MBTI Personality Traits

Description How people derive "energy" How people gather "information" i.e. Perceive How people make "decisions" i.e. Judge Determination if people have a preference for judging or perceiving.
Extraversion Gregarious - drawn to large number and variety of relationships. Enthusiastic - being energetically with the "action" and at the center of things. Initiator - social facilitator, assertively outgoing, build bridges among people. Expressive - easy to know, approachable, warm, readily show feelings. Auditory - learn through listening, active dialogue, and involvement with others.

Extroversion Sensing Feeling Judging

Introversion iNtuition Thinking Perceiving

Introversion Intimate - most comfortable in small groups and with one-on-one relationships. Quiet - present themselves modestly, drawn to the calm away from the center of action. Receptor - content to let others initiate social amenities - even to the point of being overlooked. Contained - well controlled, calm exterior, often difficult for others to "read.". Visual - learn through observation, reflection, reading, and more solitary means.

Sensing

Intuition

Concrete - depend on verifiable, factual information Abstract - comfortable with and inferring meaning and direct perceptions. literal, mistrust fuzzy from ambiguous and non-literal information. information Perceptive. Realistic - value being practical, cost-effective, and Imaginative - enjoy being ingenious, clever and exercising common sense. novel . . . for its own sake. Pragmatic - highly values the usefulness or applications of an idea - more interesting than idea itself. Experiential - heavily grounded by first hand, past experience. Reluctant to generalize beyond direct experience. Intellectual - learning, acquiring knowledge, mental challenges are valued as an end in itself. Theoretical - conceptual, automatically search for patterns in observed facts, comfortable with theories and inventing new ones. Resourceful.

Original - values initiative and enterprising, Traditional - trust what is familiar, support inventive, and novel solutions. Often mistrusts established groups and methods, honor precedents. conventional wisdom.

Thinking Critical - comfortable making distinctions, categorizing, making win/lose choices, being in adversarial situations. Tough Minded - results oriented, ends justify the means, stick on task. Firm Questionning - intellectually indpendent, resistant to influence, self confident.

Feeling Accepting - tolerant towards human failings, see positive side of others, instinctually seeks win/win resolutions of problems. Tender Hearted - use gentle persuasion to influence, reluctant to force compliance.. Accomodating - seeks consensus, deferential, conflict avoiding, seeks harmony.

Logical - values and trusts detached, objective, and Affective - trusts emotions and feelings, values logical analysis. human considerations, in touch with feelings. Compassionate - makes decisions on overall Reasonable - is clear-thinking, objective, reasoned, impressions, patterns, and feelings (including and logical in everyday decision-making. emotional likes and dislikes).

Judging Early Starter - focused. Structure activities to work on one thing at a time, allowing adequate time for proper completion. Systematic - prefers orderly, structured and programmed responses. Likes formal contingency planning. Scheduled - creates and easily follows standardized and familiar routines.

Perceiving Pressure Prompted - prefers variety and multitasking. Most effectively energized when working close to deadlines. Casual - comfortable making adjustments as situation requires. Prefers informal guidelines vs. structured rules. Adaptable. Spontaneous - dislikes repeatedly following the same routines. Seeks variety and change.

Planful - likes to schedule future commitments far in Open-ended - strongly values preserving flexibility advance, uses dates and deadlines to organize their and freedom, dislikes being tied down by long range energies. plans. Makes flexible plans. Methodical - implements projects in a planned, organized, and step-by-step manner. Self programming. Emergent - ad hoc planner. Moves quickly into action without detailed plans, plans on the go. Risk taking.

Nearly everyone has a preference for each of these personality traits. After weighing the subjective results of the test a dominant personality type can usually be identified. These types are differentiated by combining the letters for each preferred trait into a composite type. One example would be ENFP which is, Extroverted, iNtuitive, Feeling and Perceiving. With this method 16 different personalities can be identified. For descriptions of each of the four preferences you can click here. For descriptions of all 16 personalities you can click here. For a free

personality assessment test you could go here. While it costs $5 I would recommend instead taking the test here. Apparently, most people including those very familiar with the MBTI dont really know what each of the traits is describing. The traits being identified by the MBTI are mostly based on externalized behavior and environmental preferences. Isabel Briggs Myers was an INFP and CG Jung was an INTP. Each of these types gathers information in the same manner and the same sequence (i.e. Ne Si). However, they judge and interpret the information very differently, (Fi Te vs. Ti Fe). INFPs have cognitive strengths that allow them to understand people in terms of observed and preferred externalized behaviors. INTPs have cognitive strengths that allow them to understand people in terms of abstract conceptual patterns and language usage. By combining both forms of identification, personality traits are more quickly identified. For example, by watching someones behavior exhibited by body language, verbal intonation/inflection, energy level and conceptual language, logic/reasoning preference, and word choice and then relating these behaviors to the environmental or situational context will give a more complete perception of the individuals personality preferences. (The "Population Breakdown"
chart on the right is from Wikipedia.)

Population Breakdown ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ

11.6% 13.8% 1.5% 2.1%

ISTP ISFP INFP INTP

5.4% 8.8% 4.4% 3.3%

ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP

4.3% 8.5% 8.1% 3.2%

ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ

8.7% 12.3% 2.4% 1.8% By using inferential statistics an estimate of the preferences found in the US population has been gathered.

Here is a table listing each of the 16 types grouped by function/trait. Next to each is a rough percentage of the US population that can be identified having each personality type. (These percentages are from the MBTI Manuel A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Third Edition 1998. The F is for Female and the M is for Male.) ST I
ISTJ F 6.9% M 16.4% ISTP F 2.4% M 8.5%

SF
ISFJ F 19.4% M 8.1% ISFP F 9.9% M 7.6% ESFP F 10.1% M 6.9%

NF
INFJ F 1.6% M 1.3% INFP F 4.6% M 4.1% ENFP F 9.7% M 6.4%

NT
INTJ F 0.8% M 3.3% INTP F 1.8% M 4.8% ENTP F 2.4% M 4.0%

ESTP F 3.0% M 5.6%

ESTJ F 6.3% M 11.2%

ESFJ F 16.9% M 7.5%

ENFJ F 3.3% M 1.6%

ENTJ F 0.9% M 2.7%

What Are the Big Five Dimensions of Personality?

Personality researchers have proposed that there are five basic dimensions of personality. Evidence of this theory has been growing over the past 50 years, beginning with the research of D. W. Fiske (1949) and later expanded upon by other researchers including Norman (1967), Smith (1967), Goldberg (1981), and McCrae & Costa (1987).
The "big five" are broad categories of personality traits. While there is a significant body of literature supporting this five-factor model of personality, researchers don't always agree on the exact labels for each dimension. However, these five categories are usually described as follows: 1. Extraversion: This trait includes characteristics such as excitability, friendliness, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional expressiveness.

2. Agreeableness: This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, humanity, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors.

3. Conscientiousness: Common features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors. Those high in conscientiousness tend to be organized and mindful of details.

4. Neuroticism: Individuals high in this trait tend to experience emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness, irritability, and sadness.

