAL JOIN Sells; Relations can be parenthesized subqueries, as well.

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Theta Join
R JOIN S ON <condition> Example: using Consumers(name, addr) and

Frequents(consumer, store): Consumers JOIN Frequents ON name = consumer; gives us all (c, a, c, s) quadruples such that consumer c lives at address a and frequents store s.

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Outerjoins

R OUTER JOIN S is the core of an outerjoin expression. It is modified by:

Optional NATURAL in front of OUTER. 2. Optional ON <condition> after JOIN. 3. Optional LEFT, RIGHT, or FULL before OUTER.
1.

LEFT = pad dangling tuples of R only. RIGHT = pad dangling tuples of S only. FULL = pad both; this choice is the default.

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Aggregations
SUM, AVG, COUNT, MIN, and MAX can be

applied to a column in a SELECT clause to produce that aggregation on the column. Also, COUNT(*) counts the number of tuples.

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Example: Aggregation
From Sells(store, candy, price), find the average

price of Twizzlers: SELECT AVG(price) FROM Sells WHERE candy = Twizzler ;

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Eliminating Duplicates in an Aggregation

Use DISTINCT inside an aggregation. Example: find the number of different prices

charged for Twizzlers: SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT price) FROM Sells WHERE candy = Twizzler ;

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NULL s Ignored in Aggregation

NULL never contributes to a sum, average, or

count, and can never be the minimum or maximum of a column. But if there are no non-NULL values in a column, then the result of the aggregation is NULL.

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Example: Effect of NULL s

SELECT count(*) FROM Sells WHERE candy = Twizzler ; SELECT count(price) FROM Sells WHERE candy = Twizzler ;
The number of stores that sell Twizzlers.

The number of stores that sell Twizzlers at a known price.

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Grouping
We may follow a SELECT-FROM-WHERE

expression by GROUP BY and a list of attributes. The relation that results from the SELECT-FROMWHERE is grouped according to the values of all those attributes, and any aggregation is applied only within each group.

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Example: Grouping
From Sells(store, candy, price), find the average

price for each candy: SELECT candy, AVG(price) FROM Sells GROUP BY candy;

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Example: Grouping
From Sells(store, candy, price) and Frequents

(consumer, store), find for each consumer the average price of Twizzlers at the stores they Compute frequent: consumerSELECT consumer, AVG(price) store-price for Twiz. FROM Frequents, Sells tuples first, then group WHERE candy = Twizzler AND by consumer. Frequents.store = Sells.store GROUP BY consumer;

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Restriction on SELECT Lists With Aggregation

If any aggregation is used, then each element of the SELECT list must be either:
Aggregated, or 2. An attribute on the GROUP BY list.
1.

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Query Example Correct or Not?

You might think you could find the store that

sells Twizzlers the cheapest by: SELECT store, MIN(price) FROM Sells WHERE candy = Twizzler ; But this query is illegal in SQL.

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HAVING Clauses
HAVING <condition> may follow a GROUP BY

clause. If so, the condition applies to each group, and groups not satisfying the condition are eliminated.

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Example: HAVING
From Sells(store, candy, price) and Candies

(name, manf), find the average prices of those candies that are either sold in at least three stores or are manufactured by Nestle.

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Solution
SELECT candy, AVG(price) FROM Sells GROUP BY candy HAVING COUNT(store) >= 3 OR candy IN (SELECT name FROM Candies WHERE manf = Nestle );
Candy groups with at least 3 non-NULL stores and also candy groups where the manufacturer is Nestle.

Candies manufactured by Nestle.

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Requirements on HAVING Conditions

These conditions may refer to any relation or tuple-variable in the FROM clause. They may refer to attributes of those relations, as long as the attribute makes sense within a group; i.e., it is either:

A grouping attribute, or Aggregated.