5. Openness: This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests.

These dimensions represent broad areas of personality. Research has demonstrated that these groupings of characteristics tend to occur together in many people. For example, individuals who

are sociable tend to be talkative. However, these traits do not always occur together. Personality is a complex and varied and each person may display behaviors across several of these dimensions.

Big Five personality traits

the "Big Five" factors (or Five Factor Model; FFM) of personality are five broad domains or dimensions of personality which are used to describe human personality.

The Big five factors are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism traits that correlate together. For example, extraversion includes such related qualities as sociability, excitement seeking, impulsiveness, and positive emotions. The Five Factor Model is a purely descriptive model of personality, but psychologists have developed a number of theories to account for the Big Five. The Big Five factors and their constituent traits can be summarized as follows:

Openness (inventive / curious vs. consistent / cautious). Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience. Conscientiousness (efficient / organized vs. easy-going / careless). A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior. Extraversion (outgoing / energetic vs. shy / reserved). Energy, positive emotions, surgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others. Agreeableness (friendly / compassionate vs. cold / unkind). A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.

Neuroticism (sensitive / nervous vs. secure / confident). A tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability.

The Big Five model is a comprehensive, empirical, data-driven research finding. Identifying the traits and structure of human personality has been one of the most fundamental goals in all of psychology. The five broad factors were discovered and defined by several independent sets of researchers (Digman, 1990).[1] These researchers began by studying known personality traits and then factor-analyzing hundreds of measures of these traits (in self-report and questionnaire data, peer ratings, and objective measures from experimental settings) in order to find the underlying factors of personality. The initial model was advanced by Ernest Tupes and Raymond Cristal[2], but failed to reach an academic audience until the 1980s. In 1990, J.M. Digman advanced his five factor model of personality, which Goldberg extended to the highest level of organization (Goldberg, 1993).[3] These five over-arching domains have been found to contain and subsume most known personality traits and are assumed to represent the basic structure behind all personality traits. These five factors provide a rich conceptual framework for integrating all the research findings and theory in personality psychology. The Big Five traits are also referred to as the "Five Factor Model" or FFM (Costa & McCrae, 1992),[4] and as the Global Factors of personality (Russell & Karol, 1994).[5] At least four sets of researchers have worked independently for decades on this problem and have identified generally the same Big Five factors: Tupes & Cristal were first, followed by Goldberg at the Oregon Research Institute,[6][7][8][9][10] Cattell at the University of Illinois,[11][12][13][14] and Costa and McCrae at the National Institutes of Health.[15][16][17][18] These four sets of researchers used somewhat different methods in finding the five traits, and thus each set of five factors has somewhat different names and definitions. However, all have been found to be highly inter-correlated and factor-analytically aligned.[19][20][21][22][23] Because the Big Five traits are broad and comprehensive, they are not nearly as powerful in predicting and explaining actual behavior as are the more numerous lower-level traits. Many studies have confirmed that in predicting actual behavior the more numerous facet or primary level traits are far more effective (e.g. Mershon & Gorsuch, 1988[24]; Paunonon & Ashton, 2001[25]) When scored for individual feedback, these traits are frequently presented as percentile scores. For example, a Conscientiousness rating in the 80th percentile indicates a relatively strong sense of responsibility and orderliness, whereas an Extraversion rating in the 5th percentile indicates an exceptional need for solitude and quiet. Although these trait clusters are statistical aggregates, exceptions may exist on individual personality profiles. On average, people who register high in Openness are intellectually curious, open to emotion, interested in art, and willing to try new things. A particular individual, however, may have a high overall Openness score and be interested in learning and exploring new cultures but have no great interest in art or poetry. The most frequently used measures of the Big Five comprise either items that are self-descriptive sentences[26] or, in the case of lexical measures, items that are single adjectives.[27] Due to the

length of sentence-based and some lexical measures, short forms have been developed and validated for use in applied research settings where questionnaire space and respondent time are limited, such as the 40-item balanced International English Big-Five Mini-Markers[28] or a very brief (10 item) measure of the Big Five domains.[29]

[edit] Openness to experience

Main article: Openness to experience

Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. The trait distinguishes imaginative people from down-toearth, conventional people. People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more creative and more aware of their feelings. They are more likely to hold unconventional beliefs. People with low scores on openness tend to have more conventional, traditional interests. They prefer the plain, straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. They may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion or even view these endeavors as uninteresting.

[edit] Sample openness items

I I I I I I I I

have a rich vocabulary. have a vivid imagination. have excellent ideas. spend time reflecting on things. use difficult words. am not interested in abstractions. (reversed) do not have a good imagination. (reversed) have difficulty understanding abstract ideas. (reversed)[30]

[edit] Conscientiousness
Main article: Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness is a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement. The trait shows a preference for planned rather than spontaneous behavior. It influences the way in which we control, regulate, and direct our impulses. Conscientiousness includes the factor known as Need for Achievement (NAch).

[edit] Sample conscientiousness items

I I I I I I I

am always prepared. am exacting in my work. follow a schedule. get chores done right away. like order. pay attention to details. leave my belongings around. (reversed)

I make a mess of things. (reversed) I often forget to put things back in their proper place. (reversed) I shirk my duties. (reversed)[30]

[edit] Extraversion
Main article: Extraversion and introversion

Extraversion is characterized by positive emotions, surgency, and the tendency to seek out stimulation and the company of others. The trait is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy being with people, and are often perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's go!" to opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves. Introverts lack the social exuberance and activity levels of extraverts. They tend to seem quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression. Introverts simply need less stimulation than extraverts and more time alone. They may be very active and energetic, simply not socially.

[edit] Sample extraversion items

I I I I I I I I I

am the life of the party. don't mind being the center of attention. feel comfortable around people. start conversations. talk to a lot of different people at parties. am quiet around strangers. (reversed) don't like to draw attention to myself. (reversed) don't talk a lot. (reversed) have little to say. (reversed)[30]

[edit] Agreeableness
Main article: Agreeableness

Agreeableness is a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. The trait reflects individual differences in general concern for social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others. Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest, decent, and trustworthy. Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are generally unconcerned with others well-being, and are less likely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative.

[edit] Sample agreeableness items

I I I I I I I I I I I

am interested in people. feel others' feelings. have a soft heart. make people feel at ease. sympathize with others feelings. take time out for others. am not interested in other peoples problems. (reversed) am not really interested in others. (reversed) feel little concern for others. (reversed) insult people. (reversed)[30] like being isolated. (reversed)

[edit] Neuroticism
Main article: Neuroticism

Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability. Those who score high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish the ability of a person scoring high on neuroticism to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress. At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low scorers experience a lot of positive feelings.

[edit] Sample neuroticism items

I I I I I I I I I I

am easily disturbed. change my mood a lot. get irritated easily. get stressed out easily. get upset easily. have frequent mood swings. often feel blue. worry about things. am relaxed most of the time. (reversed) seldom feel blue. (reversed)[30]

[edit] History

[edit] Early trait research

Sir Francis Galton was the first scientist to recognize what is now known as the Lexical Hypothesis. This is the idea that the most salient and socially relevant personality differences in peoples lives will eventually become encoded into language. The hypothesis further suggests that by sampling language, it is possible to derive a comprehensive taxonomy of human personality traits. In 1936, Gordon Allport and H. S. Odbert put this hypothesis into practice.[31] They worked through two of the most comprehensive dictionaries of the English language available at the time and extracted 17,953 personality-describing words. They then reduced this gigantic list to 4,504 adjectives which they believed were descriptive of observable and relatively permanent traits. Raymond Cattell obtained the Allport-Odbert list in the 1940s, added terms obtained from psychological research, and then eliminated synonyms to reduce the total to 171.[32] He then asked subjects to rate people whom they knew by the adjectives on the list and analyzed their ratings. Cattell identified 35 major clusters of personality traits which he referred to as the "personality sphere." He and his associates then constructed personality tests for these traits. The data they obtained from these tests were analyzed with the emerging technology of computers combined with the statistical method of factor analysis. This resulted in sixteen major personality factors, which led to the development of the 16PF Personality Questionnaire. In 1961, two Air Force researchers, Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal, analyzed personality data from eight large samples. Using Cattell's trait measures, they found five recurring factors, which they named "Surgency", "Agreeableness", "Dependability", "Emotional Stability", and "Culture".[33] This work was replicated by Warren Norman, who also found that five major factors were sufficient to account for a large set of personality data. Norman named these factors Surgency, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Culture.[34] Raymond Cattell viewed these developments as an attack on his 16PF model and never agreed with the growing Five Factor consensus. He refers to "...the five factor heresy" which he considers "...is partly directed against the 16PF test". Responding to Goldberg's article in the American Psychologist, 'The Structure of Phenotypic Personality Traits', Cattell stated, "No experienced factorist could agree with Dr Goldberg's enthusiasm for the five factor personality theory". This determined rejection of the FFM challenge to his 16 factor model is presented in an article published towards the end of his life and entitled 'The fallacy of five factors in the personality sphere', Cattell, R. B. (1995), The Psychologist, The British Psychological Society, May Issue pp 207208.

[edit] Hiatus in research

For the next two decades, the changing zeitgeist made publication of personality research difficult. In his 1968 book Personality and Assessment, Walter Mischel asserted that personality tests could not predict behavior with a correlation of more than 0.3. Social psychologists like Mischel argued that attitudes and behavior were not stable, but varied with the situation. Predicting behavior by personality tests was considered to be impossible.

Emerging methodologies challenged this point of view during the 1980s. Instead of trying to predict single instances of behavior, which was unreliable, researchers found that they could predict patterns of behavior by aggregating large numbers of observations. As a result correlations between personality and behavior increased substantially, and it was clear that personality did in fact exist. Personality and social psychologists now generally agree that both personal and situational variables are needed to account for human behavior. Trait theories became justified, and there was a resurgence of interest in this area. By 1980, the pioneering research by Tupes, Christal, and Norman had been largely forgotten by psychologists. Lewis Goldberg started his own lexical project, independently found the five factors once again, and gradually brought them back to the attention of psychologists.[35] He later coined the term "Big Five" as a label for the factors.

[edit] Validity of the Big Five

In a 1981 symposium in Honolulu, four prominent researchers, Lewis Goldberg, Naomi Takemoto-Chock, Andrew Comrey, and John M. Digman, reviewed the available personality tests of the day. They concluded that the tests which held the most promise measured a subset of five common factors, just as Norman had discovered in 1963. This event was followed by widespread acceptance of the five factor model among personality researchers during the 1980s. In 1984 Peter Saville and his team included the five-factor Pentagon model with the original OPQ. Pentagon was closely followed by the NEO five-factor personality inventory, published by Costa and McCrae in 1985. One of the most significant advances of the five-factor model was the establishment of a common taxonomy that demonstrates order in a previously scattered and disorganized field. What separates the five-factor model of personality from all others is that it is not based on the theory of any one particular psychologist, but rather on language. A number of meta-analyses have confirmed the predictive value of the Big Five across a wide range of behaviors. Saulsman and Page examined the relationships between the Big Five personality dimensions and each of the 10 personality disorder categories in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). Across 15 independent samples, the researchers found that each disorder displayed a unique and predictable five-factor profile. The most prominent and consistent personality predictors underlying the disorders were positive associations with Neuroticism and negative associations with Agreeableness.[36] In the area of job performance, Barrick and Mount reviewed 117 studies utilizing 162 samples with 23,994 participants. They found that conscientiousness showed consistent relations with all performance criteria for all occupational groups. Extraversion was a valid predictor for occupations involving social interaction (e.g. management and sales). Furthermore, extraversion and openness to experience were valid predictors of training proficiency criteria.[37][38]

[edit] Selected scientific findings

Ever since the 1990s when the consensus of psychologists gradually came to support the Big Five, there has been a growing body of research surrounding these personality traits (see for instance, Robert Hogan's edited book "Handbook of Personality Psychology" (Academic Press, 1997).

personality by blood type:

Type O: Type O's are outgoing, and very social. They are initiators, although they don't always finish what they start. Creative and popular, they love to be the center of attention and appear very self confident. Type A: While outwardly calm, they have such high standards (perfectionists) that they tend to be balls of nerves on the inside. Type A's are the most artistic of the blood groups. They can be shy, are conscientious, trustworthy, and sensitive. Type B: Goal oriented and strong minded, type B's will start a task and continue it until completed, and completed well. Type B's are the individualists of the blood group categories and find their own way in life. Type AB: Type AB's are the split personalities of the blood groups. They can be both outgoing and shy, confident and timid. While responsible, too much responsibility will cause a problem. They are trustworthy and like to help others. Compatability by Blood Groups: A is most compatible with A and AB B is most compatible with B and AB AB is most compatible with AB, B, A and O O is most compatible with O, and AB To learn about the science of blood types, please visit the link on the top right "Blood Groups and Anthropology" "Craig Medical" or "The Franklin Institute."

Personality Types A B C
Different Personality Types - A B and C Human behavior is not only a complex subject to understand, but it is also cursed with the element of unpredictability. Every one tries to fathom what the next guy is thinking about or how he or she will act in a certain environment such as the work place. The advances in the field of psychology and the deeper understanding of the psyche of men, too, have come up with personality types A B C D. People in a work place such as an office or factory, can be grouped under any one of the personality types a,b,c, based on the their behavior and personality traits as follows. If the world is full of people of personality types A B C only, then it will be a very bleak place to live in. You will be extremely lucky to find a true specimen of the personality type A B C as described below. Read more on personality traits list. Personality Type A The individuals that come under personality type A are of a highly independent nature. These are the bulldozers in the personality types a, b, c. Their ambition to leave their mark in the world singles them out from the rest. They are self driven and know the importance of goal setting, positive thinking and motivation. If you are interested in studying one of the specimens of personality type A, choose one from the ranks of business leadership. They are competitive in nature, in fact they thrive on it as if it is the fuel of their life. They are well known for their sharpness in getting to the heart of the matter in no-nonsense and blunt terms. Individuals of personality type A are risk takers which characterize an entrepreneurial spirit or mind. They do have the ability to put on the veil of practicality to solve a problem as and when required. You will find that open minded individuals of personality type A are the ones who welcome changes in technology and practices and who don't baulk under the requirements and necessity of change and success. Personality Type B These people can be described as the "bombers" among the personality types A, B and C. These characters are extroverts to the soles of their boots and think that life is nothing but getting under the spotlight and spell binding the rest. Individuals that fall under the personality type B are human magnets that can attract the attention of the rest in a gathering, effortlessly. This makes their type seem special among the various other personalities. These individuals have a very engaging personality and when it comes to conversations they are as sleek as eels. Individuals of personality type B are the people who can sell a fridge to an Eskimo who, after the sale, thanks all his departed ancestors and the snowman for bestowing the honor of buying something from this wonderful man. Because of their ability to get tuned in with the people, others find them a fountain of entertainment and charisma. Turn and focus your microscope to sales and marketing or to those people in the field of entertainment and you will find them in no time (aren't they in the limelight too?). Persons of personality type B thrive on the interaction with the rest. Your act of ignoring them or their efforts is as good as you sticking a knife in their back, for them. Not being able to to attract your attention or making you sway to their tune, will hurt these people.

Personality Type C The apt term to describe these individuals in personality types A, B and C is "seekers". If you are searching for a promising heir to your microscope, you can choose any person of personality type C. These are introverts who are interested in details which separates them from the rest of the types in personality types A, B, C. They could turn heaven and hell upside down or insideout, depending on their mood, to find the detail or fact they are interested in, before taking it to pieces in order to restart the process. These people tend to shrink from social or human interaction. Arranging facts (these include women and their behavior, how foolish!) around them, in logical order is what drives these people to no end. This type of a person can live with an individual of personality type B, as happily as a meditative pound of matter with an outgoing, bubbling, jesting and noisy pound of antimatter. Yes, personality type C is as exactly opposite of the personality type B as an electron with the left spin is the antithesis of the one with the right spin. You can find specimens of personality type C personified in accountants, computer programmers etc. These people find it difficult to get out of their shell and communicate with other people, but are tigers when it comes to numbers and logic. Reservedness is a mark of personality type C and they are cautious, too. Risk taking is not a very attractive option for these people who tend not to venture into something until they have gone over all the facts with a fine toothed comb. Personality Type D These gentlemen really believe in inertia which they have no shortage of. These people prefer to stick to the trodden paths and established routines over the uncertainty of change. You will find, don't train your microscope or binoculars on a stage bathed under a a flood of spotlight, a true specimen of this type are people engaged as clerks. These are followers of the spent actions and executors of the direct commands. You will find them doing their best not to stretch their neck out when it comes to taking responsibility and risk. With the help of professionals in the field of personality development and through sheer power of self motivation or self improvement, these individuals can overcome their handicap to some extent. It is found that the lifestyles led by individuals of personality types A B C makes them prone to diseases such as heart attacks and cancer. In reality, an individual is a mixture of personality traits characterizing personality types A B C. Won't you agree with me that, this makes men more complex, women more mysterious to understand and the world more colorful? This is why, a layman, has to work real hard and over a long period of time to know a person in depth. The personality types A, B and C which can unveiled with the help of a personality test, are just
guidelines to follow in order to know a man and not the absolute truth.

Levinson's Theory of Adult Life Stages

Daniel Levinson proposed that the personality development of an individual progresses with age. This theory was different from other popular theories of the time which held that personality development is associated with events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. Initially, Levinson believed that an individual's development took place uniformly throughout the adult years. However, he later theorized that the years of uniform progress are punctuated by (four) periods of stability during which no development takes place.

According to Levinson's theory, the four periods of stability occur between the following ages: 1. Twenty-two to twenty-eight (during which an individual steps into the adult stage) 2. Thirty-three to forty (during which an individual is in the process of settling down) 3. Forty-five to fifty (during which an individual enters middle adulthood)
4. Fifty-five to sixty (a stage where middle adulthood terminates and an individual approaches old age.)

Chris Argyris

Immaturity / Maturity Theory

The fact that bureaucratic/ pyramidal values still dominate most organizations, according to Argyris, has produced many of our current organizational problems. While at Yale, he examined industrial organizations to determine what effect management practices have had on individual behavior and personal growth within the work environment.

Personality changes
According to Argyris, seven changes should take place in the personality of individuals if they are to develop into mature people over the years.

First, individuals move from a passive state as infants to a state of increasing activity as adults. Second, individuals develop from a state of dependency upon others as infants to a state of relative independence as adults. Third, individuals behave in only a few ways as infants, but as adults they are capable of behaving in many ways. Fourth, individuals have erratic, casual, and shallow interests as infants but develop deeper and stronger interests as adults. Fifth, the time perspective of children is very short, involving only the present, but as they mature, their time perspective increases to include the past and the future. Sixth, individuals as infants are subordinate to everyone, but they move to equal or superior positions with others as adults. Seventh, as children, individuals lack an awareness of a "self," but as adults they are not only aware of, but they are able to control "self."

Argyris postulates that these changes reside on a continuum and that the "healthy" personality develops along the continuum from "immaturity" to "maturity. These changes are only general tendencies, but they give some light on the matter of maturity. Norms of the individual's culture and personality inhibit and limit maximum expression and growth of the adult, yet the tendency is to move toward the "maturity" end of the continuum with age. Argyris would be the first to admit that few, if any, develop to full maturity.

Holland Code Career Models

The Models match jobs into job codes, interest clusters, work personality environments, or personality types. The Occupational Codes are

Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising and Conventional

Fire Fighter Video Clip

To view the video clip, you will need Windows Media Player installed on your computer. You can get Windows Media Player at here. A new window will open so you can download it without leaving this page. Once the Windows Media Player is installed, click the link to download and view the video clip. When the clip has uploaded, click the PLAY button (at the bottom left side of the Media Player) to begin viewing the video clip.
Taken from the Center for Occupational Employment Information Career Video Library

Realistic is one of the Holland Codes. Realistic types prefer to deal with Things.

A person with a Realistic Personality tends to be frank, practical, focused, mechanical, determined, or rugged. Examples of Realistic Abilities include manipulating tools, doing mechanical or manual tasks, or doing athletic activities.

Examples of Realistic Holland Code Careers include Craftsman, Fitness Trainer, Optician, Policemen, Fire Fighter, and Physical Education Teacher. Possible Realistic College Majors are Justice Studies, Fire Science, Athletic Training, Martial Arts, Corporate Fitness, and Physical Education.

Investigative is one of the Holland Codes. Investigative types prefer to deal with Things and Ideas.

A person with a Investigative Personality tends to be analytical, intellectual, reserved, independent, and scholarly. Examples of Investigative Abilities include working with abstract ideas and intellectual problems. Examples of Investigative Holland Code Careers include Biologist, Chemist, Historian, Researcher, Doctor, and Mathematician. Possible Investigative College Majors are Botany, Engineering, Forestry Science, Physics, and Foreign Languages.

Artistic is one of the Holland Code Career Types. Artistic types prefer to deal with Ideas and People.

A person with a Artistic Personality tends to be Complicated, Original, Impulsive, Independent, Expressive, and Creative. Examples of Artistic Abilities include using imagination and feelings in creative expression . Examples of Artistic Holland Code Careers include Artist, Musician, Actor/ Actress, Designer, Writer, and Photographer. Possible Artistic College Majors are Art, Theater, Graphic Design, Music, Journalism, and Communication.

Social is one of the Holland Occupational Codes. Social types prefer to deal with People.

A person with a Social Personality tends to be Helping, Informing, Teaching, Inspiring, Counseling, and Serving. Examples of Social Abilities include interacting with people and concerned with the welfare of people. Examples of Social Holland Code Careers include Teacher, Clergy, Coach, Therapist, Nurse, Counselor, and Sociologist. Possible Social College Majors are Nursing, Christian Education, Counseling, Biblical Studies, Social Science, and Education.

Enterprising is one of the Holland Occupational Codes. Enterprising types prefer to deal with Data and People.

A person with an Enterprising Personality tends to be Characteristics: Persuasive, Energetic, Sociable, Adventurous, Ambitious, and Risk-taking. Examples of Enterprising Abilities include leading, managing, and organizing. Examples of Enterprising Holland Code Careers include Manager, Producer, Lawyer, Business/ Marketing, Executive, Entrepreneur, and Principal. Possible Enterprising College Majors are Pre-Law, Business Management and Administration, International Business, and Political Science.

Conventional is one of the Holland Occupational Codes. Conventional types prefer to deal with Data and Things.

A person with a Conventional Personality tends to be Careful, Conforming, Conservative, Conscientious, Self-controlled, and Structured. Examples of Conventional Abilities include ordering activities paying attention to details. Examples of Conventional Holland Code Careers include Accountant, Banker, Editor, Office Manager, Librarian, and Reporter. Possible Conventional College Majors are Business, Accounting, and Management.

johari window

Ingham and Luft's Johari Window model diagrams and examples - for self-awareness, personal development, group development and understanding relationships
The Johari Window model is a simple and useful tool for illustrating and improving selfawareness, and mutual understanding between individuals within a group. The Johari Window model can also be used to assess and improve a group's relationship with other groups. The Johari Window model was devised by American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955, while researching group dynamics at the University of California Los Angeles. The model was first published in the Proceedings of the Western Training Laboratory in Group Development by UCLA Extension Office in 1955, and was later expanded by Joseph Luft. Today the Johari Window model is especially relevant due to modern emphasis on, and influence of, 'soft' skills, behaviour, empathy, cooperation, inter-group development and interpersonal development. The Johari Window concept is particularly helpful to understanding employee/employer relationships within the Psychological Contract. Over the years, alternative Johari Window terminology has been developed and adapted by other people - particularly leading to different descriptions of the four regions, hence the use of different terms in this explanation. Don't let it all confuse you - the Johari Window model is really very simple indeed.

free johari window model diagram (pdf - landscape) free johari window model diagram (pdf - portrait)
(The Johari Window diagram is also available in MSWord format from the free resources section.) Luft and Ingham called their Johari Window model 'Johari' after combining their first names, Joe and Harry. In early publications the word appears as 'JoHari'. The Johari Window soon became a widely used model for understanding and training self-awareness, personal development, improving communications, interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, team development and inter-group relationships. The Johari Window model is also referred to as a 'disclosure/feedback model of self awareness', and by some people an 'information processing tool'. The Johari Window actually represents information - feelings, experience, views, attitudes, skills, intentions, motivation, etc - within or about a person - in relation to their group, from four perspectives, which are described below. The Johari Window model can also be used to represent the same information for a group in relation to other groups. Johari Window terminology refers to 'self' and 'others': 'self' means oneself, ie, the person subject to the Johari Window analysis. 'Others' means other people in the person's group or team.

N.B. When the Johari Window model is used to assess and develop groups in relation to other groups, the 'self' would be the group, and 'others' would be other groups. However, for ease of explanation and understanding of the Johari Window and examples in this article, think of the model applying to an individual within a group, rather than a group relating to other groups. The four Johari Window perspectives are called 'regions' or 'areas' or 'quadrants'. Each of these regions contains and represents the information - feelings, motivation, etc - known about the person, in terms of whether the information is known or unknown by the person, and whether the information is known or unknown by others in the group. The Johari Window's four regions, (areas, quadrants, or perspectives) are as follows, showing the quadrant numbers and commonly used names:

johari window four regions

1. what is known by the person about him/herself and is also known by others open area, open self, free area, free self, or 'the arena' 2. what is unknown by the person about him/herself but which others know blind area, blind self, or 'blindspot' 3. what the person knows about him/herself that others do not know - hidden area, hidden self, avoided area, avoided self or 'facade' 4. what is unknown by the person about him/herself and is also unknown by others - unknown area or unknown self

johari window four regions - model diagram

Like some other behavioural models (eg, Tuckman, Hersey/Blanchard), the Johari Window is based on a four-square grid - the Johari Window is like a window with four 'panes'. Here's how the Johari Window is normally shown, with its four regions.

This is the standard representation of the Johari Window model, showing each quadrant the same size. The Johari Window 'panes' can be changed in size to reflect the relevant proportions of each type of 'knowledge' of/about a particular person in a given group or team situation. In new groups or teams the open free space for any team member is small (see the Johari Window new team member example below) because shared awareness is relatively small. As the team member becomes better established and known, so the size of the team member's open free area quadrant increases. See the Johari Window established team member example below.

johari window model - explanation of the four regions

Refer to the free detailed Johari Window model diagram in the free resources section - print a copy and it will help you to understand what follows.

johari quadrant 1 - 'open self/area' or 'free area' or 'public area', or 'arena'

Johari region 1 is also known as the 'area of free activity'. This is the information about the person - behaviour, attitude, feelings, emotion, knowledge, experience, skills, views, etc - known by the person ('the self') and known by the group ('others'). The aim in any group should always be to develop the 'open area' for every person, because when we work in this area with others we are at our most effective and productive, and the group is at its most productive too. The open free area, or 'the arena', can be seen as the space where good communications and cooperation occur, free from distractions, mistrust, confusion, conflict and misunderstanding. Established team members logically tend to have larger open areas than new team members. New team members start with relatively small open areas because relatively little knowledge about the new team member is shared. The size of the open area can be expanded horizontally into the blind space, by seeking and actively listening to feedback from other group members. This process is known as 'feedback solicitation'. Also, other group members can help a team member expand their open area by offering feedback, sensitively of course. The size of the open area can also be expanded vertically downwards into the hidden or avoided space by the person's disclosure of information, feelings, etc about him/herself to the group and group members. Also, group members can help a person expand their open area into the hidden area by asking the person about him/herself. Managers and team leaders can play an important role in facilitating feedback and disclosure among group members, and in directly giving feedback to individuals about their own blind areas. Leaders also have a big responsibility to promote a culture and expectation for open, honest, positive, helpful, constructive, sensitive communications, and the sharing of knowledge throughout their organization. Top performing groups, departments, companies and organizations always tend to have a culture of open positive communication, so encouraging the positive development of the 'open area' or 'open self' for everyone is a simple yet fundamental aspect of effective leadership.

johari quadrant 2 - 'blind self' or 'blind area' or 'blindspot'

Johari region 2 is what is known about a person by others in the group, but is unknown by the person him/herself. By seeking or soliciting feedback from others, the aim should be to reduce this area and thereby to increase the open area (see the Johari Window diagram below), ie, to increase self-awareness. This blind area is not an effective or productive space for individuals or groups. This blind area could also be referred to as ignorance about oneself, or issues in which one is deluded. A blind area could also include issues that others are deliberately withholding from a person. We all know how difficult it is to work well when kept in the dark. No-one works well when subject to 'mushroom management'. People who are 'thick-skinned' tend to have a large 'blind area'.

Group members and managers can take some responsibility for helping an individual to reduce their blind area - in turn increasing the open area - by giving sensitive feedback and encouraging disclosure. Managers should promote a climate of non-judgemental feedback, and group response to individual disclosure, which reduces fear and therefore encourages both processes to happen. The extent to which an individual seeks feedback, and the issues on which feedback is sought, must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more resilient than others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional upset. The process of soliciting serious and deep feedback relates to the process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development and motivation model.

johari quadrant 3 - 'hidden self' or 'hidden area' or 'avoided self/area' or 'facade'

Johari region 3 is what is known to ourselves but kept hidden from, and therefore unknown, to others. This hidden or avoided self represents information, feelings, etc, anything that a person knows about him/self, but which is not revealed or is kept hidden from others. The hidden area could also include sensitivities, fears, hidden agendas, manipulative intentions, secrets - anything that a person knows but does not reveal, for whatever reason. It's natural for very personal and private information and feelings to remain hidden, indeed, certain information, feelings and experiences have no bearing on work, and so can and should remain hidden. However, typically, a lot of hidden information is not very personal, it is work- or performance-related, and so is better positioned in the open area. Relevant hidden information and feelings, etc, should be moved into the open area through the process of 'disclosure'. The aim should be to disclose and expose relevant information and feelings - hence the Johari Window terminology 'self-disclosure' and 'exposure process', thereby increasing the open area. By telling others how we feel and other information about ourselves we reduce the hidden area, and increase the open area, which enables better understanding, cooperation, trust, team-working effectiveness and productivity. Reducing hidden areas also reduces the potential for confusion, misunderstanding, poor communication, etc, which all distract from and undermine team effectiveness. Organizational culture and working atmosphere have a major influence on group members' preparedness to disclose their hidden selves. Most people fear judgement or vulnerability and therefore hold back hidden information and feelings, etc, that if moved into the open area, ie known by the group as well, would enhance mutual understanding, and thereby improve group awareness, enabling better individual performance and group effectiveness. The extent to which an individual discloses personal feelings and information, and the issues which are disclosed, and to whom, must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more keen and able than others to disclose. People should disclose at a pace and depth that they find personally comfortable. As with feedback, some people are more resilient than others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional upset. Also as with soliciting feedback, the process of serious disclosure relates to the process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development and motivation model.

johari quadrant 4 - 'unknown self' or 'area of unknown activity' or 'unknown area'

Johari region 4 contains information, feelings, latent abilities, aptitudes, experiences etc, that are unknown to the person him/herself and unknown to others in the group. These unknown issues take a variety of forms: they can be feelings, behaviours, attitudes, capabilities, aptitudes, which can be quite close to the surface, and which can be positive and useful, or they can be deeper aspects of a person's personality, influencing his/her behaviour to various degrees. Large unknown areas would typically be expected in younger people, and people who lack experience or self-belief. Examples of unknown factors are as follows, and the first example is particularly relevant and common, especially in typical organizations and teams:

an ability that is under-estimated or un-tried through lack of opportunity, encouragement, confidence or training a natural ability or aptitude that a person doesn't realise they possess a fear or aversion that a person does not know they have an unknown illness repressed or subconscious feelings conditioned behaviour or attitudes from childhood

The processes by which this information and knowledge can be uncovered are various, and can be prompted through self-discovery or observation by others, or in certain situations through collective or mutual discovery, of the sort of discovery experienced on outward bound courses or other deep or intensive group work. Counselling can also uncover unknown issues, but this would then be known to the person and by one other, rather than by a group. Whether unknown 'discovered' knowledge moves into the hidden, blind or open area depends on who discovers it and what they do with the knowledge, notably whether it is then given as feedback, or disclosed. As with the processes of soliciting feedback and disclosure, striving to discover information and feelings in the unknown is relates to the process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development and motivation model. Again as with disclosure and soliciting feedback, the process of self discovery is a sensitive one. The extent and depth to which an individual is able to seek out discover their unknown feelings must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more keen and able than others to do this. Uncovering 'hidden talents' - that is unknown aptitudes and skills, not to be confused with developing the Johari 'hidden area' - is another aspect of developing the unknown area, and is not so sensitive as unknown feelings. Providing people with the opportunity to try new things, with no great pressure to succeed, is often a useful way to discover unknown abilities, and thereby reduce the unknown area.

Managers and leaders can help by creating an environment that encourages self-discovery, and to promote the processes of self discovery, constructive observation and feedback among team members. It is a widely accepted industrial fact that the majority of staff in any organization are at any time working well within their potential. Creating a culture, climate and expectation for self-discovery helps people to fulfil more of their potential and thereby to achieve more, and to contribute more to organizational performance. A note of caution about Johari region 4: The unknown area could also include repressed or subconscious feelings rooted in formative events and traumatic past experiences, which can stay unknown for a lifetime. In a work or organizational context the Johari Window should not be used to address issues of a clinical nature. Useful references are Arthur Janov's seminal book The Primal Scream (read about the book here), and Transactional Analysis.

johari window example - increasing open area through feedback solicitation

This Johari Window model diagram is an example of increasing the open area , by reduction of the blind area, which would normally be achieved through the process of asking for and then receiving feedback. Feedback develops the open area by reducing the blind area. The open area can also be developed through the process of disclosure, which reduces the hidden area. The unknown area can be reduced in different ways: by others' observation (which increases the blind area);

by self-discovery (which increases the hidden area), or by mutual enlightenment - typically via group experiences and discussion - which increases the open area as the unknown area reduces.

A team which understands itself - that is, each person having a strong mutual understanding with the team - is far more effective than a team which does not understand each other- that is, whose members have large hidden, blind, and/or unknown areas. Team members - and leaders - should always be striving to increase their open free areas, and to reduce their blind, hidden and unknown areas. A person represented by the Johari Window example below will not perform to their best potential, and the team will fail to make full use of the team's potential and the person's potential too. Effort should generally be made by the person to increase his/her open free area, by disclosing information about his/her feelings, experience, views, motivation, etc, which will reduce the size of the hidden area, and increase the open free area. Seeking feedback about the blind area will reduce the blind area, and will increase the open free area. Discovery through sensitive communications, active listening and experience, will reduce the unknown area, transferring in part to the blind, hidden areas, depending on who knows what, or better still if known by the person and others, to the open free area.

johari window model - example for new team member or member within a new team

This Johari Window model diagram is an example of a member of a new team or a person who is new to an existing team. The open free region is small because others know little about the new person. Similarly the blind area is small because others know little about the new person. The hidden or avoided issues and feelings are a relatively large area. In this particular example the unknown area is the largest, which might be because the person is young, or lacking in selfknowledge or belief.

johari window example - established team member example

This Johari Window model diagram is an example of an established member of a team. The open free region is large because others know a lot about the person that the person also knows. Through the processes of disclosure and receiving feedback the open area has expanded and at the same time reduced the sizes of the hidden, blind and unknown areas.

It's helpful to compare the Johari Window model to other four-quadrant behavioural models, notably Bruce Tuckman's Forming, Storming Norming Performing team development model; also to a lesser but nonetheless interesting extent, The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership team development and management styles model (See both here). The common principle is that as the team matures and communications improve, so performance improves too, as less energy is spent on internal issues and clarifying understanding, and more effort is devoted to external aims and productive output. The Johari Window model also relates to emotional intelligence theory (EQ), and one's awareness and development of emotional intelligence. As already stated, the Johari Window relates also to Transactional Analysis (notably understanding deeper aspects of the 'unknown' area, region 4). The Johari Window processes of serious feedback solicitation, disclosure, and striving to uncover one's unknown area relate to Maslow's 'self-actualization' ideas contained in the Hierarchy of Needs. There are several exercises and activities for Johari Window awareness development among teams featured on the team building games section, for example the ring tones activity.

exploring more ideas for using ingham and luft's johari window model in training, learning and development
The examples of exercises using the Johari Window theory on this website which might begin to open possibilities for you. The Johari Window obviously model provides useful background rationale and justification for most things that you might think to do with people relating to developing mutual and self-awareness, all of which links strongly to team effectiveness and harmony. There are many ways to use the Johari model in learning and development - much as using any other theory such as Maslow's, Tuckman's, TA, NLP, etc. It very much depends on what you want to achieve, rather than approaching the subject from 'what are all the possible uses?' which would be a major investigation. This being the case, it might help you to ask yourself first what you want to achieve in your training and development activities? And what are your intended outputs and how will you measure that they have been achieved? And then think about how the Johari Window theory and principles can be used to assist this. Researching academic papers (most typically published on university and learning institutions websites) written about theories such as Johari is a fertile method of exploring possibilities for concepts and models like Johari. This approach tends to improve your in-depth understanding, instead of simply using specific interpretations or applications 'off-the-shelf', which in themselves might provide good ideas for a one-off session, but don't help you much with understanding how to use the thinking at a deeper level. Also explore the original work of Ingham and Luft, and reviews of same, relating to the development and applications of the model. Johari is a very elegant and potent model, and as with other powerful ideas, simply helping people to understand is the most effective way to optimise the value to people. Explaining the meaning of the Johari Window theory to people, so they can really properly understand it in their own terms, then empowers people to use the thinking in their own way, and to incorporate the underlying principles into their future thinking and behaviour.

Relevant reading, (if you can find copies): 'Group Processes - An Introduction to Group Dynamics' by Joseph Luft, first published in 1963; and

'Of Human Interaction: The Johari Model' by Joseph Luft, first published in 1969. In the books Joseph Luft explains that Johari is pronounced as if it were Joe and Harry, and that is '...just what the word means'. He explains also that the Johari model was developed by him and Harrington V Ingham MD in 1955 during a summer laboratory session, and that the model was published in the Proceedings of the Western Training Laboratory in Group Development for that year by the UCLA (University of California Los Angeles) Extension Office.

Holland's Theory of Career Choice and You

Choosing an Occupation, Training Program, Major, Career Cluster or Pathway
The Career Key is based on John Holland's theory of career choice. The theory explains workrelated behavior such as, which career choices are likely to lead to job success and satisfaction. It also explains other human actions, like success and satisfaction in school and training programs. It is the best known and most widely researched theory on this topic and is used by most career counselors. Understanding Hollands theory will help you make good choices decisions about which occupations, careers, majors, or training programs best fit you. When you take the Career Key test you will receive What Your Test Scores Mean (sample page), a booklet that explains Holland's theory and how your test scores are related to it and career choice.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow developed a theory that humans have five sets of needs that are arranged in a hierarchy. He contends that people start by trying to satisfy their most basic or compelling needs and progress toward the most fulfilling. These needs are as follows:

1.

money. Until an individual has access to these necessities, there can be no further progress. These needs are very basic, and for the most part, society and our social network have ensured that they are present. Intrinsic values include personal comfort and satisfaction, while the extrinsic values are most often provided by the organization, the community, or society.

Physiological needs: These include the need for food, water, shelter, clothing and

2.

Safety needs: These include security, stability, and a structured environment. Here, the
individual expects and pursues job security, a comfortable work environment, pension and insurance plans, and freedom to organize in order to ensure continuation of these benefits. Individuals main objective is to ensure that benefits are protected or employment needs are being met rather than contributing to long-term organizational goals. Again, we see a dependance on the external environment to provide these supports. Personal motivation may include the peace of mind that can be provided as a result of these needs being secured.

3.

Relationship needs:

companionship, and friendship. The individual at this level participates for personal or intrinsic rewards. Since no person can live for extended periods without interaction with other people, the individual may be drawn to participate simply to fulfill this need. Organizations that provide these opportunities include social clubs, singles clubs, seniors clubs and service clubs, depending on the level of personal need. The organization can assist by ensuring that the opportunity for social and relationship expectations are created and met.

Relationship needs include socialization, affection, love

4.

Esteem needs: These include feelings of adequacy, competence, independence,

confidence, appreciation, and recognition by others. Again, the individual is driven more by internal or intrinsic needs. The external environment is needed more to provide recognition than to provide material rewards. At this point, the intrinsic value is more important than that which can be provided

by outside influences. The ego seems to take over here and the need is to ensure that it is satisfied.

5. Self-actualization: This area is the most difficult to define and therefore, may be the most

difficult to explain. Why does the successful business person need to pursue further wealth when they have already accumulated more than they will ever need? The answer may lie in the fact that motivation is more internal and therefore, even more individualistic. Different people have different ideas about what they need to achieve in order to obtain true happiness. For the wealthy person, money may no longer be the motivator, it may now be a need to exercise power or the adventure and adrenalin rush created as a result of playing high stakes games. This becomes the intrinsic motivation. People who pursue self-actualization are more accepting of reality, themselves, and others. Organizational requirements may include the opportunity for creativity and growth. Frequently, individuals aspiring to this level often operate outside existing organizations and instead build their own structures to suit their individual needs.

In discussing this theory, it appears that the further up the scale an individual moves, the more the rewards or motivators move from the external environment to an internal need. It also becomes more difficult to influence motivation, since material rewards become less relevant and internal rewards become more difficult to identify and address. In order to enhance organizational performance, it is important that the organization recognize the individual need and provide opportunities for satisfaction.

Alderfers ERG Theory

Clayton Alderfer developed another needs-based theory that supports in many ways, the theory developed by Maslow, but consists of three rather than five basic needs. Alderfer also sees his three levels which includes existence, relatedness, and growth (ERG) needs as being hierarchical, and thus, influenced by personal growth and extrinsic and intrinsic rewards.

1.

Existence needs:

These include needs that are satisfied by material substances or

conditions. They correspond closely to the physiological needs identified by Maslow and those safety needs that can be satisfied by material rather than interpersonal rewards or conditions. They include the need for food, shelter, pay, and safe working conditions. 2. Relatedness needs: These are needs that may be satisfied by communication, or

exchange and interaction with other individuals. There is a dependance on feedback from other organizational or community members to fulfill these needs. Thus, the motivation is provided by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. These rewards include accurate and honest feedback, which may involve direction and advice rather than unconditional pleasantness or agreement.

3.

that fully utilizes our skills, abilities, and creativity. They include Maslows self- actualization as well as esteem needs that rely on intrinsic rewards.

Growth needs:

These are needs that are fulfilled by strong personal involvement

Both theories are also similar because they are hierarchical, and individuals will concentrate on the achievement of the lowest level of need that is not fully satisfied. Maslow contends that the lowest level of need must be satisfied before an individual can proceed to the next higher level. Alderfer theorizes that if a higher level need is unsatisfied, the individual will regress to a desire to satisfy lower-level needs. Maslow believes that once a need is met, it is no longer motivational. Alderfer theorizes that while an individual may have met a higher-level need in ones personal life, for example, they may still be operating much lower on the scale where skills, aptitude, and knowledge may affect performance and confidence.

McClellands Theory of Needs

Psychologist David McClelland contends that we develop a relatively stable personality early in life that, once acquired, remains unchanged. McClelland, therefore, does not see motivation as hierarchical. He does not address the issue of growth, but has been more concerned with the behavioural consequences of need. The three areas of need he has identified include the need for achievement, the need for affiliation, and the need for power.

1. Need for achievement: Individuals in this category have a strong desire to perform

challenging tasks well. They have a preference for situations where personal responsibility can be taken for successful outcomes. The goals they set provide for moderate and calculated risk, and the individual seeks performance feedback to allow for modification and to ensure success.

2.

Need for affiliation:

friendly, compatible relationships. They have a need to like other people and want others to like them. They have an ability to create social networks that will result in meeting these needs.

People in this category display a need to establish and maintain

3. over

Need for power: People in this category have a strong need to have influence

others. They wish to make a significant impact and impression on those with whom they come in contact. This need for power corresponds in many ways to Maslows esteem needs where power is used to get attention or to build personal prestige.

Since this theory is non-hierarchical, the growth pattern between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards that are a major part of the earlier theories, do not appear to contain the same significance. McClelland contends that people will be motivated to seek out and perform well in jobs that match their needs. These needs may include either of the three categories identified above and are not contingent on any progression from one category to another.

The testing of these three theories has resulted in some conclusions that help us identify the strengths and limitations of each approach. While Maslows theory is complicated and contains more steps than the others, there is recognition of the progression from one level to the other. Alderfers three levels seem to be simpler, less rigid, and therefore, may be more satisfactory to those who wish to understand and apply a model to individual behaviour. Results of McClellands research has been applied in organizational settings and have been supportive of the idea that particular needs are motivational. Our former theme, when all else is consistent, the individual is different, suggests that the application of any theory of motivation has strengths and weaknesses that allow insight into individual motivation and provide escapes for those times when the theory will let us down. All theories

contribute to a better understanding of human behaviour in general, but specific application of theory depends on factors that respond to individual needs.

Motivational Goals

Carol Dweck theorizes that all goals a person might pursue fall into two distinct categories: performance goals and learning goals. A performance goal is one in which the individual is concerned with acquiring favorable judgement from his or her peers, supervisors, or authority figures. A learning goal is one in which an individual uses feedback to increase his or her competence.

If this theory is correct, it contains some further implications for motivation. Firstly, it provides for a much better understanding of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards in relation to performance. While favorable judgement from peers provides extrinsic rewards, the intrinsic rewards come from both the acceptance of this judgement, and the direction that it provides for further learning. The performer sees learning as a life-long process, thus creating even greater levels of motivation.

Secondly, this theory provides a better understanding about failure and its impact on the individual. Since we all fail sometimes, our ability to respond is an important factor in motivation. A person with a learning goal will respond to failure by trying even harder to succeed the next time. In contrast, a person with a performance goal may respond to failure by concluding that they cannot complete the task and may therefore, give up.

Dweck further theorizes that some people believe that personal qualities such as intelligence and ability are fixed and unchangeable. This belief may lead people with performance goals to conclude that they dont have what it takes, and as a result, give up, while others believe that intelligence and ability can change with time, education, and experience. Their goal, therefore, is not to prove their competence but to increase it, thus success and failure are learning experiences that cause them to try even harder next time. Failure may even be seen as creating a greater challenge.

An (or organisation see spelling differences) is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals, controls its own performance, and has a boundary separating it from its environment. The word itself is derived from the Greek word organon, itself derived from the better-known word ergon.

organization

organizational behavior
Definition
Actions and attitudes of individuals and groups toward one another and towards the organization as a whole, and its effect on the organization's functioning and performance.

Personality Traits By Blood Type - A Japanese Concept

Beginning in approximately 1930, the Japanese embraced the idea of matching personality traits with one's blood type. This phenomenon is as popular in Japan as the idea of matching horoscope with personality is in the States. Almost all Japanese are aware of their blood type. The idea began when some in the west were touting the idea that the asian peoples were more closely related to animals then humans, or lower on the evolutionary chain, since type B blood was the predominant blood type in asians and animals. As ludicrous and unscientific as this idea was, it was insulting to say the least. Modern science disproves this obviously faulted idea. In the 1930's Furukawa Takeji (1891 1940) set out to disprove this notion and a new idea was born. However, the idea of personality traits being influenced by blood type remains. Companies in

Japan even had divided workers by blood type. Here are the general ideas of each blood type. The Rh factor plays no role in the blood
The following is adapted from the work of David R. Saunders, Ph.D. who performed the initial psychometric research on trait correlates of the MBTI from "test" questions that Myers employed over several years in her endless quest to broaden the base of Type knowledge. Saunders research eventually resulted in the development of the "Type Differentiation Indicator" and the "Expanded Analysis Report." His work was later extended by others, re-constituted, and updated into what is now known as the Step II and Step III MBTI Instruments published by CPP, Inc. This is by necessity an abbreviated introduction to acquaint the reader with some of the broader implications of the MBTI model.